M.No:3.

11
Theory of lasers

INTRODUCTION
While studying the phenomenon of interference of light, we have defined a term
‘coherence’ between two sources of light. The two sources are said to be
coherent, when they vibrate in the same phase or there is a constant phase
difference. We know that light from a source comes as the sum total of radiations
by billions and billions of atoms or molecules in the source. The phase is different
at different times. Now the question is that to what extent may the radiation from
different atoms of given source be related in phase in direction of emission and in
polarization i.e., the coherence of a given source. In recent years, some sources
are developed which are highly coherent i.e., the radiation given out by all the
emitters in the source is in mutual agreement not only in phase but also in the
direction of emission and polarization. These coherent sources are called lasers.
The word laser stands for the Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. The light beams from lasers, with coherence lengths of upto 1014
cycles will make possible many experiments and practical applications which
would not be possible with the previously available light sources of coherence
lengths extending almost upto 107 cycles.

SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED (INDUCED) EMISSION

In order to understand the working principle of the laser, we must know about the
quantum processes that take place in a material medium when it is exposed to
light radiation. Consider that the assembly of atoms (material medium) is exposed
to light radiation( a stream of photons with energy hν).Let us assume two energy
levels E1 and E2 of an atom.
We know that light is absorbed or emitted by particles (atoms, molecules or ions)
during their transition from one energy state to another. The process of particle
transfer from normal state corresponding to minimum energy of the system to
higher energy state is termed as excitation and the particle itself is said to be
excited as shown in Fig.1(a). In this process the absorption of energy from the
external field takes place. An atom residing in the energy state E1 can absorb a
photon and go to the excited state with energy E2 provided the photon energy hν
equals the energy difference (E2 – E1). The process is called ‘stimulated
absorption’ or simply absorption.

Figure (1)
Usually the number of excited particles in a system is smaller than the non-
excited particles. The time during which a particle can exist in the ground state is
unlimited. On the other hand, the particle can remain in the excited state for a
limited time known as life time. The life time of the excited hydrogen atom is of
the order of 10-8 sec. However, there exist such excited states in which the life
time is greater than 10-8 sec. These states are called as meta stable states.
Soon after excitation atoms return to ground state by emitting a photon of
frequency ν (energy h ν). The emission process can take one of the two kinds (a)
Spontaneous emission, and (b) Stimulated emission
(A) Spontaneous emission:
In this case a particle passes from higher energy state to lower energy state
spontaneously emitting a photon hν [see Fig. 1(b)]. The spontaneous emission
depends on the type of particle and type of transition but is independent of outside
circumstances. The spontaneous emission is random in character. If there is an
assembly of atoms, the radiation emitted spontaneously by each atom has a
random direction and a random phase. Thus radiation in this case is a random
mixture of quanta having various wavelengths. The waves coincide neither in
wavelength nor in phase. Thus the radiation is incoherent and has a broad
spectrum.
(B) Stimulated emission:
The transition from a higher to a lower energy state with emission of radiation
depends on the presence of the radiation of the same frequency. This implies that
a particle can pass from an excited state to a normal state emitting a light
quantum (photon) not only spontaneously but also when forced to it, under the
effect of another external quantum. This means that the incidence of a radiation
on the particle which is in excited state, stimulates the emission of a similar
radiation by the particle, by transition to lower energy state. According to Einstein,
an interaction between the excited atom and a photon can trigger the excited
atom to make a transition to ground state. The transition generates a second
photon which would be identical to the triggering photon in respect of frequency,
phase and propagation direction. This process of forced emission of photons
caused by the incident photons is called stimulated emission and is shown
in Fig. 1(c).The remarkable feature of the stimulated emission is that it is coherent
with the stimulating incident radiation. It has the same frequency and phase as
the incident radiation.
In an ordinary source of light the spontaneous emission dominates.
Relation between spontaneous and stimulated emission
probabilities
Let us consider an assembly of atoms in thermal equilibrium at temperature T with
radiation of frequency ν and energy density u(ν). Let Nm and Nn be the number of
atoms in lower energy state m and higher energy state n respectively at any
instant. The probability that the number of atoms in state m absorb a photon and
rise to state n per unit time is
Nm Pm→n = NmBm→n u(ν) ----- (1)
because the probability Pm→n is directly proportional to energy density u(ν).
Here Bm→n is called the Einstein’s Coefficient of absorption.
The probability of emission is sum of two parts, one which is independent of the
radiation density and the other proportional to it. The probability that the number
of atoms in state n that drop to m, either spontaneously or under stimulation,
emitting a photon per unit time is
Nn Pn→m = Nn [An→m + Bn→m u(ν)] ----- (2)
where An→m = Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.
Bn→m = Einstein’s coefficient of induced emission.
In thermal equilibrium, emission and absorption must balance.
Thus
NmBm→n u(ν) = Nn [An→m + Bn→m u(ν)]
or u(ν) [NmBm→n – Nn Bn→m ] =NnAn→m
N n A n m
or u(ν) =
N m B m n  N n B n m
A n m
Bn  m
= ----- (3)
  N m   Bm  n  
    1
 N n  Bn m  
Thermodynamically it was proved by Einstein that the probability of stimulated
absorption must be equal to the probability of stimulated emission, i.e.,
Bm→n = Bn→m ----- (4)
A n m
Bn m
u(ν) = ----- (5)
 N m  
   1
 N n  

The equilibrium distribution of atoms among different energy states is given by

Boltzmann’s law.
Consider an assembly of atoms at an absolute temperature T in which the atoms
are in different energy states. Let N0 be the number of atoms per unit volume in
ground state, then the number of atoms per unit volume is an excited state of
energy E is given by Boltzmann distributions law
N = N0 e(-E/kT)
where k = Boltzmann constant.
If Nn and Nm be the number of atoms per unit volume in the states of energies En
and Em, then
Nm
 e(En Em )/kT  ehv /kT ----- (6)
Nn
where k is the Boltzmann’s constant.
A n  m / B n m
Consequently, u (v )  ----- (7)
ehv /kT  1
This is the formula for energy density of photons of frequency ν in equilibrium with
atoms in energy states m and n at temperature T.
According to Planck’s radiation formula
 8 π hv 3 1
u (v )  . hv /kT ----- (8)
c 3
e  1
Comparing equations (7) and (8), we have
A n  m 8 π hv 3
 ----- (9)
Bn m c3
This is the formula for the ratio between the spontaneous emission and induced
emission coefficients. The ratio is proportional to ν3. This shows that the
probability of spontaneous emission increases rapidly with the energy difference
between two states.

POPULATION INVERSION (INVERTED POPULATION).

PUMPING AND ACTIVE SYSTEM
Usually the number of particles N2 i.e., population of higher energy level is less
than the population N1 of lower energy level. Making N2>N1, i.e., the number of
particles N2 more in higher energy level than the number of particles, N1 in lower
energy level is called as population inversion or inverted population. The states of
system, in which the population of higher energy state is more in comparison of
the population of lower energy state are called negative temperature states. Here
it should be clearly understood that the negative temperature is not a physical
quantity but it is a convenient mathematical expression signifying the non-
equilibrium state of the system. When the system has a number of states, then
one of them may have a negative temperature with respect to other state or
states. A system in which population inversion is achieved is called an active
system. The method of raising the particle from lower energy state to higher
energy state is called as pumping.
Explanation: The process spontaneous emission is independent of external
factors and is not suitable for further more population. Einstein showed that the
two processes (stimulated absorption and emission) are equally probable under
normal circumstances. They can be influenced from outside. Among the two
processes, which predominates over the other depends upon the relative number
of atoms in the two states. When N1 > N2 absorption predominates over emission.
On the other hand, when N2 > N1 the stimulated emission dominates over the
absorption. According to Boltzmann distribution law
N2  (E  E1 ) 
 exp.   2
N1  k T 
For positive value of T, if E2 > E1, then N2 < N1. Thus the population of atoms in
lower energy state is more than in higher energy level. In this case, the photons
that are incident on the atoms are very likely to be absorbed rather than to cause
stimulated emission. Thus the absorption process is dominant. Thus for
stimulated emission to dominate over the absorption process, it is necessary to
increase the population of higher energy state. The establishment of this situation
is called population inversion. The process of creating a population inversion is
called ‘pumping’ This can be done by a number of ways.
Let us consider the pumping of ammonia gas. It has two states with level
separation corresponding to λ = 1.27 cm. (microwave region).Ammonia is first
heated and then passed through a non-uniform electric field. The field deflects the
excited and unexcited molecules to different regions. This causes N2 > N1 in one
region. A more common method of pumping is optical pumping which is described
below:
Consider a three level system as shown in Fig.2 below.
 Figure-2
Let all transitions between these levels are allowed. If the system is exposed to an
E 3  E1
external source with a frequency v13 
h
corresponding to the transition from level 1 to level 3, some of the particles will
pass to level 3. If the life time of particles in level 3 is sufficiently long, their
number in this level will exceed that in level 2. In this way level 3 will be inversely
populated with respect to level 2. Thus by pumping, the condition N3 > N2 is
created. Now for a light of frequency v23 the system acts as laser. The stimulated
radiation together with the original incident radiation, both coherent can stimulate
the emission of more coherent radiation by other particles in the higher energy
state. This process can go on, steady amplifying as it proceeds, provided enough
molecules are in higher energy state.

Figure-3
In Fig. 3, the population inversion N2 > N1 is created. Here the necessary
condition is that the state 2 must be a metastable state. Optical pumping raises
the particles to level 3, from where most of them return to state 1 but some go to
state 2. The probability of transition from state 2 to state 1 is very low, hence in
due course of time N2 exceeds N1, if pumping power is sufficient to keep level 2
fed at a faster level than is depletion by 2–1 transition.