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UNIT IV MAGNETIC and DIELECTRIC AND

SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS
MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1 Introduction
2 Terms and definitions
3 Origin of Magnetic moment
3.1 Orbital Magnetic moment
3.2 Bohr magneton
4 Different types of magnetic materials
4.1 Diamagnetic materials

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4.2 Paramagnetic materials
4.3 Ferromagnetic materials

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4.4 Anti Ferro magnetic materials
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4.5 Ferri magnetic materials
5 Ferromagnetism
6 Domain theory of ferromagnetism
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6.1 Domain magnetization

6.2 Energies involved in the domain growth
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6.3 Explanation of Hysteresis based on domain theory

7 Soft and Hard magnetic materials
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8 Energy product
9 Ferri magnetic materials – Ferrites
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9.1. Structure of ferrites

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9.2. Preparation
9.3. Properties
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9.4. Advantages
9.5. Disadvantages
9.6. Applications

1. INTRODUCTION

Any materials that can be magnetized by an applied by an applied external

magnetic field is called a magnetic materials. Magnetic materials can be easily
magnetized because they have permanent or induced magnetic moment in the
presence of applied magnetic field. Magnetism arise from the magnetic moment
or magnetic dipole of the magnetic materials. Among the different eleven types

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of magnetic materials, only five magnetic materials are the most important for the
practical application. They are:
 Diamagnetic materials.

 Paramagnetic materials.

 Ferromagnetic materials.

 Antiferromagnetic materials.

 Ferrimagnetic materials or ferrites.


2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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Magnetic flux (φ)

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Total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a surface is known
as magnetic flux. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and its unit
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Magnetic flux density (or) Magnetic induction (B)
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Magnetic flux density at any point in a m passing normally through unit

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area of cross section (A) at that point. It is denoted by the symbol B and

its unit is weber / metre2 or tesla.

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B = [φ / A]
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Intensity of magnetization (I)

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The term magnetization means the process of converting non-magnetic

material on magnetic material.

When some amount of external magnetic field is applied to the metals such
as iron, steel and alloys etc., they are magnetized to different degrees. The
intensity of magnetisation (I) is the measure of the magnetisation of a magnetized
specimen. It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.

I = M / V weber / metre2

Magnetic field intensity (or) strength (H)

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Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field is the force

experienced by unit north pole placed at that point.

It is denoted by H and its unit is Newton per weber or ampere turns per metre
(A/m).
Magnetic permeability (μ)

Magnetic permeability of a substance measure the degree to which the

magnetic field can penetrate through the substance.

It is found that magnetic flux density (B) is directly proportional to the magnetic
field strength (H)

B α H

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B = μ H

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Where is a constant of proportionality and it is known as permeability or absolute
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permeability of the medium.
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μ=B/H
Hence, the permeability of a substance is the ratio of the magnetic flux
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density (B) inside the substance to the magnetic field intensity (H).

Absolute permeability
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Absolute permeability of a medium or material is defined as the product of

permeability of free space (μ 0) and the relative permeability. of the medium (μ r)
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μ = μ0x μr

Relative permeability of medium (μ r )

Relative permeability of a medium is defined as the ratio between absolute
permeability of a medium to the permeability of a free space
μr = μ / μ0

Magnetic susceptibility (χ)

Magnetic susceptibility (χ) of a specimen magnetized in a magnetic field.

It is the ratio of intensity of magnetisation (I) induced in it to the magnetizing

field (H).

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χ = I /H

Retentivity (or) Remanence

When the external magnetic field is applied to a magnetic material is

removed, the magnetic material will not loss its magnetic property immediately.
There exits some residual intensity of magnetization in the specimen even when
the magnetic field is cut off. This is called residual magnetism (or) retentivity.

Coercivity

The residual magnetism can be completely removed from the material by

applying a reverse magnetic field. Hence coercivity of the magnetic material is
the strength of reverse magnetic field (-Hc) which is used to completely

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demagnetize the material.

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3 ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENT AND BOHR MAGNETON
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3.1 Origin of magnetic moment
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Any matter is basically made up of atoms. The property of magnetism exhibited

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by certain materials with the magnetic property of its constituent atoms. We know
that electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in different orbits.
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Basically there are three contributions for the magnetic dipole moment of an
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atom.
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The orbital motions of electrons (the motion of electrons in the closed orbits
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around the nucleus) are called orbital magnetic moment.

Spin motion of the electrons (due to electron spin angular momentum) is called
spin magnetic moment.

The contribution from the nuclear spin (due to nuclear spin angular momentum)
is nearly 10 3 times smaller than that of electron spin; it is not taken into
consideration.

3.2 Bohr Magneton

The magnetic moment contributed by an electron with angular momentum

quantum number n = 1 is known as Bohr Magneton.

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4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

4.1. DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Diamagnetism is exhibited by all the materials. The atoms in the

diamagnetic materials do not possess permanent magnetic moment.

However, when a material is placed in a magnetic field, the electrons in the

atomic orbits tend to counteract the external magnetic field and the atoms acquire
an induced magnetic moment.

As a result, the material becomes magnetized. The direction of the induced

dipole moment is opposite to that of externally applied magnetic field. Due to this
effect, the material gets very weakly repelled, in the magnetic field. This
phenomenon is known as diamagnetism.

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When a magnetic field Ho is applied in the direction shown in fig., the
atoms acquire an induced magnetic moment in the opposite direction to that of
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the field.
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The strength of the induced magnetic moment is proportional to the applied field
and hence magnetization of the material varies directly with the strength of the
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magnetic field.

The induced dipoles and magnetization vanish as soon as the applied field is
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removed.
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Properties of diamagnetic material

Diamagnetic magnetic material repels the magnetic lines of force. The behaviour
of diamagnetic material in the presence of magnetic field.

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There is no permanent dipole moment. Therefore, the magnetic effects are very
small.

The magnetic susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature and

applied magnetic field strength.

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4.2. PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
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In certain materials, each atom or molecule possesses a net permanent

magnetic moment (due to orbital and spin magnetic moment) even in the absence
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of an external magnetic field.

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The magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the absence of external

magnetic field. Therefore the net magnetic moment is zero, and hence the
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magnetization of the material is zero.

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But, when an external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles tend
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to align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field and the material becomes
magnetized. As shown in fig. This effect is known as paramagnetism.

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Thermal agitation disturbs the alignment of the magnetic moments. W

ith an increase in temperature, the increase in thermal agitation tends to
randomize the dipole direction thus leading to a decrease in magnetization.

This indicates that the paramagnetic susceptibility decreases with increases in

temperature. It is noted that the paramagnetic susceptibility varies inversely with
temperature.
χα 1 / T
χ=C / T
This is known as Curie law of paramagnetism and C is a constant called Curie
constant
Properties of paramagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials attract magnetic lines of force.

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They possess permanent dipole moment.

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The susceptibility is positive and depend on temperature is given by
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χ = –Cθ / T
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The spin alignment is shown in fig.

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Example- Manganous sulphate, ferric oxide, ferrous sulphate, nickel

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sulphate, etc.
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4.3. FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Certain materials like iron, cobalt, nickel and certain alloys exhibit high
degree of magnetization. These materials show spontaneous magnetization. (i.e)
they have small amount of magnetization even in the absence of external
magnetic field.

This indicates that there is strong internal field within the material which
makes atomic magnetic moments with each other. This phenomenon is known as
ferromagnetism.

Properties of ferromagnetic materials:

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All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to the magnetic interaction
between the two dipoles.

They have permanent dipole moment. They are strongly attracted by the magnetic
field.

They exhibit magnetization even in the absence of magnetic field. This property
of ferromagnetic material is called as spontaneous magnetization.

They exhibit hysteresis curve.

On heating, they lose their magnetization slowly. The dipole alignment is shown
in fig.

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The
The susceptibility is very high and depends on the temperature. It is given by
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χ = C /T –θ
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[ for T>θ; paramagnetic behaviour;

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for T<θ; ferromagnetic behaviour]

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Where C is the Curie constant and θ is the paramagnetic Curie temperature.

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4.4.ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Antiferromagnetic materials are magnetic materials which exhibit a small
positive susceptibility of the order of 10 -3 to 10-5.

In antiferromagnetic materials, the susceptibility increases with increasing

temperature and it reaches maximum at a certain temperature called Neel
Temperature, TN.
With further increase in temperature, the material reaches the paramagnetic state.
The material is antiferromagnetic below TN.

Properties of antiferromagnetic materials

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The electron spin of neighboring atoms are aligned antiparallel. (i.e) the spin
alignment is antiparallel.

Antiferromagnetic susceptibility is mainly depends on temperature.

The susceptibility of the antiferromagneitc material is small and positive. It is

given by

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The susceptibility initially increases slightly with the temperature and beyond
Neel temperature, the susceptibility decreases with temperature.
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4.5.FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS
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Properties of ferrites
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Ferrites have net magnetic moment.

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Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic, while it behaves

ferromagnetic material blow Curie temperature.
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The susceptibility of ferrite is very large and positive. It is temperature dependent

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and is given by
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Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes as shown fig.

Mechanically it has pure iron character.

They have high permeability and resistivity.

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They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.

5 FERROMAGNETISM

The materials which have finite value of magnetization even if the external
magnetic field is absent are called ferromagnetic materials. This phenomenon is
called ferromagnetism. The ferromagnetic materials exhibit high degree of
magnetization.

Explanation

In a ferromagnetic material, the magnetic interactions between any two

dipoles align themselves parallel to each other. Ferromagnetism arises due to the
special form of interaction called exchange coupling between adjacent atoms.

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This exchange coupling is favourable for spin alighnment and they coupling their

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magnetic moments together in rigid parallelism.
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A ferromagnetic materials exibits ferromagnetic property below a
particular temperature called ferromagnetic. Curie temperature (fƟ). Above
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fƟ they behaves as paramagnetic material.

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6. DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

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We can observe that ferromagnetic materials such as iron does not have
magnetization unless they have been previously placed in an external magnetic
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field. But according to Weiss theory, the molecular magnets in the ferromagnetic
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material are said to be aligned in such way that, they exhibit magnetization even
in the absence of external magnetic field. This is called spontaneous
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magnetization. (i.e) it should have some internal magnetization due to quantum

exchange energy.

According to Weiss hypothesis, a single crystal of ferromagnetic material

is divided into large number of small regions called domains. These domains have
spontaneous magnetization due to the parallel alignment of spin magnetic
moments in each atom. But the direction of spontaneous magnetization varies
from domain to domain and is oriented in such way that the net magnetization of
the specimen is zero

The boundaries separating the domains are called domain walls. These domain
walls are analogous to the grain boundaries in a polycrystalline material.

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6.1. DOMAIN MAGNETIZATION

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Now when the magnetic field is applied, then the magnetization occurs in the

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specimen by two ways pz
By moment of domain walls

By rotation of domain walls

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moment of domain walls

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The moment of domain walls takes place in weak magnetic fields. Due to
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this weak field applied to the specimen the magnetic moment increases and hence
the boundary of domains displaced, so that the volume of the domains changes as
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shown in fig.
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By rotation of domain walls

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The rotation of domain walls takes place in strong magnetic fields. When
the external field is high then the magnetization changes by means of rotation of
the direction of magnetization towards the direction of the applied field as shown
fig.

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6.2. ENERGIES INVOLVED IN DOMAIN GROWTH

To study the domain structure clearly, we must know four types of energy
involved in the process of domain growth. They are
Exchange energy

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Anisotropy energy

Domain wall energy

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Magneto- strictive energy

Exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy (or) magneto-static energy

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The interacting energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themsel
ves is known exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy. The exchange energy
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has established a single domain in a specimen of ferromagnetic and it is shown

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in fig.
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It is the energy required in assembling the atomic magnets in a single domain and
this work done is

stored as potential energy.

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Anisotropy energy
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In ferromagnetic crystals there are two direction of magnetization.
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Easy direction
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Hard direction
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard
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direction of magnetization, strong field should be applied. For producing the same
saturation magnetization along both hard and easy direction, strong fields are
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required in the hard direction than the easy direction.

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For example in iron easy direction is [100], medium direction is [110] and the
hard direction is [111] and it is shown in fig. From the fig we can see that very
strong field is required to produce magnetic saturation in hard direction [111]
compared to the easy direction [100].
Therefore the excess of energy required to magnetize the specimen along hard
direction over that required to magnetize the specimen along easy direction is
called crystalline anisotropy energy.

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Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy
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Domain wall is a transition layer which separates

the adjacent domains, magnetized in different directions. The energy of domain
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wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropy energy.

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Based on the spin alignment, two types of domain walls may arise,
namely Thick wall
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Thin wall
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(i) Thick wall

When the spin at the boundary are misaligned if the direction of the spin
changes gradually as shown in fig, it leads to a thick domain wall. Here the
misalignments of spins are associated with exchange energy.

(ii) Thin wall

When the spin at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the anisotropy
energy becomes very less. Since the anisotropy energy is directly proportional to
the thickness if the wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.

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Magetostrictive energy
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When the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either
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expand (or) shrink.

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Therefore there exits a deformations (i.e) change in dimension of the material,

when it is magnetized.
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This phenomenon is known as magnetosriction and the energy produced in this

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effect is known as
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magnetostriction energy.
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The deformation is different along different crystal directions and th

e change dimension

depends upon the nature of the material.

6.3. EXPLANATION OF HYSTERESIS BASED ON DOMAIN THEORY

Hysteresis

When a ferromagnetic material is made to undergo through a cycle of

magnetization, the variation of magnetic induction (B) with respect to applied

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field (H) can be represented by a closed hysteresis loop (or) curve. (i.e) it refers
to the lagging of magnetization behind the magnetizing field.

If magnetizing field (H) is applied to a ferromagnetic material and if H is

increases to Hmax the material acquires magnetism. So the magnetic induction
also increases, represented by oa in the fig.

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Now if the magnetic field is decreased from Hmax to zero, the magnetic
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induction will not fall rabidly to zero, but falls to ‘b’ rather than removed, the
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material still acquire some magnetic induction (ob) which is so called residual
magnetism
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or retntivity.

Now, to remove the residual magnetism, the magnetic field strength is

reversed and increased to –Hmax represented as ‘oc’ so called coercivi-H)is

reduced to zero and the corresponding curve ‘de’ is obtai curve ‘efa’ is obtained.

We know when the ferromagnetic material is subjected to external field,

there is an increase in the value of the magnetic moment due to two process.
The moment of domain walls

Rotation of domain walls

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When small external field is applied, the domains walls displaced slightly in
the easy direction of magnetization. This gives rise to small magnetization
corresponding to the initial portion of the hysteresis curve (OA) as shown in fig.

Now of the field is removed, then the domains returns to the original state, and
is known as reversible domains.

When the field is increased, large numbers of domains contribute to the

magnetization and thus the magnetization increases rabidly with H.

Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacement of

domain wall to a very large distance, the domain boundaries do not come back to
their original position. This process is indicating as AB in fig and these domains
are called irreversible domains.

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Now, when the field is further increased, the domains starts rotating along the
field direction and the anisotropic energy stored in the hard direction, represented
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as BC in the fig.
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Thus the specimen is said to attain the maximum magnetization. At this

position, even when the field is removed the material posses maximum
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magnetization, called residual magnetism or retntivity, represented by OD in fig.

Actually after the removal of external field, the specimen will try to attain
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the original configuration by the moment of domain wall. But this moment is
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stopped due to presence of impurities, lattice imperfections etc. therefore to

overcome this; a large amount of reverse magnetic field is applied to the
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specimen. The amount of energy spend to reduce the magnetization to zero is

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called coercivity represented by OE in the fig.

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It is the loss of the energy in taking a ferromagnetic specimen through a
complete cycle of magnetization and the area enclosed is called hysteresis loop.
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7 SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS

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Depending upon the direction of magnetization by external field, and the

area of hysteresis, magnetic can be classified into two types as,
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TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

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Magnetic materials are classified onto two types.

Soft magnetic materials .
Hard magnetic material

Soft magnetic materials:

Materials which are easy to magnetize and demagnetize are called soft
magnetic materials.

Example –pure iron, cast iron, carbon steel, silicon steel, mumetal.

Hard magnetic materials:

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Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetize

are called hard magnetic materials.

Example –tungsten steel, cobalt steel, alini, alnico, hypernic

Difference between soft and hard magnetic materials

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s.no Soft magnetic materials

1. The magnetic materials can be easily magnetize and demagnetize.

2. The have high permeability.
3. Magnetic energy stored is not high.
4. Low hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis loop area.
5. Coercivity and retentivity are small.
6. The eddy current loss is small due to its high resistivity.

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7. The domain walls are easy to move.

8. They are used in electric motor, generators, transformers, relays,
telephone receivers, radar.

Hard magnetic materials

1. The magnetic materials can not be easily magnetize and demagnetize.
2. The have low permeability.
3. Magnetic energy stored is high.
4. Large hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis loop area.
5. Coercivity and retentivity are large.
6. The eddy current loss is high due to its low resistivity.
7. The movement of domain wall must be prevented.
8. They are used in loud speakers and electrical measuring instruments.

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8. ENERGY PRODUCT

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Definition
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The product of residual magnetic induction (Br) and coercivity(Hc) is
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called energy product or BH product. It is the important quantity to design

powerful permanent magnets. It gives the maximum amount of energy stored in
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the specimen.

Explanation
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The energy required to demagnetize a permanent magnet is given by the

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area of the hystersis loop between Br and Hc. The maximum value of this area
Br Hc is called the energyproduct.
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At C and D the energy product is zero because at C,H value is zero and
D,B value is zero. The area occupied by the largest rectangle in demagnetizing
curve gives the maximum (BH) value.

The energy product is large for permanent magnets. This value is very
much useful to analyze whether the material can be used for magnetic recording.

9. FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS - FERRITES

Ferrites

Ferrites are components of iron oxide with oxides of other components.

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The general chemical formula is X2+ Fe23+ O42- , where (X2+) is a

divalent metal ion such as Fe2+, Mg2+, Ni2+, Co2+, Mn2+

9.1. STRUCTURE OF FERRITES

Generally there are two types of structures present in the ferrites. They are

Regular spinal
Inverse spinal

Regular spinal

In regular spinal structure, each divalent metal ion is surrounded by

four O2- ions in a tetrahedral fashion.

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For example in Mg2+ Fe23+ O42-, the structure of Mg2+ is given in the

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fig (a) and it is called A site.
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Each Fe3+ (trivalent metal ion) is surrounded by six O2- ions and forms
an octahedral fashion as shown in fig (a). Totally there will be 16 such
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octahedral sites in the unit cell. This is indicated by B site.

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Thus in regular spinal, each divalent metal ion (Mg2+) exits in tetrahedral
form (A site) and each trivalent metal ion (Fe3+) exits in an octahedral form (B
site). Hence the sites A and B combine together to form a regular spinal ferrite
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structure as shown in fig (b).

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Inverse spinal
In this type, we consider the arrangement of ions of a single ferrous ferrite
molecule Fe3+ [Fe2+ Fe3+] O42-. A Fe3+ ion (trivalent) occupies all A sites
(tetrahedral) and half of the B sites (octahedral) also.

Thus the left out B sites will be occupied by the divalent (Fe2+). The inverse
spinal structure is shown in fig (c).

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9.2. PREPARATION

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They have the general chemical composition A2+ Fe23+ O42- where

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A2+ represent a divalent metal ion like Zn2+, Mg2+, etc. Ferrities are prepared
by sintering a mixture of various metallic oxides as follows.
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1. Suitable of A2+ and Fe23+ O42- in proper proportions are mixed using
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water or kerosene.
2. The mixing is done in a blender for several hours. It is filtered.
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3. The filtered material is dried in a hot oven and is then crushed.

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4. Next mixture, is pre-sintered in a furnace at 9000c to 11000c for a period

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of three to fifteen hours, in an air atmosphere or nitrogen atmosphere.

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5. The pre-sintered material is then ground into a fine powder and mixed
with a binder such as paraffin wax and a solvent such as water.

6. The mixture is then pressed into the desired shapes by using dies.

7. The last step in the process is to place the ferrite in proper vessel in a
furnace and heat it to about 1100to 14000c. The binder then evaporates. It
is cooled in a controlled manner.

9.3PROPERTIES OF FERRITES

Ferrites have net magnetic moment.

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Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic, while it behaves

ferromagnetic material blow Curie temperature.
The susceptibility of ferrite is very large and positive. It is temperature dependent
and is given by

Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes as shown fig.

Mechanically it has pure iron character.

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They have high permeability and resistivity.
They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.

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9.4 AVANTAGES
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1. Efficiency is high and cost is low.

2. They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.
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3. Easy to manufacture with great uniformity.

4. They occupies low volume.
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9.5. Disadvantages
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1. The main disadvantage of bubble memory is the requirement of a high

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recording time for storing and retrieving the data than the charge coupled
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device (CCD).

2. It requires the interface circuits.

3. When compared with charge coupled device (CCD) memory the magnetic
bubble memory has slow access speed.

9.6. Applications
They are used to produce ultrasonic waves by magnetostriction principle. Ferrites
are used in audio and video transforms.

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Ferrite rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity. They are also
used in power limiting and harmonic generation. They are used in computers and
data processing circuits.

Ferrites are used in paramagnetic amplifiers so that the input can be amplified
with low noise figures.

SUPER CONDUCTING MATERIALS

1 Introduction
2 Super conducting phenomena
2.1 General Features
3 Properties of Superconductor
4 Types of superconductors

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4.1 Type-I superconductor
4.2 Type-II superconductor

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5 Difference between Type I & Type-II superconductors
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6 BCS theory of superconductivity
7 High Tc Superconductivity
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7.1 Properties of high Tc superconductors
7.2 Preparation and crystal structure of high Tc ceramic superconductor (YBa2
Cu3 O9.X)
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8 Application of superconducting materials engineering applications

8.1 Electric Generator
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8.2 Low Loss transmission & Transformer

8.3 Cryotron
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8.4 Josephson Devices

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8.5 SQUID
8.6 Magnetic Levitated Train
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8.7 Engineering Applications

8.8 Medical Applications

1. INTRODUCTION

Super conductivity is one of the most existing phenomena in physics. It was

discovered by Dutch physicist H.K Onnes in the year 1905.

Before the discovery of super conductivity, it was though that the electrical
resistance is zero only at absolute zero. But, it was found that in some material
the electrical resistance becomes zero, when they are cooled to very low
temperature.

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2 SUPERCONDUCTING PHENOMENA

Super conducting materials have extraordinary electrical and magnetic

characteristics. These materials have many important applications in the field of
engineering and technology. Many electronic and magnetic devices have been
fabricated with super conducting materials.

Definition

The phenomenon of sudden disappearance of electrical resistance in a material,

when it is cooled blow a certain temperature is known as super conductivity.

Transition temperature or critical temperature:

The temperature at which a material at normal conducting state changes into

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superconducting state is known as transition temperature or critical temperature

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(Tc).
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The transition temperature depends on the property of the material. It is found
that the super conducting transition is reversible, i.e, above critical temperature
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(Tc) a super conductor becomes a normal conductor.

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It is to note that the metals which are normally very good conductors of heat and
electricity (e.g. Cu. Ag, Au) are not super conductors.
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2.1GENERAL FEATURES
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1. Superconductivity is found to occur in metallic elements in which the

number of valence electron lies between 2 and 4.

2. Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity.

3. Superconductivity is also favoured by small atomic volume accompanied

by a small atomic mass.
4. The transition temperature(Tc) is different for different substances.

5. Ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.

6. The electrical resistivity drops to zero.

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7. The magnetic flux lines are expelled from the material.

8. There is a discontinuous change in the specific heat.

9. Further, there is some small changes in the thermal conductivity and the
volume of the materials.

3 PROPERTIES OF SUPER CONDUCTORS

Zero electrical resistance

The first characteristic property of a super conductor is its electrical

resistance. The electrical resistance of the super conductor is zero below a
transition temperature. This property of zero electrical resistance is known

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as defining property of a superconductor.

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The variation of electrical resistivity of a normal conducting metal and a
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superconducting metal as a function of temperature is shown in fig
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Effect of magnetic field

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Below the transition temperature of a material, its superconductivity

can be destroyed by the application of a strong magnetic field.
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The minimum magnetic field strength required to destroy the

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superconducting property at any temperature is known as critical magnetic

field (Hc).
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The critical magnetic field (Hc) depends upon the temperature of the
superconducting material. The relation between critical magnetic field and
temperature is given by
Hc = Ho [1- (T / Tc)2]
Where, Ho- is critical magnetic field at absolute zero temperature.

Tc- is superconducting transition temperature of a material

T –is the temperature below Tc of the superconducting material.

Effect electric current

The application of very high electrical current to superconducting

material destroys its superconducting property.

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The critical current ic required to destroy the superconducting property is

given by Ic = 2πrHc

Where Hc –is the critical magnetic field

r - is the radius of the superconducting wire

Persistent current

A steady current which flows through a superconducting ring

without any decrease in its strength as long as the material is in
superconducting state is called persistent current. The current persists even
after the removal of the magnetic field.

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Meissner effect
pz
When a superconducting material is p the magnetic lines of
force penetrates through the material as shown in fig.
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Now, when the material is cooled below its transition temperature

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then the magnetic lines of force are ejected out from the material as shown
in fig.
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We know that diamagnetic material have the tendency to expel the magnetic
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lines of force. Since the super conductor also expels the magnetic lines of
forces it behaves as a perfect diamagnet. This behaviour is first observed by
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Meissner and hence called as Meissner effect.

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When a superconducting material is placed in a magnetic field, under the

condition T≤Tc and H≤Hc the flux lines are excluded diamagnetism. This
phenomenon is called as Meissner effect.

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et
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ee
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Since the susceptibility is negative, this shows that superconductor is perfect

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diamagnet.
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Isotope effect
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The transition temperature varies due to presence of isotopes.

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Example:

The atomic mass of mercury varies from 199.5 to 203.4, and hence the transition
temperature varies from 4.185 K to 4.146 K.
Due to the relationship Tc α [1 / Mα]
M –atomic weight
α- constant (=.5)

4. TYPE-I AND TYPE-II SUPERCONDUCTORS

There are two types of super conductors based on their variation in magnetization,
due to external magnetic field applied.
Type I superconductor or soft super conductor

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Type II superconductor or hard superconductor

4.1. TYPE I SUPERCONDUCTOR

When the super conductor is kept in the magnetic field and if the field
is increased the superconductor becomes normal conductor abruptly at critical
magnetic field as shown in fig. These types of materials are termed as Type I
superconductors.

et
.n
pz
Below critical field, the specimen excludes all the magnetic lines of force
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and exhibit perfect Meissner effect. Hence, Type I superconductors are perfect
diamagnet, represented by negative sign in magnetization.
ad

4.2.TYPE II SUPERCONDUCTORS
.p

When the super conductor kept in the magnetic field and if the field is increased,
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below the lower critical field Hc1, the material exhibit perfect diamagnetism (i.e)
it behaves as a super conductor and above Hc1, the magnetization decreases and
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hence the magnetic flux starts penetrating through the material. The specimen is
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said to be in a mixed state between Hc1 and Hc2. above Hc2 (upper critical field)
it becomes normal conductor as shown in fig.

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et
The materials which lose its superconducting property gradually due to

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increase on the magnetic field are called Type II superconductor.

5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
pz TYPE –I AND TYPE –II
SUPERCONDUCTORS
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S.No Type –I Superconductors

1. The material loses magnetization suddenly.

2. They exhibit complete Meissner effect i.e., they are completely diamagnetic.
3. There is only one critical magnetic field (HC).
4. No mixed state exists.

Type –II Superconductors

The material loses magnetization gradually.

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They do not exhibit complete Meissner effect.

There are two critical magnetic fields i.e., lower critical field (HC1) and upper
critical field (HC2).
Mixed state is present.

6 BCS THEORY

BCS theory (qualitative):

The microscopic theory of superconductivity developed by J. Bardeen,

L.N. Cooper and J.R. Scriffer in 1957, successfully explained the effect like zero
resistivity, Meissner effect etc. this theory is known as BCS theory.

Principle

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This theory states that the electrons experience a special kind of attractive
interaction, overcoming the coulomb forces of repulsion between them; as a result
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cooper pairs (i.e) electro pair are formed. At low temperature, these pairs move
without any restriction through the lattice points and the material becomes
ee

superconductor. Here the electron-lattice-electrons interaction should be stronger

than electrons-electros interaction.
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Important features of BCS theory:

Electrons form pairs (called cooper pair) which propagate throughout the lattice.
.p

The propagation of cooper pairs is without resistance because the electrons move
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in resonance with phonons.

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Electron-lattice-electron interaction
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When an electron (1st) moves through the lattice, it will be attracted by the
core (+ve charge) of the lattice. Due to this attraction, ion core is disturbed and it
is called as lattice distortion. The lattice vibrations are quantized in terms of
phonons.

The deformation produces a region of increased positive charge. Thus if another

electron (2nd) moves through this region as shown in fig. it will be attracted by
the greater concentration of positive charge and hence the energy of the
2nd electron is lowered.

Hence two electrons interact through the lattice or the phonons field
resulting in lowering the energy of electrons. This lowering of energy implies that
the force between the two electrons is attractive. This type of interaction is called

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electrons-lattice electron interaction. The interaction is strong only when the two
electrons have equal and opposite momenta and spins.

Explanation

Consider the 1st electron with wave vector k distorts the lattice, here by
emitting phonons of wave vector q. This results in the wave vector k-q for the
1st electron. now if the 2nd electron with wave

vector k’, seeks the lattice it takes up the shown in fig. two electrons with wave
vectors k-q and k’+qknownformascooperpair.pair

Cooper pair

The pair of electrons formed due to electron-lattice (phonons)-electron

et
interaction (force of attraction) by overcoming the electron-electron interaction

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(force of repulsion), with equal and opposite momentum and spins (i.e) with wave
vector k-q and k’+q, are called coo
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Coherence length
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In the electron-lattice-electron interaction, the electrons will not be fixed,

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they move in opposite directions and their co-relations may persist over lengths
of maximum 10-6m. This length is called coherence length.
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Note: BCS theory hold good only for low temperature superconductivity.
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7. HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTOR

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In a superconductor if the transition temperature is high ie., greater than

20K, then it is called as high temperature superconductor.

Earlier it was believed that the superconductivity was only in metals.

Surprisingly in 1986, Muller and Bednorz discovered high temperature
superconductor in ceramics.

They made a particular type of ceramic material from a compound of barium,

lanthanum, copper and oxygen (Ba-La-Cu-O). This compound superconductor
showed superconductivity even at a temperature as high as 30K.

The oxide Y Ba2 Cu3 O7 with a Tc of 90K was the most extensively studied
high temperature superconductor.

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7.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE

SUPERCONDUCTOR
They have high transition temperature.

They have a modified perovskite crystal structure.

Formation of the superconducting state is direction dependent.

They are oxides of copper in combination with other elements.

They are reactive, brittle, and cannot be easily modified or joined.

7.2. PREPARATION OF HIGH TC CERAMIC SUPERCONDUCTOR Y

BA2 CU3 O9-X

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The oxide (Y Ba2 Cu3 O9-x) is prepared from compacted powder mixture of
Y2O3, BaCO3 and CuO in the right proportion and heating them in temperature
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between 900°C and 1100°C. BaCO3decomposes at this temperature to BaO and
CO2. This is followed by another annealing treatment at 800°C in an atmosphere
ee

of oxygen.
Crystal structure of Y Ba2 Cu3 O9-x
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Here, the primitive cell is developed by three body centered cubic unit cells
stacked one above the the other to form a tetragonal (a=b≠c) perovskite structure
.p

tripled along the C axis.

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Yttrium atoms:
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Each yttrium atom is shared by one unit cell.

1 / 1th of the atom is shared by that unit cell.

Number of yttrium atoms per unit cell = 1 / 1 X total number of yttrium atoms

=1/1X1=1

Barium atoms

Each barium atom is one unit cell

1 / 1th of the atom is shared by that unit cell.

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Number barium atoms per unit cell = 1 / 1 X total number of yttrium atoms

= 1 / 1 X 2 = 2 atoms per unit cell.

Copper atoms

Each yttrium atom is shared by 8 unit cells [since copper is the corner atoms].

1 / 8 th of the atom is shared by one unit cell.

Number copper atoms per unit cell = 1 / 8 X total number of yttrium atoms
X number of unit cells

= 1 / 8 X 8 X 3 =3 atoms per unit cell.

et
Oxygen atoms

.n
Each yttrium atom is shared by 4unit cells [since oxygen atoms are situated at
pz
mid points between two corner atoms].
ee

1 / 4th of the atom is shared by one unit cell.

ad

Number copper atoms per unit cell = 1 / 4 X total number of yttrium atoms
X number of unit cells
.p

= 1 / 4 X 12 X 3 =9 atoms per unit cell.

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8 APPLICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTORS:
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8.1.ELECTRIC GENERATORS

Superconducting generators are very small in size and light weight when
compared with conventional generators. The low loss superconducting coil is
rotated in extremely strong magnetic field. Motors with very high powers as large
as 2500 kw could be constructed at very low as 450 V. This is the basis of new
generation of energy saving power systems.

8.2 LOW LOSS TRANSMISSION LINE AND TRANSFORMERS

Since, the resistance is almost zero at superconducting phase, the power loss
during transmission is negligible. Hence, electric cables are designed with
superconducting wires. If superconductors are used for winding the transformers,

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the power loss will be very small. Using superconductor, 2000-3000 MW

portable transformers have been manufactured.

8.3. CRYOTRON
Cryotron is a magnetically operated current switch.

Principle

We know that the superconducting property of a material disappears when the

applied magnetic field is greater than the critical magnetic field.

Consider a superconducting material A surrounded by another superconducting

material B as shown in fig. let the critical magnetic field of material A be less
than the critical magnetic field of material B. Initially, let the temperature of the
whole system blow the transition temperature of two materials.

et
.n
pz
ee
ad
.p

Now at the operating temperature, the magnetic field produced by material B may
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exceed the critical

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magnetic field of material A. Hence, material A becomes a normal conductor

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because the critical magnetic field of A is less than that of B.

Moreover, B not become a normal conductor at the critical magnetic field

of A because HcB > HcA. Therefore the current in the material A can be controlled
by the current in the material B. hence this system can act as a relay or switching
element.

8.4. JOSEPHSON DEVICES Principle

A steady and undiminishing current (Persistent of current) influenced by

d.c. voltage is the principle used in Josephson devices.

Josephson Effect

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Josephson effect happens by virtue of quantum tunnelling of Cooper pairs.

According to Josephson effect, the tunnelling cooper pairs would take place
between two superconductors separated by an insulator even in the absence of
applied voltage. Pairs of electrons move through the potential barrier induce
the superconducting current. This effect is know as Josephson effect.

Explanation

It consists of a thin layer of oxide material placed in between tow

supeconducting materials as shown in. Here, the Oxide layer acts as a barrier
to the flow of conduction electrons from one superconductor to the other.

When the battery is switched ON, the voltage V is applied across the super
conductors. Due to applied voltage, the electrons in the super conductor –1 is

et
tunnel across the insulator into the super conductor –2. This tunneling effect

.n
produce the current between the superconductors. The increase in voltage
produce more and more electrons and hence increases the current. This current
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has two components.
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8.5. SQUID:
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QUID stands for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It is an

ultra-sensitive instrument used to measure very weak magnetic field in the order
of 10-14 tesla.
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Principle
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We know that small change in magnetic field produces in the flux quantum
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Description and working

A SQUID consist of superconducting wire which can have the magnetic field of
quantum values (1, 2, 3…) of flux placed in between two Josephson junctions as
shown in fig.

Then magnetic field if applied perpendicular to the plane of the ring, the current
is produced at the two Josephson junctions. The induced current produces
the interference pattern and it flows through the ring so that the magnetic flux
in the ring can have the quantum value of magnetic field applied.

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Application
It can be used to detect the variation of very minute magnetic signals in terms of
quantum flux. It can also be used as storage device for magnetic flux.

et
It is useful in the study of earthquakes, removing paramagnetic impurities,

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detection of magnetic signals from the brain, heart.
pz
8.6. Magnetic levitated train (MAG LEV)
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Magnetic levitated train is the train which cannot move over the rail, rather
it floats above the rail, under the condition, when it moves faster.
ad

Principle
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Electromagnetic induction is used as the principle. (i.e) when there is a relative

motion of a conductor across the magnetic field, current is induced in the
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conductor and vice versa.

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Direction of magnetic force

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et
.n
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ee
Explanation
This train consists of superconducting magnets placed on each side of the train.
The train can run in a guidance system which consists of a series of 8 shaped coils
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as shown in fig.
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Initially when the train starts, they slide on the rails. Now, when the train moves
faster, the superconducting magnets on each side of th kept in the guidance
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system.
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This induced current generates a magnetic force in the coils in such a way that
the lower half of the 8-shaped coil has the same magnetic pole as that of the
superconducting magnet in the train, while the upper half has the opposite
magnetic pole.

Therefore the total upward magnetic force acts on the train and hence the train is
levitated (or) raised above the wheels (i.e) the train now floats above the air.

Now, by alternatively changing the poles of the superconducting magnet in the

train alternating current can be induced in the “8” shaped c

Thus, alternating series of north and south magnetic poles are produced in the
coils which pulls and pushes the superconducting magnets in the train and hence
the train is further moved.

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The magnetic levitated train can travel a speed 500 km/hour, which is double the
speed of existing fastest train

Note: The train is supposed to move always at the centre. Suppose if it moves
away from the centre, say for example right side, an attractive force is given at
the left side, and a repulsive force is given at the right side and is made to come
at the centre.

8.7. ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

1. They are used to construct very sensitive electrical measuring instruments

such as galvanometers because they requires very small voltages.

2. They are used to transmit power over very long distance without any

et
power loss.

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3. They are used as storae devices in computers.
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4. Superconductors are used to design rectifiers, logic gates, modulators
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etc.
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8.8. MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

1. They are used to study tiny magnetic signals from brain and heart.
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2. They are used in NMR imaging systems.

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3. They are used to detect brain tumours and clots using

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superconductingsolenoids.

4. They are used in magneto-cardiography, magneto –encephalography.

5. They are used to study the amount of iron held in the lever of the body
accurately.

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

1 Dielectrics
1.1 Properties
2 Fundamental definitions and Properties of electric dipole
3 Various polarization mechanisms involved in dielectric

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3.1 Electronic polarization

3.2 Ionic polarization
3.3 Orientation polarization
3.4 Space charge polarization
3.5 Total polarization
4 Active and Passive Dielectrics
5 Frequency and Temperature on Polarization of Dielectrics
5.1 Frequency Dependence
5.2 Temperature Dependence
6 Internal field or Local field
6.1 Definition
6.2 Derivation
6.3 Clausius – Mosoti Equation
7 Dielectrics and Loss Tangent
7.1 Loss in purified gas

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7.2 Loss in commercial dielectric

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7.3 Power loss
8 Dielectric Breakdown
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8.1 Types of dielectric breakdown
8.2 Remedies for breakdown mechanisms
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9 General Applications
10 Applications of dielectric materials
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10.1 Dielectrics in capacitors

10.2 Insulating materials in transformers
11 Ferro-electrics
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11.1 Properties
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11.2 Applications
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1 DIELECTRICS
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Solids which have an energy gap of three eV or more are termed as insulators. In
these materials, it is almost not possible to excite the electrons from the valence
band to conduction band by an applied field. Generally dielectrics are also called
as insulators, thereby poor conductors of electricity. However they allow
movement of some electrons at abnormally high temperatures, causing a small
flow of current.
Dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific resistance ρ, negative
temperature coefficient of resistance (-α), largeandinsulation
resistance. Insulation resistance will be affected by moisture, temperature,
applied electric field and age of dielectrics.

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Dielectric materials are electrically non-conducting materials such as glass,

ebonite, mica, rubber, wood and paper. All dielectric materials are insulating
materials. The difference between a dielectric and an insulator lies in their
applications.

If the main function of non-conducting material is to provide electrical insulation,

then they are called as insulator. On the other hand, if the main function of non-
conducting material is to store electrical charges then they are called as
dielectrics.

1.1 PROPERTIES
Generally, the dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high resistivity.
The have a very large energy gap (more than 3eV).
All the electrons in the dielectrics are tightly bound to their parent nucleus.

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As there are no free electrons to carry the current, the electrical conductivity of

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dielectrics is very low.
They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance and high insulation
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resistance.
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2 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND PROPERTIES ELECTRIC

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DIPOLE

A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges n(+q, -q) separated by a
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distance (d) is called an electric dipole.

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DIPOLE MOMENT (Μ)

The product of the magnitude of the charge (q) and distance between two
charges (d) is called as dipole moment.

Dipole moment = qd (coulomb-metre)

PERMITTIVITY (Ε)

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The permittivity represents the dielectric property of a medium. It indicates

easily polarisable nature of material. Its unit is farad/metre

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (Ε R)

A dielectric characteristic of a material is determined by its dielectric

constant. It is a measure of polarisation of the dielectrics.

Definition
It is the ratio between absolute permittivity of the medium (ε) and permittivity of
free space (εo).
Dielectric constant = Absolute permittivity (ε) /
Permittivity of free space (ε o)
εr= εo / ε

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POLARIZATION

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Definition
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The process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric by the
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application of an external electrical field is called polarization in dielectrics.

POLARISABILITY (Α)
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It is found that the average dipole moment field (E).

.p
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It is found that the average dipole moment field (E).

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μ α E
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or μ = α E

Where (α) is the polarisability.

α= μ / E

Polarisability is defined as the ratio of average dipole moment to the electrical

field applied. Its unit is farad m2.

Polarisation vector [Vactor P]

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It is defined as the average dipole moment per unit volume of a dielectric. If N is

the number atoms per unit volume of a dielectric and (μ) is average dipole
moment per atom, then

3 VARIOUS POLARIZATION MECHANISMS INVOLVES IN

DIELECTIC

Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charged particles under the a

ction of the external electric field. There are number of devices based on this
concept. Those devices are rectifiers, resonators, amplifiers and transducers,
which converts electrical energy in to other forms of energy.

et
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Dielectric polarization occurs due to several microscopic mechanisms.

Electronic polarization
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Ionic polarization

Orientational polarization
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Space-charge polarization
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3.1 ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION

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Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of positively charged nucleus

and negatively charged electrons of an atom in the opposite directions on the
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application of an electric field. This will result in the creation of dipole moment
in the dielectric.

Dipole moment (μ) is proportional to the electric field strength (E).

μαE
μ=αeE
Where (α e) is proportionality constant and it is known as electronic
polarizability.
Electronic polarization takes place in almost all dielectrics.

Calculation of electronic polarizability

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WITHOUT ELECTRIC FIELD

Consider an atom of a dielectric material of nuclear charge Ze, where Z is the

atomic number. The electrons of charge (-Ze) are distributed uniformly
throughout the atom (sphere) of radius R as shown in fig.

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The centres of the electron cloud and the positive nucleus are at the same point
ee
and hence there is no dipole moment.

Negative charge density of an atom of radius R is given by

ad
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WITH ELECTRIC FIELD

When the atom of the dielectric is placed in an electric field of strength E, two
phenomenons occur.

Lorentz force (due to electric field) will tend to move the nucleus and electron
cloud of that atom from their equilibrium positions. The positive nucleus will
move towards the field direction and the electron cloud will move in the opposite
direction of the field as shown in fig.
After separation, an attractive coulomb force arises between the nucleus and the
electron cloud which will tend to maintain the original equilibrium position.

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The electron cloud and the nucleus move in opposite directions and they
are separated by a distance x, where there is a formation of electric dipole in the
atom.

When these two forces equal and opposite, there will be a new equilibrium
between the nucleus and the electron cloud of the atom.

et
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Lorentz force between the nucleus and the electron FL = charge x electrical
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field
= ZeE ---------(2)
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Coulomb attractive force between the nucleus and the electron cloud being
separated at a distance x,
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Total number of negative charges enclosed

In the sphere of radius x = charge density x volume of the sphere of Radius

x

Total positive charge of an atom present in the sphere of radius x,

Qp = + Ze

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Substituting equation 4 in 3 we have

At equilibrium, Coulomb force and Lorentz must be equal and opposite.

FL = - FC
Substituting for FL and FC from equation 2 and 5 we have

et
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pz
ee
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.p

From the definition of dipole moment, induced dipole moment (μ ind) is given by
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μind = magnitude of charge x displacement

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μind = Ze x
and dipole moment in terms of polarizability,
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μind = αe E -----(7)

Substituting the value of x from 6 in 7 we have

On comparing equation 8 and 9, we have

μind = α e E
Where αe = 4πεo R3 is called electronic polarizability.

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Electronic polarization is independent of temperature.

It is proportional to the volume of atoms in the material.
Electronic polarization takes place in all dielectrics.

3.2IONIC POLARIZATION

Ionic polarization is due to the displacement of catios (+ ve ions) and anions (- ve

ions) in opposite directions. (e.g. NaCl crystal) by the influence of external field.

When an electric field (E) is applied on an ionic dielectric, there is shift

of one ion with

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respect to another from their mean position. The positive ion displace in the

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direction of applied
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electric field through the distance x 1. The negative ions displace in opposite
direction trough the distance x2 as shown in the fig.
ee
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We assume that there is one cation and one anion in each unit cell of that ionic
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crystal.
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Hence, the net distance between two ions

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x = x1 + x2 -------(1)

When the ions are displaced from their mean position in their respective
directions the restoring forces appear which tend to ions back to their mean
position. The restoring force produced is proportional to the displacement.

For positive ion

Restoring1 force F α x
Or restoring force acting on positive ion F = β1x1 ---------(2)
For negative ion
Restoring force F α x2

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Where β1 and β2 are restoring force constants which depend up on the masses of
ions and angular frequency of the molecule in which ions are present.
If m is the mass of positive ion, M is the mass of negative ion and ωo is the
angular
frequency, then

et
.n
pz
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ad
.p
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The dipole moment is equal to the product of charge and distance of separation
between the charges.

Substituting for x from equation 10 in equation 11, we have

et
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pz
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Conclusion
Ionic polarizability () is inversely proportional to the square of angular frequency
of the ionic molecule.
It is directly proportional to its reduced mass given by

It is independent of temperature.

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3.3 OREINTAIONAL POLARIZATION

Orientational polarization takes place only in polar dielectrics. Polar dielectrics

have molecules with permanent dipole moments even in the absence of external
electric field.

When the polar dielectrics are subjected to external electric field, the

et
molecular dipoles are oriented in the direction of electric field.

.n
The contribution to polarization due to orientation of molecular diploes
pz
is called orientational polarization.
ee

Orientational polarization depends upon temperature when the temperature is

increased , thermal energy tends to disturb the alignment.
From the Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism , net intensity of magnetization
ad
.p
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Since the same principle can be applied to the application of electric field in
dielectrics, we may write
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Orientational polarization, Po =

But, orientational polarization is proportional to applied field (E) and it is given

by
Po =o E Nα ----(2)
Comparing equations 1 and 2, we get

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Conclusion

The orientation polarizability is inversely proportional to absolute temperature of

the material.

3.4 SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION

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Space-charge polarization occurs due to accumulation of charges at the electrodes
or at the interfaces of multiphase dielectric material.
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When such materials subjected to an electrical field at high temperature, the
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charges get accumulated as shown in fig. these charges create diploes.
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As a result, polarization is produced. This kind of polarization is known as

space-charge polarization. Space-charge polarization is very small when
compared to other polarization mechanisms and it is not common in most
of the dielectrics.
e.g- ferrites and semiconductors.

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3.5 TOTAL POLARIZATION

α=e +αi+αo
Since the space- charge polarization is very small and it is negligible.

Substituting the corresponding expressions, we have

We know that the total polarization P = N E α

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This equation is known as Langevin –Debye equation
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4 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE DIELECTRICS

The dielectric materials may be classified as solid, liquid and gas
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dielectrics.
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In solid form they may be polymeric such as nylon, pvc, rubber, Bakelite,
asbestos and wool or
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may belong to the ceramic family such as glass, silica, mica, porcelain, etc.
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In liquid form they may be mineral insulating oils, synthetic insulating

oils, tec.

In gaseous form they may be air, nitrogen, sulphur hexafluoride, inert

gases etc.

The dielectrics can also be classified as active and passive dielectrics based
on their applications.

Active Dielectrics

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When dielectric is subjected to external electric field, if the dielectric

actively accept the electricity, then they are termed as active dielectrics. Thus
active dielectrics are the dielectrics which can easily adapt itself to store the
electrical energy in it.
Examples: Piezo-electrics, Ferro-electric etc.,

Passive Dielectrics

These dielectrics are also called insulating materials. As the name itself
suggest that it will act as an insulator, conduction will not take place through this
dielectrics. Thus passive dielectrics are the dielectrics which restricts the flow of
electrical energy in it.

Examples: All insulating materials such as glass, mica, etc.,

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5 FREQUENCY AND TEMPERATURE ON POLARISAION OF
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DIELECTRICS
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When an alternating electric field is applied across the material,

polarization occurs as a function of time.
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Polarization as a function of time t is given by

P (t) = P [1 –e(-t/tr)]
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Where P is maximum polarization that occurs due to the static field

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applied for a long time. tr is relaxation time.

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5.1 FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE

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Electronic polarization is the fastest polarization which will complete at the

instant the field is applied. The reason is that the electrons are lighter elementary
particles than ions.
Therefore even for very high frequency applied (in the optical range) electronic
polarization occurs during every cycle of the applied field.
Ionic polarization is little slower than electronic polarization. Because ions are
heavier than the electron cloud, the time taken for displacement is large. In
addition the frequency of applied field with which the ions will be displaced is
equal to the frequency of lattice vibration (10 13 Hz).
If the frequency of the applied field is less than 10 13 Hz, the ions have enough
time to respond during each cycle of the applied field.
Orientational polarization is even slower than ionic polarization. This type of
polarization occurs only at electrical frequency range (= 106Hz).

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Space-charge polarization is the slowest because have to diffuse over several

atomic distance. This process occurs at very low frequencies (10 2 Hz) as shown
in fig.

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Figure explains the four types of polarization at different frequency ranges. At

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optical frequencies (-1015Hz), electronic polarization alone present. At -1013 Hz

range, ionic polarization occurs in addition to electronic polarization.
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At 106 to 1010 Hz range, contribution due to orientation polarization gets added

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while at 102 Hz range, space-charge polarization also contributes.

It is noted that at low frequencies, all the four types of polarizations occur and
total polarization is very high.
Total polarization decreases with increase in frequency and becomes minimum
at optical frequency range.

5.2TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE

When a dielectric material is subjected to ordinary conditions of increasing

temperature, electronic distribution in n the constituent molecules are not
affected.

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Hence there will be no temperature influence on electronic and ionic polarization

mechanisms. Therefore electronic and ionic polarizations are practically
independent of temperature.

An increase in temperature brings a high degree of randomness in molecular

orientation of the material. This will affect the tendency of permanent dipoles to
align along direction of the field. Hence, orientation polarization decreases with
increase in temperature.

However in space-charge polarization, increase in temperature helps the ion

movement by diffusion. As a result it will increase the polarization.

Thus both the orientational and space-charge polarization mechanisms are

strongly temperature dependent.

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6 INTERNAL FIELD OR LOCAL FIELD
6.1 DEFINITION
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When a dielectric material is placed in an external electric field, it produces an

induced dipole moment.
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Now, two fields are acting at any point inside dielectrics are

Macroscopic electrical field due to external electric field.

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Electrical field due to electric dipole moment.

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These long range coulomb fields produced due to dipoles is known as internal
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field or local field. This internal field is responsible for polarization of each atom
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or molecule in the solid.

6.2 DERIVATION
LORENTZ METHOD TO FIND INTERNAL FIELD
The dielectric material is uniformly polarized by placing it in between two plates
of parallel plate capacitor as shown in figure.
Assume an imaginary spherical cavity around an atom for which the internal field
must be calculated at its centre.
The internal field (E int) at the atom site is considered to be made up of the
following four components. E1, E2, E3 and E4.
E int = E1+ E2+ E3+E4
Where E1 –Electrical field due to charges on the plates of the capacitor

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E2 –Electric field due to polarized charges (induced charges) on the plane surface
of the dielectric.
E3 –Electric field due to polarized charges induced on the surface of the imaginary
spherical cavity.
E4 –Electric field due to permanent dipoles of atoms inside the spherical cavity
considered.

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ee
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Macroscopically we can take E = E1 + E2. i.e., the electrical field externally

applied (E1) and the electrical field induced on the plane surface of the dielectric
(E2) can be considered as a single electrical field.
If we consider a dielectric that is highly symmetric, the electrical field due to
dipoles present inside the imaginary cavity will cancel out of each other.
Therefore the electrical field due to permanent dipoles E4 = 0
Now, the equation (1) is rewritten as

E int = E +E3

Calculation of E3

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Let us consider small area ds on the surface of the spherical cavity. It is

confined within an angle dθ at the angle θ in an direction of electric field

Polarization P is parallel to E. PN is the component of polarization

perpendicular to the area ds as shown in the figure.
PN = Pcosθ

q’ is the area chargeds. Polarizationonisal so the defined as the surface charges

per unit area. q' / ds

PN = Pcosθ = (q' / ds)

Electric field intensity at C due to charge q’ (Coulomb force) is given by

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This electrical field intensity is along the radius r and it can be resolved in to two
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components (Ex and Ey) as shown in figure.

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The component of intensity parallel to the electrical field direction,
Ex = E cosθ
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Substituting for E from equation 4 in 5, we have

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The component of intensity perpendicular to the field direction,

Ex = E sinθ

Since the perpendicular components are in opposite directions, they

cancel out each other. Hence, the parallel components alone are taken onto
consideration.

Now, consider a ring area dA which is obtained by revolving ds about AB as

shown in fig(b)

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Electric field intensity due to charges present in the whole sphere is obtained by
integrating equation 9 within the limits 0 to π. This electrical field is taken as E3.
ad
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Substituting equation 10 in equation 2, we get

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E int is the internal field or Lorentz field.

6.3 CLAUSIUS – MOSOTI EQUATION

Let N be the number of molecules per unit volume and α be the molecular
polarizability.
Then
Total polarization, P = N α Eint

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Where εr is dielectric constant.

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Equation 5 is Clausius- Mosotti relation which relates the dielectric constant (a

macroscopic quantity) of the material with polarizability (a microscopic
quantity).

7 DIELECTRICS AND LOSS TANGENT

If a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, the electrical energy is absorbed by

the dielectric and certain quantity of electrical energy is dissipated in the form of
heat energy. This is known as dielectric loss.

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The dielectric loss can occur both in direct and alternating voltages. The dielectric
loss is less in direct voltage than that of the alternating voltage.

7.1LOSS IN PURIFIED GAS

If an alternating voltage is applied across the capacitor having vacuum or purified

gas then the resulting current leads the applied voltage by 90°, as shown in figure.
If I lead V exactly by 90° we can say that no electrical energy is lost.

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Explanation
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We know the power loss PL = VI cosθ
When θ=90°;L P
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7.2LOSS IN COMMERCIAL DIELECTRIC

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Now, when a practical dielectric is present in the current leads the voltage by (90-
δ), the shows that there is some loss in electric energy and δ is called loss angle,
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as shown in fig.
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Explanation
In this case the power loss PL = VIcosθ

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Since- δθ=90; we L = VIcos have(90- δ)P

PL = VI sin δ ------(1)
We know V = IR
I=V/R
If the capacitive resistance is Xc then we can write,
I = V / Xc (2)
Substituting equation 2 in 1, we get

7.3 POWER LOSS

Here tan δ is called the power factor of the dielectric. If f, C, V are constants then
PL ∞ tan δ
Naturally the power loss varies with frequency. The power loss at various
frequency ranges is shown in fig.

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In the electrical frequency regions the power is high, due to the diffusion of ions
from one equilibrium position to another.
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In the optical region the power loss is less because here the dielectric loss is
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associated with electrons

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8 DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

When a dielectric is placed in an electric field and if the electric field is

increased, when the field exceeds the critical field, the dielectric loses its
insulating property and becomes conducting. i.e., large amount of current flows
through it. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.

The electric field strength at which the dielectric breakdown occurs is known as
dielectric
The dielectric strength = strength. Dielectric voltage / Thickness of dielectric

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8.1TYPES OF DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

Intrinsic or avalanche breakdown

Thermal breakdown

Chemical and electrochemical breakdown

Discharge breakdown

Defect breakdown

INTRINSIC BREAKDOWN

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When dielectric is subjected to electric field then the electrons in the valance band
acquire sufficient energy and go to conduction band by crossing the energy gap
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and hence become conduction electrons. Therefore large current flows and it is
called intrinsic breakdown or zener breakdown.
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AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN

These conduction electrons on further application of field then collide with

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the valance electrons in the co-valent band and remove more electrons hence
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transferring them as conduction electrons.

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These secondary conduction electrons again dislodge some other bound

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electrons in the valance band and this process continues as a chain reaction.
Therefore very large current flows through the dielectrics and hence called as
avalanche breakdown.

Characteristics
It can occur at lower temperatures.

It requires relatively large electric fields.

This kind of breakdown occurs in thin samples.

It occurs within short span of time

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THERMAL BREAKDOWN

In general, when a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, heat is

generated. This generated heat is dissipated by the dielectric. In some cases the
heat generated will be very high compared to the heat dissipated. Under this
condition the temperature inside the dielectric increases and heat may produce
breakdown. This type of breakdown known as thermal breakdown.

Characteristics
It occurs at higher temperatures.

It requires moderate electric fields.

It depends on the size and shape of the dielectric material.

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It occurs in the order of milliseconds.

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CHEMICAL AND ELECTROCHEMICAL BREAKDOWN
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This type of breakdown is almost similar to the thermal breakdown. If the
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temperature is increased mobility of ions will increase and hence the

electrochemical reaction may be induced to take place.
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Therefore when mobility of ions increased, insulation decreases and hence

dielectrics becomes conducting. This type of breakdown is called as chemical and
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electrochemical breakdown.
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Characteristics
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It occurs only at low temperatures.

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It depends on concentration of ions, magnitude of leakage current.

It occurs even in the absence of electric field.

DISCHARGE BREAKDOWN

Discharge breakdown occurs when a dielectric contains occluded air bubbles as

shown in fig. when this type of dielectric subjected to electrical field, the gases
present inside the material will easily ionize and thus produce large ionization
current. This is known as discharge breakdown.

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Characteristics
It occurs at low voltages.

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It occurs due to the presence of occluded air bubbles.

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It depends upon the frequency of the applied voltage.
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DEFECT BREAKDOWN
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Some dielectric have defects such as cracks, pores, blow holes etc. these
vacant position may have moisture which leads to breakdown called as defect
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breakdown.
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8.2 REMEDIES FOR BREAKDOWN MECHANISMS

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To avoid breakdown, the dielectric material should have the following properties.

It should have high resistivity.

It must possess high dielectric strength.

It should have sufficient mechanical strength.

Dielectric loss should be low.

Thermal expansion should small.

It should be fire proof.

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It should resistive to oils, liquids and gases.

It must have less density.

There should not be any defects.

It must be in pure form.

9 GENERAL APPLICATIONS

The following are the some of the applications of the dielectric materials:

2. Quartz crystal is used for the preparation of ultrasonic transducers, crystal

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oscillators, delay lines, filters etc.

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3. Barium Titanate is used for the preparation of accelerometers.
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4. Lead Zirconate Titanate (PbZrx Ti1-x O3) is used for the preparation of
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earphones, microphones, spark generators (gas lighter, car ignition),

displacement transducer, accelerometers etc.
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5. Mica is used in electrical machines, switch gears, armature winding, hot

plates etc.
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6. Dielectric materials are used as an insulating material in power cables, signal

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cables, electric motors, circuit breakers etc.

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7. In radiation detectors, thermionic valves and electric devices, the dielectric

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materials are used.

8. The pyroelectric materials are used as radiation detector.

9. The dielectric materials are used in strain gauges, capacitors and resistors.

10. The electro-optic devices are prepared using dielectric material.

10 APPLICATIONS OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

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Almost all electrical devices depend on insulating material in some way or

other. Insulating materials are used in power and distribution transformers,
rotating machines, capacitors, cables, and electronic applications.

10.1 DIELECTRICS IN CAPACITORS

For dielectrics used in capacitors, it should possess the following properties.

It must have high dielectric constant.

It should possess high dielectric strength.

It should have high specific resistance.

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It should also have low dielectric loss.

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Uses
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Thin sheets of papers filled with synthetic oils are used as dielectrics in the
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capacitors.
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Tissue papers and polypropylene films with dielectrol are used in power
capacitors.
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Mica used as dielectrics in discrete capacitor.

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An electrolytic solution of sodium phosphate is used in wet type electrolytic

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capacitors.
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Ceramic materials such as barium titanate and calcium titanate are used in disc
capacitors and high frequency capacitors respectively.

10.2 INSULATING MATERIALS IN TRANSFORMERS

For dielectrics to act as insulating materials, it should possess the following

properties.

It should have low dielectric resistant.

It should possess low dielectric loss.

It must have high resistance.

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It must possess high dielectric strength.

It must have high moisture resistance.

It should have adequate chemical stability.

Uses
Ceramics and polymers are used as insulators.

Paper, rubber, plastics, waxes etc are used to form thin films, sheets, tapes, rods,
etc. PVC, is used to manufacture pipes, batteries, cables etc.

Glass, mica, asbestos, alumina are used in ceramics.

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Liquid dielectrics such as petroleum oils, silicone oils are widely used in

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transformers, circuit breakers, etc.
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Synthetic oils such as askarels, sovol, etc are used as coolent and insulant in high
voltage transformers.
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11 FERRO-ELECTRICITY AND APPLICATIONS

Ferro –electricity
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When a dielectric material exhibits electric polarization even in the absence

of external field, it is known as ferro-electricty and these materials termed as
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ferro-electric.
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11.1 FERRO-ELECTRICS

Ferro-electrics are anisotropic crystals which exhibit spontaneous polarization,

i.e. they exhibit polarization even in the absence of external electric field.

Examples

Rochelle salt,

Potassium niobate,

Lithium tentalate,

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Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate,

Potassium dihydrogen phosphate,

Barium titanate.

11.2 PROPERTIES

The dielectric constant of these ferro-electric materials is above 2000 and it will
not vary with respect temperature.

The dielectric constant(ε) reaches maximum value only at a particular

temperature called Curie temperature.

The polarization does not varies linearly with respect to electric field and hence

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these materials are also called as non-linear dielectrics.

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Ferro-electric exhibits electric polarization easily, even in the absence of external
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electric field. They exhibit domain structure similar to that of a Ferro-electric
material.
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Ferro-electric materials also exhibit hysteresis, similar to that of ferromagnetic

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materials.
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11.3 APPLICATIONS
Ferro-electric materials are used to produce ultasonics

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They are used in production of piezo-electric materials and in turn to make micro
phones. Ferro-electrics are also used in SONAR, strain gauges, etc.

Ferro-electric semiconductors are used to make positors, which is turn are used
to measure and control the temperature.
They are also used as frequency stabilizers and crystal controlled oscillators.

Electrets are a type of ferro-electric materials, used in the production of capacitor

microphones, gas filters, etc.

Electrets are also used to bond the fractured bones in the human body. Pyro-
electric materials are also used to produce high sensitive infrared detectors.

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Magnetic Materials

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1 Introduction
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1.1 Basic Definitions
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2 Origin of Magnetic Moments

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3 Classification of Magnetic Materials

3.1 Diamagnetic materials
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3.2 Paramagnetic Materials

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3.3 Ferromagnetic materials

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3.4 Dia, Para and Ferro magnetic materials – Comparison

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4 Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism

4.1 Energies involved in the domain growth (or) Origin of Domain theory of
Ferromagnetism
5 Antiferromagnetic Materials
6 Ferrimagnetic Materials
7 Hysteresis
7.1 Explanation of hysteresis on the basis of Domains
8 Hard and Soft Magentic Material
8.1 Hard Magnetic Materials
8.2 Soft Magnetic Materials

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8.3 Difference between Hard and Soft magnetic materials

9 Ferrites
9.1 Properties
9.2 Structures of Ferrites
9.3 Regular spinal
9.4 Inverse spinal
9.5 Types of interaction present in the ferrites
9.6 Properties of ferromagnetic materials
9.7 Application of Ferrites
10 Magnetic Recording and Readout Memory

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10.1 Magnetic parameters for Recording

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10.2 Storage of Magnetic Data pz
10.3 Magnetic Tape
10.4 Magnetic Disc Drivers
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10.5 Floppy Disk

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10.6 Magnetic bubble Materials

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1 INTRODUCTION
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The materials which can be made to behave like a magnet and which are
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easily magnetic field called as a magnetic materials.

1.1 Basic Definitions

1. Magnetic Dipole Moment (M)

The dipole moment is defined as the product of magnetic pole strength and
length of the magnet. It is given by M = ml. Amp m2.

2. Magnetic Field

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The space around which the magnetic lines of forces exist is called as
magnetic field. Magnetic field is produced by permanent magnets such as a horse
shoe magnet and temporarily by elelctromagnets (or) superconducting magnets.

3. Magnetic Lines of Force

The continuous curve in a magnetic field that exists from north pole to south pole
is called as magnetic lines of force.

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Fig. 3.1 Magnetic lines of force
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4. Magnetic Induction (B) (or) Magnetic Flux Density

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It is the number of magnetic lines of force passing through unit area of cross
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section.
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5. Magnetic Field Strength (or) Magnetizing Field (H)

It is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at a given point in a

magnetic field. The magnetic induction B due to the magnetic field of intensity
H applied
in vacuum is related by B =μ 0H Amp m–1.

6. Magnetic Flux (ϕ )

The total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a surface.

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Unit : Weber. pz
7. Intensity of Magnetization (I)
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Magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material in to a

magnetic material.
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It is also defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. I = m / V web m–

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2
.
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8. Magnetic Permeability (μ )

It is ratio of the magnetic induction (B) to the applied magnetic field

intensity (H). μ= B / H

Unit: Henry m–1

It is the measure of ability of the material to permit magnetic lines of force.

9. Relative Permeability ( μr)

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It is defined as the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability

of the free space

10. Magnetic Susceptibility χ

It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization (I) and intensity of

magnetic field (H). χ= I / H.

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The sign and magnitude of χ are used to determine the nature of the magnetic
materials.

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11. Bohr Magnetron ( μB)
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The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron
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in an atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called

as Bohr magnetron.
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12. Relation between susceptibility (χ ) and Relative permeability ( μr)

We know that when a current is supplied through a coil, magnetic field is

developed. When a magnetic material is placed inside a external magnetic field,
the magnetic flux density (B) arises due to applied magnetic field (H) and also
due to the induced magnetization (I).

i.e., the total flux density,

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13. Retentivity or Remanence
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When an external field is applied to the specimen it is magnetized and when

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the field is removed it is demagnetized. But some materials do not completely

demagnetize when field is removed. There is some magnetism left out in the
specimen. “This residual magnetism which is left out even after the removal of
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the external magnetic field” is called as the Retentivity or Remanence.

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14. Coercivity
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The residual magnetism can be removed completely from the material by

applying a reverse magnetic field. “The reverse magnetic field which is used to
completely remove the residual magnetism” is called as the coercivity.

2 ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENTS

The macroscopic magnetic properties of a substance are a consequence of

magnetic moments associated with individual electrons. Each electron in an atom
has magnetic moments that originate from the following two sources

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Orbital magnetic moment of electrons

Spin magnetic moment of electrons.

Magnetic moments associated with an orbiting electron and a spinning electron

is shown in Fig.3.3 (a and b).

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We know that the electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in

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different orbits. Basically, there are three contributions for the magnetic dipole
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moment of an atom.
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The orbital motion of electrons (the motion of electrons in the closed orbits
around the nucleus). It is called as orbital magnetic moment. Its magnitude is
always small. Spin motion of the electrons (i.e. due to electron spin angular
momentum) and it is called as spin magnetic moment.

The contribution from the nuclear spin (i.e., due to nuclear spin angular
momentum). Since this is nearly 103 times smaller than that of electron spin, it is
not taken into consideration.

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For all practical purposes, we assume that the magnetic moment arises due
to the electron spin ignoring the orbital magnetic moments and the nuclear
magnetic moments as their magnitudes are small.

We may note that permanent magnetic moments can also arise from spin
magnetic moments of the nucleus. Of all the three, the spin dipole moments of
electrons are important in most magnetic materials.

1. Orbital angular momentum

This corresponds to permanent magnetic dipole moments. Let us consider

an electron describing a circular orbit of radius ‘r’ with a stationary nucleus at the

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centre as shown in Fig 3.3.(a). Let the electron rotate with a constant angular
velocity of ‘w’ radians per second.

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Electron revolving in any orbit may be considered as current carrying circular
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coil producing magnetic field perpendicular to its plane. Thus the electronic orbits
are associated with a magnetic moment. The orbital magnetic moment of an
electron in an atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment
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called Bohr Magnetron, defined as

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2. Electron spin magnetic moment

The concept of the electron having an angular momentum has been

introduced in order to explain the details of atomic spectra. This angular
momentum of the electron is referred to as the spin of the electron. Since the e- has
a charge, its spin produces a magnetic dipole moment.

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According to quantum theory, the spin angular momentum along a given

direction is

In a many electron atom, the individual spin magnetic moments are added
in accordance with certain rules. Completely filled shells contribute nothing to

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the resultant spin moment.

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3. Nuclear magnetic moment
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The angular momentum associated with the nuclear spin is also measured in
units of h/2π . The mass of the nucleus is larger than that of an e - by the order of
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103. Hence nuclear spin magnetic moment is of the order of 10 –3 Bohr

magnetrons.
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3 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

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The magnetic materials are classified into two categories:

The materials without permanent magnetic moment Example: 1.

Diamagnetic materials.

The materials with permanent magnetic moment. Example: 1.

Paramagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic materials

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Anti-Ferromagnetic materials

Ferrimagnetic materials.

3.1 Diamagnetic materials

Definition
In a diamagnetic material the electron orbits are randomly oriented and the
orbital magnetic moments get cancelled. Similarly, all the spin moments are
paired i.e., having even number of electrons. Therefore, the electrons are
spinning in two opposite directions and hence the net magnetic moment is zero.

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Effect of magnetic field pz
When an external magnetic field is applied, the electrons re-orient and align
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perpendicular to the applied field, i.e., their magnetic moment opposes the
external magnetic field.
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w
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Fig. 3.4 Effect of magnetic field in Diamagnetic material

In the above diagram, there is no penetration of magnetic lines through the

diamagnetic material.

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Properties

They repel the magnetic lines of force, if placed in a magnetic field as

shown in figure (3.4).

The susceptibility is negative and it is independent to temperature and

applied field strength. (X= –ve)

The permeability is less than one

There is no permanent dipole moment.

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.n
When the temperature is greater than the critical temperature diamagnetic
pz
becomes normal material.
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It has superconducting property.

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Examples : Gold, germanium, silicon, antimony, bismuth, silver, lead,

.p

copper, hydrogen, Water and alcohol.

w
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3.2 Paramagnetic Materials

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Definition
Para magnetism is due to the presence of few unpaired electrons which gives
rise to the spin magnetic moment. In the absence of external magnetic field, the
magnetic moments (dipoles) are randomly oriented and possess very less
magnetization in it.

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Fig.3.5 Paramagnetic Material

Effect of magnetic field

When an external magnetic field is applied to paramagnetic material, the

magnetic moments align themselves along the field direction and the material is
said to be magnetized. This effect is known as paramagnetism.

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Fig. 3.6 Effect of magnetic field in paramagnetic material

.n
pz
Thermal agitation disturbs the alignment of the magnetic moments with an
increase in temperature, the increase in thermal agitation tends to randomize the
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dipole direction thus leading to decrease in magnetization.
This implies that the paramagnetic susceptibility decreases with increase in
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temperature. It is observed that the paramagnetic susceptibility varies inversely

with temperature.
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There is a permanent magnetic moment.

When the temperature is less than the Curie temperature, paramagnetic

materials become diamagnetic materials.

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It spin alignment is random in nature.

Examples : Platinum, CuSO 4 , MnSO4 , Aluminum, etc

3.3 Ferromagnetic materials

Definition

Ferromagnetism is due to the presence of more unpaired electrons. Even in the

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absence of external field, the magnetic moments align parallel to each other.
So that it has large magnetism. This is called spontaneous magnetization.

.n
pz
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Fig. 3.7 Ferromagnetic materials

.p

Effect of magnetic field

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If a small external magnetic field is applied the magnetic moments align in the
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field direction and become very strong magnets.

Fig.3.8 Effect of magnetic field in ferromagnetic material

Properties of ferromagnetic materials

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1. All the magnetic lines of force pass through the material.

The permeability is very much greater than one.

They have enormous permanent dipole moment.

When the temperature is greater than the Curie temperature, the

Ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic material.

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The ferromagnetic material has equal magnitude dipole lying parallel to

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each other.
pz
Examples: Nickel, iron, Cobalt, Steel, etc.
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(Curie temperature - The temperature below which a material can acts as

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ferromagnetic material and above which it can acts as paramagnetic material is

called Curie temperature.)
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3.4 Dia, Para and Ferro magnetic materials – Comparison

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4 DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

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This theory was proposed by Weiss in 1907. It explains the hysteresis and
the properties of ferromagnetic materials.

Magnetic Domains

A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small region is

called domains. (0.1 to 1 of area), each direction is spontaneously magnetized.
The direction of magnetization varies from domain to domain and the net
magnetization is zero, in the absence external magnetic field. The boundary line
which separates two domains is called domain wall or Block wall. When the
magnetic field is applied to the Ferromagnetic material, the magnetization is

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produced by two ways.

By the motion of domain walls.

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pz
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By the rotation of domains.

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Process of Domain magnetization

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There are two ways to align a random domain structure by applying an

external magnetic field.
w
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1. By the motion of Domain walls

When a small amount of magnetic field is applied, the domains having

dipoles parallel to the applied magnetic field increases in area by the motion of
domain walls. (Fig. 3.9 (2)).

2. By the rotation of Domains

If the applied magnetic field is further increased, the domains are rotated parallel
to the field direction by the rotation of domains. (fig. 3.9 (3)).

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Fig. 3.9 Domin theory of ferromagnetism

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Energies involved in the domain growth (or) Origin of Domain
theory of Ferromagnetism
pz
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We can understand the origin of domains from the thermodynamic principle

i.e., in equilibrium, the total energy of the system is minimum.
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The total internal energy of the domain structure in a ferromagnetic material

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is made up from the following contributions.

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w

Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy.

w

Crystalline energy (or) Anisotropy energy.

Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy.

Magnetostriction energy

Exchange energy (or) Magnetic Field energy

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“The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves”
is the calledexchange energy (or) magnetic field energy.

The interaction energy makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves. It arises from
interaction of electron spins. It depends upon the inter atomic distance. This
exchange energy also called magnetic field energy is the energy required in
assembling the atomic magnets into a single domain and this work done is stored
as potential energy. The size of the domains for a particular domain structure may
be obtained from the principle of minimum energy. The volume of the domain
may very between say, say, 10–2 to 10–6 cm3.

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pz
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.p

Fig. 3.10 Exchange energy in ferromagnetism

w
w

2. Anisotropy energy
w

The excess energy required to magnetize a specimen in particular direction

over that required to magnetize it along the easy direction is called the crystalline
anisotropy

energy.

In ferromagnetic materials there are two types of directions of magnetization

namely,

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Easy direction and

hard directions.

In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard

direction of magnetization, strong field should be applied.

Crystalline anisotropy energy is energy of magnetization which is the function of

crystal orientation. As shown in figure magnetization curves for iron with the
applied field along different crystallographic direction crystallographic directions
have been drawn. For example, in BCC iron the easy direction is [100], the
medium direction is [110], and the hard direction [111]. The energy difference

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between hard and easy direction to magnetize the material is about. This energy

.n
is very important in determining the characteristic domain boundaries.
pz
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w
w
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Fig. 3.11 Anisotropy energy in ferromagnetism

3. Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy

A thin boundary or region that separates adjacent domains magnetized in different

directions is called domain wall or Bloch wall.

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Fig. 3.12 The change of electron spin in the transition region of

Bloch wall

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.n
The size of the Bloch walls is about 200 to 300 lattice constant thickness. In
going from one domain to another domain, the electron spin changes gradually
pz
as shown in figure. The energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy
and anisotropic energy.
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Based on the spin alignments, two types of Bloch walls may arise, namely
.p

Thick wall: When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction of
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the spin changes gradually as shown figure, it leads to a thick Bloch wall. Here
the misalignments of spins are associated with exchange energy.
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Fig. 3.13 The change of electron spin in the transition region of

thick wall

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Thin wall: When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then
the anisotropic energy becomes very less. Since the anisotropic energy is directly
proportional to the thickness of the wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.

Fig.3.14 The change of electron spin in the transition region of thin

wall
4. Magnetostriction energy

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When a material is magnetized, it is found that it suffers a change in

.n
dimensions. This phenomenon is known as Magnetostriction. This deformation
is different along different crystal directions. So if the domains are magnetized in
pz
different directions, they will either expand or shrink. This means that work must
be done against the elastic restoring forces. The work done by the magnetic field
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against these elastic restoring forces is called magneto-elastic energy or

Magnetostrictive energy.
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5 ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
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Definition
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In this material, the spins are aligned in anti-parallel manner due to

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unfavorable exchange interaction among them, resulting in zero magnetic

moment. Even when the magnetic field is increased, it has almost zero induced
magnetic moment.

Fig. 3.15 Spin alignment of antiferromagnetic materials

Properties

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1. It susceptibility is very small and it is positive.

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Examples : Ferrous oxide, Fe Cl4 ,Mn O4 ,MnS and some ionic compounds etc.

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6 FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS
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Definition
Ferrimagnetic materials or Ferrites are much similar to Ferromagnetic
.p

materials. The magnetic dipoles are aligned anti-parallel with unequal

magnitudes. If small value of magnetic field is applied, it will produce the
w

large value of magnetization.

w
w

Ferrimagnetic materials are widely used in high frequency applications and

computer memories.

Fig. 3.16 Spin alignment of Ferrimagnetic materials

Properties

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These materials have low eddy current loss and low hysteresis losses.

Examples: Ferrous Ferrites and Nickel Ferrites

7 HYSTERESIS

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Hysteresis means “Lagging” i.e., The Lagging of intensity of magnetization

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(I) behind the intensity of magnetic field (H).
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Experimental Determination
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A graph is drawn between the intensity of magnetization [I] and the intensity of
magnetic field [H], for a cycle of magnetization. The experimental setup
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consists of solenoid coil through which current is passed and the material is
magnetized. By varying the value of current we can get different values of
w

Intensity of magnetization [I] due to the magnetic field (H) in the solenoid.
w
w

When the intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ is increased from O to F, the value of
Intensity of magnetization T if also increases from O to A, at ‘A’ the material
reaches the saturation value of Intensity of magnetization.

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Then the value of I is constant.

When intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ is decreased from G to O, the value of

Intensity of magnetization ‘I’ also decreases from A to B, but not to zero (0).
Now the material retains [stores] some amount of magnetism known
as Retentivity, even though the intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ is zero. It
is represented as ‘OB’ in the graph.
When intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ is increased in reverse direction from
O to C, the value of Intensity of magnetization ‘I’ decreases from B to C. i.e.,
the value of ‘I’ reaches zero.

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w
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Fig.3.17 Hysteresis curve

The amount of intensity of magnetic field ‘H’ applied in the reverse

direction to remove theretentivity is known as Coercivity or Coercive
force. It is represented as ‘OC’ in the graph.

Further repeating the process the remaining portion [CDEFA] in the graph
is obtained. The closed loop [OABCDEFA] is called Hysteresis loop (or)
(I – H) curve. For one cycle of magnetization.

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Now the material is taken out. After a cycle of magnetization, there is

some expenditure (loss) of energy.

This loss of energy is radiated in the form of heat energy in the material.

This loss of energy is directly proportional to the area of the loop.

From the Hysteresis graph, we can select soft and hard magnetic
materials depending upon the purpose.

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Energy product

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pz
It is the product of residual magnetism Br and coercivity which HC gives the
maximum amount of energy stored in the specimen.
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Energy product = Br × HC
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Hysteresis loss
w
w

When the specimen is taken through a cycle of magnetization. There is a

w

loss of energy in the form of heat. This loss of energy is known as Hysteresis loss.

7.1 Explanation of hysteresis on the basis of Domains

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Fig.3.18 Hysteresis curve on the basis domain theory

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OA - Due to smaller reversible domains wall movement.

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AB - Due to larger irreversible domain wall movement.
pz
BS - Due to smaller irreversible domain rotation.
S - Point of saturation.
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When a field is applied, for small H, the domain walls are displaced and gives
rise to small value of magnetization. [OA in the graph]. Now, the field is removed,
the domains return to its original state known as reversible domains.
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When the field is increases, a large number of domains contribute to the

w

magnetization and I increases rapidly with H.

w
w

Now, when the field is removed the domain boundaries do not come back to the
original position due to the domain wall movement to a very large distance (AB
in the graph). These domains are called irreversible domains.

Now if the field is further increased, domains start rotating along the field
direction and anisotropic energy is stored and it is represented as BC in the graph.

Thus the specimen is said to attain maximum magnetization at this position even
after the removal of the field. The material is having magnetism called
Retentivity. This Retentivity can be destroyed by applying a high reverse
magnetic field called coercivity.

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Thus the reversible and irreversible domain wall movements give rise to
hysteresis in the Ferromagnetic materials.

8 HARD AND SOFT MAGENTIC MATERIAL

In Hysteresis, after a cycle of magnetization, there is some expenditure (loss)

of energy. This loss of energy is radiated in the form of heat energy in the material
and it is directly proportional to the area of the loop. From the Hysteresis graph,
we can select the soft and hard magnetic materials.

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8.1 Hard Magnetic Materials

.n
The materials which are very difficult to magnetize and demagnetize are
pz
called hard magnetic materials. These materials can be made by heating
the magnetic materials and then cooling itsuddenly. It can also be prepared by
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adding impurities.
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w
w
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Fig.3.19 Hysteresis loop of a hard magnetic material

The above hysteresis loop is very hard and has a large loop area for a hard
magnetic material, therefore the loss is also large. Domain wall does not move
easily and require large value of H for magnetization. Its coercivity and retentivity
values are large. Its eddy current loss is also high due to its low resistivity, the
magnetostatic energy is large. It has low susceptibility and permeability. The hard
magnetic materials have large amount of impurities and lattice defects.

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Examples : Tungsten steel, Carbon steel, Chromium steel, Alnico etc.,

Properties

It is easilly magnetised and demagnetised.

They hysteresis area is very small and hence, the hysteresis loss is also
small, as shown in figure.

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The coercivity and rentenivity are very small.

.n
These materials have large values of susceptibility and permeabilty.
pz
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Their magnetostatic energy is very small.

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The eddy current loss is very small.

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Applications
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Iron-Silicon alloys are used in electrical equipment and magnetic cores of

transformes.

Cast iron is used in the structure of electical machinery and the frame
work of D.C machine.

Nickel alloys are used to manufacture inductors, relays and small motors.

It is also used for computer and data storage devices.

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8.2 Soft Magnetic Materials

The materials which are easily magnetized and demagnetized are called soft
magnetic materials.These materials can be made by heating the
magnetic materials and then cooling it slowly to attain an ordered structure of
atoms.

et
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pz
Fig.3.20 Hysteresis loop of a soft magnetic material
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The above hysteresis loop is very small and has a less loop area for a soft
magnetic materials. Therefore the loss is also small. Domain wall move easily
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and require small value of H for magnetization. Its coercivity and retentivity
values are small, its eddy current loss is small due to its high resistivity. The
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magnetostatic energy is less, it has high value of susceptibility and permeability.

The soft magnetic materials do not have impurities and lattice defects.
w
w

Examples: Iron-Silicon alloys, Nickel-Iron alloys and Iron-cobalt alloys.

w

Properties

It is very hard to magnetize and also demagnetize.

The hysteresis cure is very broad and has a large as shown in figure.

The coercivity and retentivity values are large.

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These materials have low value of susceptibility and permeability.

The magnetostatic energy is large.

The eddy current loss is very high.

Applications

Magnets made by carbon steel are used for manufacturing the toys and
compass needle.

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Tungsten steel is used in making permanent magnets for D.C motors.

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pz
It is also used for making a small size of magnets.
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8.3 Difference between Hard and Soft magnetic materials

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Hard Magnetic Materials

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1. Cannot be easily magnetized

w

2. It can be produced by heating and sudden cooling

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3. Domain wall does not move easily and require large value of H for
magnetization.
4. Hysteresis loop area is large Susceptibility and Permeability values are small.
5. Retentivity and Coercivity are large
6. High eddy current loss
7. Impurities and defects will be more
8. Examples: Alnico, Chromium steel, tungsten steel, carbon steel.
9. Uses: Permanent magnets, DC magnets.

Soft Magnetic Materials

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1. Can be easily magnetized.

2. It can be produced by heating and slow cooling.
3. Domain wall move easily and requires small value of H for magnetization.
4. Hysteresis loop area is small Susceptibility and Permeability values are high.
5. Retentivity and Coercivity are small.
6. Low eddy current loss
7. No impurities and defects
8. Examples: Iron-silicon alloy, Ferrous nickel alloy, Ferrites Garnets.
9. Uses: Electro magnets, computer data storage. Transformer core.

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9 FERRITES

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Definition
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Ferrites or Ferrimagnetic materials are the modified structure of iron without

carbon. In Ferities the spins of adjacent ion is the presence of a magnetic field
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are in opposite directions with different magnitudes.

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9.1 Properties
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These are made from ceramic ferromagnetic compounds.

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It has low tensile strength and it is brittle and soft.

In these materials all valence electrons are tied up by ionic bonding.

These are bad conductors with high resistivity of the order of 1011 m

Ferrites have low eddy current loss and low hysteresis loss.

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The general formula for Ferrites is X²+ (Fe2)3+ O4 where X-may is a

metal (divalent metal) such as Mg, Ni, Mn, Zn, etc.

Ferrites are manufactured by powder metallurgical process by mixing,

compacting and then sintering at high temperatures followed by age
hardening in magnetic fields.

9.2 Structures of Ferrites

Ferrites are the magnetic compounds consisting to two or more different kinds of
atoms. Generally ferrites are expressed as X²+ (Fe2)3+ O 4 where X²+ stands for
suitable divalent metals ions such etc Mg2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+ etc.
Normally, there are two types of structures present in the ferrites

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1. Regular spinel 2. Inverse spinel

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pz
9.3 Regular spinal
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In the regular spinal type, each metal atom (divalent) is surrounded by

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fourions in a tetragonal fashion.

.p

For example in Mg2+, Fe23+, O42+, the structure of Mg2+is given in the Fig. 3.21
w

and it is called “A’ site. Totally in a unit cell, there will be 8 tetrahedral (8A) sites.
w
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Each Fe3+ (trivalent) is surrounded by ‘6’ O2 ions and forms an octahedral

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fashion as show in Fig.3.20. Totally there will be 16 such octahedral sites in the
unit cell. This in indicated by ‘B’ site.
w
w
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Thus in a regular spinal, each divalent metal ion (mg2+) exists in a tetrahedral
form (A site) and each trivalent metal ion (Fe2+) exists in an octahedral form (B
site). Hence, the sites A and B combine together to form a regular spinal ferrite
structure as shown in Fig.3.21.

9.4 Inverse spinal

In this type, we consider the arrangement of dipoles of a single ferrous ferrite

molecule Fe3+ [Fe2+Fe3+] O42– Fe3+ , ions (trivalent) occupies all A sites
(tetrahedral) and half of the B sites (octahedral) also.

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Thus the left out B sites will be occupied by the divalent (Fe2+). The inverse spinal
structure is shown in the Fig. 3.22.

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Fig.3.22 Structure of ferrites (inverse Spinal)
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9.5 Types of interaction present in the ferrites

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The spin arrangement between the A site B site is in an ant parallel manner
and it was explained by Neel. According to him, in ferrites, the spin arrangement
w

is ant parallel and there exists some interaction between the A and B sites which
w

is represented as AB interaction.
w

Apart from this, there are two more interactions (i.e.,) AA and BB interaction
which is negative and considerable weaker than AB interaction.
The tendency of AB interaction is to align all A spins parallel to each other
and anti parallel to all B spins, but the tendency of AA and BB interaction is to
spoil the parallel arrangement of AB spins respectively.

Since AB is very strong as compared with AA and BB, the effect of AB

interaction dominates and gives rise to anti parallel spin arrangement.

9.6 Properties of ferromagnetic materials

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Ferromagnetic materials posses’ net magnetic moment.

Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic while it behaves

as ferromagnetic material below Curie temperature.

The susceptibility of Ferrimagnetic material is very large and positive.

It is temperature dependent and is given by

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Beyond Neel temperature,decreases.

.n
Spin alignment is anti parallel of different magnitudes.
pz
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Mechanically, it has pure ion character.

ad

They have high permeability and high resistivity.

.p

They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis.

w
w

9.7 Application of Ferrites

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Ferrites are used to produce ultrasonic wave by Magnetostriction

principle.

Ferrites are used in audio and video transformers.

Ferrites rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity.

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Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal microwave devices such as

gyrator, circulator and Isolator.
Gyrator : It transmits the power freely in both directions with a phase shift of
radians.
Circulator : It provides sequential transmission of power between the ports.
Isolator : It is used to display differential attenuation.
They are also used for power limiting and harmonic generation.

Ferrites are used in parametric amplifiers so that the input can be

amplified with low noise.

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They are used in computers and data processing circuits.

.n
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Bi-stable elements, Ferro cube (Ferrite with square hysteresis loop),
magnetic shift register, and magnetic bubbles are also examples for
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Ferrites.
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10 MAGNETIC RECORDING AND READOUT MEMORY

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Nowadays, large number of information are stored in (or) retrieved from the
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storage devices, by using devices is magnetic recording heads and they function
w

according to the principle of magnetic induction.

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Generally Ferro or Ferrimagnetic materials are used in the storage devices

because in this type of materials only the magnetic interaction between only two
dipoles align themselves parallel to each other.

Due to this parallel alignment even if we apply small amount of magnetic

field, a large value of magnetization is produced. By using this property
information are stored in storage devices.

In the storage devices, the recording of digital data (0’s and 1’s) depends
upon the direction of magnetization in the medium.

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10.1 Magnetic parameters for Recording

When current is passed through a coil, a magnetic field is induced.

This principle called “Electromagnetic Induction” is used in storage
devices.

The case with which the material can be magnetized is another

parameter.

We know the soft magnetic materials are the materials which can

et
easily be magnetized and demagnetized. Hence a data can be stored and
erased easily. Such magnetic materials are used in temporary storage

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devices. pz
Similarly, we know hard magnetic materials cannot be easily
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magnetized and demagnetized. So such magnetic materials are used in

permanent storage devices.
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In soft magnetic materials, the electrical resistance varies with respect

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to the magnetization and this effect is called magneto-resistance. This

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parameter is used in specific thin film systems.

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The magnetic medium is made of magnetic materials (Ferro or Ferric oxide)

deposited on this plastic.

The magnetic medium move across the read / write heads and either logic
1’s and logic 0’s are written on the medium. The magnetized spots on the medium
generate small electrical signals and this different direction signals represents
logic is and 0’s on the medium.

10.2 Storage of Magnetic Data

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Memory units are the devices used to store the information (Input and
Output) in the form of bits [8bits = 1 Byte].

The memory units are classified into two categories.

Main memory (Primary) or Internal Memory.

Auxiliary Memory (Secondary) or External Memory.

Main Memory

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The memory unit of the central processing unit (CPU) is called as main

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memory. Compare a black beard main memory. We can write many data on
pz
memories and finally erase it if we want.
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Example : RAM, ROM, EPROM etc.

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2. Auxiliary Memory
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w

Since storage capacity of primary memory is not sufficient secondary

w

memory units are developed to store the large volume of data. Separately and
hence called as extra (or) additional (or) external memory.
w

This type of memory is also referred to as back up storages because, it is

used to store large volume of data on a permanent basis.

Example: 1. Magnetic tapes

Magnetic disk (Floppy and Hard disc)

Ferrite core memories

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Magnetic bubble memories.

10.3 Magnetic Tape

It is one of the most popular storage medium for data. The tape is a plastic
ribbon with metal oxide material coated on one side which can be magnetized. In
this, information can be written and also can be read by read / write heads.

Information recorded in the tape is in the form of tiny magnetized and non
magnetized spots on the metal oxide coating.

et
.n
The magnetized spot represents ‘I’ and un magnetized spot represent ‘0’ in
binary code. The information can be accessed, processed, erased and can be again
pz
stored in the same area.
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Advantages
ad

Its storage capacity is large

.p
w

It is easy to handle and is portable

w
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Its cost is less than other storage devices.

It can be erased and reused may times.

Disadvantage

1. It consumes lot of time.

10.4 Magnetic Disc Drivers

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These disks are direct access storage devices. These disks are magnetically
coated. There are two types of disks.

Hard disc

Floppy disc

Hard disc

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The hard disc is made of hard aluminum platters. The platter surface is
carefully machined until it is flat (or) plane. The platter surface is coated with

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magnetic material (magnetic oxides). The platter is built into a box.
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Similar such disks are mounted on a vertical shaft, forming a disk pack and it is
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shown in fig.
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Fig.3.23 Hard disc

The disc pack is placed is a drive mechanism called hard disk drive. The
drive mechanism driver the disc pack with the spindle. The data is written (or)
ready by R/ W beads in the horizontal sensing arms by moving in an out between
the platters with the precaution that the R/W head doesn’t touch the surface
instead, it fly over the disk surface by a fraction of an mm.

Advantages

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It has very large storage capacity.

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Thousands of files can be permanently stored
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Very high speed is reading and writing the information.

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This is prevented from dust particles, since they are seated in special
chamber.
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Disadvantages
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It is very costly.
It data is once corrupted, there is a heavy loss of data.
10.5 Floppy Disk

The hard disc is suitable only for large and medium sized computers and
often are too expensive for small computers systems. Floppy disc are the latest
development in secondary storage devices.

It is made up of a flexible plastic material and hence called as floppy disc. It is

also called as diskette. It acts both as an input and output device.

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Fig.3.24 floppy disc

The disk is provided with a central hole. This hole is used for mounting the disc
in the floppy derive unit. The envelope prevents the disk from dust and moisture.

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There is a small index hole in the cover and there will be a hole in the drive disk.
When these two holes match then only the storage operation can be started. Write
protect notch is used to prevent writing on the disc by other users. This can be
done by covering the notch with a sticker. A 5.25° floppy is shown in fig.

Writing operation
When the floppy disk moves over the gap the CPU flow through the write will of
the head and magnetizes the iron oxide coating in the disk to the proper pattern.

Reading Operation
When the data are to be read, the magnetized patterns induces pulses of current
in the read coil and is amplified then fed to the CPU. Thus data can be stored and

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accessed from the floppy disc on both sides (or) single side. Reading / writing

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data on the magnetic medium using frequently modulated wave.
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Special features
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The cost is very low

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It can be easily handled

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It can be taken to any place

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It has high storage capacity

Many types of floppies are available, depending on their storage

capacities.

Disadvantage

Here the magnetic disk is moved (rotated) mechanically.

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10.6 Magnetic bubble Materials

Magnetic bubble is direct access storage medium, magnetic bubbles are soft
magnetic materials with magnetic domains of a few micrometers in diameter.
These bubbles are the electrical analogue of the magnetic disk memories used in
computers.

The magnetic disk in the hard disk memory is moved mechanically where
as the bubbles in a bubble memory device are moved electronically at very high
speeds, so the read out time or storing time is greatly reduced in bubble memory
device. The bubble units are made with solid state electronic chips.

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A magnetic bubble can be thought of as a positively charged and in a negatively
charged magnetic film.The presence of a bubble is on ‘ON’ condition and the

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absence of a bubble is an ‘off’ condition. ie., [1 or 0].
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Fig. 3.25 Magnetic bubble memory

Figure shows the schematic diagram of a magnetic bubble memory. It consists of

one major loop and 157 minor loops. Each minor loop has 641 bubble sites.

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Writing operation

When a data is to be stored, the bubbles from the minor loops are transferred
to the major loop, and it goes to the write station. In write station the data is
entered and the bubble again comes to minor loop.

Reading operation

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To read the data from the storage, the bubble from minor loops are

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transferred to the major loop and it goes to the read station, then it comes to the
minor loop. The data can be altered by the erase station, if we need to erase it.
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Advantage
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It is non-volatile.
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It has high storage capacity than the magnetic hard disk.

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It has high across speed.

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Construction

A Bubble memory consist of materials such as magnetic garnets and store the
data as microscopic magnets. A thin film of these garnets is deposited on a non-
magnetic substrate of Gadolinium Gallium Garnet in Integrated Circuit [IC] form.

SUPER CONDUCTORS

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1 Introduction to Superconductivity
2 Properties of Superconductors
2.1 Critical magnetic field (Magnetic Property)
2.2 Diamagnetic property (Meissener effect)
2.3 SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device)
2.4 Effect of heavy Current
2.5 Persistence of Current
2.6 Effect of pressure
2.7 Isotope effect
2.8 General properties

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3 Types of Super Conductors

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3.1 Difference between Type I and II superconductors
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3.2 Difference between High TC
4 High Temperature (High-Tc) Superconductors
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5 Bcs Theory of Superconductivity

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6 Applications of Superconductors
7 Engineering Applications
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7.1 Cryotron
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7.2 MAGLEV (MAGnetic LEVitation)

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7.3 Josephson Devices

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1 INTRODUCTION TO SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

It was thought that the electrical resistance of a conductor becomes zero only at
absolute zero temperature. But in 1911, H. Kammerlingh Onnes studied the
properties of mercury at very low temperature using liquid helium and is found
that the resistivity of mercury drops to zero at 4.2 K and changes into a
superconducting material
Mathiessen’s rule:
It states that “the electrical resistivity

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Definition
The ability of certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero electrical resistivity
when they are cooled to low temperature is known as superconducting. (ie.,
maximum conductivity with zero resistance at zero Kelvin)

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Each of these parameters is very dependent on the other two properties
present.

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Critical temperature ( TC ) (or) Transition Temperature
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The temperature at which a normal conductor loses its resistivity and

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becomes a superconductor is known as critical temperature (or) Transition

temperature. Every superconductor has its own critical temperature at which it
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passes over into superconducting state. Depending on the transition temperature,

superconductors are classified into two groups are
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Low temperature superconductors (LTS):The superconductors which

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have low transition temperature (below 30K) are known as low temperature
superconductors.

Example: Tin (3.2 K), Mercury (4.15 K).

High temperature superconductors (HTS): The superconductors

which have high transition temperature (above 30K) is known as high
temperature superconductors.

Example: Barium - Lanthanum - Copper - Oxide (BLCO) - 35 K

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Yttrium - Barium - Copper - Oxide - (Y Ba2 Cu3 O4) - 92 K

Fig. 3.26 Variation of electrical resistivity with temperature

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2 PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

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At Critical temperature, the following properties are observed.
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The electrical resistivity drops to zero.

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The magnetic flux lines are excluded (ejected out) from the
superconductors.
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There is discontinuous change in the specific heat.

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There are small changes in the thermal conductivity and volume of

the materials.

2.1 Critical magnetic field (Magnetic Property)

A very strong magnetic field applied to superconducting material it disappears

super conducting property this is called as critical magnetic field.

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Fig.3.27 Critical magnetic fieldpz
It is noted that when the temperature of a material increases, the value of
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critical magnetic field decreases. Therefore the value of critical magnetic fields
are different for different materials.
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2.2 Diamagnetic property (Meissener effect)

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If a normal conducting material is placed in a magnetic field of flux density

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B, the magnetic lines penetrate through the material.

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Now the material is cooled below its transition temperature when T TC then
the magnetic lines of forces are eapelled out from the material as shown in figure.

We know that, a diamagnetic material have the tendency to expel the

magnetic lines of force. Since the superconductor also expels tha magnetic lines
of force and it behaves as a perfect diamagnet. This behaviour was first observed
by meissener and hence called as meissener effect.

Meissener effect.

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When the superconducting material is subjected to a uniform magnetic field,

under the condition T TC and H HC, the magnetic flux lines are excluded from
the material. Thus the material exhibits perefect diamagnetism. This
phenomenon is called as meissner effect.

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2.3 SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device)

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(We know that a small charge in magnetic field produces variation in

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the flux quantum.)

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It consists of a superconducting ring which can have the magnetic field of

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quantum values (1,2,3,....) of flux placed in between two Josephson junctions as

shown in figure.

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Fig. 3.29 SQUID

When the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the plane of the ring,
the current is induced at the two Josephon junctions.

The induced current current produces the intereference pattern and if flows
around the ring so that the magnetic flux in the ring can have the quantum value
of magnetic field applied.

Applications

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SQUID can be used to defect the variation of very minute magnetic
signals in terms of quantum flux.

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It is used as a storage device for magnetic flux.
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It is used to study earth qurkes and to remove paramagnetic impurities.

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Application of Meissner effect

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It is a standard test to prove whether the material is a perfect

superconductor or not.
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This effect is used for magnetic levitated train.

2.4 Effect of heavy Current

The superconducting property disappears when a heavy current flows, since

current flow will set up a magnetic field.

According to Silsbee’s rule, for a superconducting wire, the induced current to

destroy the superconducting property is given by,

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2.5 Persistence of Current

Persistence current is one of the most important properties of a superconductor.

When a current of large magnitude is induced in a superconducting ring, the
current persisted in the ring even after the removal of the field at the temperature
below the critical temperature below the critical temperature, such a current flows
without reducing its strength is known is persistent current.

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Fig. 3.30 Persistent Current

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The superconducting coil with persistent current acts as a magnet. It does

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not require power supply to maintain its magnetic field.

2.6 Effect of pressure

If pressure increases, the critical temperature also increases. Therefore certain

materials are brought into the superconducting state by increasing the pressure.
Research is going on to get the superconducting state at room temperature by
applying heavy pressure.

2. 7 Isotope effect

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The presence of isotopes in superconductor change the transition temperature of

the superconductor. The transition temperature is found to be inversely
proportional to the square root of the atomic weight of the isotope (M).

The transition temperature of the heavier isotope is less than that of the
lighter isotope.

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2.8 General properties
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There is no change in elastic properties, photo electric properties and
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crystal structure.
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The transition temperature is unchanged with the frequency variation.

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3 TYPES OF SUPER CONDUCTORS

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Superconductors are classified as follows

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Based on the value of HC we have,

Type I (or) Soft superconductors

Type II (or) Hard superconductors

Based on the value of TC we have,

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High temperature superconductors

Low temperature superconductors

Type I Superconductor

In type I superconductor, the magnetic field is completely excluded from the

material below the critical magnetic field and the material loses its
superconducting property abruptly at.

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Fig.3.31 Type I Superconductor

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Characteristics
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They exhibit complete Meissner Effect.

They have only one critical magnetic field value.

Below the material behaves as superconductor and above the material

behaves as normal conductor.

These are called as Soft superconductors.

Type II Superconductor

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In type II superconductor, the magnetic field is excluded from the material and
the material loses its superconducting property gradually rather than abruptly.

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Fig. 3.32 Type II Superconductor

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Characteristics
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They do not exhibit a complete Meissner Effect.

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They have two critical magnetic field values. Lower critical magnetic
filed [HCl] and Higher critical magnetic field [HC2].
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Below HC1 the material behaves as superconductor and above the

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material behaves as normal conductor. The region in between [HCl] and

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[HC2] is called mixed state or vortex region.

These are called as Hard superconductors.

Low TC Superconductors

The superconductors having the critical temperature less than 20 K

are known as low TCSuperconductors or elemental superconductors.
The Superconductors by BCS theory.

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It is explained by BCS theory.

It is not so useful due to its low temperature maintenance.

It is called as N-type superconductor.

High TC Superconductors

The superconductors having the critical temperature greater than 100

K are known as high TCSuperconductors or ceramic or oxide
superconductors.

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The Superconductors is due to hole states.

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It is explained by RVB theory proposed by Anderson.
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It is very useful for commercial and engineering purposes.

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It is called as P-type superconductor.

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3.1 Difference between Type I and II superconductors.

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3.2 Difference between High TC and Low TC superconductors

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High TC Superconductors

1. It has high TC (>100 K).

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2. Super conduction is due to hole states.

3. Explained by RVB theory.
4. Very useful for commercial and engineering purposes.
5. It is called as P-type superconductor.

Low TC Superconductors
1. It has low TC (<20 K)
2. Super conduction is due to cooper pairs.
3. Explained by BCS theory.
4. It is not so useful due to its low maintenance temperature.

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5. It is called as N-type superconductor.

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4 HIGH TEMPERATURE (HIGH-TC) SUPERCONDUCTORS
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Superconductors with high values of critical temperature are called high
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temperature superconductors (HTSC). The discovery of copper oxide based

ceramic materials by Bednorz and Muller in 1986 having critical temperature
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greater than 30 K made a new era in the field of superconductivity.

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The superconductors have the critical temperature greater than 100 K are
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known as high Superconductors or ceramic or oxide superconductors.

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The Superconductors is due to hole states and it is explained by RVB theory

proposed by Anderson. It is very useful for commercial and engineering
applications and it is called as P-type superconductors.

Characteristics

High TC Superconductors have high temperatures.

They have a modified perovskite crystal structure.

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Superconducting state is direction dependent.

These are oxides of copper with other elements.

These are reactive, brittle, and cannot be easily modified or joined.

For high TC superconductors, liquid Nitrogen is used instead of liquid

helium.

5 BCS THEORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

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The properties of Type I superconductors were modeled successfully by the

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efforts of John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer in what is
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commonly called the BCS theory. A key conceptual element in this theory is the
pairing of electron close to the Fermi level into Cooper pairsthrough interaction
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with the crystal lattice. This pairing results form a slight attraction between the
electrons related to lattice vibrations, the coupling to the lattice is called a phonon
interaction.
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Pairs of electrons can behave very differently from single electrons which
are fermions and must obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The pairs of electrons
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act more like bosons which can condense into the same energy level.
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The electron pairs have a slightly lower energy and leave an energy gap
above them on the order of 0.001 eV which inhibits the kind of collision
interactions which lead to ordinary resistivity. For temperatures such that the
thermal energy is less than the band gap, the material exhibits zero resistivity.

Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer received the Nobel Prize in 1972 for
the development of the theory of superconductivity.

Cooper Pairs

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The transition of a metal from the normal to the superconducting state has
the nature of a condensation of the electrons into a state which leaves a band gap
above them, this kind of condensation is seen with superfluid helium, but helium
is made up of bosons-multiple electrons can’t collect into a single state because
of the Pauli Exclusion Principle.

Froehlich was first to suggest that the electrons act as pairs coupled by lattice
vibrations in the material. This coupling is viewed as an exchange of phonons,
phonons being the quanta of lattice vibration energy. Experimental corroboration
of an interaction with the lattice was provided by the isotopic effect on the
superconducting transition temperature.

The boson-like of such electron pairs was further investigated by Cooper and they

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are called “Cooper pairs”. The condensation of Cooper pairs is the foundation

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of the BCS theory of superconductivity.
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A model of Cooper pair attraction
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Fig.3.33 Cooper pair attraction

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Fig .3.34 Cooper pair repulsion

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Fig. 3.35 Model of pair attraction

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Ideas Leading to the BCS Theory

The BCS theory of superconductivity has successfully described the measured

properties of Type I superconductors. It envisions resistance-free conduction of
coupled pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs. This theory is remarkable enough
that it is interesting to look at the chain of ideas which led to it.

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Fig. 3.36 Cooper pair (interaction)

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One of the first steps toward a theory of superconductivity was the realization

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that there must be a band gap separating the charge carriers from the state of
normal conduction.
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A band gap was implied by the very fact that the resistance is precisely
zero. If charge carriers can move through a crystal lattice without interacting
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at all, it must be because their energies are quantized such that they do not
have any available energy levels within reach of the energies of interaction
with the lattice.
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A band gap is suggested by specific heats of materials like vanadium.

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The fact that there is an exponentially increasing specific hear as the

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temperature approaches the critical temperature from below implies that

thermal energy is being used to bridge some kind of gap in energy. As the
temperature increases, there is an exponential increase in the number of
particles which would have enough energy to cross the gap.

The critical temperature for superconductivity must be a measure of the

band gap, since the material could lose superconductivity if thermal energy
could get charge carriers across the gap.

The critical temperature was found to depend up on isotopic mass. It

certainly would not if the conduction was by free electrons alone. The made

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it evident that the superconducting transition involved some kind of

interaction with the crystal lattice.

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Single electrons could be eliminated as the charge carriers in
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superconductivity since with a system of fermions you don’t get energy gaps.
All available levels up to the Fermi energy fill up.
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The needed boson behavior was consistent with having coupled pairs of
electrons with opposite spins. The isotope effect described above suggested
that the coupling mechanism involved the crystal lattice, so this gave rise to
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the phonon model of coupling envisioned with Cooper pairs.

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6 APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
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General Applications

Electric generators can be made by using superconductors with smaller

size, less weight and low energy consumption.

Superconductors can be used for the transmission of power over very

long distances.

Superconductors can be used in switching Devices.

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The superconductors can be used in sensitive electrical instruments.

It can be used as a memory or storage element in computers.

These are used to design Cryotron, Maglev, Josephson Devices and
SQUID.

DC superconducting motors are used in ship propulsion and in large

mills.

Superconducting magnetic field may be used to launch satellite into

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orbit directly from the earth without use of rockets.

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Ore separation can be done by using machines made of superconducting
magnets.
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10.These are used in NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) imaging

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equipments which is used for scanning purposes.

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11.Superconductors are used for the detection of brain tumor, defective

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cells, etc.,
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12.Superconducting solenoids are used in magneto hydrodynamic power

generation to maintain the plasma in the body.

7 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

7.1 Cryotron

It is a magnetically operated current switch. The superconducting

property disappear when the magnetic field is greater than critical field ().

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It consists of a superconducting material [A] and it is surrounded by a super

conducting coil of wire [B].

Fig. 3.38 Cryotron

When the critical magnetic field of wire B exceeds or less than that of a

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Superconducting material A, the current in A can be controlled by the current in
the material B, it can act as relay or switching elements and it can be used as

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memory or storage element in computers.
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7.2 MAGLEV (MAGnetic LEVitation)
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Maglev is a magnetic levitated train, its works under the principal of

Electromagnetic induction. This train cannot move over the rail. Instead it floats
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above the rails, so that it moves faster with speed of 500 Km/hr without any
frictional loss. It has two superconducting magnet on each side of the train and
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there is guiding system consisting of ‘S” shaped coils on each side. Due to actions
of these magnets the train moves faster by levitation principle.
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Working
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This train consists of superconducting magnets placed on each side of the train.
The train can run in a guiding system, which consists of serial ‘S’ shaped coil as
shown in figure.

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Fig. 3.39 MGLEV

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Initially when the train starts, they slide on the rails. Now, when the train
moves faster, the superconducting magnets on each side of the train will induce
a current in the ‘S’ shaped coils kept in the guiding system.
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This induced current generates a magnetic force in the coils in such a way
that the lower half of ‘S’ shaped coil has the same magnetic pole as that of the
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superconducting magnet in the train, while the upper half has the opposite
magnetic pole. Therefore, the total upward magnetic force acts on the train and
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the train is levitated or raised above the rails and floats in the air.
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Now, by alternatively changing the poles of the superconducting magnet in the

train, alternating currents can be induced in ‘S’ shaped coils.
Thus, alternating series of north and south magnetic poles are produced in
the coils, which pulls and pushes the superconducting magnets in the train and
hence the train is further moved. This can travel a speed of 500 km per hour.

7.3 Josephson Devices

Presistence of current in an insulator which is separated by an insulator, even in

the absence of an applied voltage pairs of electrons moving through the potential

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barrier induce the superconducting current. This effect is known as Josephson

effect.

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Fig. 3.40 Josephson effect
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A thin layer of insulating material (10-50A°) is placed in between two

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superconducting materials as shown in figure. When the voltage is applied across

the superconductors, current start flowing between the superconductors.
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The flowing current has both a.c and d.c components. The a.c current exists only
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up to which the external voltage is applied whereas the d.c current exist even after
the removal of applied voltage. This effect is called Josephson effect.
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A paramagnetic material has a magnetic field intensity of 10 4 Am–1. If the

susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 3.7 × 10–5. Calculate the
magnetization and flux density in the material.

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A magnetic material has a magnetization of 2300 A m–1 and produces a flux

density of 0.00314 Wb m–2. Calculate the magnetizing force and the
relative permeability of the material.

Solution :

Given data:

Magnetization M = 2300 A m–1

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Flux density B = 0.00314 Web m–2.

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A paramagnetic material has FCC structure with a cubic edge of 2.5 A°. If
the saturation value of magnetization is 1.8 × 106 A m–1, Calculate the
magnetization contributed per atom in Bohr magnetrons.

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The saturation magnetic induction of Nickel is 0.65 Wb m–2. If the density of

Nickel is 8906 kg m–3 and its atomic weight is 58.7, calculate the magnetic
moment of the Nickel atom in Bohr magnetron.

Solution:

Given data:

Saturation magnetic induction of Nickel

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In a magnetic material the field strength is found to be 10 6 A m–1. If the

magnetic susceptibility of the material is 0.5 × 10–5, calculate the intensity of
magnetization and flux density in the material.

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A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic

field and a critical field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
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7. Calculate the critical current and current density for a wire of a lead
having a diameter of 1 mm at 4.2 K. The critical temperature for lead is 7.18
K and H = 6.5 × 104 A m–1.

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Prove that susceptibility of superconductor is -1 and relative

permeability is zero.

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Find the critical current which can pass through a long thin
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superconducting wire of aluminum of diameter 2 mm, the critical

magnetic field for aluminum is 7.9 × 103 A m–1.
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The superconducting transistion temperature of Lead is 7.26 K. The initial

field at 0 K is 64 × 103Amp m–1. Calculate the critical field at 5 K.
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A magnetic field of 2000 Amp m–1 is applied to a material which has a

susceptibility of 1000. Calculate the (i) Intensity and (ii) Flux density.

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The superconducting transition temperature of lead of 7.26 K. The initial

field at 0 K is 64 × 103Amp m–1. Calculate the critical field at 5 K.
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The magnetic field strength of Silicon is 1500 Amp m–1. If the magnetic
susceptibility is (–0.3 × 10–5), calculate the magnetization and flux density in
Silicon.

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14. Calculate the critical current which can flow through a long thin super
conducting wire of diameter 1 mm. The critical magnetic field is 7.9 ×
103 Amp m–1.

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ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
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1.The saturation value of magnetization of iron is 1.76 × 10 6 A m–1. Iron had body
centered cubic structure with an elementary edge of 2.86 Å.Calculate the average
number of Bohr magnetrons contributed to the magnetization per atom.

(Ans: 2.2 Bohr magnetron per atom)

2.The magnetic field intensity of a ferric oxide piece is 106 A m–1. If the
susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 10.5 × 10 –3, calculate the flux
density and magnetization of the material.

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(Ans: B = 1.259 T and M = 1500 A m–1 )

3. A magnetic material has a magnetization of 3000 A m–1 and flux density of

0.044 Wb m–2. Calculate the magnetic force and the relative permeability of
the
material. (Ans: M = 203 and r = 17.26)

Calculate the magnetic filed in the lead at 5 K, if it’s critical magnetic

field at 0 K H0 = 8 × 105 A m–1, and transition temperature TC = 7.26 K

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(Ans: 4.2 × 105 A m–1)

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The critical temperature TC for mercury with isotopic mass 199.5 is 4.185
K. Calculate its critical Temperature, when it’s isotopic masses changes to
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203.4.
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(Ans: 4.139 K)
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Calculate the critical current which can flow though a long thin superconducting
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wire of aluminum of diameter 1 mm. The critical magnetic field for aluminum is
7.9 × 103 A m–1.
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