Mechanics

Physics 151

Lecture 6
Kepler Problem
(Chapter 3)

What We Did Last Time

„ Discussed energy conservation
„ Defined energy function h Å Conserved if ∂L ∂t = 0
„ Conditions for h = E
„ Started discussing Central Force Problems
„ Reduced 2-body problem into central force problem
„ Problem is reduced to one equation mr = l 2 + f (r )
3
„ Used angular momentum conservation mr
„ Energy conservation gives
m 2 1 l2
E= r + + V (r ) = const
2 2 mr 2
„ Now we must solve this

Goals for Today

„ Analyze qualitative behavior of central-force problem
„ Solutions: bounded or unbounded
„ Determined by the “shape” of the potential

„ Solve the Kepler problem

„ Get the shape of the orbit
„ As if we don’t know yet…

„ Derive Kepler’s 3rd Law

„ Period of rotation is proportional to the 3/2 power of the
major axis

1
Qualitative Behavior
„ Integrating the radial motion 2⎛ l2 ⎞
r = ⎜ E − V (r ) − ⎟
isn’t always easy m⎝ 2mr 2 ⎠
„ More often impossible…
„ You can still tell general behavior by looking at
l2
V ′( r ) ≡ V ( r ) + Quasi potential including
2mr 2 the centrifugal force
„ Energy E is conserved, and E – V’ must be positive

mr 2 mr 2
E= + V ′(r ) = E − V ′(r ) > 0 E > V ′(r )
2 2
„ Plot V’(r) and see how it intersects with E

Inverse-Square Force
„ Consider an attractive 1/r2 force
k k
f (r ) = − V (r ) = −
r2 r l2
„ Gravity or electrostatic force 2mr 2
k l2
V ′(r ) = − + r
r 2mr 2
V ′(r )
„ 1/r2 force dominates at large r
„ Centrifugal force dominates at
k
small r −
„ A dip forms in the middle r

Unbounded Motion
„ Take V’ similar to 1/r2 case V ′( r )
„ Only general features are relevant
„ E = E1 Æ r > rmin E1 = V ′(rmin ) E1
1 2
„ Particle can go infinitely far mr
2
E2
Arrive from r = ∞ r

E3
Turning point
E =V′ r = 0
A 1/r2 force would
Go toward r = ∞ make a hyperbola

2
Bounded Motion
„ E = E2 Æ rmin < r < rmax V ′( r )
„ Particle is confined between two
circles E1
1 2
mr
Goes back and 2
forth between E2
two radii r

E3

Orbit may or may not be A 1/r2 force would

closed. (This one isn’t) make an ellipse

Circular Motion
„ E = E3 Æ r = r0 (fixed) V ′(r )
„ Only one radius is allowed
E1
Stays on a circle
E = V ′(r0 ) E2
r = 0 r
r = const = r0
E3
r0
„ Classification into unbounded, bounded and circular motion
depends on the general shape of V’
„ Not on the details (1/r2 or otherwise)

Another Example
a 3a a l2
V =− f =− V′ = − +
r3 r4 r 3 2mr 2
„ Attractive r-4 force
„ V’ has a bump
l2
„ Particle with energy E may be
either bounded or unbounded, 2mr 2
depending on the initial r V′
E
r
V

3
Stable Circular Orbit
„ Circular orbit occurs at the bottom of a dip of V’
mr 2 dV ′
= E −V ′ = 0 mr = − =0
2 dr
r = const
„ Top of a bump works in theory, E
r
but it is unstable stable
„ Initial condition must be exactly
unstable
r = 0 and r = r0
E
d 2V ′
Stable circular orbit requires >0
dr 2
r
r0

Orbit Equation
„ We have been trying to solve r = r(t) and θ = θ(t)
„ We are now interested in the shape of the orbit r = r (θ )
„ Switch from dt to dθ
d l d
l = mr 2θ =
const dt mr 2 dθ
l2 dV l d ⎛ l dr ⎞ l 2 dV
mr − + =0 ⎜ ⎟− + =0
mr 3 dr r 2 dθ ⎝ mr 2 dθ ⎠ mr 3 dr
„ Switch from r to u ≡ 1 r
du d ⎛1⎞ 1 dr d d
= ⎜ ⎟=− 2 = −u 2
dθ dθ ⎝ r ⎠ r dθ dr du

Orbit Equation
d 2u m dV ( u1 )
Switching variables +u+ 2 =0
dθ 2 l du
„ Solving this equation gives the shape of the orbit
„ Not that it’s easy (How could it be?)
„ Will do this for inverse-square force later
„ One more useful knowledge can be extracted without
solving the equation

4
Symmetry of Orbit
d 2u m dV ( u1 )
+u+ 2 =0
dθ 2 l du
„ Equation is even, or symmetric, in θ
„ Replacing θ with –θ does not change the equation
„ Solution u(θ) must be symmetric if the initial condition is
„ Choosing θ = 0 at t = 0, θ Æ –θ makes
du du du
u (0) → u (0) OK (0) → − (0) OK if (0) = 0
dθ dθ dθ
„ Orbit is symmetric at angles where du/dθ = 0

Symmetry of Orbit
„ Orbit is symmetric about every
turning point = apsidals
Orbit is invariant under reflection
about apsidal vectors
„ That’s why I didn’t care too much about
the sign of r
„ Solve the orbit between a pair of apsidal du
points Æ Entire orbit is known =0
dθ
„ Now it’s time to solve the equation

Solving Orbit Equation

d 2u m dV ( u1 )
+u+ 2 =0
dθ 2
l du
„ Integrating the diff eqn will give energy conservation
„ One can use energy conservation to save effort
mr 2 l2 2⎛ l2 ⎞
E= + + V (r ) r = ⎜E− − V (r ) ⎟
2 2mr 2 m⎝ 2mr 2 ⎠
l du
„ Switch variables r = −
m dθ
du 2mE 2mV ( u1 )
=− − u2 − Integrate this…
dθ l 2
l2

5
Inverse Square Force
k k du 2mE 2mku
f =− V =− =− + 2 − u2
r2 r dθ l2 l
du
∫ 2 mE
+ 2 mku − u2
= − ∫ dθ
l2 l2

„ Look it up in a math text book and find

dx 2 ⎛ β + 2γ x ⎞
∫ α + β x + γ x 2 = −γ arccos ⎜⎜ − β 2 − 4αγ ⎟
⎟
⎝ ⎠
„ Just substitute α, β and γ
„ Or…

Working It Out Yourself

du du
∫ dθ = − ∫ = −∫
+ 2 mku − u2 ( )
2 mE 2
l2 l2
2 mE
l2
+ m2 k 2
l4
− mk
l2
−u
1 du
=−
+ ml 4k
2 2 ∫ 2
⎛ ⎞
2 mE
l2 mk
−u
1− ⎜ l2 ⎟
⎜ 2 mE
+ ml 4k
2 2
⎟ Define as cosω
⎝ l2 ⎠
sin ω
= −∫ dω = −ω du = + ml 4k sin ω dω
2 2
2 mE
sin ω l2

mk
−u
cos ω = cos(θ − θ ′) = l2
Solve this for u = 1/r
+ ml 4k
2 2
2 mE
l2

Solution
1 mk ⎛ 2 El 2 ⎞
u= = ⎜1 + 1 + cos(θ − θ ′) ⎟
r l 2 ⎜⎝ mk 2 ⎟
⎠
„ This matches the general equation of a conic
1
= C (1 + e cos(θ − θ ′) ) One focus is at the origin
r
„ e is eccentricity

e>1 E>0 hyperbola

Matches the
e=1 E=0 parabola
qualitative
e<1 E<0 ellipse classification
mk 2 of the orbits
e=0 E= − circle
2l 2

6
Energy and Eccentricity
„ E = 0 separates unbounded and
bounded orbits
„ Borderline = Parabola l2
„ Circular orbit requires Hyperbola 2mr 2
k l2
V ′(r0 ) = − + =E Parabola r
r0 2mr02 V ′(r )
dV ′ k l2 Ellipse
= − =0
dr r0 r02 mr03 Circle k
−
mk 2 r
E=− 2
2l

Unbound Orbits 1
r
= C (1 + e cos(θ − θ ′) )

„ e > 1 Æ hyperbola
„ θ’ is the turning point (perihelion)
θ −θ ′ „ cos(θ – θ’) > –1/e limits θ
r
„ e = 1 Æ parabola
θ′

r
θ′

Bound Orbits 1
r
= C (1 + e cos(θ − θ ′) )

mk
„ Ends of the major axis are 1/ r = C (1 ± e ) C= 2
l
„ Length of the major axis
2 El 2
1⎛ 1 1 ⎞ k e = 1+
a= ⎜ + ⎟=− mk 2
2 ⎝ C (1 + e) C (1 − e) ⎠ 2E
Major axis is given by the total energy E

„ Minor axis is
r
2b θ′ l2
b = a 1 − e2 = −
2mE

2a

7
Rotation Period Area of the orbit

2
k l l 2k 2
a=− b= − A = π ab = π −
2E 2mE 8mE 3
„ We know that the areal velocity is constant
dA 1 2 
= rθ=
l Period of dA mk 2
rotation τ=A =π − 3
dt 2 2m dt 2E
„ Express τ in terms of a
m 3/ 2 Period of rotation is proportional
τ = 2π a
k to the 3/2 power of the major axis

Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion

Kepler’s Third Law τ = 2π

m 3/ 2
a
k
„ Kepler’s third law is not exact 1 1 1
= +
„ The reason: reduced mass µ M m planet

„ k is given by the gravity Sun

Mm k
f = −G 2 = − 2 k = GMm
r r
„ Period of rotation becomes
µ 1
τ = 2π a 3/ 2 = 2π a 3/ 2
k G ( M + m)
„ Coefficient is same for all planets only if M >> m

Time Dependence
„ So far we dealt with the shape of the orbit: r = r(θ)
„ We don’t have the full solutions r = r(t) and θ = θ(t)
„ Why aren’t we doing it?
„ It’s awfully complicated
„ Not that bad to get t = t(θ) Æ See Goldstein Section 3.8

„ Inverting to θ = θ(t) impossible

„ Physicists spent centuries calculating approximate

solutions
„ Already got physically interesting features of the solution
„ Leave it to the computers

8
Summary
„ Studied qualitative behavior of the orbits
2
„ Bounded or unbounded Å Shape of V ′(r ) ≡ V (r ) + l
2mr 2
„ Derived orbit equation from the eqn of radial motion
„ r (or u = 1/r) as a function of θ
„ Analyzed the Kepler Problem 1 mk ⎛ 2 El 2 ⎞
= ⎜1 + 1 + cos(θ − θ ′) ⎟
„ Solved the orbit r l 2 ⎜⎝ mk 2 ⎟
⎠
„ Conic depending on E
k
„ For elliptic orbit, major axis depends only on E a = −
2E
„ Kepler’s third law of planetary motion