1.

Basic Hydrological Concepts

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

Hydrogeophysics and Environmental geophysics

Zagazig uni., Faculty of Scie., Geology Dep.

Email: attwa_m2@yahoo.com
Website: http://zagazig.academia.edu/MohamedAttwa
Is an Aquifer an Underground River?

No. Almost all aquifers are not rivers. Since water moves slowly through
pore spaces in an aquifer's rock or sediment, the only life-forms that could enjoy
floating such a 'river' would be bacteria or viruses which are small enough to fit
through the pore spaces. True underground rivers are found only in cavernous
rock formations where the rock surrounding cracks or fractures has been
dissolved away to leave open channels through which water can move very
rapidly, like a river.
Ground water has to squeeze through pore spaces of rock and sediment to
move through an aquifer (the porosity of such aquifers make them good filters
for natural purification. Because it takes effort to force water through tiny pores,
ground water loses energy as it flows, leading to a decrease in hydraulic head in
the direction of flow. Larger pore spaces usually have higher permeability,
produce less energy loss, and therefore allow water to move more rapidly. For
this reason, ground water can move rapidly over large distances in aquifers
whose pore spaces are large (like the lower Portneuf River aquifer) or where
porosity arises from interconnected fractures. Ground water moves very rapidly
in fractured rock aquifers like the basalts of the eastern Snake River Plain. In
such cases, the spread of contaminants can be difficult or impossible to prevent.

What does an aquifer look like?

Every aquifer is unique, although some are more generic than others. The
boundaries of an aquifer are usually gradational into other aquifers, so that an
aquifer can be part of an aquifer system. The top of an unconfined aquifer is the
water table. A confined aquifer has at least one aquitard at its top and, if it is
stacked with others, an aquitard at its base.
 Fig. 2.1. An example of an aquifer sysyem.

How Does an Aquifer Work?

An aquifer is filled with moving water and the amount of water in storage
in the aquifer can vary from season to season and year to year. Ground water
may flow through an aquifer at a rate of 50 feet per year or 50 inches per
century, depending on the permeability. But no matter how fast or slow, water
will eventually discharge or leave an aquifer and must be replaced by new water
to replenish or recharge the aquifer. Thus, every aquifer has a recharge zone or
zones and a discharge zone or zones.

The amount of water in storage in an aquifer is reflected in the elevation

of its water table. If the rate of recharge is less than the natural discharge rate
plus well production, the water table will decline and the aquifer's storage will
decrease. A perched aquifer's water table is usually highly sensitive to the
amount of seasonal recharge so a perched aquifer typically can go dry in
summers or during drought years.
 Fig. 2.2. An example explaining of How Does an Aquifer Work.

Why is Groundwater So Clean?

Aquifers are natural filters that trap sediment and other particles (like
bacteria) and provide natural purification of the ground water flowing through
them. Like a coffee filter, the pore spaces in an aquifer's rock or sediment purify
ground water of particulate matter (the 'coffee grounds') but not of dissolved
substances (the 'coffee'). Also, like any filter, if the pore sizes are too large,
particles like bacteria can get through. This can be a problem in aquifers in
fractured rock. Clay particles and other mineral surfaces in an aquifer also can
trap dissolved substances or at least slow them down so they don't move as fast
as water percolating through the aquifer.
How is an Aquifer Contaminated?

Contaminants reach the water table by any natural or manmade pathway

along which water can flow from the surface to the aquifer. Deliberate disposal
of waste at point sources such as landfills, septic tanks, injection wells and storm
drain wells can have an impact on the quality of ground water in an aquifer. In
general, any activity which creates a pathway that speeds the rate at which water
can move from the surface to the water table has an impact. Waste water leaking
down the casing of a poorly constructed well bypasses the natural purification
afforded by soil. Excessive addition of fertilizer, agrichemicals, and road de-
icing chemicals over broad areas, coupled with the enhanced recharge from
crops, golf courses and other irrigated land and along road ditches, are common
reasons for contamination arising from non-point sources. Removal of soil in
excavations and mining reduces the purification potential and also enhances
recharge; in some cases, such as the Highway Pond gravel pits south of
Pocatello, the water table is exposed and becomes directly vulnerable to the
entry of contaminants.

Fig. 2.3. Sources of GW pollution.

2.1 Aquifers and Aquicludes
2.1.1 Aquifers

Rock beds at the saturated zone that host flowing groundwater are called
aquifers. Aquifer rocks contain the water in voids—pores and fissures. The size
and number of voids and the degree of interconnection between those pores and
fissures define the qualities of the aquifers. The same properties define
infiltration efficiency and capacity of intake of recharge water. These properties
are discussed below for different rocks.
Conglomerates: These rock deposits are made up of rock pebbles
cemented to different degrees. If poorly cemented, conglomerates are extremely
efficient water intake systems; they form aquifers with large storage volumes,
and water flows relatively fast through them (provided gradients are steep
enough and drainage conditions are good). Often conglomerates are cemented
by calcite, iron oxides, or silica. Cementation reduces the water-carrying
capacity of an aquifer, and in extreme cases conglomerates are so tightly
cemented that they act as aquicludes.
Sandstone: Sandstone is in most cases composed of quartz grains with
pores constituting 10–50% of the rock volume. The pores are interconnected,
providing high infiltration efficiencies and providing sandstone aquifers with
high storage capacities and rapid water throughflow. Cementation reduces the
pore space, but cemented sandstone tends to develop mechanically formed
fissures that let water through.
Limestone and dolomite. These carbonate rocks are often well
crystallized and can be poor in interconnected pores. However, limestone and
dolomite tend to fracture under tectonic stress, and through such fractures
groundwater can move. Water can have two completely different effects on the
fractures: either the water fills up the fissures by precipitation of carbonates or,
under high flow conditions, the water dissolves the rock and causes further
opening. Dissolution of limestone and dolomite may thus create surface and
subsurface conduits that enhance intake of recharge water and form high-
conducting aquifers with large water storage capacities. Karstic systems are the
result of extreme dissolution activity in hard carbonate rocks.
Igneous rocks: Granite and other intrusive igneous rocks have
intrinsically well-crystallized structures with no empty pores. However, being
rigid they tend to fracture and may have a limited degree of infiltration capacity
and aquifer conductivity. Weathering in humid climates may result in extensive
formation of soil, but little dissolution opening of fractures. Thus, granitic
rocks may form very poor to medium quality aquifers. Basalt and other
extrusive lava rocks are similar to granitic rocks in having no pores and tending
to fracture. In addition, lava rocks often occur in bedded structures, alternating
with paleosoils and other types of conducting materials, for example, rough lava
flow surfaces. Thus, basaltic terrains may have medium lateral flow
conductivities. Weathering of basaltic rocks and paleosoils produces clay
minerals that tend to clog fractures. Tuff (a rock formed by fragmental volcanic
ejecta) is porous when formed, but is readily weathered into clay-rich
impervious soils.
Metamorphic rocks: Quartzite, schist, gneiss, and other metamorphic
rocks and metasediments vary in their hydrological properties, but in most
cases are fractured and transmit water. In rainy zones weathering may
produce clays that occasionally clog the fractures. The rocks discussed in this
section have intrinsically medium to good infiltration efficiency, aquifer
conductance, and storage capacities. These features may be developed to
different degrees as a result of secondary processes such as tectonic fracturing
and chemical dissolution opening on the one hand and clogging by
sedimentation and weathering products on the other hand. Thus, close study of
rock types and of accompanying features are essential parts of hydrological
investigations.
2.1.2 Aquicludes
Rock strata that prevent passage of groundwater are called aquicludes
(from Latin aqua, water; claudere, to close). Aquicludes are important
components of groundwater systems because they seal the aquifers and prevent
water from infiltrating to great depths. Aquicludes are essential to the formation
of springs and shallow accessible aquifers. Aquiclude rocks have low water
conductivity caused by a lack of interconnected voids or conduits. A number of
common aquiclude-forming rocks are discussed below.
Clay. Clay minerals have several characteristics that make them good
aquicludes:
When consolidated, they have effectively no interconnected pores.
. They swell, closing desiccation fractures or tectonic fractures.
. They are plastic—another property that makes clays effective sealing agents.
The effectiveness of clay aquicludes depends on the type of clay,
montmorillonite being perhaps the best. The thickness of the clay aquiclude
is of prime importance—a clay bed 1m thick may be a significant barrier to
underground water movement, but water may slowly leak through. The thicker
the aquiclude, the higher is its sealing efficiency. Clay aquicludes with a
thickness of several hundred meters are known.
Shales. Shales are derivatives of clays, formed in slow diagenetic
processes. Shales have little or negligible swelling capacity and have
medium plasticity. They form effective aquicludes at thicknesses of at least a
few meters to tens of meters.
Igneous rocks. Large igneous bodies, such as stocks or thick sills, often
act as aquicludes because they lack interconnected fractures or dissolution
conduits. Dikes and sills may act as aquicludes if they are either very fresh and
not fractured or are weathered into clay-rich rocks.
2.2. Aquifer types

Aquifers come in two types which are shown below: unconfined and
confined. Unconfined aquifers are those into which water seeps from the
ground surface directly above the aquifer. Confined aquifers are those in which
an impermeable dirt/rock layer exists that prevents water from seeping into the
aquifer from the ground surface located directly above. Instead, water seeps into
confined aquifers from farther away where the impermeable layer doesn't exist.

A confined aquifer, also known as an artesian aquifer, is an aquifer that

is overlain and underlain by a relatively impermeable layer of rock or substrate.
A confining bed is a rock unit having very low hydraulic conductivity that
restricts the movement of ground water either into or out of adjacent aquifers.
Confining layers are sometimes are subdivided into aquitards and aquicluedes If
a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from its recharge zone,
groundwater can become pressurized as it flows. This can create artesian wells
that flow freely without the need of a pump and rise to a higher elevation than
the static water table at the above, unconfined, aquifer.
An unconfined aquifer (Water Table: Subdued replica of the topography
) is exposed to the surface without any intervening confining layer, but a
confining layer underlies it. It is partially saturated with water; the upper surface
of saturation is termed water-table which is under atmospheric pressure.
Leaky or semi-confined aquifer: In leaky aquifers, aquitards form the
semi-confining layers, through which vertical leakage takes place due to head
differences across it.
Perched aquifer: A type of unconfined aquifer that sits above
another unconfined aquifer because water infiltrating from the surface
is trapped or 'perched' on a shallow aquitard.

Which type do think is in more danger of contamination?

Which aquifer would you want to drill into for a drinking water well?

Fig. 2.4. Aquifer types.

2.3. Recharge
The term recharge relates to the water added to the groundwater system,
that is, to the saturated zone. Thus, recharge is the balance between the amount
of water that infiltrates into the ground and evapotranspiration losses. The
location of recharge areas is of prime importance in modern hydrochemistry; as
such areas have to be protected in order to preserve groundwater quality.
Urbanization, agriculture, and almost any other kind of human activity may
spoil the quality of recharge water. Limitations on the use of fertilizers and
pesticides in recharge areas are often enforced, along with limitations on mining
and other earth-moving activities. Since these limitations have financial impacts,
an increasing number of cases are being taken to court, and hydrochemists may
be asked to deliver expert opinions involving the identification of areas of active
recharge.
The following are a few features characterizing recharge regions:
1- Depth of water table is at least a few meters below the surface.
2- Water table contours show a local high.
3- Significant seasonal water table variations are noticed.
4- Local groundwater temperatures are equal to, or several degrees colder than,
the average ambient annual temperature.
5- Effective water ages are very recent (a few months to a few years).
6- Salt content is low in most cases in nonpolluted areas (less than about 800
mg/l total dissolved ions).
7- Surface is covered by sand, permeable soil, or outcrops of permeable rocks.
2.3. Discharge
The term discharge relates to the emergence of groundwater at the surface
as springs, water feeding swamps and lakes, and water pumped from wells.
Discharge is the output of groundwater. The rate of discharge is measured in
units of volume per time, for example, cubic meters per hour (m3/h). The bulk of
the groundwater is drained into terminal bases of drainage, which in general are
the seas. Most of this drainage is concealed, but can be detected indirectly, for
example, by the presence of fresh water in shallow wells at the seashore or in
offshore boreholes. Discharge areas away from the terminal base of drainage
warrant identification in relation to drainage operations, water exploration, and
water quality preservation.
Several features characterize discharge areas:

1- Water table levels mark, in most cases, a high in the water table contour map.
2- Water temperatures are a few degrees above the average annual ambient
temperature, reflecting warming by the thermal gradient while circulating at
depth.
3- Waters are either fresh or saline (if they have passed through salinizing
rocks).
2.4. Water table and drawdown

Withdrawal of a thousand gallons per minute (a common pumping rate

for high volume wells) is an unnaturally rapid change in a groundwater system
and results in some major perturbations of the water table. Initially, water level
drops very rapidly in the immediate vicinity of the well. This lowering of the
water table is known as drawdown, and may amount to many tens of feet.
This is why thinly saturated zones are unsuitable for high volume pumping even
if substantial water is present -- the saturated thickness must be large enough so
that the pump can remain completely submerged at maximum drawdown.

Fig. 2.5. lustration of drawdown and recovery terms and processes. The. Drawdown
near the well can be a number of tens of feet, and the zone of influence can greater
than a mile.

In areas where the water table is declining, the aquifer may become
progressively less useful for various types of withdrawals as the water level
decreases to and past the elevation at which high-rate drawdowns would be in
excess of the available saturated thickness. Figure 2.5 illustrates this, and the
extended caption further defines and discusses some of the issues that suggest a
possible need for definition of a sustainability reserve--the amount of water in
storage that would be required for effective long-term management and reliable
use whatever amount is determined to be sustainable for a given aquifer
subunit. This would be the amount of water in storage that would trigger
mandatory use reductions if a transition plan is not already in effect.
Management subunits can be defined on the basis of surface and bedrock
topography, alluvial channels, aquifer characteristics, and the present
distribution of various types of water use; such considerations effectively
determine both transition strategies and long-term management principles.

As pumping continues, the rate of local drawdown decreases and

eventually stabilizes as the withdrawal is compensated for by inflow of
groundwater from the surrounding area. As this happens, the measurable decline
in the water table spreads outward. When the groundwater system has adjusted
to the pumping, the resulting pattern of water table depression is sometimes
referred to as steady-state drawdown; this feature is illustrated in figure 2.5. The
pattern of water table distortion is called the cone of depression, and the area
over which the depression can be detected is called the zone of influence of the
well. This zone of influence can easily have dimensions of a mile or more,
depending on the characteristics of the aquifer.

Drawdown: The decline in ground-water level caused by the withdrawal of

water from an aquifer.
Bedrock: The solid rock that underlies any unconsolidated sediment or soil such
as limestone and basement rocks.
Cone of depression: A cone-shaped depression in the water table around a well
or a group of wells. The cone is created by withdrawing ground water more
quickly than it can be replaced.
Static Water Level: Elevation or level of the water table in a well when the
pump is not operating.

Piezometers:

This well that we have been using to measure hydraulic head is more than
just a well, it is a piezometer. Piezometers must be impermeable throughout
their length (a cased well) and open at the end in the aquifer as well as the end in
the atmosphere above the surface. Note that because we live on the surface and
drill wells downward, measurements of head are usually given as distances
down from the elevation of the top of the well.

Remember, water will always flow from higher to lower total hydraulic
head. Given a sufficient elevation head, water will flow from a region of low
pressure to a region of high pressure. Likewise, given a sufficient pressure head,
water will flow from lower to higher elevations. Now, hydraulic head as we
understand it now is well and good as long as the fluid in all of the wells in the
region of study contain fluid of the same density. This is not always the case.
Sometimes the salinity of the groundwater changes over distance. For example,
let’s consider two wells, one salty and one fresh. The water in the more saline
well is denser than the water in the fresh water well. This makes the hydraulic
heads of the two wells impossible to compare directly. Why? Imagine if the total
head in each well is the same. The elevation heads will be equivalent because
elevation of the fluid does not depend on density. However, the height of the
pressure head depends on the pressure of the surrounding fluid pushing the fluid
up the well. Because saltwater is more dense than freshwater, it takes more
pressure to raise a column of saltwater to the same height as a column of
freshwater. So, even at equal heads, the saltwater pressure head has more
potential energy - more pressure.

2.5 Permeability, Impermeability, and the Selection of

Representative Values
2.4.1 Permeability Definition
A large sector of hydrology deals with through-flow systems, that is,
groundwater systems that are recharged. A term is needed that expresses the
ability of different rock types to let water infiltrate and flow through. This term
is the permeability coefficient, k.
Henry Darcy, a French engineer, conducted experiments in 1856 in
which he measured the flow velocity of water through a sand-filled tube. He
found that the flow velocity (V) is directly proportional to the difference in
hydraulic head (h), and is inversely proportional to the flow distance (l):
V =K(h/l)
where h/l is the hydraulic gradient. The coefficient of proportionality, k,
depends on the rock properties and is case specific. Hence, k is called the
coefficient of permeability.
A combined measure of the elevation and the water pressure at a point in
an aquifer which represents the total energy of the water; since ground water
moves in the direction of lower hydraulic head (i.e toward lower energy), and
hydraulic head is a measure of water pressure, ground water can and often does
flow 'uphill'.
Hydraulic head has been defined as the water level above a zero datum
(mean sea level) of water in a well tapping an aquifer that is open to the
atmosphere. We have a pretty good idea that the hydraulic head represents some
kind of flow potential - water flows from regions of high hydraulic head to
regions of low hydraulic head. Hydraulic head is actually a measure of
potential energy.
The distance from the water level in the well to the zero datum (sea-level)
is the total hydraulic head.
A convenient way to define the coefficient of permeability, in order to
compare its value for different types of rocks, is to determine its empirical value
for hydraulic gradients of 450, that is, for h/l=1. In such cases k=V.
The permeability coefficient (k) has the units of velocity, that is,
distance/time. It is determined either in laboratory experiments or derived from
pumping tests. Both methods are semiquantitative, but are still highly
informative, as the values observed for common rocks span more than seven
orders of magnitude. A variety of units are in use—m/day being a common one.
The following are a few of the average permeability or hydraulic conductivity
values floating around in the literature, expressed in m/day:
Shale, 10-7; clay, 10-6; sandstone, 10-2; limestone, 1; sand, 10; and gravel, 102
2.4.2. Selection of Representative Permeability
Coefficients
Permeability is observed to vary enormously in what looks like
homogeneous rock bodies, and it varies much more between the different rock
types that constitute a studied system. Disregarding this large range of different
prevailing permeabilities, mathematical models accommodate only single
permeability values for entire case studies or for large sections of studied
systems. Thus representative values are selected in the frame of a whole list of
model simplifications. Such simplifications can lead to misinterpretations and
therefore should be avoided. If, however, it is decided to select a representative
permeability coefficient for a model, the selection should at least be done
correctly.
The procedure adopted to select the representative permeability
coefficient is rarely explained in published case studies. It seems that a common
approach is to apply a weighted representative value. Let us examine this
procedure in light of an example of a system that is composed of 90% fractured
limestone (a coefficient of 1 m/day according to the accepted tables) and 10% of
shale (10-7 m/day). The average weighted k will be
k = 0.9*1 + 0.1*10-7 = 0.9 m/day
The calculated value of 0.9 m/day is practically equal to the value of the
high-conducting limestone and does not express at all the presence of the flow-
resisting shale. Such a selected value is totally wrong and will lead to the
calculation of an erroneously high flow velocity, a too short travel time, and a
meaningless young water age. In order to properly represent the flow resistance
of the shale, a harmonic mean seems much more plausible. In our example,
k representative = (90 +10) : (90/10 + 10/10-7)= 1.0*10-4 m/day
This representative k reflects the ability of even thin beds of clay and shale to
stop through-flow.
2.4.3 Porosity
Water is stored in rocks mainly in pores. The effective porosity (ne) or
specific yield (Sy) of a rock is the volume percentage of the rock that may
contain water in pores. The values are high for nonconsolidated granular
rocks—soils, clays, silts, and gravels. The porosity is low for crystallized rocks
such as limestone, dolomite, and most igneous rocks. Movement of water
through Table 2.1 Rock Porosities, Volume Percent
Soils 50–60% Fine sand 30–35%
Clay 40–55% Pebbles 30–40%
Silt 40–50% Sandstone 10–20%
Coarse sand 35–40% Limestone 1–20%
rocks is through interconnected pores, fissures, and conduits. Permeability is
a measure of the ease of flow through rocks (hydraulic conductivity is another
term). Permeability relates to the pores and voids that are interconnected; it
differs from porosity, which is the total pore volume. Clay has a high content of
water stored in the molecular lattice, but these water sites have practically no
interconnections. Thus in spite of its high capacity for containing water, clay has
a low permeability, making it a most efficient aquiclude. In contrast, sandstone
(non-consolidated) has a high permeability, providing excellent aquifer
properties.
Total porosity (n) =Vv/Vt*100=(1-ρb/ρm)*100
n :total porosity %
Vv : Total volume of voids in a sample= volume of water required to saturate
the sample.
Vt : Total volume of sample
ρb : bulk density
ρm :grain density
The porosity depends on particle packing and particle size. Generally, the total
aquifer porosity ranges from 25% to 35%.
Effective porosity (ne)/Sy =Vd/Vt*100
ne :effective porosity %
Vd : Total volume of extracted water from a sample
Vt : Total volume of sample
Specific yield is the actual amount of water that will drain out of saturated soil
and rock by gravity flow and it does not drain out completely.
Specific retention is part that retained as a film on rock surfaces and in very
small openings. The physical forces that control specific retention are the same
forces involved in the thickness and moisture content of the capillary, fringe.
Specific yield tells how much water is available for man's selected values of
porosity, specific yield, use, and specific retention tells how much water remains
in and specific retention the rock after it is drained by gravity.
Factors affecting rock Porosity:
● Particle sphericity and angularity. Porosity increases as angularity of particles
increases.
● Packing of grains. Cubic packing of sphere having porosity about 48% while
rhombic packing of sphere having porosity about 27%.
● Sorting (variable grain sizes). Porosity increases as the range of particle size
decreases.
● Cementing materials. In contrast, porosity decreases as the volume of
interstitial and cementing material increases.
● Overburden stress (compaction). Porosity decreases as the compaction
increases (greater depth generally means higher overburden stresses, higher
compaction forces, and lower porosity).
● Vugs, dissolution, and fractures. Vugs and fractures will contribute to
porosity, but to understand their affect on effective porosity requires careful
study of cores and special logging measurements.
2.4.4 Hydraulic conductivity

The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is a measure of the soil's ability to

transmit water when submitted to a hydraulic gradient. Flow of ground water in
saturated porous media has been described by Bear (1979). Hydraulic
conductivity is the coefficient which relates discharge to head loss. The
coefficient was first presented by Darcy in 1856. The relationship has been
termed Darcy's Law and can be expressed as:
Q = K I A =m3/day
K=QdI/Adh =m/day
where Q is the discharge (m3/d), K is the hydraulic conductivity (m/d), I is the
hydraulic gradient (m/m), and A is the cross-sectional area (m2). Darcy's law
was developed while examining coarse-grain sands. Many studies have
questioned the validity of Darcy's law for soils containing clays.
The permeability (which, as defined in the usual hydrogeological
language, is actually the hydraulic conductivity) is the ability of a material to let
a water current flow through it when an hydraulic pressure is applied, can be
defined on a sample of rock by the Darcy law:
Permeability = (Yield / Section) / Pressure gradient
The yield being expressed in m3/s, the sample section in m2, and the pressure
gradient (difference of water pressure / sample length) in m/m, the unit of
permeability is m/s.
If the porosity is almost zero the permeability is necessarily also very
weak. But the porosity can be high, such as in the case of a clay layer, and the
permeability very weak. The porosity and the permeability are not two
parameters independent from each other: the permeability already includes the
information of the porosity for determining the volume of water which can be
extracted from the ground. The permeability is linked not only to the volume of
the available water, but also to the size of the pores: for a given value of the
porosity, large size pores lead to a higher permeability than small size pores, as
the water flows more easily in the first case than in the second one.
2.4.5 Specific storage and storage coefficient
 The amount of water that is packed into the confined aquifer by pressure
is called the specific storage (or storativity) of the aquifer. It is measured in
cubic feet of water released per cubic foot of aquifer for each foot of pressure
drop. It typically ranges from 10-6 to 10-5 (1/ft).
In a confined aquifer, the pressure drop induced by a pumping well occurs
simultaneously over the entire thickness of the aquifer. To compute the amount
of water available for pumping from a confined aquifer, hydrogeologists
multiply the specific storage coefficient by the thickness of the aquifer. This
number is called the storage coefficient of the aquifer.
Storage coefficient = specific storage x aquifer thickness
Like the specific yield, storage coefficient usually is reported in percent.
Typically, it ranges from 0.00005 (0.005%) to 0.005 (0.5%).

Example 1: To illustrate the meaning of specific yield, let’s assume we have an

“aquifer box” that measures 1 acre in area by 100 feet deep. Let’s further
assume that the box is entirely enclosed except at the surface. If the specific
yield is 15% (0.15), how much water do we have to pump to lower the water
table in the entire aquifer box by 1 foot?
The answer is:
Water pumped = Volume to be drained x Specific yield
= (1 acre area x 1 foot drawdown) x 0.15
= 0.15 acre-feet (~ 50,000 gallons)

Example 2: Let’s assume a confined aquifer is 100 feet thick and that the aquifer
material has a specific storage of 0.000005 (in engineering notation: 5x10-6)
[1/ft].
The storage coefficient of the aquifer, then, is
100 [ft] * 0.000005 [1/ft] = 0.0005 (5x10-4), which is the same as 0.05%. How
much water do we have to pump from each acre area of that aquifer to lower the
confined pressure head by 1 foot? The answer is obtained from the following
equation:
pumpage = aquifer area x pressure drop (drawdown) x storage coefficient
Using the numbers for our sample aquifer, we get:
P = 1 acre x 1 foot x 0.0005
= 0.0005 acre-feet, or 162.5 gallons
This amount, obtained be depressuring the confined aquifer, is much, much less
than the amount that would have been available if the aquifer were unconfined
and we had drained it by 1 foot (48,500 gallons; see Example 1).