CHAPTER - 4

DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS OF INDIA

 INDEX :
4.1 Introduction
4.2 India’s Demographic Phases
4.3 Share of Population of States to India’s Total Population
4.4 Decadal Growth Rate of Population Since, 1951
4.5 Birth Rates & Death Rates
4.6 Sex Composition of India and other Select Countries
4.7 Sex Composition of India
4.8 Sex Selective Abortions in India
4.9 Sex ratios at Birth by Wealth Status
4.10 Sex ratios at birth by use of Ultrasound Testing during Pregnancy
4.11 Government Response
4.12 Conclusion
 References

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 CHAPTER - 4
DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS OF INDIA

4.1 Introduction:
With a view point of economic development and economic welfare,
studying the demography of any country is very important. The theory of
demographic transition helps to understand and analyze the Change in volume of
population.
In 2001, the population of India was 1027 million which was one-sixth of
the world population. In 2011, the population rose to 1210 million. The
population of India is second largest in the world. Area wise, India is at the
seventh position in the world. Today, India has merely 2.4% of total land area of
the world and approximately 17% of the population of the world resides in this
country. The following table shows the population of top ten most populated
countries of the world as per 2015. More than half of the world population lives
in these top ten populous countries.
Table No. 4.1
Top ten Countries with the Highest Population (in Millions)
Country 2015 Population
China 1,361
India 1,251
United States 321
Indonesia 255
Brazil 204
Pakistan 199
Nigeria 181
Bangladesh 168
Russia 146
Japan 126
Source: US Census Bureau Website

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 Figure 4.1
Top ten Countries with the Highest Population (in Millions) 2015
1,361
1,400 1,251
1,200
1,000
800
600
321 255
400 204 199 181 168 146 126
200
0

Source : Table 4.1

Form the above table, it can be seen that,

1. India has become the second most populous country after China which has
officially crossed the mark of one billion population. India and China are
creating a history of shaping the lives and future of more than a billion people.
2. Though as per the above table, rank of USA is third in the world, there is a
great gap of 930 million between the populations of India and USA.
3. It is estimated that by 2050, India will probably become the most populous
country in the world.

4.2 India’s Demographic Phases:

The saga of growth of population in India is almost in tune with the
popular theory of demographic transition. A study of growth rate of India’s
population can be categorised into four phases -
Phase I: 1901 – 1921 (Stagnant Population)
Phase II: 1921 – 1951 (Steady Growth)
Phase III: 1951 – 1981 (Rapid Growth)
Phase IV: 1981 – 2011 (High growth with significant of slowing down)
The theory of demographic transition can be state in detail as follows-
4.2.1 Phase I: 1901-1921
During 1901 to 1921, the population of India raise from 236 million
to 251 million, i.e, during the first 20 years the population increased by 15
million only. During this phase, the high birth rate was neutralized by high
death rate. The reason for stagnant population was that the birth rate was
more or less same as death rate. The compound annual growth rate during

61
 this period was very low. During this period it was just 0.19% per year.
During most of the nineteenth century, India witnessed a fluctuation in
population growth but it was more or less a stagnant population growth that
drifted into the twentieth century until 1921.
The following table shows a decadal growth of population during the
Phase I (1901-1921)
Table 4.2
India’s Population Size and Growth (1901-1921)
Year Population Increase / % Decadal % Change % Annual
Decrease (in growth in Decadal Exponential
Millions) Growth growth rate
1901 23,83,96,327 -- -- -- --
1911 25,20,93,390 14.00 05.75 -- 0.56
1921 25,13,21,213 -1.00 -0.31 -6.05 -0.03
1901-1921 13.00 5.44 -6.05 0.19
Source: Collected from Census of India, 1901, 1911 and 1921

From the above table it can be seen, -

1. During the first decade, the population grew by 14 million i.e., by
5.75%.
2. The second decade witnessed a fall in population by approximately 1
million i.e., by 0.31%.
3. The stable population during this phase was result of almost equal birth
rate and death rate.
The first phase witnessed a growth rate of 5.42 percent in India’s
population. The decade 1901-11 was struck by several local famines. One
such famine took place in 1907 in Uttar Pradesh. In addition to this, plague
claimed a heavy toll of life during this period in Bengal and Bombay. Also,
plague and malaria caused a considerable number of deaths in UP and
Punjab. The situation was even worse during 1911 to 1921 when India’s
population reduced considerably in the wake of influenza epidemic, which
had stuck in 1919. It is estimated that epidemic took away the life of nearly
7 percent of population of India.
From 1921 onward, acceleration in the rate of population growth
was witnessed due to a progressive control of the epidemic of cholera and
plague.

62
4.2.2 Phase II: 1921-1951
The second phase of India’s population growth (phase of steady
growth) continued for 30 years from 1921 to 1951. The population
increased from 251 million in 1921 to 361 million in 1951 i.e., by 110
million. The compound growth rate of population during this period was
1.22% per year which was a moderate growth rate. This phase was
characterized by a decline in death rate. There was a decline in birth rate but
this decline was negligible. The death rate during this phase decreased from
47 per thousand to 27 per thousand. The fall in death rate during this period
was mainly due to control of epidemics like small pox, plague, cholera etc.
that were wide spread. During this period, India has begun to enter into the
second phase of demographic transition.
The following table shows a decadal growth of population during the
Phase II (1921-1950)
Table 4.3
India’s Population Size and Growth (1921-1950)
Year Population Increase / % Decadal % Change % Annual
Decrease (in growth in Decadal Exponential
Millions) Growth growth rate
1931 27,89,77,298 28.00 11.00 11.31 1.04
1941 31,86,60,580 40.00 14.22 03.22 1.33
1951 36,10,88,090 42.00 13.31 -0.91 1.25
1921-1951 110.00 02.31 1.22
Source: Collated from Census of India, 1931, 1941 and 1951

From the above table it can be seen that,-

1. There has been a rise in the population during each decade of this phase.
2. In 1951, the population rose but at a decreasing rate.
3. From 1921 to 1951, the population of India increased by 110 millions.

4.2.3 Phase III: 1951 to 1981

The third phase was considered from 1951 to 1981. This phase
lasted for 30 years. During this period, the population of India grew from
361 million in 1951 to 683 million in 1981. There was a growth of
population by 322 million during this phase. The compound annual growth
of the population during this period was registered 2.14 percent per year.
This was the phase when both death rate as well as birth rate declined.

63
 With the beginning of planning, the provision of medical facilities
was under taken by government on large scale; the death rate declined
sharply and reached the level of 15 lives per thousand. The birth rate also
declined during this phase. The decline in birth rate was 39 to 40 percent per
thousand during this period. It can be said that during this period there was a
sharp decline in the death rate while birth rate declined at a very slow rate.
As a result of this, there was a population explosion during this phase.
Hence, this phase was marked with rapid growth of population.
The following table shows a decadal growth of population during the
Phase III (1951-1981)
Table 4.4
India’s Population Size and Growth (1951-1981)
Year Population Increase / % Decadal % Change % Annual
Decrease (in growth in Decadal Exponential
Millions) Growth growth rate
1961 43,92,34,771 078 21.64 08.33 1.96
1971 54,81,59,652 109 24.80 03.16 2.20
1981 68,33,29,097 135 24.66 -0.14 2.22
1951-1981 322 03.02 2.14
Source: Collected from Census of India, 1961, 1971 and 1981

From the above table it can be seen that, -

1. There has been a steady rise in the population during these three
decades.
2. During 1971-1981, the population increased but at a decreasing rate.
3. After 1951, there was a steep fall in mortality rate. However during this
period the fertility rate remained high. Hence, very high rate of
population growth of over 2% was noticed during this period and this
period is often referred as the period of population explosion.

4.2.4 Phase IV: 1981-2011

The last phase of 20th century i.e., the fourth phase is the period
between census years 1981 to 2011. This phase is also known as the period
of high growth with definite sign of slowing down. The growth rate started
declining after 1981.
India entered the fourth phase of transition after 1981, when during
1981-1990 the decennial growth rate of population declined to 23.86

64
 percent. It further declined to 21.34 percent during 1991 to 2001, showing a
decrease of 2.52 percent (please refer to table no. 3.5)
“Most Indian states such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
West Bengal, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat and Assam have recorded
low birth rates during this phase which makes them eligible to enter in the
fourth phase of transition”1. But still it will take some more years for
complete implementation of family planning programme in the states of
M.P, U.P, Bihar and Rajasthan for India as a whole to enter in the fourth
phase of transition.
The following table shows a decadal growth of population during the
Phase IV (1981-2011)
Table 4.5
India’s Population Size and Growth (1981-2011)
Year Population Increase / % Decadal % Change % Annual
Decrease (in growth in Decadal Exponential
Millions) Growth growth rate
1991 0,84,63,87,888 161 23.86 -0.80 2.14
2001 1,02,70,15,247 183 21.34 -2.52 1.93
2011 1,21,01,93,422 183 17.64 -3.70 1.64
Source: Collected from Census of India, 1991, 2001 and 2011

From the above table it can be seen that -

1. Although the net addition has increased consistently from 1991 to 2011,
a steady declining trend in the change in net addition is seen.
2. The compound annual growth rate of population reduced from 2.14
percent to 1.64 percent per year as a result of which decadal growth rate
became negative.
3. Thus, this phase showed a high growth of population characterised by
signs of declining growth rate.
The important question is how long coil this phase extends and when
will India achieve a stable population. The National Population Policy
(NPP) 2000, adopted by the GoI states that ‘the long-term objective is to
achieve a stable population by 2045, at a level consistent with the
requirement of sustainable economic growth, social development and
environment protection’. No doubt, a Herculean effort will be required to
achieve this goal of stable population.

65
4.3 Share of Population of States to India’s Total Population:
To get a micro view of population demography in India, it is necessary to
study the share of population of States and Union Territories to the total
population of India. Following table shows the relative share of population of
states and UTs to the total population of India.
Table No. 4.6
State and UTs by Population Size
Percentage of total population of
Rank Population in India
State / UTs
in 2011 2011
2011 2001 1991
1 Uttar Pradesh 199,281,477 16.49 16.16 15.60
2 Maharashtra 112,372,972 09.28 09.42 09.33
3 Bihar 103,804,637 08.58 08.07 07.62
4 West Bengal 91,347,736 07.55 07.79 08.04
5 Andhra Pradesh 49,386,799 04.08 07.41 07.86
6 Madhya Pradesh 72,597,565 06.00 05.87 05.74
7 Tamil Nadu 72,138,958 05.96 06.07 06.59
8 Rajasthan 68,621,012 05.67 05.49 05.20
9 Karnataka 61,130,704 05.05 05.14 05.31
10 Gujarat 60,383,628 05.00 04.93 04.88
11 Odisha 41,947,358 03.47 03.58 03.74
12 Telangana 35,286,757 02.97 -- --
13 Kerala 33,387,677 02.76 03.10 03.44
14 Jharkhand 32,966,238 02.72 02.62 02.58
15 Assam 31,169,272 02.58 02.59 02.64
16 Punjab 27,704,236 02.30 02.37 02.40
17 Chhattisgarh 25,540,196 02.11 02.03 02.08
18 Haryana 25,353,081 02.09 02.06 01.95
19 Jammu & Kashmir 12,548,926 01.04 00.99 00.92
20 Uttarakhand 10,116,752 00.84 00.83 00.84
21 Himachal Pradesh 6,856,509 00.57 00.59 00.61
22 Tripura 3,671,032 00.30 00.31 00.33
23 Meghalaya 2,964,007 00.24 00.22 00.21
24 Manipur 2,721,756 00.22 00.23 00.23
25 Nagaland 1,980,602 00.16 00.19 00.14
26 Goa 1,457,723 00.12 00.13 00.14
27 Arunachal Pradesh 1,382,611 00.11 00.11 00.10

66
 28 Mizoram 1,091,014 00.09 00.09 00.08
29 Sikkim 607,688 00.05 00.05 00.05
NCT Delhi 16,753,235 01.38 01.35 01.11
UT1 Puducherry 1,244,464 00.10 00.09 00.10
UT2 Chandigarh 1,054,686 00.09 00.09 00.08
UT3 Andaman & Nicobar 379,944 00.03 00.03 00.03
UT4 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 342,853 00.03 00.02 00.02
UT5 Daman and Diu 242,911 00.02 00.02 00.01
UT6 Lakshadweep 64,429 00.01 00.01 00.01
Source: Primary Census Abstract, Census of India, 2001 and 2011

Figure 4.2
State and UTs by Population Size
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Nagaland
Punjab

Chandigarh
Haryana

Meghalaya
Kerala

Himachal Pradesh
Tripura

Manipur

Puducherry
Jharkhand
Assam

Chhattisgarh

Jammu & Kashmir

Goa

Mizoram

Delhi

Lakshadweep
Uttarakhand

Sikkim

Andaman & Nicobar

Dadra & Nagar Haveli
Arunachal Pradesh

Daman and Diu

Source: Table No. 4.6

From the above table, it can be seen that, -

1. Uttar Pradesh, so far, is the most populated state in the country with over 199
million population residing here. This figure is more than the population of
Pakistan which is the sixth most populated nation in the world.
2. Twenty states in India have population of more than 10 million
3. Nearly 50 percent of the population live of India is in five states viz. West
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
4. On the other hand, there are eight states and UTs in India that are yet to reach
the population around one million.

67
4.4 Decadal Growth Rate of Population Since, 1951
4.4.1 Introduction
The decadal growth rate is an important part of census operations.
The decadal growth rate provides an overview of the percentage of total
population growth in a particular decade. Therefore, it is called as ‘Decadal
Growth Rate’. As per the provisional report published during 31st March
2011, India showed a decadal growth rate of 17.64% as compared to
21.15% in census 2001. The decade of 2001-2011 is the first ever census
decade in post Indian Independence, which added least number of people to
the country.
The analysis of growth rates of states from 1951 tells the real story
of population growth in India. After 1951, many states in the country have
managed to get a downward swing in the population growth. However, the
span of time taken by states to achieve this fall has been much which would
make it difficult for India to attain a stable population by 2045. Table 3.7
gives the data about decadal growth rate of population since 1951 of states
and UTs of India.
Table No. 4.7
Percentage Decadal growth rate of population: 1951-2011
S.N. States / UTs 51-61 61-71 71-81 81-91 91-01 01-11
1 Nagaland 73.40 39.90 50.10 56.10 64.53 -00.50
2 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 39.60 28.00 39.80 33.60 59.22 55.50
3 Daman and Diu -24.60 70.90 26.10 28.60 55.73 53.50
4 Delhi 52.40 52.90 53.00 51.50 47.02 21.00
5 Chandigarh 394.10 114.60 75.60 42.20 40.28 --
6 Sikkim 17.80 29.40 50.80 28.50 33.06 12.41
7 Meghalaya 27.00 31.50 32.00 32.90 30.75 27.80
8 Jammu and Kashmir 09.40 29.70 29.70 30.90 29.43 23.72
9 Mizoram 35.60 24.90 48.60 39.70 28.82 22.80
10 Bihar 19.80 20.90 24.20 23.40 28.62 25.00
11 Haryana 33.80 32.20 28.80 27.40 28.43 19.90
12 Rajasthan 26.20 21.80 33.00 28.40 28.41 21.40
13 Arunachal Pradesh N.A. 38.90 35.20 36.80 27.00 25.90
14 Andaman and Nicobar 105.20 81.20 63.30 48.70 26.90 06.70
15 Uttar Pradesh 16.40 19.50 25.40 25.60 25.85 20.09
16 Manipur 35.00 37.50 32.50 29.30 24.86 18.70
17 Madhya Pradesh 24.70 29.30 27.20 27.20 24.26 20.23

68
 18 Jharkhand 19.70 22.60 23.80 24.00 23.36 22.36
19 Maharashtra 23.60 27.50 24.50 25.70 22.73 15.99
20 Gujarat 26.90 29.40 27.70 21.20 22.66 19.20
21 Puducherry 16.30 27.80 28.20 39.60 20.62 27.70
22 Uttarakhand 20.60 24.90 27.50 23.10 20.41 19.20
23 Punjab 21.60 21.70 23.90 20.80 20.10 13.70
24 Assam 35.00 35.00 23.40 24.20 18.92 16.90
25 Chhattisgarh 22.80 27.10 20.40 25.70 18.27 22.60
26 West Bengal 32.80 26.90 23.20 24.70 17.77 13.93
27 Himachal Pradesh 17.90 23.00 23.70 20.80 17.54 12.80
28 Karnataka 21.60 24.20 26.80 21.10 17.51 15.70
29 Lakshadweep 14.60 32.00 26.50 28.50 17.30 06.20
30 Odisha 19.80 25.10 20.20 20.10 16.25 14.00
31 Tripura 78.70 36.30 31.90 34.30 16.03 14.70
32 Goa 07.80 34.80 26.70 16.10 15.21 08.20
33 Andhra Pradesh 15.70 20.90 23.10 24.20 14.59 11.10
34 Tamil Nadu 11.90 22.30 17.50 15.40 11.72 15.60
35 Kerala 24.80 26.30 19.20 14.30 09.43 04.90
India 21.60 24.80 24.70 23.90 21.54 17.64
Source: Primary Census Abstract: Census of India 2001 and 2011.

From the above table, it can be seen that, -

1. It took almost 40 years for Kerala, Goa and Lakshadweep to reach a decadal
growth rate below 10%.
2. For the first time, the percentage of decadal growth in the country has
declined by 3.90% in census 2011. The present census (2011) has reported a
decline in the growth rate from 21.54% to 17.64%.
3. Andhra Pradesh has shown an impressive fall in decadal growth rate by over
ten percent during last two decades. This inspires a confidence that it is possible
to cross all barriers to achieve a noteworthy decline in growth of population.

4.5 Birth Rates and Death Rates:

The growth of population depends on the birth rates and the death rates.
The variations in the birth rate and death rate help in providing an explanation
about acceleration in the growth of population.
The trend in birth and death rates in India is presented in Table 3.8. The
data since 1901 is given in the table. The estimates up to 1971 are ‘indirect’ based
on age distributions of population enumerated by successive census. The sample

69
registration system started in India in 1971 to provide annual estimates that are
reasonably ‘reliable’.
The death rate in India started declining after 1920 and the trend is
continuous. The birth rate also shows a downward trend form the beginning of
this century, the decline in rate of birth has been much slower than that of the
drop in the death rate. This has led to growth of population. Since, net
international migration to or from India has been relatively negligible, the rate of
natural increase is almost equal to the growth rate.
The following table shows the birth and death rates in India since, 1891.
Table No. 4.8
Average Annual Birth and Death Rates in India
Decade Birth per 1000 Deaths per 1000
1891-1900 45.80 44.40
1900-1910 48.10 42.60
1911-1920 49.20 48.60
1921-1930 46.40 36.30
1931-1940 45.20 31.20
1941-1950 39.90 27.40
1951-1960 40.00 18.00
1961-1970 41.20 19.20
1971-1980 37.20 15.00
1981-1990 32.50 15.00
1991-2000 25.80 08.00
2001-2010 21.30 07.40
Source: Davis (1951); India, Registrar general (1954), Jain (1982); Office of registrar
General, Sample Bulletin (various issue)

Figure 4.3
Average Annual Birth and Death Rates in India
49.2 46.4
45.8 48.1 48.6 45.2
50 44.4 42.6 39.9 40 41.2
36.3 37.2
40 31.2 32.5
27.4 25.8
30 19.2 21.3
18
15 15
20
8 7.4
10
0

Birth per 1000 Deaths per 1000

Source: Table No. 4.8

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 From the above table, it can be seen that, -
1. Initially before 1921, the growth of population was very low. Though the birth
rate varied between 46 and 49 per thousand which made the growth rate of
population negligible.
2. After 1921, there was a fall in the death rate from 48.60 per thousand during
1921-1930 and ultimately it reached 7.4 per thousand during 2001-2010.
3. The birth rate also showed a decline after 1971 due to the family planning
programs. But the rate of decline was relatively less. This was evidenced in
the high rate of survival.
4. Hence, the high growth rate of population can be said to be an outcome of
consistently high birth rate but a relatively fast declining death rate.

4.6 Sex Composition of India and other Select Countries:

The ordinary person believes that the males and females in the population are
exactly equal i.e. they balance each other. However, in reality there is an imbalance
in the sexes across the world. In 2001, the world had 986 females per 1000 males.
Table 3.16 presents the global sex ratio of the ten most populous countries in the
world. It can be seen that the problem of imbalance in sex ratio is prevalent not only
in India but among most of the countries in the world. The British Census
Commissioners view that the geographical and sociological factors like climate, race,
food habits, season of gestation, polyandry are the reasons affecting the sex ratio but
there is no statistical evidence that could support the reason. Hence, it is difficult to
find out any particular reason for declining gender ratio.
Table No. 4.9
Sex Ratio of Selected Countries: 2001
Country Sex Ratio
World 986
China 944
India 933
USA 1,029
Indonesia 1,004
Brazil 1,025
Pakistan 938
Russian Federation 1,140
Bangladesh 953
Japan 1,041
Nigeria 1,061
Source: www.persmin.gov.in

71
 From the above table, it can be seen that, -
1. Of the 10 most populous countries, only four countries have fewer females
compared to men.
2. All Asian countries have less sex ratio, except Indonesia and Japan.

4.7 Sex Composition of India

Sex ratio is a perfect way for finding the number of women in any
country. It shows the ratio of females to that of males in India. As per census
2011, there were 940 females per 1000 males which show an upward trend form
census 2001 data when there were 933 females per 1000 males. The sex ratio of
India has never been favorable for women. Moreover, except some exceptions,
the sex ratio of India has shown a long term decreasing trend.
The following table shows the trends in sex ratio of India since 1901.
Table No. 4.10
Sex Ratio India (1901-2011)
Census Yr. Sex Ratio
1901 972
1911 964
1921 955
1931 950
1941 945
1951 946
1961 941
1971 930
1981 934
1991 927
2001 933
2011 940
Source: www. y4e.in
Figure 4.4
Sex Ratio India (1901-2011)

980
970
960
Sex Ratio

950
940
930
920
910
900
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Census Year

72
 From the above table, it can be seen that -
1. The gender ratio at the start of the twentieth century was 972 and since then it
has showed a continuous fall until 1941.
2. In 1951, there was a marginal rise of one point, but after that it showed a
decline for two continuous decades to reach 930in 1971. The major decline of
11 points in the gender ratio was seen during 1961-71.
3. In 2011, the sex ratio was 940 which showed an upward trend of seven points
as compared to 2001.
Social scientists, demographers, research scholars, women’s group and
various policy makers and planners have always shown a keen interest in the
gender ratio of population of India. There are several reasons for consistently low
levels of gender ratio. Some of common reasons are listed below -
1. Ignoring the girl child leading to higher mortality.
2. High maternal mortality.
3. Sex selective abortions.
4. Female infanticide.
5. Change in gender ratio at birth.
The imbalance in the sex ratio starts in the beginning. According to law of
nature that male children exceed female children at the time of birth. The sex ratio at
birth is generally 943-952 female for every 1000 males, which meansin each birth
cohort there is a shortage of nearly 50 females per thousand males. However, since
1961 the sex ratio of India has been lower than the range of 943-952.
The sex ratio of India is an average of the sex ratios of all the states and UTs.
Table 4.10 gives the data about gender ratio of the total population, Child Sex Ratio
(falling in the age group 0-6) and sex ratio of population above the age of 7 years.
The data pertains to three decades from 1991 to 2011 for all the states and UTs.
Table No. 4.11
Sex Ratio (females per 1000 males)
S.N. States / UTs Total Pop. Child Pop 0-6 Pop 7 and
Above
1991 2001 2011 1991 2001 2011 1991 2001
1 Jammu and Kashmir NA 900 883 NA 937 862 NA 894
2 Himachal Pradesh 976 970 974 951 897 909 980 981
3 Punjab 882 874 893 875 793 846 883 886
4 Chandigarh 790 773 818 899 845 880 772 763
5 Uttaranchal 936 964 963 948 906 890 933 976
6 Haryana 865 861 879 879 820 834 862 869
7 Delhi 827 821 866 915 865 871 810 813
8 Rajasthan 910 922 926 916 909 888 908 925

73
9 Uttar Pradesh 876 898 908 927 916 902 863 895
10 Bihar 907 921 877 953 938 935 895 916
11 Sikkim 878 875 889 965 986 957 860 858
12 Arunachal Pradesh 859 901 920 982 961 972 829 888
13 Nagaland 886 909 931 993 975 943 865 899
14 Manipur 958 978 987 974 961 936 955 981
15 Mizoram 921 938 975 969 971 970 911 932
16 Tripura 945 950 961 967 975 957 940 947
17 Meghalaya 955 975 986 986 975 970 947 974
18 Assam 923 932 954 975 964 962 910 926
19 West Bengal 917 934 950 967 963 956 907 929
20 Jharkhand 922 941 947 979 966 948 908 936
21 Odisha 971 972 978 967 950 941 972 976
22 Chhattisgarh 985 990 991 984 975 969 986 992
23 Madhya Pradesh 912 920 930 941 929 918 905 918
24 Gujarat 934 921 918 928 878 890 936 927
25 Daman and Diu 969 709 618 958 925 904 971 682
26 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 952 811 775 1013 973 926 937 779
27 Maharashtra 934 922 925 946 917 894 931 923
28 Andhra Pradesh 972 978 992 975 964 961 972 980
29 Karnataka 960 964 978 960 949 948 960 966
30 Goa 967 960 968 964 933 942 967 964
31 Lakshadweep 943 947 946 941 974 911 943 943
32 Kerala 1036 1058 1084 958 963 964 1049 1071
33 Tamil Nadu 974 986 995 948 939 943 978 992
34 Pondicherry 979 1001 1038 963 958 967 982 1007
35 Andaman &Nicobar 818 846 878 973 965 968 790 830

From the above table, it can be seen that, -

1. The diversity in gender ratio among the state and UTs is phenomenal. The sex
ratio varied from 818 in Chandigarh to 1084 in Kerala in 2011. Even in 1991
and 2001, the sex ratio of Chandigarh was at the top.
2. In case of Child Sex ratio, Haryana was at the bottom with CSR of 834 while
Meghalaya and Mizoram were at the top with CSR of 970.
3. There are few states like Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh which
are showing improvement in sex ratio 2011.
4. Pondicherry and Kerala have the maximum number of women in India, while
Daman and Diu and Haryana have the lowest sex ratio.
For more detailed analysis, the states and UTs are classified into two
classes, namely above and below national gender ratio. The number of states and

74
UTs with sex ratio below national average has increased from 54.29% in 1991 to
58.31% in 2011. Following table gives the distribution of states and UTs by sex
ratio below national level and above national level: 1901 to 2011.
Table No. 4.12
Percentage of Number of States / UTs as per Sex Ratio
Number of States / % of Population to
Sex Ratio UTs Total Pop.
1991 2001 2011 1991 2001 2011
Below National
17 17 17 54.29 57.19 58.31
Average
Above National
18 18 18 45.71 42.81 41.69
Average
Source: Census of India 2011, Series 1, India, Provisional Population Totals

Figure 4.5
Percentage of Number of States / UTs as per Sex Ratio
18.2
18
17.8
17.6
17.4
17.2
17
16.8
16.6
16.4
1991 2001 2011
Below National Average Above National Average

Source: Table No. 4.12

From the above table, it can be seen that, -

1. The number of states and Union Territories with gender ratio below national
average has remained unchanged for the past three decades from 1991 to
2011. Only the percentage of population has changed over the period.
2. The steep decline in the sex ratio is due to UTs of Dadra and Nagar Haveli
and Daman and Diu.
3. It must be taken into consideration that the states Haryana, Delhi, Punjab and
Chandigarh which have history of consistently low sex ratio have shown
appreciable increase in their gender ratio during the census year 2011.

75
4.7.1 Gender Composition by Rural-Urban residence at State Level:
A wide variation exists between the rural and urban gender
composition in India. The following table shows the overall gender
composition by rural-urban residence at state level in India.
Table No. 4.13
Overall sex ratio by residence: 2001
Sex ratio
S.N. States / UTs
State Urban Rural
1 Kerala 1058 1058 1059
2 Puducherry 1001 1007 990
3 Chhattisgarh 989 932 1004
4 Tamil Nadu 987 982 992
5 Andhra Pradesh 978 965 983
6 Manipur 978 1009 967
7 Odisha 972 895 987
8 Meghalaya 972 982 969
9 Himachal Pradesh 968 795 989
10 Karnataka 965 942 977
11 Uttaranchal 962 845 1007
12 Goa 961 934 988
13 Tripura 948 959 946
14 Lakshadweep 948 935 959
15 Jharkhand 941 870 962
16 Assam 935 872 944
17 Mizoram 935 948 923
18 West Bengal 934 893 950
19 Maharashtra 922 873 960
20 Rajasthan 921 890 930
21 Gujarat 920 880 945
22 Bihar 919 868 926
23 Madhya Pradesh 919 898 927
24 Nagaland 900 829 916
25 Uttar Pradesh 989 876 904
26 Arunachal Pradesh 893 818 914
27 Jammu & Kashmir 892 819 917
28 Punjab 876 849 890

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 29 Sikkim 875 830 880
30 Haryana 861 847 866
31 Andaman & Nicobar 846 815 861
32 Delhi 821 822 810
33 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 812 691 852
34 Chandigarh 777 796 621
35 Daman and Diu 710 984 586
Source: Primary census Abstract: Census of India 2001

Figure 4.6
Overall sex ratio by residence: 2001

Daman and Deu

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

Andaman & Nicobar

Sikkim

Jammu & Kashmir

Uttar Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

Gujarat

Maharashtra Urban
Mizoram Rural

Jharkhand State

Tripura

Uttaranchal

Himachal Pradesh

Odisha

Andhra Pradesh

Chattisgarh

Kerala

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Source: Table No. 4.13

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 Table No. 4.14
Overall sex ratio by residence, India, States and UTs, 2011
India/State/UTs Total Rural Urban
India 940 947 926
Big States
Andhra Pradesh 992 995 984
Assam 954 956 937
Bihar 916 919 891
Chattisgarh 991 1002 956
Gujarat 918 947 880
Haryana 877 880 871
Himachal Pradesh 974 988 853
Jammu and Kashmir 883 899 840
Jharkhand 947 960 908
Karnataka 968 975 957
Kerala 1084 1077 1091
Madhya Pradesh 930 936 916
Maharashtra 925 948 899
Odisha 978 988 934
Punjab 893 906 872
Rajasthan 926 932 911
Tamil Nadu 995 993 998
Uttar Pradesh 908 914 888
Uttaranchal 963 1000 883
West Bengal 947 950 939
Small States
Arunachal Pradesh 920 929 889
Goa 968 997 951
Manipur 987 966 1038
Meghalaya 986 983 997
Mizoram 975 950 1000
Nagaland 932 942 905
Sikkim 889 883 908
Tripura 961 956 976
Union Territories
Andaman and Nicobar 878 871 891
Chandigarh 818 691 821
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 775 863 684
Daman and Diu 618 867 550

78
 Delhi 866 847 867
Lakshadweep 946 954 944
Puducherry 1038 1029 1043
Source: Census of India 2011, Series1, India, and Provisional Population totals.
Figure 4.7
Overall sex ratio by residence: Big States

West Bengal

Uttaranchal

Uttar Pradesh

Tamil Nadu

Rajasthan

Punjab

Odisha

Maharashtra

Madhya Pradesh

Kerala

Karnataka

Jharkhand

Jammu & Kashmir

Himachal Pradesh

Haryana

Gujarat

Chattisgarh

Bihar

Assam

Andhra Pradesh

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Urban Rural Total

Source: Table No. 4.14

79
 Figure 4.8
Overall sex ratio by residence: Small States

Tripura

Sikkim

Nagaland

Mizoram

Meghalaya

Manipur

Goa

Arunachal Pradesh

800 850 900 950 1000 1050

Urban Rural Total

Source: Table No. 4.14

80
 Figure 4.9
Overall sex ratio by residence: Union Territories

Puducherry

Lakshadweep

Delhi

Daman & Diu

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

Chandigarh

Andaman & Nicobar

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Urban Rural Total

Source: Table No. 4.14

From the above table, it can be seen that -

1. Of the total states and union territories in India only 8 states and union
territories have shown the gender ratio more than the state level ratio in
urban areas.
2. 27 states/UTs have the gender ratio less than the state level ratio.
3. The scenario in the rural area is completely different. Out of total states
and UTs, 27 have the gender ratio more than the state level and only 8
have the sex ratio less than state level.

4.7.2 Literacy and Sex Composition:

The Directive Principles of the constitution in its Article
45compelseach state of the country to provide cost-free and compulsory

81
 education for all the children below the age of 14 years. The constitutional
amendment, 1976 has included education in the concurrent list. In addition
to this, the National Policy on Education, 1986 emphasized that new thrust
in elementary education will focus on -
1. Universal access and enrolment.
2. Universal retention of children up to 14 yrs. of age.
3. A substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all
children to achieve essential levels of learning.
Literacy rate is a good indicator of development in a society.
Literacy helps in the development of essential traits such as modernization,
urbanization, industrialization, communication and commerce. Without
literacy the progress of society will be paralyzed. There are number of
attributes of population which are affected by literacy and one among them
is sex ratio. Literacy plays an important role in creating equality in the sex
ratio. Various studies have found that increased literacy has led to fall in the
sex ratio. This fact throws a light of critically of problem which is a harsh
reality and requires a herculean task ahead.
As per the reports of NFHS – 4 (National Family Health Survey),
during last 10 years, the sex ratio has decreased in 9 states of India.
Surprisingly, the women’s literacy has gone up in each of these 9 states
which have shown a fall in the gender ratio. The survey was conducted in 11
states and 2 UTs viz., Goa, Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Tripura, Tamil Nadu,
Sikkim, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal,
Andaman andNicobar Islands (UT) and Puducherry (UT).
The result of the survey of NFHS – 4 are summarized below, -
Table No.4.15
Findings of National Family Health Survey – 4
Particulars NFHS – 3 (2005-06) NFHS – 4 (2015-16)
Sex Ratio (Average/thousand) 1000 985
Women literacy (%) 62.50 74.70
Men Literacy (%) 79.10 86.90
Institutional Deliveries (%) 47.66 80.46
Marriages before age 18 (Females %) 36.27 23.10
Marriages before age 21 (Males %) 29.80 23.10
* The data pertains to 11 states and 2 UTs,
Source: NFHS – 4

82
 Figure 4.10
Findings of National Family Health Survey – 3 and4

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Sex Ratio Women Men Institutional Marriages Marriages
(%) literacy (%) Literacy (%) Deliveries before age before age
(%) 18 (Females 21 (Males
%) %)

NFHS-3 NFHS-4

Source: Table No. 4.15

From the above table, it can be seen that, -

1. The average sex ratio in 2015-16 is 985 females per 1000 males
compared to 1000 females per 1000 males in 2005-06. Among the states
under study, sex ratio of Uttaranchal was 1015 and Meghalaya was 1005
which is high as compared to other states which have disturbing fall in
the sex ratio.
2. Female literacy has improved significantly. The rate of female literacy
has increased by 12.15 percent on an average which reflects better future
prospective of the female population.
3. Deliveries done in institutions have risen by 32.80 percent in last
decade. Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Bihar observed an increase of
54.60%, 44.80% and 43.90% respectively.
4. There has been a reduction in child marriage by 13.70% for girls and
6.70% for boys in the 11 surveyed states.
From the above survey of NFHS – 4, it has been observed that the
sex ratio has gone down with the increase in rate of female literacy.

83
4.8 Sex Selective Abortions in India:
The low and declining proportion of female in India’s total population is
observed since the conduct of first census in the late nineteenth country. The
gender ratio has steadily declined from 972 in 1901 to 933 in 2001, although there
were few exceptional decades of 1971 – 81 and 1991 – 2001 when there was a
slight rise in the gender ratio. While there was an increase in the gender ratio
during 1991 – 2001, the CSR has declined causing the further concern. The
number of girls in 6 yrs. age group per 1000 boys has declined from 945 to 927
between 1991 and 2001.
India is a country with strong son preference. There are various social,
cultural and economic factors that points out the cost-benefit relation of sons and
daughters and finally leads to common reason of son preferences in India are
economic support, property inheritance, old age security, dowry, prestige, beliefs
about religious rituals and salvation. While daughters in India are considered to
be a financial liability to their parents due to heavy dowry and high cost of
marriages.
The sudden fall in the number of girls in the 0 – 6 Yrs. age group has
brought forward a serious problem which provides a proof of the linkages
between invention of new medical technologies such as pre-natal diagnostic
techniques and increased incidence of sex selective abortions or female feticide.
The advancement in medical technologies has led to the misuse of sex
determination technologies such as ultrasound scanning and amniocentesis that
were originally designed to detect genetic abnormalities in the fetus. Presently,
the technology that helps in determining the sex of a fetus is being used for a
great number of female fetuses be aborted.
To add to this problem, in 1971, abortions became legal in country under
the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act. The Act specifies the reason
for which the abortions are legally allowed, who can legally allowed to do the
abortion and the type of facility under which the abortion can be legally
performed. As per the Act, the abortion can be performed legally if the pregnancy
causes danger to the life of the women or if it affects her physical or mental
health or if the child is going to be born with serious abnormalities. But,
Amniocentesis and Ultrasound technology, first introduced to determine genetic
abnormalities among fetuses, are now used to detect the sex of the child. This has
resulted in fall in the CSR that has become a serious problem today.

84
 In NFHS- 2, the information about use of sex determination testes during
pregnancy was collected from mothers who gave birth during the period of three-
years before NFHS- 2. The SRBas per the reported cases of PNDT was 112
compared with 107 among live birth of ladies who didn’t made use of PNDT.
Also the reported SRB for non PNDT cases is relatively high which indicates that
some ladies may not have disclosed the use of PNDT.
The following table shows the estimates of the sex ratio as birth for the
births occurring 15 Yrs. before the survey by birth order in India.
Table No. 4.16
Estimates of the sex ratio at birth for births occurring during the 15 Yrs. before
the survey, by birth order: India, NFHS – 1 and NFHS – 2
Birth Order NFHS – 1 NFHS – 2
1 1.05 1.07
2 1.07 1.08
3 1.07 1.08
4+ 1.06 1.08

Sex selective abortions are generally not practiced for first order births.
Such abortions are practiced for births of higher order;the reason for this is the
sex of the unborn baby becomes a matter of concern if couple is planning to stop
having children soon. The above table shows that -
1. The SRB in India is higher for births of 2nd order or more as compared to the
births of first order.
2. As per the data, the SRB increases from 1.05 for the first birth to 1.07 for the
third birth order and then reduces to 1.06 for fourth birth order and higher.
3. During the 2nd survey, it rose marginally from 1.07 for first order births to
1.08 for second order births and higher.
SRBs by birth order clears the entire picture about women who want two
children, with one child of each sex; some may go for sex selective abortion to
get a baby boy, if their first child is girl, on the contrary few women may even go
for sex-selective abortion to get a baby girl if the first child and the pregnancy are
both boys.
The unregulated sex determination testing has been a key factor for its
increased misuse. Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART’s) are very poorly
regulated in India which means the sex selection occurring through this way is
seldom regulated.

85
4.9 Sex ratios at Birth by Wealth Status
In India, the sex ratio at birth varies significantly by household wealth
status. As per the data collected by NFHS – 3, the sex ratio at birth in 5 year
preceding NFHS – 3 is highest at 954 in the lowest wealth quintile. The girl child
in India is neglected as they are considered to be a financial burden on the family.
Hence, it is assumed that generally low income families neglect or avoid the girl
child, however the survey of NFHS – 3 has brought out some surprising result.
The following chart shows the sex ratio at birth by wealth status, -
Figure 4.11
CSR of population and SRB for all births of women age 15-49 in the five years
preceding NFHS – 3 by wealth quintile.
1000

950 954
947
942 945 927
Sex Ratio of Pop. Age
920
900 0-6 yrs
892
889 Sex ratio at birth in
856 past 5 Yrs
850 854

800
Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Source: NFHS – 3, India

From the above chart, it can be seen that, -

1. The SRB is highest 954 in lowest wealth quintile.
2. The SRB to women in the second wealth quintile is within the normal range
of 943 – 971.
3. Beyond the second wealth quintile, the SRB falls dramatically by wealth and
has reached 854 in the highest wealth quintile.
4. The CSR also follows the similar pattern.

4.10 SRB by using Ultrasound Testing during Pregnancy:

Since last few decades a great divergence is seen in the SRB. The SRB
can vary greatly only with the use of technologies such as ultrasound diagnostic
testing during pregnancy. According to the report of IIPS and Macro
International, 2000 in India, 24 per cent of all pregnancies in the five years

86
preceding NFHS – 3 received an ultrasound test. The result also shows that
pregnant women in the highest wealth quintile have mostly used an ultrasound
test. The ratio of pregnant womenusing an ultrasound test has increased by only 4
per cent and 10 per cent for pregnancies to women in the lowest and second
wealth quintile to 21 per cent and 38 per cent for pregnancies in the next two
quintiles and finally to 62 per cent in the highest wealth quintile. While a
maximum number of ultrasound tests are done for the purpose of diagnosis, a
study of SRB can help to find out the extent of use of ultrasound testing for the
purpose of sex-selective abortions.
The following table shows the SRB estimated for both- the pregnancies
with ultrasound testing and the pregnancies without ultrasound testing which
provides clear picture that number of women is making use of ultrasound tests for
the purpose of sex selection in the country.
Table No. 4.17
Sex Ratios of completed pregnancies in the five years preceding NFHS – 3 with
and without an ultrasound test by Wealth quintile, NFHS – 3, India
Wealth Quintile Ultrasound test during No ultrasound test
pregnancy during pregnancy
Lowest 859 955
Second 881 954
Middle 905 923
Fourth 854 911
Highest 818 935
Source: NFHS – 3; India

From the above table, it can be seen that -

1. SRB by using ultrasound test at the time of pregnancy is 851, whereas SRB
without using ultrasound test is 941. Hence, the SRB in case of pregnancies
using an ultrasound test is less than biologically natural ratio.
2. The lower SRB at each level of wealth quintile shows that the ultrasound tests
are commonly used for purpose of gender selection at all the quintile of
wealth.
3. SRB by using ultrasound test in the highest wealth quintile is 818 which is
much lower than for pregnancies of women using ultrasound test in lowest,
second, middle and fourth wealth quintile. This proves that women belonging
to the highest wealth quintile mostly use ultrasound tests for gender selection
than the women belonging to lower income group.

87
4.11 Government Response
Indian government opposes the practice of female infanticide and sex
selective abortions, but the effort of govt. to bring about reform has been slow
and ineffective. Approximately a decade before sex determination, in 1961, the
Dowry Prohibition Act was passed. It was revised in 1983 and 1985, but despite
of the revisions, this law has not been properly enforced.
Due to pressurization from females, the GoI restricted prenatal sex
determination testing in government hospitals. This measure instead of having a
positive impact came out with a negative impact. This encouraged the
multiplication of private sex check clinics. The number of clinics started
competing which proved useful and more affordable for Indians belonging to
lower middle class.
In 1988, the GoI formed a committee to study sex selective abortions. The
Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques Regulations and Prevention of Misuse Bill was
introduced by the committee in 1991. The law covers all the clinics, hospitals
and laboratories offering prenatal testing. “The bill has same features as that of
Maharashtra Regulation of Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1988 which are
as follows -
1. Prenatal Diagnostics can only be conducted to detect genetic abnormalities
(including sex linked genetic diseases)
2. The test may only be undertaken by a high risk pregnant women who meet at
least one of the following criteria, -
a. Age over 35 years
b. History of 2 or more abortions
c. History of exposure to hazardous substances
d. Family history of genetic disorder
e. Any other conditions as specified by the authorities.
3. Use of prenatal diagnostic technologies for indicating the sex of the foetus is
banned. Offences are punishable by both imprisonment and a fine.”2
Enforcement of ban on sex determination techniques is a very difficult task.
Also to tackle the demand side, the government efforts also include
marking the National Girl Child Day declared on 24th January, 2009 which
included putting up billboards of ‘Love the girl Child’, ‘Beti Bachao’, ‘Stop
Killing girls’ and included cash transfer schemes to provide incentive for the birth
of girls as both the center and the state level. Few cash transfer schemes are Dhan
Lakshmi, Betihai Anmol, kanyadan and others. Most of these cash transfer
schemes promised relatively small amounts at maturity and have put fourth

88
 several conditions such as immunization, school enrolment, institutional delivery,
sterilization etc.- Few of these schemes promise to give cash amounts at the age
of 18 (for dowry) and are mainly aimed at poor or BPL families. The schemes
sound good but the big problem with these schemes is that they targeted largely at
poor families.
However, it must be borne in mind that gender imbalance is not a poor or
BPL phenomenon only. Even the families with highest wealth quintile are
involved in sex selective abortion. Small cash amounts provided by these
schemes hardly make any difference to families who have resources to pay for the
sex selective technology. On this issue, the policymakers (who are generally
habituated to target the poor or BPL) need to bravely enter the unfamiliar terrain
of targeting ‘not-so-poor, families.

4.12 Conclusion
In this chapter, the researcher had analyzed the demographic transition of
Indian population. The gender imbalance of India is also studied in this chapter.
Sex ratio of the population affects the growth or in the development of the
country. Hence, various aspects related with sex ratio such as birth rates, death
rates, use of ultrasound technology, sex-selective abortions are studied in depth.
The chapter also highlights various measures taken by government both Central
and State level to improve the sex ratio of the country.

89
 References
1. Edger Thorpe, Showich Thorpe (2009), The Pearson General Study Manual,
Pearson Education India, Delhi, P. 4.12
2. Kusum 1993,“Female feticide – a sociological perspective” journal of family
Welfare, 39 (1)
3. US Census Bureau Website
4. Primary Census Abstract, Census of India, 2001 & 2011
5. Davis (1951); India, Registrar general (1954), Jain (1982); Office of registrar
General, Sample Bulletin (various issue)
6. www. Populationcommission.nic.in

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