Copyright  2019 by CUST Student

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part in any form requires the prior
written permission of Asad Farooq, Waqas Mumtaz, Saad Tafseer or designated
representative.

ii
 DECLARATION

It is declared that this is an original piece of my own work, except where

otherwise acknowledged in text and references. This work has not been submitted in
any form for another degree or diploma at any university or other institution for tertiary
education and shall not be submitted by me in future for obtaining any degree from this
or any other University or Institution.

Asad Farooq
BME-153060

Waqas Mumtaz
BME-153070

Saad Tafseer
BME-153073

July 2019

iii
 C ER TI FICA TE O F AP PROVA L

It is certified that the project titled “Cooling Tower Design & its Model Fabrication for
1kW Steam Power Plant” carried out by Asad Farooq, BME153060, Waqas Mumtaz
BME153070, Saad Tafseer Bme153073 under the supervision of Dr. Liaquat Ali Khan,
Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad, is fully adequate, in scope and
in quality, as a final year project for the degree of BS of Mechanical Engineering

Supervisor: -------------------------
Mr. Atif Bin Asghar
Ast. Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad

HOD: ----------------------------
Dr. Imtiaz Ahmad Taj
Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would first like to thank my supervisors Mr. Atif Bin Asghar & Dr. Liaqat Ali Khan
of Capital University of Science and Technology. The door to their office was always
open whenever I ran into a trouble spot or had a question about my project or writing.
They consistently allowed this project to be my own work, but steered me in the right
the direction whenever he thought I needed it.
We would also like to thank our parents and friends without them it was not possible to
complete this project. They helped us when we needed them and never turned their back
on us. So,
This is for you

v
 ABSTRACT
A cooling tower is a vital element of power plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum
refineries, semi-conductor plants, natural gas processing plants, food processing plants,
etc. The major function of a cooling tower is to discard heat into the environment. The
major types of cooling towers are the mechanical draft (induced draft) and natural draft
cooling towers. Very large concrete chimneys are used by the natural draft cooling
tower to introduce air through the media. Mechanical draft cooling towers use large
fans to suck or force air through circulated water overfill. The waterfalls downhill over
the fill media, which helps to increase the contact time between the air and the water,
this helps to maximize heat transfer between them. The counter-flow and cross flows
are two elementary designs of induced (mechanical) cooling tower. It is well known
that heat exchange in counter flow is more effective than heat exchange in cross-flow
or parallel flow.
This report includes the performance study, working principle, and analysis of induced
draft cooling tower, which is one of the deciding factors used for increasing the power
plant efficiency. Calculations are done for 1kW steam power plant and also for cooling
tower. 3D modelling of induced draft cooling tower is also done using Creo Parametric
3.0.

1
 Table of Contents
DECLARATION ...................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................... v
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................... 1
LIST OF ACRONYMS/SYMBOLS .......................................................... 7
Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................... 8
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 8
1.1 History ............................................................................................................. 8
1.2 Overview ......................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Problem Statement .......................................................................................... 9
1.4 Specifications ................................................................................................ 11
1.5 Purpose of the project .................................................................................... 11
1.6 Applications .................................................................................................. 12
1.7 Engineers and Society ................................................................................... 12
1.8 Project Plan ................................................................................................... 13
1.9 Report Organization ...................................................................................... 13
Chapter 2 ................................................................................................... 14
LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 14
2.1 Background Theory ....................................................................................... 14
2.2 Condenser Case Study................................................................................... 16
2.3 Related Technologies .................................................................................... 16
2.1.1 Hybrid Cooling Technologies ................................................................ 16
2.1.2 Benefits .................................................................................................. 17
2.2 Maximizing cooling tower technology for HVAC ....................................... 17
2.2.1 Reducing Installation Costs ................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Reducing Field-Erection Costs .............................................................. 18
2.2.3 Advantages of Cooling Tower New Design .......................................... 18
2.3 Limitations .................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................. 20
PROJECT DESIGN ................................................................................................. 20
3.1 Calculations ................................................................................................... 20

2
 3.1.1 Design of Steam Power Plant: ............................................................... 20
3.1.2 Cooling tower......................................................................................... 22
3.1.3 Condenser Calculations: ........................................................................ 25
3.2 Creo Modelling ............................................................................................. 26
3.2.1 Honey Comb Structure .......................................................................... 26
3.2.2 Fan.......................................................................................................... 27
3.2.3 Sprinkler Mechanism ............................................................................. 28
3.2.4 Housing .................................................................................................. 28
3.2.4 Assembly................................................................................................ 29
3.3 Details of Simulations ................................................................................... 29
3.4 Details of Final Working Prototype .............................................................. 30
Chapter 4 ................................................................................................... 31
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES.................................................................. 31
4.1 Software Tools Used ..................................................................................... 31
4.1.1 Engineering Equation Solver (EES) ...................................................... 31
4.1.2 PTC Creo ............................................................................................... 31
4.1.3 ANSYS Fluent ....................................................................................... 31
4.2 Hardware Tools Used .................................................................................... 32
Chapter 5 ................................................................................................... 33
PROJECT RESULTS ............................................................................... 33
5.1 Presentation of the findings ........................................................................... 33
5.1.1 Experimental Results ............................................................................. 33
5.1.2 Software Results .................................................................................... 34
5.1.3 Velocity Analysis ................................................................................... 34
i. Geometry: ...................................................................................................... 34
ii. Modeling:................................................................................................... 34
iii. Setup: ......................................................................................................... 34
iv. Solution:..................................................................................................... 34
v. Results: ...................................................................................................... 35
vi. Velocity along y direction: ........................................................................ 36
vii. Velocity in z direction: .............................................................................. 36
viii. Velocity is stationary frame:...................................................................... 37

3
 ix. Velocity Streamlines: ................................................................................ 37
5.1.4 Pressure Distribution on fan blades: ...................................................... 38
5.2 Verification of design functionalities ............................................................ 38
5.3 Discussion on the findings ............................................................................ 38
5.3.1 Comparison with Project Specifications ................................................ 38
5.4 Limitations of the working prototype............................................................ 39
Chapter 4 ................................................................................................... 40
Conclusions............................................................................................... 40
REFERENCES ......................................................................................... 41
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 42
Appendix – A ....................................................................................................... 42
Appendix – B ....................................................................................................... 43
Appendix – C ....................................................................................................... 44

4
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Natural & Forced Draft Cooling Tower ....................................................... 10
Figure 2: Gantt chart .................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3: Counter Flow ................................................................................................ 15
Figure 4: Cross Flow .................................................................................................... 15
Figure 5: Hybrid Cooling System ................................................................................ 17
Figure 6: T-s Diagram .................................................................................................. 20
Figure 7: Heat transfer characteristic of packing with different spacing and surface
roughness ..................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 8: Honey Comb Structure ................................................................................. 27
Figure 9: Exhaust Fan .................................................................................................. 27
Figure 10: Sprinkler Mechanism ................................................................................. 28
Figure 11: Housing ...................................................................................................... 29
Figure 12: Assembly .................................................................................................... 29
Figure 13: Line 1 .......................................................................................................... 35
Figure 14: Line 2 .......................................................................................................... 35
Figure 15: Velocity along y axis .................................................................................. 36
Figure 16: Velocity along z axis .................................................................................. 36
Figure 17: Velocity in stn frame .................................................................................. 37
Figure 18: Velocity streamlines ................................................................................... 37
Figure 19: Pressure on fan blades ................................................................................ 38

5
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Table of Enthalpies ........................................................................................ 21
Table 2: Cooling Tower Enthalpies ............................................................................. 23
Table 3: Fill Type Selection ......................................................................................... 24
Table 4: Straight Tube Condenser ............................................................................... 26
Table 5: Helical Tube Condenser ................................................................................ 26
Table 6: Experimental Results ..................................................................................... 33

6
 LIST OF ACRONYMS/SYMBOLS
LMTD Log Mean Temperature Difference
FRP Fiber Reinforced Polymer
R Radius
V Volume
w Relative humidity ratio
ε Effectiveness
x Quality
ŋ Efficiency
h Enthalpy
s Entropy
K Mass transfer coefficient
α Surface area
hi Mean water enthalpy
ha Mean air enthalpy
HL Heat lost by water
HG Heat gained by air

7
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Every power plant or larger industrial facility produces excessive heat that cannot be
used further. This heat has to be transferred to the environment. If there are water
reservoirs (sea, lakes or rivers) nearby in which the heat can be transferred without
environmental concerns, this is the cheapest and easiest way. But unfortunately, this is
not often the case and so alternative cooling methods need to be invented and used. One
especially well known is the cooling tower, because it is a land mark and is often
mistaken for a chimney. [1]

1.1 History
The idea of cooling towers manufacturing begins in 19th century to improve the use of
condenser in power plants. Condenser generally uses cool water, this is done by
different methods, to collect the steam coming from turbines. This decreases the amount
of back pressure produced the back, which eventually decreases the utilization of steam,
hence fuel consumption also decrease eventually. The condensers requires large
amount of circulating water that converts the liquid vapor mixture into saturated liquid
form without this the condensers are useless and unrealistic. The utilization of cooling
water in power plants is evaluated to decrease control accessibility for most of warm
power plants by 2040–2069. While water utilization isn't an issue for marine engines,
it shapes a critical confinement for some, land-based frameworks.

By the turn of the twentieth century, a few evaporative techniques for reusing cooling
water were being used in territories coming up short on a set up water supply, just as in
urban areas where metropolitan water mains may not be of adequate supply; solid in
the midst of interest; or generally satisfactory to address cooling issues. In territories
with accessible land, the frameworks appeared as cooling lakes; in regions with
restricted land, for example, in urban communities, they appeared as cooling towers.
[2]

These cooling towers were either installed on the housetops or in some unsupported
construction, with air is provided through fans thrust or relying on normal wind stream.

8
Through American building course of 1911 depicted a way which is either considered
round or light plate of rectangular shell In actuality, a smokestack is located vertically
(20 to 40 ft. high) and especially broadened horizontally. On the upper portion consists
of a lot of apropos troughs, which is used siphoned the water coming from the
condenser; from where it fall down on "mats" which is comprised of wooden supports
or screens with woven wire, which cover the remaining left space interior of the
pinnacle.

Two Dutch engineers patented a hyperboloid cooling tower for the first time in 1918. It
was then first brought to physical form in the vicinity of Heerlen in 1918. The United
Kingdom first used it in 1924 in Lister Drive power station located in Liverpool,
England, which further use to cool water used in coal-fired electrical power station. [3]

1.2 Overview
Cooling towers are a significant part of many chemical plants. The essential assignment
of a cooling tower is to reject waste warmth into the environment through the cooling
of a water stream to a lower temperature. They speak to generally economical and
reliable methods for expelling poor quality warmth from cooling water. The make-up
water source is utilized to repay water lost to dissipation.
High temp water from heat exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The water leaves
the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to different units for further
cooling. Cooling towers can bring down the water temperatures more than gadgets that
utilizes just air to reject heat, similar to the radiator in a vehicle, and are along these
lines more financially savvy and vitality effective.
The size of cooling towers vary from very small units to big structures.
The hyperboloid cooling towers are regularly connected with nuclear power plants,
despite the fact that they are additionally used somewhat in some enormous synthetic
and other mechanical plants. In spite of the fact that these huge towers are noticeable,
most by far of cooling towers is a lot littler scale. [4]

1.3 Problem Statement

The fabrication of cooling tower is based on different parameters. Cooling towers are
not only utilized in nuclear power plants yet additionally they are utilized in numerous
other traditional power plants to expel abundance procedure heat from the framework.
It is most critical to build the pinnacle such that it should satisfy every one of the
9
requests the various gatherings have towards it. Cooling towers are divided into two
different kinds:
 Natural Draft
 Forced Draft

Figure 1: Natural & Forced Draft Cooling Tower

Natural Draft towers uses the buoyancy force. The heat is exchanger when the air rises
up in the chimney and the water is sprayed down under the action of gravity. There is
no fan installed in these towers, they only work on natural convection. The disadvantage
with natural draft cooling towers is that its range is less than other designs. The water
in the cooling circuit is not evaporated and hence the problems that are associated with
mineral deposits can be avoided.
In Mechanical Draft cooling towers convection in the tower is not natural but it is also
increased by the use of an induced fan.
Another classification is based on flow of air and water. [5]
Wet towers utilize the phenomena of evaporation to cool the water. Advantage is that
it is simple and cost is low.
The water that evaporates must be refilled since moist air takes a certain quantity of
water with it that is running in the loop.
The wet-dry cooling towers use the phenomena of both wet and dry cooling towers.
This technology is called hybrid technology and it is discussed in the chapter below. It
has more advantages than the dry and wet cooling towers. Dry cooling towers are

10
actually heat exchangers. There is no direct interaction between the two fluids that are
running in the loop. It is just like a shell and tube heat exchanger.
We are going to fabricate an induced draft cooling tower with a minimum range of
10˚C. The cooling tower will give a temperature gradient of 10˚C even in the most
humid conditions as its will be designed on extreme weather conditions. We will be
analyzing its different characteristics that are important for designing a cooling tower.

1.4 Specifications
Following are the specification of the project,
 As we are designing an induced draft cooling tower. In this type of cooling tower
an exhaust fan is located at the top of cooling tower which sucks the air from bottom
opening of cooling tower.

 For fill medium honey comb structure is used because it has greater surface area so
it provides good heat transfer. The honeycomb fills can supply good laminar
conditions and ensure the high efficiency of particle precipitation without being
disturbing by the turbulent flow. Additional, it can speed up the filtration of water
and particle and shorten precipitation distance.

 Sprinkler mechanism is used for spraying water from the top in cooling towers. The
sprinkler mechanism has set of pipes. The pipe has holes in it to spray the water.
The sprinkler mechanism is mounted on the center pipe of the cooling tower just
above the fills. The sprinkler rotates due to the pressure of circulating water.

 Counter flow towers have draught fan on top that is coupled to motor. The fan
on the top acts as an exhaust fan. Fan sucks the air inside tower. As a
consequence, air velocity at exit section is greater. This result in low pressure
drop and also lower circulation.

 Environmental friendly as the body of tower is made up of fiber reinforced polymer

(FRP) so it can withstand extreme weather conditions and it is also corrosion
resistant which makes it cost effective. The body is also light weight as compared
to the cooling towers have steel or wood bodies. It can be moved easily.

1.5 Purpose of the project

The main purposes of this project is as follows,

11
 Estimate the correct tower height which would give a sufficient range
 To study effect of different parameters such as water flow rate, air flow rate, inlet
water temperature, air wet bulb temperature etc. on the performance of the cooling
tower.
 To model and fabricate the efficient prototype of induced draft cooling tower.

1.6 Applications
The prime use of the cooling tower is to block out the heat absorbed in the moving
cooling water system. The application of cooling tower is as follows,
 Natural gas processing plants
 Power plants
 Petrol Pumps
 Food processing plants
 Petrochemical plants
 Semiconductor plants
 Petroleum refineries and more. [6]

1.7 Engineers and Society

Engineers are the main key that influence our society because they play important part
for developing and progress of a society. They not only contribute towards society
through new technologies or research but also they try to keep the environment clean.
Our project is about cooling tower for steam power a plant. Cooling tower is used to
convert liquid vapour mixture into saturated liquid form in order to do this water is
continuously circulated from the shell of condenser. The environment of the world
changing rapidly. But cooling towers are designed to decrees air pollution as much as
they can but somehow it effects the environment. The hot air leaving the cooling tower
carries moisture which results in increase in humidity and temperature of atmosphere.
Drift is a phenomena in cooling tower in which water droplets mixed with harmful
chemical are carried out from the cooling towers which is a serious concern. In order
to minimize the drift phenomena, drift eliminates are installed in cooling tower. They
trap the water droplet carried by air and allows them to fall back in cooling tower.
Another serious concern is blowdown phenomena. When evaporation occurs the
reaming water becomes saturated with harmful chemicals, minerals and other
undesirable elements. That saturated water is thrown in the environment. In order to

12
minimize those risks water is treated properly and if required they dumped the
blowdown properly so that it does not affect the environment. But it is not really bad
for environment as compared to power plant waste

1.8 Project Plan

This is the proposed breakdown and tentative time of the project which we tried to
follow. We divided each activity in small span of time and also divide the project load
among each group member so that we could finished our project in a given span of
time.

Figure 2: Gantt chart

1.9 Report Organization

The whole project is divided into various parts and the report is organized according
to the plan of the tasks which is performed,
 Introduction
 Literature Review
 Methodology/ Project Design & Implementation
 Tools and Technologies Used
 Project Results and Evaluation
 Conclusions

13
Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Cooling tower are the main components of power plants now and many through years.
Cooling towers are gear gadgets that are used to disseminate heat from condensers,
compressors in petroleum industry and also used with air handling units. Multiple
factors affect the overall performance of cooling tower such as water temperature, air
temperature and humidity.

2.1 Background Theory

There are essentially two sorts of cooling towers, dry and wet. There is no evaporation
in dry towers since there is no direct contact of water and air. The cooling is caused
distinctly by the warmth trade or convective cooling. Since warmth trade is generally
poor in air, the surface territory should be enormous to redress. In the wet cooling
towers the air is in direct contact with water and the cooling is caused generally by
vanishing and is considerably more productive. A tuft is framed in these towers which
is a haze of little beads. [7]
There is also the option of counter-flow and cross flow design.
Counter Flow Cooling Tower
Counter flow towers have draught fan on top that is coupled to motor. The fan on
the top acts as an exhaust fan. Fan sucks the air inside tower. As a consequence ,
air velocity at exit section is greater. This result in low pressure drop and also
lower circulation.

This tower operates on counter stream system, in which air goes vertically
upwards through the fillings/pressing, while water comes downwards. This
configuration is used for the application, where cold water temperature is more
critical. Since in counter stream the surface zone is more prominent because of
fill medium and as we probably am aware the more prominent the surface zone
more noteworthy will be the warmth move.

14
Prime advantage of this design is water comes into contact with unsaturated air
resulting in the maximum performance of tower. Being an enclosed device,
counter stream tower dispenses with likelihood of daylight presentation of water
which minimizes possible growth of algae.

Figure 3: Counter Flow

Cross Flow Cooling Tower

In this design air is flowing through fills horizontally and water falls down
vertically. Cross stream towers incorporate sprinkle type fillings, which are
appropriate for application where water has higher suspended particles.

Figure 4: Cross Flow

Another disadvantage is that some part of air leaves tower unsaturated, due to
which efficiency decreases. [8]

15
2.2 Condenser Case Study
The goal of this work is to determine the heat transfer characteristics for a helical coil
heat exchanger by varying the stream rates for parallel flow type and to compare the
same with straight tube heat exchanger.
Comparative analysis is being carried out between helical coil heat exchanger and
straight tube heat exchanger, the effectiveness of heat exchanger changes as the flow
rate for hot and cold water changes. When cold water mass flow rate is kept as constant
and hot water mass flow rate is increased the effectiveness decreases. Increase in cold
water mass flow rate for constant hot water mass flow rate resulted in increase in
effectiveness. For both helical coil and straight tube heat exchangers with parallel and
counter flow configuration this result obtained. Helical coil counter flow is most
effective in all these conditions and straight tube parallel flow heat exchanger is least
effective.
Values are taken from experimental setup and LMTD method is applied for both
exchangers. By calculating the Log mean temperature difference we calculated the
effectiveness for both cases.

2.3 Related Technologies

2.1.1 Hybrid Cooling Technologies
While the petrochemical and pharmaceutical businesses work in drastically various
markets, there is a lot of shared characteristic in the physical preparing plants especially
with respect to alleviating overabundance heat age. Water-cooled frameworks work
superbly of taking care of the high warmth dismissal necessities of modern cooling
needs. Sadly, proceeding with dry seasons and an unnatural weather change are
constraining the accessibility and raising the expense of cosmetics water utilized in
cooling towers in numerous locales. Water-cooled frameworks additionally create a
huge wastewater stream to moderate development of solids in the coursing cooling
water circle, an issue when districts limit the sum as well as nature of wastewater
release. Allowing can be a noteworthy issue blocking new establishments in water-
compelled territories. [9]
Luckily, there's a superior arrangement: a Blue Stream hybrid cooling system that
upgrades utilization of two cooling innovations in a solitary working framework.
Utilized related to a customary cooling tower, the Blue Stream half breed cooling

16
framework can decrease water utilization by up to 80%. It is exceptionally compelling
over a tremendous scope of climate conditions, as it consequently adjusts to use the
most effective mix of water-and air-cooled frameworks (both exclusively and at the
same time) because of utility rates, temperature and burden request. The framework's
secluded plan is profoundly versatile, with the capacity to add numerous units in
parallel to deal with the biggest cooling necessities. Key center innovation inside the
Blue Stream half and half cooling framework is the Thermosiphon cooler, a dry-heat
dismissal unit intended to fill in as a supplement to your cooling tower framework.

Figure 5: Hybrid Cooling System

2.1.2 Benefits

 It will reduce the water consumption up to 80% through utilization of wet cooling
when weather is hot and dry cooling when it’s not hot.
 It functions effectively over a vast range of weather conditions
 Offers savvy arrangement in both retrofitting of existing structures and new
development
 Incorporates an assortment of metal parts to guarantee similarity with existing virus
water circles [9]

2.2 Maximizing cooling tower technology for HVAC

Ongoing advancements in production line collected cooling tower innovation can build
cooling limit per cell by up to 50%, extending the applications for alleged "bundle"
towers supporting HVAC and modern procedures. Despite the fact that field-raised
towers have for quite some time been the favored item for procedure cooling in power
plants and overwhelming industry, new strong structures and materials combined with

17
cost-sparing structure strategies currently make another age of secluded items sensible
options for a more extensive scope of utilizations. [10]

2.2.1 Reducing Installation Costs

In HVAC applications, energy is the most important criteria for the end clients, who
primarily focus on manufacturing technologies that would decrease energy
consumption. This cooling tower is designed in such a way that it would increase
overall 50% efficiency per cell and consumed up to 35% less fan power per tonnage of
cooling.

2.2.2 Reducing Field-Erection Costs

A noteworthy worry for enormous power and substantial modern ventures is the
expense of cooling tower development. Tower segments are normally dispatched to the
site over a time of weeks, as the structure procedure progresses. It can take 20 weeks
or more for segments on a run of the mill field-raised undertaking to land nearby. The
procedure includes enormous work powers and extensive arranging territories, which
add to high development costs. Complex mechanical ventures additionally uplift
wellbeing and security concerns and climate issues can affect finish.

On the other hand, pre-assembled cooling towers are built in a controlled factory
environment and shipped within minimum time. The components are assembled
together on site in about 20% of time is required in field. The secluded plan and factory
gathering procedure decrease nearby work, work span, and arranging zone necessities
and add to a more secure workplace.

2.2.3 Advantages of Cooling Tower New Design

These new technologies cooling tower is developed in overwhelming factory
electrifies, hardened steel and designed to resists the requests of substantial mechanical
applications. Propelled float eliminators are used which accomplish the most minimal
quantifiable float rate of circling water stream, so less amount of water gets waste away
from pinnacle. What's more, accommodation highlights make reviews and upkeep less
confounded and more secure. These incorporate seven-foot high access entryways and
a far reaching inside with administration decks. Cooling towers are normally intended
to fulfil summer cooling need. In pre-assembled towers the cross flow design allows

18
“variable flow” operation, which reduces flow rate of water and also its energy
consumption during months when temperature is low. In the other hand, the counter
flow type use in cooling tower does not promptly permits variations in flow rate.
Ccrossflow structure additionally naturally shields cold water bowls from solar energy
presentation, reducing the algae growth. In conditions where temperature is low,
crossflow type helps in averting high breezes from preventing water loss, which can
lead to icing and other safety concerns. [10]

2.3 Limitations
Induced draft cooling tower is highly effective but there are also some drawbacks
which are listed below:
 As we know that evaporation take place in all temperature so some of the water
loss take place due to evaporation. As evaporation consists of pure water that
leaves minerals and salts behind which results in scaling in cooling tower and it
is also not possible to use distilled water on such a big scale. To overcome this
loss blowdown method is used. Blowdown is the required amount of circulating
water that is extracted from the tower to maintain the quantity of salts and other
impurities.
 Cooling towers are not suitable for indoor areas as they will increase the
humidity. So they only work properly if place outside at atmospheric conditions.
 Some of the water droplets are lost and being carried out with exhaust air. So to
minimize this loss drift eliminators are placed in cooling tower at top
positionthat catches the maximum amount of water droplets from air and
returned them into collecting basin.
 In winters cooling towers work more efficiently as the air is dry and absorbs
maximum moisture but in summer humidity ratios are high.

19
Chapter 3

PROJECT DESIGN

In this chapter we will discuss about what and how calculations are done and will also
discuss about design of an induced draft cooling tower.

3.1 Calculations
For 5kW power plant and for the cooling tower the calculations are done separately.
We assumed the weather conditions of Islamabad in July for designing of cooling
tower.

3.1.1 Design of Steam Power Plant:

For design of steam power plant we have not used any open and closed feed water
heater because in small steam power plants we don’t use any feed water heaters.
Steam is superheated to a temperature of 600˚C
Boiler Pressure is 2MPa
Condenser Pressure is 0.008MPa
TS Diagram:

Figure 6: T-s Diagram

20
 Point Superheat Pressure(MPa) Entropy(kJ/kg.k) Enthalpy(kJ/kg)
Temp(˚C)
1 600 2 7.702 3690.1
2 - 0.008 8.253 2411.1
3 - - 0.5926 173.88
4 - - - 175.88
Table 1: Table of Enthalpies

h1 @ T1 and P1=3690.1KJ/kg

s1 @ T1 and P1=7.702KJ/kg.k

As, sg at point 2 is greater than s1 so point 2 lies inside the dome

To find enthalpy at Point 2, we need to calculate quality x6,

𝑠2 − 𝑠𝑓
𝑥2 =
𝑠𝑔 − 𝑠𝑓

𝑠2 = 𝑠1 = 7.702𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝑘

𝑠𝑓 = 0.5926 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑔 = 8.2287 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝑘

𝑥2 = 0.9310

ℎ2 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥2 ℎ𝑓𝑔

ℎ𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑓𝑔 @ 0.008 𝑀𝑃𝑎

ℎ𝑓 = 173.88 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔

ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2403.1 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔

ℎ2 = 2411.16 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔

ℎ3 = ℎ𝑓 @ 0.008 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 173.88 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔

ℎ4 = ℎ3 + 𝑣3 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )

𝑣7 = 𝑣𝑓 @ 0.008 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 1.0084 × 10 − 3 𝑚3/𝑘𝑔

21
 ℎ4 = 175.888𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
𝜂=
𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝜂 =36%
𝑤𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 =
𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
𝑤𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =5kW
𝑚1 = 14.09 kg/hr
To find mass flow rate of circulating water apply energy balance on condenser
𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ3 )
𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
ℎ𝑐𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ℎ𝑐𝑤𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.2094 kg/sec

3.1.2 Cooling tower

Heat Lost by Water:
𝐻𝐿 = 𝑚𝑤 × 𝐶𝑃𝑊 × 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝐻𝐿 =753.84×4.19×10
𝐻𝐿 =31560.26 kJ/hr
By doing iterations we calculate exit wet bulb temperature of air:
𝐻𝐿 × 𝑉𝑆1
𝑉=
(𝐻𝑎2 − 𝐻𝑎1) − (Ѡ2 − Ѡ1 )𝐶𝑝𝑤 × 𝑇2
Enthalpies and humidity ratio are taken from psychometric chart at Point 1 and Point
2,
At point 1; 𝑇𝑑𝑏 = 34˚𝐶 and 80% relativity humidity: 𝑇𝑤𝑏 = 31˚𝐶
At point 2; 𝑇𝑑𝑏 = 41˚𝐶 and 𝑇𝑤𝑏 = 33˚𝐶
𝑉𝑠1 = 0.905 𝑚3/𝑘𝑔
𝐻𝑎2 = 117𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝐻𝑎1 = 105.337
Ѡ2 = 0.029
Ѡ1 = 0.028
31560.26 × 0.905
𝑉=
(117 − 105.337) − (0.02900 − 0.02800) × 4.19 × 36
𝑉 = 2481.06m3/hr

22
 𝑉[(𝐻𝑎2 − 𝐻𝑎1 ) − (𝑤2 − 𝑤1 ) × 𝐶𝑝𝑤 × 𝑇2 ]
𝐻𝐺 =
𝑉𝑠1
𝐻𝐺 =31560.68kJ/hr
To find the height of fill we will use Merkel equation which is given by:
𝐾𝑎𝑉 1
= 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 × 𝐶𝑝𝑤 ×
𝐿 ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑎
The cooling Tower is imagined to be divided into 10 sections so that the integral can
be computed in an efficient manner.
The energy balance at the bottom section gives
𝐿
ℎ𝑎,1 − ℎ𝑎,𝑜 = ×4.19×1
𝐺

ℎ𝑎,1 − ℎ𝑎,𝑜 =6.6701 KJ/kg

Average hi is calculated at mean water temperature from Table A2 (Moist Air Table)
between two divided sections,
Whereas average ha is calculated at inlet air temperature and the difference is added
At air inlet the enthalpy from at Tdb=34C and 80% enthalpy is 105.337 KJ/kg and
6.607kJ/kg is added.
The average of 105.337kJ/kg and 111.944kJ/kg is taken which is 108.0415kJ/kg.
Section Mean Water Average Average (hi-ha)m 1/(hi-ha)m
Temperature(˚C) ha,kJ/kg hi,kJ/kg
1 36.5 108.0415 139.70 31.06 0.032
2 37.5 115.2475 146.94 31.69 0.031
3 38.5 121.854 154.55 32.69 0.030
4 39.5 128.461 162.53 34.06 0.029
5 40.5 135.068 170.90 35.83 0.027
6 41.5 141.675 179.69 38.01 0.026
7 42.5 148.282 188.93 40.64 0.024
8 43.5 154.889 198.63 43.74 0.022
9 44.5 161.490 208.83 47.34 0.021
10 45.5 168.103 219.56 51.42 0.019
Table 2: Cooling Tower Enthalpies

By putting the values in right side on Merkel equation;

𝐾𝑎𝑉
=11.3346
𝐿

23
Here ‘K’ is mass transfer coefficient and ‘a’ is contact area per unit volume and L is
the water flow rate
Value of ‘K’ and ‘a’ are taken from the table given below at L/G ratio=1.577 and type
C1

Figure 7: Heat transfer characteristic on different liquid to gas ratio

Table 3: Fill Type Selection

𝐾 = 0.06𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑎 = 200𝑚−1
11.33 × 0.209
𝑉=
200 × 0.06
𝑉 =0.197m3
We chose the area of fill as circle and we fix the area to calculate the height of fill;
Area of circle is given by:
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
R = 14in= 0.3551m
𝐴 = 𝜋0.35512
𝐴 =0.397m
𝑉
𝐻=
𝐴
24
 0.197
𝐻=
0.397
H=1.63 ft
Now we will calculate the approach and effectiveness of cooling tower
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ = 𝑇𝑐.𝑤 − 𝑇𝑤.𝑏
Cold water is exiting at 36˚C and the air wet bulb is 31˚C
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ =3˚C
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Є=
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 + 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ
10
Є=
10 + 5
Є =66.66%
Makeup water needed is calculated by:
𝑉[Ѡ2 − Ѡ1 ]
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑢𝑝 =
𝑉𝑠2
V=2148.01m3/hr,
Vs2=0.9275m3/kg (From psychometric chart)
Ѡ2=0.029
Ѡ1=0.028
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑢𝑝 =2.31kg/hr

3.1.3 Condenser Calculations:

Condenser calculations for straight and helical tube are done. LMTD method is used
to calculate the effectiveness of the two different tubes. The values are taken from
internet source and formulas are applied to calculate the effectiveness.
The flow type for condensers is parallel flow.
For parallel flow heat exchanger the effectiveness is given by:
𝑞
∈=
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ,𝑖− 𝑇𝑐,𝑖 )
And for condensers which have two identical fluids in the shell and tube side such as
for water, Cmin=Ch
𝑞 = 𝐶ℎ (𝑇ℎ,𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ,𝑜 )
In parallel flow heat exchangers temperature drop is
ΔT1=Th,i-Tc,i
ΔT2=Th,o-Tc,o

25
 ∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
∆𝑇
ln ∆𝑇1
2

For Straight Tubes:

Sr.No ΔT1 ΔT2 LMTD Th,i-Th,o Effectiveness
1 44.4 6 19.186 19.73 0.444
2 47.6 4.9 18.781 25.56 0.537
3 52.1 9.4 24.935 30.53 0.586
4 47 6.5 20.472 20.868 0.444
5 47.3 5.9 19.889 25.400 0.537
6 55.8 8.6 25.240 47.76 0.586
Table 4: Straight Tube Condenser

For Helical Tubes:

Sr.No ΔT1 ΔT2 LMTD Th,i-Th,o Effectiveness
1 47.2 6.5 20.52 21.52 0.456
2 46.8 5.1 18.81 26.34 0.563
3 52.5 9.9 25.53 31.8 0.607
4 47.4 4 17.554 21.61 0.456
5 46 4.4 17.724 25.89 0.563
6 46.2 3.5 16.549 28.04 0.607
Table 5: Helical Tube Condenser

So from the calculations we see that overall effectiveness of helical coil condenser is
greater to the straight tube condenser. The temperature drop of hot water is also greater
in helical tube heat exchanger.

3.2 Creo Modelling

Following cooling tower components are designed on CREO parametric:

3.2.1 Honey Comb Structure

For fill medium honey comb structure is used because it has greater surface area so it
provides good heat transfer. The honeycomb fills can allows laminar conditions, also
allows large surface area which leads to high heat transfer and ensure the high

26
efficiency without being disturbing by the turbulent flow. Additional, it can speed up
the filtration of water and particle and shorten precipitation distance.

Additional, it can speed up the filtration of water and particle and shorten precipitation
dista nce.

Figure 8: Honey Comb Structure

3.2.2 Fan
In induced draft cooling towers fan in mounted at top of cooling tower. The function of
the fan is to introduce fresh air from atmosphere which came through the bottom of
cooling tower where it gets contacted with hot water sprinkling from the nozzles at the
top. When water and air gets into contacts heat transfer occurs.

Figure 9: Exhaust Fan

27
 3.2.3 Sprinkler Mechanism
Sprinkler mechanism is mounted below the exhaust fan. Its moves clockwise because
of the pressure caused by exhausted fan. The basic purpose of sprinkler mechanism is
to equally divide the hot water inside cooling tower. There are small holes in pipes of
sprinkler mechanism from where water is flowed down in the form of droplets.
Sprinkler mechanism is used for spraying water from the top in cooling towers. The
sprinkler mechanism has set of pipes. The pipe has holes in it to spray the water. The
sprinkler mechanism is mounted on the center pipe of the cooling tower just above the
fills. The sprinkler rotates due to the pressure of circulating water.

Figure 10: Sprinkler Mechanism

3.2.4 Housing
It is the main hull of cooling tower inside which all the components are assembled. The
body of cooling tower is made up of Fiber Reinforced Polyester. The reason of selection
of this material is that it is suitable for all weather condition and also corrosion resistant
material. This material can carry heavy loads and also inexpensive as compared to other
cooling tower materials. So this material is cost effective, low weight as compared to
steel and environment friendly so this is the best material for cooling tower
manufactured.

28
 Figure 11: Housing

3.2.4 Assembly
Here all the components are assembled inside the housing of cooling tower.

Figure 12: Assembly

The final assembly shows the fills, fan outer body and the inside pipe.

3.3 Details of Simulations

Different simulations are done on the fan of cooling tower and also on its body such
as

29
  Pressure analysis on fan
 Velocity analysis on fan

3.4 Details of Final Working Prototype

The final prototype consists of all the parts discussed above. Honeycomb structure fill
medium is used because it provides larger surface area so this increase the heat transfer.
Sprinkler mechanism, etc. Sprinkler mechanism is assembled below the exhaust fan. Its
moves clockwise because of the pressure caused by exhausted fan. The purpose of
sprinkler mechanism is to equally divide the hot water inside the cooling tower. There
are small holes in pipes of sprinkler mechanism from where water is flowed down in
the form of droplets. The fan motor is of 0.75hp and the pump is of 0.5 hp. The basic
purpose of sprinkler mechanism is to equally distribute the hot water inside the cooling
tower. There are small holes in pipes of sprinkler mechanism from where water is
flowed down in the form of droplets.
The flow rate of cooling tower as we calculated above in calculations is 12 L/min. To
control the mass flow rate we use control valve along with rotameter that measures the
flow rate. The fill type we used is C1 which is roughly packed. The height and diameter
of cooling tower is 62 inches and 28 inches respectively. Range of cooling tower is
approximately 130C and effectiveness is 66.66%. K-Type thermocouples are used to
measure the hot and cold water temperature. A temperature meter is also used to check
dry bulb and humidity of atmosphere.

30
Chapter 4

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

In this chapter, one will be providing the details of all the tools used in this project. This
includes hardware, software and simulation tools and designing tools that aided in this
project.

4.1 Software Tools Used

Following are the software that are being used for this project:
 EES
 PTC Creo Parametric 4.0
 ANSYS

4.1.1 Engineering Equation Solver (EES)

It is a general equation solver which can solve linear and differential equations. We
used this software to verify power plant calculation which are present in previous
chapter. By changing several parameters it can calculate the rest itself. For doing
iterations in power plant calculation this is the best software.

4.1.2 PTC Creo

PTC Creo Parametric is a 3-D modelling software which is used for designing of this
project. This software offers precise modeling capabilities which allow you to design
to the customer’s specifications rather than up to the software’s limitations. It provides
faster, more flexible part and assembling modeling Different parts of cooling tower
were modelled separately. After design of all parts were complete they were assembled
in final shape.

4.1.3 ANSYS Fluent

Fluent software contains the broad, physical modeling capabilities needed to model
flow, turbulence, heat transfer and reactions for industrial applications. By using this
software we did following analysis
 Velocity analysis on cooling tower fan
 Pressure analysis on cooling tower fan

31
  Thermal and pressure analysis on cooling tower body.

4.2 Hardware Tools Used

Different hardware tools are used for fabrication of cooling tower. The body of cooling
tower is made on machine die which came in standard sizes. Dies only made semi shape
(radius) of cooling tower so to join those shapes rivets or nut and bolts are use. Nut and
Bolts are also used to assemble fan on the top, sprinkler mechanism and fills. Adjustable
wrench is used for pipe fittings along Teflon tape in order to avoid leakage.

32
 Chapter 5

PROJECT RESULTS

In this chapter we will discuss the theoretical, experimental and simulation results after
testing. These results are compared to each other and variations in them are also
discussed. We also analyzed the reason for the shorts comings and limitations of the
prototype and the solution for the short coming and limitations are also discussed in
this chapter.

5.1 Presentation of the findings

After testing the results we found that our prototype worked efficiently compared to
theoretical results in present atmospheric conditions of July.

5.1.1 Experimental Results

Following are the experimental results which are obtained by testing the prototype at
the following water inlet conditions:
Air Dry Bulb Humidity Water Inlet Water Outlet Range
Temperature Temperature Temperature

34 51 52.5 39.7 12.8

35.5 59 60 46.3 13.7

39.4 49 46.5 34.2 12.3

Table 6: Experimental Results

Cooling Tower is tested on three different days. Humidity and temperature are distinct
on each day. The minimum humidity is 49% and the maximum temperature is 39.4 dry
bulb. The range is between 12 to 14 so we can say that our model is working efficiently
in less humid conditions, If it encounters a humidity of 80% it would still give a
minimum range of 10˚C. Because in maximum humid conditions the air is almost

33
saturated so its moisture absorbing capacity decreases and by following that the range
of cooling tower also decreases. The cooling tower would still work efficiently for
humidity of 80% as it is designed on summer most humid conditions.

5.1.2 Software Results

Different simulations are done on the fan of cooling tower and also on its body with the
help of ANSYS which are listed below;
 Velocity analysis on fan
 Pressure analysis on fan

5.1.3 Velocity Analysis

i. Geometry:
Geometry of fan is modelling on the software called Creo Parametric 4.0. After
modelling it was imported on software called ANSYS for simulation analysis

ii. Modeling:
The fluid flow we chose is fluent flow. Meshing is done in this step and the boundaries
are defined. The mesh is sliding mesh method. Domain is made so that the behavior of
velocity can be observed in the domain. The domain of the body is round as the cooling
tower we have made is circular in shape. We chose two outlets and the remaining
domain is selected is converted to walls. The mesh is then converted to fluent.

iii. Setup:
The simulation will be transient. The model will be k-epsilon. The flow will be air as
air flows inside the cooling tower. Cell zone conditions are defined as rotating body
conditions. In mesh motion we selected rotation axis in which the air is flowing. The
rotational velocity is given in rpm. The angular velocity is 750 rpm. The boundary
conditions are given from outlet 1.

iv. Solution:
The solution is initialized from hybrid initialization. In calculation activities we selected
the parameters that we need to analyze. The results of the quantities are saved. The
quantity we chose is velocity magnitude and pressure. Two lines are made to see the
velocity in two different directions one is drawn along the fan and the other is drawn
parallel to the fan.

34
 Figure 13: Line 1

The picture shows the line which is drawn along the fan till the domain. Velocity along
this line is shown in the graph.

Figure 14: Line 2

The picture shows the line that is drawn parallel to the fan. The magnitude of the
velocity will be given in the z direction.

v. Results:
Velocity results are generated in ANSYS in form of graphs. There are two velocity
graphs one for velocity in direction and the other graph is generated for velocity in y
direction. Each lines show the velocity along the along blades and around tithe graphs
are given below and the results coming from the graphs were also discussed.

35
vi. Velocity along y direction:

Figure 15: Velocity along y axis

The magnitude of velocity along line 1 is shown in this graph. As seen in the graph the
velocity is increasing in y direction. The velocity is increasing till a certain point and
then it starts decreasing. The velocity starts decreasing because the fan throws the
velocity till a certain point and then the magnitude decreases.

vii. Velocity in z direction:

Figure 16: Velocity along z axis

The graph shows the velocity variation along z axis. The line 2 is drawn parallel to the
fan. The velocity is increasing till a maximum point and then decreases and then
increases again. At the end the velocity again decreases. This is explained in velocity
is stationary frame.

36
viii. Velocity is stationary frame:

Figure 17: Velocity in stn frame

The velocity in stationary frame is shown in the picture above. The velocity along z
axis is varying in a unique fashion as we can see the light blue lines indicate the
maximum velocity and the in between the two light blue lines the velocity is nearly
equal to zero. The velocity is zero in the middle section approaches to zero because at
the centre the rotor is attached.

ix. Velocity Streamlines:

Figure 18: Velocity streamlines

37
The picture shows the suction side of the fan. The fan is sucking air from one side of
the domain that we had defined. The velocity magnitude is shown. The maximum
velocity is at the fan blades.

5.1.4 Pressure Distribution on fan blades:

Figure 19: Pressure on fan blades

The pressure distribution along the fan rotor and blades is shown. The material for fan
blades was selected as steel. The pressure is represented in bars. The pressure drops
across the blades as the velocity on the blades is maximum.

5.2 Verification of design functionalities

Experimental results was compared with theoretical results which are efficient as
compared to theoretical results. So from these results one can say that the prototype is
functioning efficiently

5.3 Discussion on the findings

From experiment results range comes between 120C to 140C and effectiveness comes
out to 66.66%. The standard cooling tower is designed for range 150C. Our results are
very close to the target value.

5.3.1 Comparison with Project Specifications

Initial claim was that our range will be 150C but we changed our conditions and
designed cooling tower for most humid conditions. After these changes now cooling
tower is working efficiently.

38
5.4 Limitations of the working prototype
Following are the limitation faced:
 It will work effectively in outdoor conditions.
 Will work for specific flow rate the flow rate is confined or limited to 16 LPM
by rotameter.
 It works only for small scale as at larger scale the temperature is higher and inlet
water temp will be high and it can only cool water up to the temperature gradient
of 200C as larger scale cooling tower requires min 200C range.

39
Chapter 4

Conclusions
The cooling tower systems are currently found almost in every industry we can imagine.
In this report we shed light on different types of cooling tower and also discussed the
flow types within the cooling tower. By the study we concluded that counter is more
efficient that cross flow as counter flow in cooling tower eliminates the possibility
of sunlight exposure of water. This minimizes the possibility of growth of algae .
It is also highlighted the new and efficient technologies which will be able to
replace cooling towers in a short time span.
Mathematical calculations are also being done for both 5kW steam power plant
and also for cooling tower keeping in mind the required parameters. For cooling
tower July weather conditions of Islamabad are being assumed as. 3D modeling
and simulations of cooling tower is also being done on Creo Parametric 4.0 and
on ANSYS.

40
 REFERENCES

[1] Marly, "What is cooling tower?," SPX Cooling Technologies, Inc. [Online].
[Accessed 26 january 2019].
[2] Liam, "The Secret History Of Cooling Tower Systems," RACK
MANUFACTURERS, [Online]. Available: http://rackmanufacturers.com/types-
cooling-towers-operate/. [Accessed 26 January 2019].
[3] M. A. E. Asadzadeh, "A Survey on Hyperbolic Cooling Towers," International
Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering, vol. 8, no. 10, p. 24, 2014.
[4] A. P. M. K. ,. A. P. D. S. Asst. Prof. Upasna Sethi, "A REVIEW IN DESIGN
AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF COOLING," International Research
Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), vol. 3, no. 12, p. 4, 2016.
[5] S. J. P. P. S. P. S. J. M. Manas M. Patil, "Design and Analysis of Cooling Tower,"
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) , vol. 5,
no. 2, p. 6, 2018.
[6] "Cooling Tower Applications," Tower Tech Cooling Systems Pvt. Ltd, [Online].
Available: https://www.towertechindia.com/cooling-tower-applications/.
[Accessed 27 january 2019].
[7] A. Löfgren, "Modeling & Simulation of a cooling tower with extended uses,"
Lund, Sweden, 2015.
[8] "COUNTER FLOW VS CROSS FLOW," DELTA COOLING TOWERS
P.LTD., [Online]. Available: http://www.deltacoolingtowers.in/counter-flow-vs-
cross-flow.html. [Accessed 27 january 2019].
[9] "HYBRID COOLING SYSTEMS," Johnson Controls, [Online]. Available:
https://www.johnsoncontrols.com/hybrid-cooling-systems. [Accessed 27 january
2019].
[10] S. MAURER, "ADVANCEMENTS IN COOLING TOWER TECHNOLOGY
AUGMENT HVAC AND INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES," Endeavor Business
Media, [Online]. Available:
https://www.processingmagazine.com/advancements-cooling-tower-technology-
augments-hvac-industrial-processes/. [Accessed 27 january 2019].

41
APPENDICES
Appendix – A
Psychrometric Chart

42
Appendix – B
Saturated water – Pressure table

43
Appendix – C
Superheated water table

44
45