Thorium fueled reactor

S. Sipaun

Citation: AIP Conference Proceedings 1799, 050012 (2017); doi: 10.1063/1.4972946

View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4972946
View Table of Contents: http://aip.scitation.org/toc/apc/1799/1
Published by the American Institute of Physics

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 Thorium Fueled Reactor
S. Sipaun1, a)
1
Malaysian Nuclear Agency, Industrial Technology Division
43000 Bangi Selangor, Malaysia
a)
Corresponding author: susan@nm.gov.my

Abstract. Current development in thorium fueled reactors shows that they can be designed to operate in the fast or
thermal spectrum. The thorium/uranium fuel cycle converts fertile thorium-232 into fissile uranium-233, which fissions
and releases energy. This paper analyses the characteristics of thorium fueled reactors and discusses the thermal reactor
option. It is found that thorium fuel can be utilized in molten salt reactors through many configurations and designs. A
balanced assessment on the feasibility of adopting one reactor technology versus another could lead to optimized benefits
of having thorium resource.

INTRODUCTION
Thorium, an unused but strategic resource can be used as a liquid-type nuclear fuel in a molten salt reactor
(MSR). The earliest MSR concept was first reported in the 1950s. Thorium molten salt reactor, however, remains a
largely undeveloped technology. The molten salt reactor is one of six Gen IV reactor designs that are projected for
deployment beyond 2025 [1]. These future reactors are designed with advanced technologies will address key issues
on sustainability, safety and reliability, proliferation-resistance and physical protection, and economics [1]. The
MSR design is suitable for liquid fuel utilization [2][3][4][5][6]. Being non-LWR, and with fuel in a molten state,
the eventuality of a power excursion that bring on rapid power increase and vaporizes water within a LWR reactor
vessel does not occur. Some solvent mixtures are in the form of fluoride salts, such as, LiF-NaF-BeF2, LiF-NaF-
RbF, and LiF-BeF2, and have melting points at 315°C, 435°C, and 460°C respectively [7]. These salts have low
vapor pressure, and an MSR could operate at low pressure conditions. A mixture consisting of LiF-BeF2-ThF4-UF4
of 71.7-16-12-0.3 mole % proposed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) has vapor pressure of less than
0.1mm Hg (or approximately 13 Pa) at a mean operating temperature of approximately 621°C [4]. These features
lend itself to specifications of reactor structural material that is less demanding compared to material requirements
for a pressurized water reactor. There are, however, concerns on corrosive effects of salt on alloys that have Ni, Co,
Fe, Cr, and Al constituents [8]. In addition, safety measures during emergency has the MSR core flow directing its
fuel into a drain tank(s) for safe shutdown via natural forces, where the fuel remain subcritical [4][5][6]. Recent
reports on thorium as a supplement to uranium fuel show that thorium-based fuel in solid form could be utilized
within a commercial light water reactor (LWR), a technology currently pursued by Thor Energy, Norway [9]. China
is looking into incorporating thorium into salt-cooled as well as salt-fueled reactors [10]. Malaysia’s interest is in the
utilisation of thorium as an economic, clean and sustainable nuclear fuel resource [11][12]. The motivation of this
work comes from Malaysia’s Thorium Flagship Project [11]. This R&D project is expected to run up to 2018, and
focuses on thorium fuel technology development [11]. Fuel consisting of thorium salts is directly applicable to a
thorium-powered reactor. Several technology developers have proposed MSR designs that operate in the fast or
thermal region [13-18]. Descriptions of each design are found at their respective websites and are not reviewed here.
According to the Gen-IV technology roadmap, there are four fuel cycle options that can be considered for an MSR
design; (1) Maximum conversion ratio (up to 1.07) using a Th-233U fuel cycle, (2) denatured Th-233U converter with
minimum inventory of nuclear material suitable for weapons use, (3) denatured once-through actinide burning (Pu
and minor actinides) fuel cycle with minimum chemical processing, and (4) actinide burning with continuous

Advancing Nuclear Science and Engineering for Sustainable Nuclear Energy Knowledge
AIP Conf. Proc. 1799, 050012-1–050012-5; doi: 10.1063/1.4972946
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-1467-9/$30.00

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recycling [18]. Fast spectrum reactors that utilize thorium fuel are designed to burn actinides, which are actinides
produced from the light water reactor’s spent nuclear fuel. As a non-nuclear power country with some thorium
resources, development of a thorium-powered reactor is an attractive option; a long-term goal. Malaysia’s pathway
for thorium fuel utilization may well be started off in the investigation of graphite-moderated thermal molten
thorium reactor; molten fuel mix of 233U fuel in fluoride salt, and 232Th-233U fuel cycle is an area of potential
research contribution. The objective of this work is to perform desktop study on thorium as nuclear fuel of the
future, and to review some characteristics of thorium fuel for a thermal spectrum reactor.

THORIUM AS A FUEL
Thorium 232Th is a fertile material. On its own it does not fission, and will need neutron bombardment to convert
it to fissile material. By undergoing neutron capture, followed by beta decay, thorium may be used to produce
fissionable 233U. The reactions are shown in Equation (1). It can be inferred that the thorium atom will need two
neutrons to be able to fission, hence a better neutron economy must be devised when using thorium fuel. The
manufacture or conversion of 232Th into 233U is done by exposing 232Th to neutrons from within a reactor core, and
subsequently chemically separating the respective isotopes. Lamarsh suggested that the fuel inventory of a molten
salt breeder reactor (MSBR) is very small-about 1.0 to 1 .2 kg of fissile material per MWe of plant output compared
with about 3 kg per MWe for a light water reactor (LWR) [23].

ఉ ష ሺଶଶǤଷ௠௜௡ሻ ఉ ష ሺଶ଻Ǥସௗ௔௬௦ሻ
݄ܶଶଷଶ ሺ݊ǡ Jሻ݄ܶଶଷଷ ሱۛۛۛۛۛۛۛۛሮ ܲܽଶଷଷ ሱۛۛۛۛۛۛۛۛۛሮ ܷ ଶଷଷ (1)

One of the advantages of the thorium-uranium fuel cycle lies in the reduced high activity long lived waste
production. The lower atomic weight of 232Th compared to 238U means that 232Th needs absorption of many more
neutrons to form the heavy isotopes that sits higher on the chart of nuclides (Figure 1). The 232Th nuclide needs
seven neutrons to produce 239Pu.

FIGURE 1. Chart of nuclides.

When 233U absorbs a neutron, it either fissions or becomes 234U, which is non-fissile. Transmutation of 234U to
235
U occurs if it captures a neutron, otherwise it decays to 230Th via alpha decay. 235U is a fissile isotope, and it is the
only existing fissile nucleus from naturally-occurring isotopes (0.72% of natural uranium). This isotope has half-life
of 7.04×108 years, and its abundance is lower than 238U (99.28%). Avoiding the use of 239Pu in a seed-blanket
configuration lends to production of far less alpha-emitting waste. The sequence of 232Th decay is shown in Figure 2.
The 232Th nuclide undergoes multiple alpha decays and beta decays, and “terminate” at 208Pb, a stable isotope. It is
noted that along the decay chain there are four (4) gamma-emitters; 228Ac (911.1keV [27.7%], 969.1keV, 338.3keV,
209.3keV, and 93.4keV), 212Pb (238.6keV [45%]), 212Bi (727.2keV [11.8%], and 208Tl (2614.7keV [100%],

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583.1keV, 510.8keV, 860.5keV, and 277.4keV). These gamma emitters pose a significant health risk, especially
208
Tl high gamma energy. In addition, the highly-penetrating gamma radiations that are emitted as daughter decay of
232
U (T1/2 = 68.9 years) makes 233U fuel proliferation resistant.

FIGURE 2. Thorium decay chain and the major modes of radioactive decay. Half-life of isotopes is in brackets. Asterisks
indicate isotope is a gamma emitter.

Efforts to realize thorium fuel development in Malaysia is described in a national plan, “Development of
Innovative Nuclear Reactor Technology”, where its objectives include producing nuclear-grade thorium and
uranium from local sources for reactor fuel as well as estimating thorium amounts in deposits, and in mineral waste
from industry [11]. While fuel technology in current nuclear power plants is based on uranium enrichment, for
thorium fuel it is centered on both solvent extraction and purification technology [28][29]. Malaysian Nuclear
Agency has an on-going work in the analysis of thorium and uranium in Malaysian samples, and in the recovery of
thorium, uranium as well as rare-earth elements from xenotime via an alkaline fusion method [30][31]. Higher
thorium content can be found in monazite ore that is locally available in some parts of Malaysia.

THERMAL SPECTRUM REACTOR

Fissile material, 233U, is capable of undergoing fission reaction after absorbing thermal neutron. Thermal data for
fissile nuclides indicates that the capture-to-fission ratio for 233U and 235U are 0.0899 and 0.169 respectively. The
number of neutron released in fission per absorbed by 233U and 235U are 2.287 and 2.068 respectively [23]. These
values show that like 235U, the 233U is able to sustain a nuclear fission chain reaction due to the amount of neutrons
produced by fissioning of 233U (Fig.3). About 2.5 neutrons are produced from fission across the energies. Note that
in the thermal energy region, more than two neutrons are produced when 233U absorbs one neutron. Thermal neutron
energy is between 0.025eV and 1eV; epithermal energy is between 1eV and 1keV; fast neutron energy is between
1keV and 10MeV. The chain reaction is sustained over a wide range of thermal neutron spectrums. Breeding is
possible in the epithermal and fast regions, and thus reactors can be designed to operate in these regions. The
selection of salt system follows closely on the choice of reactor technology selected. For example, in fast spectrum
reactor, the fuel salt of choice is chloride-based whereas in thermal reactor, fluoride salts are used. The fast MSR
design developed by Moltex has a fuel mixture of spent nuclear fuel dissolved in sodium chloride (NaCl) and
(U/Pu/La)Cl, and its coolant salt is a mixture of ZrF - KF - NaF. Fast reactors do not need moderators and this leads
to a simpler core design. Forsberg stated that a great feature of an MSR-type fast reactor compared to a solid-fuel

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fast reactor is that it has large negative temperature and void coefficients [27]. The thermal MSR design developed
by Flibe has a fuel mixture comprising Uranium and Thorium in LiF - BeF2 - (Th/U)F4, and its coolant salt is NaBF4
- NaF. The use Beryllium necessitates additional toxicity constraints on the salt purification system, and shall
include a health monitoring program to avoid Be poisoning. In a thermal MSR design, graphite is used as a
moderator. Graphite is used to slow down neutrons without absorbing them. It has also been proposed for use in the
high temperature gas reactor (HTGR) in its core, and as structural material [24]. Properties of graphite that makes is
suitable for use in an MSR core, includes graphite turns into gas at approximately 3,456qC. MSRs are expected to
operate between 500 and 700qC at low pressure. It is almost impossible to destroy graphite at this heat range.
However, irradiation-induced dimensional change to graphite is a concern that needs further investigation. Control
of the MSR is achieved by chemical manipulation of the fuel and coolant mixture via reduction and oxidation
reactions.

FIGURE 3. 233U : Number of neutron produced at various energies [25]. .

SUMMARY
From the outset, there are benefits to using thorium as a fuel of the future, however, thorium reactor has seen
limited development towards commercialization. This paper briefly outlines several points on how thorium is used
and its utilization may be key to a long-term energy solution. In Malaysia, the research work on thorium fueled
reactor is at a preliminary stage; on-going efforts are focused on exploring thorium resources and developing
thorium extraction methods from mineral processing waste. Notable points on thorium advantages are listed below.
More effort is needed to actualize capacity building in thorium fuel development, especially in fluoride salt
chemistry, thorium fuel processing, and molten salt reactor core design.

x Advantageous neutronics and physical properties of thorium-based fuel. It is possible to produce fissile
resources by breeding U-233 from thorium.
232
x Th has a higher thermal neutron absorption cross-section (7.4 barns) than 238U (2.7 barns), which makes
it an outstanding fertile fuel. The average number of neutrons produced per absorption of neutron (the η
factor), is 2.27 for 233U.
x Decreased production of plutonium and other transuranic elements compared to a uranium fuel cycle
x Pathway towards achieving thorium fuel reactor (R&D unit) shall involve building up of:
o Inventory of Th-232 (Fertile)
o Inventory of U-233 (Fissile)
o Thorium utilisation in Molten Salt Reactor

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