BIO I LT1 REVIEWER 3RD QUARTER ▪ PLASMA MEMBRANE – membrane enclosing the

cytoplasm
Czarina Ronquillo
▪ CELL WALL – rigid structure outside the plasma
CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS membrane

❖ THE CELL THEORY ▪ GLYCOLCALYX – outer coating of many prokaryotes

consisting of CAPSULE or a slime layer
➢ All organisms are made up of cells
▪ FLAGELLA – locomotion organelles of some
➢ The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be alive prokaryotes
▪ Cell> tissue > organ> organ system > organism ➢ EUKARYOTIC CELLS
➢ All cels are related by their descent from earlier cells ▪ ANIMAL CELL
▪ Cells come from pre-existing cells
➢ Cells can differ substantially from one another but share
common features
➢ The basic structural functional unit of every organism
➢ TWO TYPES
▪ PROKARYOTIC - organisms of the domain bacteria
and archaea
▪ EUKARYOTIC - protists, fungi, animals, plants, humans
❖ PROKARYOTIC VS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

PROKARYOTIC ALL CELLS EUKARYOTIC

CELLS CELLS

No nucleus Plasma
membrane

DNA in an Semifluid DNA in

▪
unbound region substance called NUCLEUS ▪ ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – network of
called NUCLEOID CYTOSOL bounded by membranous sacs and tubes; active in membrane
double synthesis and outer synthetic and metabolic processes
membrane has rough (ribosome studded) and smooth regions

No membrane Chromosomes Membrane – ▪ FLAGELLUM – composed of a cluster of microtubules

bound organelles (carry genes in bounded within an extension of the plasma membrane
the form of DNA) organelles ▪ CENTROSOME – where the cell’s microtubules are
initiated; contains a pair of centrioles
CYTOPLASM Ribosomes CYTOPLASM in
bound by the (make proteins the region ▪ CYTOSKELETON – reinforces cell’s shape; functions in
plasma and the between the cell movement; components are made of protein
membrane plasma • MICROFILAMENTS
membrane and
nucleus • INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
• MICROTUBULES
➢ PROKARYOTIC CELLS
▪ MICROVILLI – increase cell’s surface area
▪ PEROXISOME – produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-
product and then converts it to water
▪ MITOCHONDRION – where cellular respiration occurs
and most ATP is generated
▪ NUCLEUS
• NUCLEAR ENVELOPE – double membrane
enclosing the nucleus; perforated with pores
• NUCLEOLUS – non membranous structure
involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has
one or more nucleoli
• CHROMATIN – material consisting of DNA and
proteins;
▪ PLASMA MEMBRANE – membrane enclosing the cell
▪ RIBOSOMES – make proteins
▪ GOLGI APPARATUS – organelle active in synthesis,
▪ modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products
▪ FIMBIRAE – attachment structures on the surface of ▪ LYSOSOME – digestive organelle where
some prokaryotes macromolecules are hydrolyzed
▪ NUCLEOID – region where the cell’s DNA is located ▪ PLANT CELL
(not enclosed by a membrane)
▪ RIBOSOMES – synthesizes proteins
 ➢ It is a double membrane consisting of a lipid bilayer
➢ It is lined by the nuclear lamina which is composed of
proteins and maintains the shape of the nucleus.
➢ Pores lined with a structure PORE COMPLEX, regulate the
entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus
➢ DNA is organized into discrete units called
CHROMOSOMES
▪ each chromosome contains one DNA molecule
associated with proteins called CHROMATIN
➢ THE NUCLEOLUS is located within the nucleus and is the
site of ribosomal RNA synthesis (rRNA) synthesis

▪
▪ CELL WALL – outer layer that maintains cell’s shape
and protects cell from mechanical damage; made of
cellulose, other polysaccharides and protein
▪ PLASMODESMATA – cytoplasmic channels through
cell walls that connect cytoplasms of adjacent cells
▪ CHLOROPLAST – photosynthetic organelle; converts
energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar
molecules
▪ CENTRAL VACUOLE – prominent organelle in older
plant cells; functions include storage, breakdown of
waste products, and hydrolysis of macromolecules;
enlargement of the vacuole is a major mechanism of
plant growth
❖ PLASMA MEMBRANE ➢
➢ A selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell
❖ RIBOSOMES - THE PROTEIN FACTORIES
➢ Metabolic requirements set upper limits on the size of cells
➢ complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein
➢ Carry out protein synthesis in two locations:
▪ Cytosol (free ribosomes)
▪ Outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear
envelope(bound ribosomes)

➢
➢ The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical.
➢ As a cell increases in size, its volume grows proportionately ➢
more than its surface area.
❖ ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
❖ EUKARYOTIC CELLS
➢ CONSISTS OF
➢ has internal membranes that divide the cell into
▪ Nuclear envelope
compartments - the organelles
➢ ▪ Endoplasmic reticulum
The basic fabric of biological membranes is a double layer of
phospholipids and other lipids ▪ golgi apparatus
➢ Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles ▪ Lysosomes
❖ NUCLEUS ▪ Vacuoles
➢ information center or control center of the cell ▪ Plasma membrane
➢ Contains most of the cell’s genes ➢ These components are either continuous or connected via
➢ transfer by VESICLES
Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make
proteins ➢
➢ The NUCLEAR ENVELOPE encloses the
nucleus,separating it from the cytoplasm
 ▪ Phospholipids are made by enzymes of the rough ER
and also inserted into the membrane
▪ Synthesis, modification, and packaging of Secretory
Proteins
• It is threaded into the cavity of the rough ER.
• As in enters the , the new protein folds into it’s
three dimensional shape.
• Short chains of sugars are often linked to the
polypeptide, making the molecule a glycoprotein.
• When the molecule is ready for export from the
ER, it is packaged on a transport vesicle.
• This vesicle buds off from the ER membrane.
❖ GOLGI APPARATUS
❖ ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ➢ Consists of flattened membraneous sacs called CISTERNAE
➢ THE GOLGI APPARATUS
▪ Modifies products of the ER
▪ Manufactures certain macromolecules
▪ Sorts and packages materials into

➢
➢ SMOOTH ER
▪ Lacks ribosomes
▪ synthesizes lipids
▪ Metabolizes carbohydrates
▪ Detoxifies drugs and poisons
▪ Stores calcium ions ▪
LIVER CELLS - with large amounts of smooth ER, with ▪
▪
enzymes that help process drugs, alcohol, and other ➢ MANUFACTURER AND SHIPPER OF THE CELL
harmful substances
➢ CIS GOLGI - receives
▪ PHENOBARBITAL AND BARBITURATES - examples
of drugs detoxified by these enzymes ➢ TRANS GOLGI - transports

As liver cells are exposed to such chemicals, the ❖ LYSOSOMES

▪
amount of ER and its detoxifying enzymes increases, ➢ suicide bulbs of the cell because contain the hydrolytic
thereby increasing the rate of detoxification body’s enzymes that can digest macromolecules
tolerance to drugs
➢ A lysosome is a membraneous sac of hydrolytic enzyme that
▪ A specialized smooth er membrane pups calcium ions can digest macromolecules
inti the interior of the ER
➢ Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment
▪ when a nerve signal stimulates a muscle cell, calcium inside the lysosome
ions rush from the smooth ER into the cytosol and
trigger contraction of the cell ➢ Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are made by
rough ER and then transferred to the golgi apparatus for
➢ ROUGH ER further processing
▪ Full of ribosomes ➢
▪ Has bound ribosomes which secretes
GLYCOPROTEINS
▪ distributes TRANSPORT VESICLES, secretory proteins
surrounded by membranes
▪ Membrane factory of the cell
▪ INSULIN (secretory protein) - a hormone produced and
secreted by cells of the pancreas and transported to the
blood stream
▪ Type 1 diabetes results when these cells are destroyed
and a lack of insulin disrupts glucose metabolism in the
body
▪ Rough ER is a membrane -making machine for the cell
 ➢
❖ MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS
➢ MITOCHONDRIA are the sites of CELLULAR
➢ RESPIRATION, a metabolic process that uses oxygen to
generate ATP
➢ Some types of cell can engulf another cell by
PHAGOCYTOSIS; this forms a food vacuole ➢ CHLOROPLASTS, found in plants and algae, are the sites of
photosynthesis
➢ A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the
molecules ➢ PEROXISOMES are oxidative organelle

➢ Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own

organelles and macromolecules, a process called
AUTOPHAGY
❖ VACUOLES
➢ Large vesicles derived from the ER and golgi apparatus
➢ Perform a variety of functions
➢ FOOD VACUOLES are formed by PHAGOCYTOSIS
➢ CONTRACTILE VACUOLES, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
➢ CENTRAL VACUOLES, found in many mature plant cells,
hold organic compounds and water

➢ ❖
➢
ORIGINS OF MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS
➢ Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria
▪ Enveloped by a double membrane
▪ Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
▪ Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells
➢ THESE SIMILARITIES LED TO ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY
➢ The endosymbiotic theory suggests that an early ancestor of
eukaryotes engulfed an oxygen- using non photosynthetic
prokaryotic cell
 ➢ The engulfed cell formed a rlationship with the host cell,
becoming an endosymbiont
❖ CHLOROPLASTS
➢ The endosymbionts evolved into mitochondria
➢ Capture light energy
➢ At least one of these cells may have then taken up a
➢ Chloroplasts contain the green pigment CHLOROPHYLL, as
photosynthetic prokaryote, which evolved into a chloroplast
well as enzymes and other molecules that function in
photosynthesis
➢ Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of
plants and in algae

➢
➢ Chloroplasts structure includes:
▪ Thylakoids, membraneous sacs, stacked to form a
GRANUM
▪ STROMA, the internal fluid
➢ The chloroplasts is one of a group of plant organelles called
PLASTIDS
❖ PEROXISOMES
➢ specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single
membrane
➢ Produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water
➢ ➢ Perform reactions with many different functions
❖ MITOCHONDRIA ➢ How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is still
unknown
➢ have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane
folded into CRISTAE

❖
➢ CYTOSKELETON
▪ Creates two compartments : INTERMEMBRANE ➢ Framework of the cell
SPACE AND MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX
➢ Network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
▪ Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix ➢ It organizes the cell’s structure and activities, anchoring
many organelles
▪ Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that
synthesize ATP ➢ It is composed of three types of molecular structures
▪ MICROFILAMENTS - also called ACTIN FILAMENTS
are the thinnest components
▪ MICROTUBULES - thickest
▪ INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS – fibers with diameters in
a middle range
▪
➢ The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain its
shape
➢ It interacts with motor proteins to produce cell motility
➢ Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along tracks provided by
the cytoskeleton

➢
❖ MICROFILAMENTS
➢ They form a CORTEX just inside the plasma membrane to
help support the cell’s shape
➢ Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli of
intestinal cells
➢ Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the
protein MYOSIN in addition to actin
 ➢ Cells crawl along a surface by extending PSEUDOPODIA
(cellular extensions) and moving toward them
➢ CYTOPLASMIC STREAMING is a circular flow of cytoplasm
within cells, driven by actin-myosin interactions

➢
➢ Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the
protein myosin in addition to actin
➢ Cells crawl along a surface by extending pseudopodia
(cellular extensions) and moving toward them
➢ Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of cytoplasm within
cells, driven by actin-myosin interactions
❖ CENTROSOMES AND CENTRIOLES
➢ In animal cells, microtubules grow out from
a centrosome near the nucleus
➢ In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles,
each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring

➢
❖ INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
➢ Intermediate filaments are more permanent cytoskeleton
fixtures than the other two classes
➢ They support cell shape and fix organelles

in place

❖ CILIA FLAGELLA
➢ Microtubules control the beating of FLAGELLA AND CILIA,
micro-tubule containing extensions that project from some
cells ➢
➢ Many unicellular eukaryotes are propelled through water by ❖ EXTRA CELLELULAR COMPONENTS AND CONNECTIONS
cilia or flagella BETWEEN CELLS HELP COORDINATE CELLULAR ACTIVITIES

➢ Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns ➢ Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external
to the plasma membrane
 ➢ These extracellular materials and structures are involved in a ➢ ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma
great many cellular functions membrane called integrins
❖ CELL WALL
➢ The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes
plant cells from animal cells
➢ Prokaryotes, fungi, and some unicellular eukaryotes also
have cell walls
➢ The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and
prevents excessive uptake of water
➢ Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in
other polysaccharides and protein
➢ Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:
▪ Primary cell wall: Relatively thin and flexible
➢
▪ Middle lamella: Thin layer between primary walls of
adjacent cells ❖ CELL JUNCTIONS
▪ Secondary cell wall (in some cells): Added between ➢ Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often
the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical
contact
❖ PLASMODESMATA
➢ Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls
➢ Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and
sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell

➢
➢
❖ EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) OF ANIMAL CELLS
➢ Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate
extracellular matrix (ECM)
➢ The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen,
proteoglycans, and fibronectin
❖ SUMMARY

➢
➢

➢
REFERENCES
• Powerpoint
• Lecture notes from discussion of Ms. Mojica
• BIOLOGY A GLOBAL APPROACH VOL 1