CALCULUS

Differential CALCULUS

Calculus
Tangent Lines
THE TANGENT PROBLEM Given a
function 𝑓 and a point 𝑃 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 on its graph, find
an equation of the line that is tangent to the graph
at 𝑃.
 Do these look like tangent lines?

Tangent Lines
I N C I R C L ES TA N G E N T L I N E I S A L I N E T H AT M E E T S T H E C I R C L E AT P R E C I S E LY
O N E P O I N T.
Tangent Line
➢Suppose that we are interested in the tangent line at a
point P on a curve xy-plane and that Q is any point that lies
on the curve and is different from P.
➢If we move the point Q along the curve toward P, then the
secant line will rotate to a limiting position.
➢This limiting position is what we will consider to be the
tangent line at P.
Areas
For plane regions with straight-
line boundaries, areas can often
be calculated by subdividing the
region into rectangles or triangles
and adding the areas of the
constituent part.
Areas
➢For regions with curved
boundaries a more general
approach is needed.
➢e.g. inscribing or circumscribing
rectangles
Limits (Informal View)
If the values of 𝑓 𝑥 can be made as close as we like to 𝐿 by
taking values of 𝑥 sufficiently close to 𝑎 (but not equal to 𝑎),
then we write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
which is read “the limit of 𝑓 𝑥 as x approaches 𝑎 is 𝐿” or
“𝑓 𝑥 approaches 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎”. That is,
𝑓 𝑥 → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑎
illustration
illustration
illustration
illustration
Caution!
➢Numerical evidence can sometimes lead to incorrect conclusions.
One Sided Limit (An Informal View)
If the value of 𝑓 𝑥 can be made as close as we like to 𝐿 by taking
values of 𝑥 sufficiently close to 𝑎 (but greater than 𝑎) then we write
lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿,
𝑥→𝑎
“the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approached a from the right is 𝐿”
and if the values of 𝑓 𝑥 ca be made as close as we like to 𝐿 by taking
values of 𝑥 sufficiently close to 𝑎 (but less than 𝑎), then we write
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎
“the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approached a from the left is 𝐿”
illustration
Remarks
➢If values of 𝑓 𝑥 are not getting any closer to any single real
number L as 𝑥 → 𝑎, then we say,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 does not exist
𝑥→𝑎
➢Similarly, the value of 𝑓 𝑥 may not get closer and closer to a single
real number 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑎+ or as 𝑥 → 𝑎− . In these cases we say that
lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 does not exists
𝑥→𝑎
or that
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 does not exists
𝑥→𝑎
 The two-sided limit of a function 𝑓 𝑥 exists at 𝑎 if and only if
both of the one-sided limits exist at 𝑎 and have the same value;
that is,
Remarks
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 if and only if lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
illustration
Infinite Limits
Sometimes one-sided limits fail
to exist because the values of
the function increase or
decrease without bound.
illustration
illustration
illustration
illustration
Infinite Limits
Let 𝑓 be a function defined on both sides of 𝑎 itself. Then
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→𝑎

Means that the values of 𝑓 𝑥 can be made arbitrarily large (as

large as we please) by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to 𝑎, but not
equal to 𝑎.
Infinite Limits
Let 𝑓 be a function defined on both sides of 𝑎 itself. Then
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→𝑎

Means that the values of 𝑓 𝑥 can be made arbitrarily large

negative (as large as we please) by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to
𝑎, but not equal to 𝑎.
Vertical Asymptotes
The vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is called a vertical asymptote of the
curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 if at least one of the following statements is
true:

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞; lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞; lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞; lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞; lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Evaluate the ff.
solution
Computing Limits
Theorem
Examples
Theorem
Example
Theorem
Example
Solution
Solution
Solution
Remarks
A quotient 𝑓 𝑥 /𝑔 𝑥 in which the numerator and
denominator both have a limit of zero as 𝑥 → 𝑎 is
called an indeterminate form of type 0/0.
Quiz
Example
Example
Solution
Solution
Solution
End Behavior of
the Function
The behavior of a function 𝑓 𝑥 as 𝑥
increases without bound 𝑥 → +∞ or
decreases without bound 𝑥 → −∞ is called
end behavior of the function.
Limit at Infinity (An Informal View)
If the values of 𝑓 𝑥 eventually get close as we like to a
number 𝐿 as 𝑥 increases without bound, then we write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 or 𝑓 𝑥 → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → +∞
𝑥→+∞
Similarly, if the values of 𝑓 𝑥 eventually get as close as we
like to a number 𝐿 as 𝑥 decreases without bound, then we
write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 or 𝑓 𝑥 → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → ∞
𝑥→−∞
illustration
illustration
Infinite Limits at Infinity
If the values of 𝑓 𝑥 increase without bound as 𝑥 → +∞ or as 𝑥 →
− ∞, then we write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞ 𝑜𝑟 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = +∞
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞
as appropriate; and if the values of 𝑓 𝑥 decrease without bound as
𝑥 → +∞ or as 𝑥 → −∞, then we write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞ 𝑜𝑟 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞
as appropriate.
 𝑛
Limit of 𝑥 as
𝑥 → ±∞
 𝑛
Limit of 𝑥 as
𝑥 → ±∞
Example
Limit of Polynomials as 𝑛 → ±∞
Example
Limits of Rational Functions as 𝑥 → ±∞
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution
Squeeze Theorem
If 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑔 𝑥 ≤ ℎ 𝑥 when 𝑥 is near 𝑎 (except
possibly at 𝑎) and
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim ℎ 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
then
lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿 .
𝑥→𝑎
example
Limit Definition
Let 𝑓 𝑥 be define for all 𝑥 in some open interval
containing 𝑎, with the possible exception that 𝑓 𝑥
need not be defined at 𝑎. We will write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
if given any number 𝜖 > 0 we can find a number 𝛿 >
0 such that
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < 𝜖 if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿
Equivalent Statements
Equivalent Statements
illustration
When
limit does
not exists
Exercises
Prove the following.
1. Show that lim 4𝑥 − 5 = 7.
𝑥→3
4 𝑥 2 −4
2. Show that lim = 16.
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

3. Show that lim 𝑥 2 = 4.

𝑥→2
Infinite Limits
Let 𝑓 be a function defined on some open interval that contains the
number 𝑎, except possibly at 𝑎 itself. Then
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→𝑎
means that for every positive number 𝑀 there is a positive number 𝛿
such that

if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 then 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑀

Infinite Limits
Let 𝑓 be a function defined on some open interval that contains the
number 𝑎, except possibly at 𝑎 itself. Then
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→𝑎
means that for every negative number 𝑁 there is a positive number
𝛿 such that

if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 then 𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑁

Continuity
Discontinuous
Observations
1. In graph (𝑎), the function is not defined at 𝑐.
2. In graph (b), the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) does not exists as 𝑥 → 𝑐.
3. In graph (c), the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) does not exists as 𝑥 → 𝑐.
4. In graph (d), lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
Definition
A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐 provided the
following conditions are satisfied:
1. 𝑓 𝑐 is defined.
2. lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists.
𝑥→𝑐
3. lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑐 .
𝑥−𝑐
If one or more of the conditions above fails to hold , then 𝑓
is discontinuous at 𝑐.
Removable
Discontinuity
➢The discontinuity can be remove by
redefining the function at the number in
question.
➢The discontinuity is removable as long as the
limit exists at the number in question.
Removable Discontinuity
Redefining:
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑓 𝑥 =൞ 𝑥−2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 2
3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2
Then, 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous at 𝑥 = 2.
Essential Discontinuity

INFINITE Discontinuity Jump Discontinuity

at 𝒙 = 𝟎 at 𝑥 = 0
Exercise
Determine whether 𝑓 is continuous at 0, 1, 2, 3,4, and 5.
Continuity
A function 𝑓 is continuous
from the left at c if
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
and is continuous from the
right at 𝒄 if Continuous at the right endpoint but not
lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑐 . continuous at the left endpoint.
𝑥→𝑐
Illustration
Example
Determine whether H, Heaviside Function is continuous from the
right at 0 and/or from the left at 0.
Continuity on an interval
➢If a function 𝑓 is continuous at each number in an
open interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , then we say that 𝑓 is continuous
on (𝒂, 𝒃).
➢Same definition applies to infinite open interval of
the form 𝑎, +∞ , −∞, 𝑏 and −∞, −∞ .
➢In the case where 𝑓 is continuous on −∞, +∞ , we
will say that 𝑓 is continuous everywhere.
Continuity on a closed interval
A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous on a closed
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if the following conditions are
satisfied:
1. 𝑓 is continuous on (𝑎, 𝑏)
2. 𝑓 is continuous from the right at 𝑎
3. 𝑓 is continuous from the left at 𝑏
𝑓 𝑥 is continuous on [-3,3]
Properties of Continuity
If the functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous at 𝑐, then
a) 𝑓 + 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐
b) 𝑓 − 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐
c) 𝑓𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐
d) 𝑓/𝑔 is continuous at 𝑐 if 𝑔 𝑐 ≠ 0 and has a
discontinuity at 𝑐 if 𝑔 𝑐 = 0.
Polynomials and Rational
a) A polynomial is continuous everywhere.
b) A rational function is continuous at every point
where the denominator is nonzero, and has
discontinuities at the points where the
denominator is zero.
Trigonometric Functions

The functions sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, tan 𝑥, sec 𝑥, csc 𝑥,

and cot 𝑥 are continuous at every number in
their respective domain.
 Intermediate Value Theorem
If 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval
[𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑘 is any number between
𝑓 𝑎 and 𝑓 𝑏 , inclusive, there is at
least one number 𝑥 in the interval
𝑎, 𝑏 such that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘.
Theorem
If 𝑓 is continuous on 𝑎, 𝑏 , and
if 𝑓 𝑎 and 𝑓 𝑏 are nonzero
and have opposite signs, then
there is at least one solution of
the equation 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 in the
interval 𝑎, 𝑏 .
Thank You!