Two complementary branches of science—anatomy and use it to locate appropriate blood vessels in which to feel pulses

physiology— and draw blood

Anatomy 2. Microscopic anatomy

Deals with structures too small to be
 studies the structure of body parts and seen with the naked eye. For most such studies, exceedingly thin
their relationships to one another slices of body tissues are stained and mounted on glass slides
 Anatomy has a certain appeal to be examined under the microscope.
because it is concrete. Subdivisions of microscopic anatomy
 Body structures can be seen, felt, and examined closely. You don’t need to Cytology- which considers
imagine what they look like. the cells of the body, and
Physiology Histology- the study of
tissues
 Concerns the function of the body, in other words, 3. Developmental anatomy
how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities. Traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life
span.
Topics of Anatomy
Anatomy is a broad feld with many subdivisions, each providing enough information Embryology - a subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns
to be a course in itself. developmental changes that occur before birth.
1. Gross, or macroscopic anatomy Some highly specialized branches of anatomy are used
Is the study of large body structures visible primarily for medical diagnosis and scientific research.
to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys. Pathological anatomy - studies structural changes
Gross anatomy can be approached in different ways. caused by disease.
Regional anatomy Radiographic anatomy- studies internal
All the structures (muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves, etc.) in a structures as visualized by X-ray images or
particular region of the body, such as the specialized scanning procedures.
abdomen or leg, are examined at the same time. Topics of Physiology
Systemic anatomy renal physiology - concerns kidney function and
Body structure is studied urine production.
system by system. For example, when studying the cardiovascular Neurophysiology -explains the workings
system, you would examine the heart and the blood vessels of the nervous system.
of the entire body. Cardiovascular physiology -examines the operation of the heart and blood
Surface anatomy, vessels.
the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying Cell Physiology – function of cells
skin surface. You use surface anatomy when you identify the bulging System Physiology – study of operation of systems
muscles beneath a bodybuilder’s skin, and clinicians Pathophysiology – functional changes associated with disease and aging
Exercise Physiology – changes in cell and organ functions during muscular
activity.
Endocrinology – hormones and how they control body functions
Immunology – study of body defense mechanism
Respiratory Physiology – study of functions of the air passageways and
lungs.
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
Chemical level
At this level, atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form
molecules such as water and proteins. Molecules, in turn, associate in
specifc ways to form organelles, basic components of the microscopic
cells.
All atoms and molecules essential for maintaining life.
Cellular level
Cells have some common functions, but individual cells vary
widely in size and shape, reflecting their unique functions in
the body.
Cells are the smallest units of living things
Tissue level.
Tissues are groups of similar cells that have
a common function.
The four basic tissue types in the human
body are epithelium, muscle, connective tissue, and nervous
tissue.
Epithelial/ Epithelium Tissue – covers the body surface, line hollows
organs, cavities and form glands.
Muscular Tissues – contracts to make body parts move and
generate.
Connective Tissue – connects, supports and protect body organ.
Nervous Tissue – carries information to one part to another.
Organ Level – formed by different kinds of tissues joined together
extremely complex functions become possible
Organs- structures composed of two or more different tissues
that have specific functions.
System Level – “organ system level” Organs that work together to
accomplish a common purpose make up an organ system
Organismic Level - represents the sum total of all structural levels working
together to keep us alive
Eleven system of the human body
 Integumentary
Components: the skin, hair, nails, sweat and oil glands
Functions: helps regulate body temperature, protects the body, Eliminates
some wastes, Helps produce Vitamin D, Receives certain stimuli such as
temperature, pressure, and pain
 Skeletal System
Components: all the bones of the body, cartilages, and joints.
Functions: Supports and protects the body, Assists in body movements,
Houses cells that give rise to blood cells, and Stores minerals.
 Muscular System
Components: all skeletal muscle tissues
Functions: Participates in bringing about movement, Maintains posture, and
Produces heat.
 Nervous System
Components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, special sense organs.
Function: generates action potential to regulate body activities; detects
changes in body’s internal and external environment, interprets changes, and
responds by causing muscular contraction or glandular secretions.
 Endocrine System
Components: all hormone-producing glands and cells.
Functions: Regulates body activities through hormones.
 Cardiovascular System
Components: blood, heart, and blood vessels
Functions: Distributes oxygen and nutrients to cells, Carries carbon dioxide
and wastes away from cells, Helps maintain the acid-base balance of the
 body, Protects against disease, Prevents haemorrhage, Helps regulate body
temperature.
 Lymphatic and Immune Systems
Components: Lymphatic fluid and vessels; vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph
nodes, and tonsils; cell that carry out immune responds.
Functions: returns proteins and plasma to the cardiovascular system,
Transports fats, Filters body fluid, Site of maturation and proliferation of
certain WBC, Helps protect against diseases.
 Respiratory System
Components: lungs and a series of passageways leading into and out of
them.
Functions: Supplies oxygen, Eliminates carbon dioxide, helps regulate the
acid-base balance of the body, Produces vocal sounds.
 Digestive System
Components: gastrointestinal Tract, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder,
pancreas.
Functions: Performs physical and chemical breakdown and absorption of
food, eliminates solid and other wastes.
 Urinary System
Components: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Functions: Regulates the volume and chemical composition of blood,
Eliminates wastes, Regulates fluid and electrolyte imbalance, Helps maintain
the acid-base and calcium balance of the body, Helps regulate RBC
production.
 Reproductive System
Components: testes and ovaries; uterine tubes and uterus in females,
epididymis, vas deferens and penis in males.
Function: Reproduces the organism.
Basic life process
 Metabolism - sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body.
Catabol – throwing down
Ism – a condition
Anabolism - build body’s structural and functional components
Catabolism – breaking down large, complex molecules.
 Responsiveness – the ability to detect and respond to changes in the
external/internal environment.
 Movement – includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single
cells, or even organelles inside cells.
 Growth – refers to an increase in size and complexity.
 Differentiation – the change that a cell undergoes from an unspecialized one
to a specialized one.
 Reproduction – either the formation of new cells for growth, repair, or
replacement, or the production of new individual.
Homo – same
Statis – still
Homeostasis – is the condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment
dues to the constant interaction of the body’s much regulatory process.
Intracellular fluid – fluid within cells
Extracellular fluid – fluid found outside body cells
Interstitial fluid – between cells of tissues
Blood Plasma – in the blood vessels
Lymph – fluid in the lymph capillaries
Cerebrospinal Fluid – fluid found the brain and spinal cord.
Synovial Fluid – fluid found in the joints.
Aqueous humour and Vitreous Body – ECF of the eyes
Stress – any stimulus that tends to create imbalance in the internal environment.
Feedback Systems
  Control Center – determines the point at which some aspect of the body,
called a controlled condition should be maintained.
 Receptor – monitors changes in the controlled condition and then sends the
information (input) to the control center.
 Effector – receives information (output) and produces a response.
CHAPTER 2
Cells— A living structural and functional units enclosed by a membrane.
- Cells are the building blocks of all living things
- Cells are not all the same
- All cells share general structures
- New cells arise only from other living cells by the process of cell division.
- Scattered throughout the nucleus.
- Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes when the cell divides.
2. Plasma membrane – separating cell’s internal environment and external
environment.
- Double phospholipid layer: Hydrophilic heads and Hydrophobic tails
- Also contains protein, cholesterol, and glycoproteins.
- Key role among in communication among cell.
- Contains the cytoplasm of the cell.
- Best describes by using structural model called the fluid mosaic model.
- A bilipid membranous layer composed of proteins and carbohydrates. It is
fluid like.
3. Cytoplasm –The jelly-like substance composed of mainly water and found
between the cell membrane and nucleus.

3 main regions of the cell

Components of cytoplasm:
1. Nucleus – Control center of the Cell for cell metabolism and reproduction.
- Contains DNA o Cytosol - the fluid portion of cytoplasm, also called intracellular fluid,
- The largest organelle in the cell. contains water, dissolved solutes, and suspended particles.
o Organelles – there are several types of organelles within the cytosol.
Genes - each chromosome, a single molecule of DNA associated with several
proteins, contains thousands of hereditary.
E.g. of organelles:
Three parts of nucleus
 Centrosome – Pair of centrioles plus pericentriolar material.
 Nuclear membrane – Barrier of nucleus - The pericentriolar material contains tubulins, which are used for growth of the
- Consists of a double phospholipid membrane mitotic spindle and microtubule formation.
- Contain nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with the rest of the  Cilia and flagella – Motile cell surface projections that contain 20
cell. microtubules and a basal body.
 Nucleus – contains one or more nucleoli - Cilia: move fluids over cell’s surface; flagella: move entire cell.
- Sites of ribosome production.  Ribosome – Composed of two subunits containing ribosomal RNA and
 Chromatin – Composed of DNA and protein. proteins; may be free in cytosol or attached to rough ER.
- Protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – Membranous network of flattened sacs or
tubules. Rough ER is covered by ribosomes and is attached to the nuclear
envelope; smooth ER lacks ribosomes.
- Rough ER: synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred
to cellular organelles, inserted into plasma membrane, or secreted during
exocytosis
- Smooth ER: synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, inactivates or detoxifies
drugs, removes phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate, and stores and
releases calcium ions in muscle cells.
 Golgi complex – Consists of 3–20 flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae; structurally and functionally divided into entry (cis) face, medial
cisternae, and exit (Trans) face.
- Entry (cis) face accepts proteins from rough ER; medial cisternae form
glycoproteins, glycolipids, and lipoproteins.
- Exit (trans) face modifies molecules further, then sorts and packages them
for transport to their destinations.
 Lysosome – Vesicle formed from Golgi complex; contains digestive
enzymes.
- Fuses with and digests contents of endosomes, pinocytic vesicles, and
phagosomes and transports final products of digestion into cytosol.
- Digests worn-out organelles (autophagy), entire cells (autolysis), and
extracellular materials.
 Peroxisome – Vesicle containing oxidases (oxidative enzymes) and catalase
(decomposes hydrogen peroxide); new peroxisomes bud from pre-existing
ones.
- Oxidizes amino acids and fatty acids; detoxifies harmful substances, such as
hydrogen peroxide and associated free radicals.
 Proteasome – Tiny barrel-shaped structure that contains proteases
(proteolytic enzymes).
- Degrades unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins by cutting them into small
peptides.
 Mitochondrion – Consists of an outer and an inner mitochondrial membrane,
cristae, and matrix; new mitochondria form from pre-existing ones. power
- Site of aerobic cellular respiration reactions that produce most of a cell’s ATP.
Plays an important early role in apoptosis.
Transport of Materials into and out of Cells (cellular process)
Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more components.
Solvent – dissolving medium.
Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a solution.
Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol
Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell
PASSIVE PROCESSES – Movement of substances down a concentration gradient
until equilibrium is reached; do not require cellular energy in the form of ATP.
 Diffusion Movement – of molecules or ions down a concentration gradient
due to their kinetic energy until they reach equilibrium.
Types of diffusion
 Simple diffusion - Unassisted process; Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or
small enough to pass through membrane pores.
 Facilitated diffusion - Substances requires a protein carrier for passive
transport.
 Osmosis – simple diffusion of water; Highly polar water easily crosses the
plasma membrane
Principle of osmosis:
a. Water molecules move from the left arm into the right arm, down the
water concentration gradient.
b. The volume of water in the left arm has decreased and the volume of
solution in the right arm has increased
 c. Pressure applied to the solution in the right arm restores the starting
conditions.
 Filtration – Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or
hydrostatic pressure
 Dialysis –
ACTIVE PROCESSES – Movement of substances against a concentration gradient;
requires cellular energy in the form of ATP.
 Active Transport – Transport substances that are unable to pass by
diffusion; They may be too large; They may not be able to dissolve in the fat
core of the membrane; They may have to move against a concentration
gradient.
- Polar or charged solutes are being transported.
- Primary active transport – Active process in which a substance moves across
the membrane against its concentration gradient by pumps (carriers) that use
energy supplied by hydrolysis of ATP; Na, K, Ca2, H, I, Cl, and other ions are
being transported.
- Secondary active transport – Coupled active transport of two substances
across the membrane maintained by primary active transport pumps;
Antiporters move Na+ (or H+) and another substance in opposite directions
across the membrane; symporters move Na+ (or H+) and another substance
in the same direction across the membrane.
Transport in Vesicles – Active process in which substances move into or out of cells
in vesicles that bud from plasma membrane; requires energy supplied by ATP.
 Endocytosis – Movement of substances into a cell in vesicles; Extracellular
substances are engulfed by being enclosed in a membranous vesicles.
- Receptor-mediated endocytosis – Ligand–receptor complexes trigger
infolding of a clathrin-coated pit that forms a vesicle containing ligands.
- Phagocytosis – “Cell eating”; movement of a solid particle into a cell after.
- Bulk-phase endocytosis / pinocytosis – “Cell drinking”; movement of
extracellular fluid into a cell by infolding of plasma membrane to form a
vesicle.
 Exocytosis – Movement of substances out of a cell in secretory vesicles that
fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents into the
extracellular fluid.
- Transmits Neurotransmitters, hormones, and digestive enzymes.
 Transcytosis – Movement of a substance through a cell as a result of
endocytosis on one side and exocytosis on the opposite side.
Cell division – Is the process by which cells reproduce themselves.
Two types of cell division
 somatic cell division
 reproductive cell division
Somatic cell – is any cell if the body other that germ cell. Also cell undergoes a
nuclear division called;
Nuclear division – mitosis
And cytoplasmic division – cytokinesis
Germ cell – is a gamete or any precursor cell destined to become a gamete.
Reproductive cell division – is the mechanism that produces gametes, the cells
needed to form the next generation of sexually reproducing organisms. This process
consists of a special two step division called;
Meiosis – in which the number of chromosomes in the nucleus is reduced by half.
Cell cycle – is an orderly sequence of events in which a somatic cell duplicates its Mitosis - 46, or two sets of 23; this makeup, called diploid (2n), is identical to the
contents and divides in two. chromosomes in the starting cell.
Homologous chromosomes – It is the two chromosomes that make up each pair. Meiosis - One set of 23; this makeup, called haploid (n), represents half of the
They contain similar genes arranged in the same order. chromosomes in the starting cell.
Sex chromosomes - The exception to this rule is one pair of chromosomes.
Designated X and Y.
In females the homologous pair of sex chromosomes consists of two large X
chromosomes.
In males the pair consists of an X and a much smaller Y chromosome.

Somatic Cell Cycle

 Interphase - Period between cell divisions; chromosomes not visible under
light microscope.
 Mitotic phase – Parent cell produces identical cells with identical
chromosomes; chromosomes visible under light microscope.
 Mitosis – Nuclear division; distribution of two sets of chromosomes into
separate nuclei.
 Prophase – Chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids; nucleolus
and nuclear envelope disappear; each centrosome moves to an opposite
pole of the cell.
 Metaphase – Centromeres of chromatid pairs line up at metaphase plate.
 Anaphase – Centromeres split; identical sets of chromosomes move to
opposite poles of cell.
 Telophase – Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear; chromosomes
resume chromatin form; mitotic spindle disappears.
 Cytokinesis – Cytoplasmic division; contractile ring forms cleavage furrow
around center of cell, dividing cytoplasm into separate and equal portions.

Number of chromosomes per cell:

Tissues (Histology) • Columnar cell
• Tall and thin
• SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
Types of Tissues: • Single layer of thin, flat cells.
1. Epithelial Tissue • LOCATION:
COVERS BODY SURFACES 1. Lining of blood vessels
Surfaces: 2. Heart
1. Apical surface 3. Lymphatic vessels
2. Lateral surface 4. Alveoli
3. Basal surface 5. Kidney tubules
(+) Basement membrane - “tape” 6. Serous membranes
• CLASSIFICATION of Epithelia based on NUMBER of CELL LAYERS: • FUNCTION:
1. Simple epithelium 1. Diffusion
• Single layer of cells 2. Filtration
• Extends from basement membrane to 3. Secretion
apical surface 4. Protection against Friction
2. Stratified epithelium • SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
• More than one layer of cells • Single layer, cube like cells
• Only the basal layer attaches to the • LOCATION:
basement membrane • Kidney tubules
3. Pseudostratified epithelium • Choroid plexus of the brain
• “Pseudo” - false • Ovaries
• Appears Stratified but is not • Terminal bronchioles of Lungs
• Only one layer of cells but appear to be • FUNCTION:
multiple in layers due to different heights • Secretion & Absorption in:
or extensions of each cell • Kidney tubules
• CLASSIFICATION of Epithelia based on CELL SHAPE: • Choroid plexus
• Squamous cell • Movement of mucus out of terminal bronchioles
• Flat or Scale-like • SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
• Cuboidal cell • Single layer, tall narrow cells.
• Cube-shaped • LOCATION:
• Same width and height • Glands & Ducts
 • Bronchioles of lungs • keratinized - cytoplasm is replaced by a protein (keratin), and cells are
• Auditory tubes dead; not moist.
• Uterus • Nonkeratinized - (+) nucleus and cytoplasm; moist.
• Stomach • LOCATION:
• Intestines • Keratinized:
• Gallbladder • Outer layer of skin
• Bile ducts • Nonkeratinized:
• Ventricles of the brain • Mouth
• FUNCTION: • Throat
1. Movement of particles out of bronchioles • Larynx
2. Secretion in: • Esophagus
• Stomach • Anus
• Intestines • Vagina
• PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM • Corneas
• Single layer, some cells are tall and thin and reach the free surface, • FUNCTION:
while others do not. 1. Protects against abrasion
• (+) Cilia 2. Barrier against infection
• (+) Goblet cells - secretes mucus 3. Reduce water loss from body
• LOCATION: • STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
• Nasal cavity • More than 1 layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.
• Nasal sinus • EXTREMELY RARE; but found in:
• Auditory tubes • Sweat gland ducts
• Pharynx • Ovarian follicular tubes
• Trachea • Salivary glands
• Bronchi of lungs • FUNCTION:
• FUNCTION: • Absorption, Secretion, Protection
1. Synthesize and secrete mucus to free surface • STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
2. Move mucus • More than 1 layer of epithelial cells.
• STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM • BUT ONLY SURFACE CELLS ARE COLUMNAR!
• Several layers, cuboidal at the basal area, flattened at the surface • Deepest layers are irregular or cuboidal in shape.
area. • EXTREMELY RARE; but found in:
• Mammary gland ducts
 • Larynx Some tissues are well vascularised
• Part of male urethra Some are poorly vascularised or are “Avascular”
• TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM Extracellular matrix
• Special type of stratified epithelium. Non-living material that surrounds the cells.
• Ability to GREATLY STRETCH.
• In the unstretched state, consists of 5 or more layers of Cells of Connective tissues
cuboidal/columnar cells. • The specialised cells of various connective tissues produce the extracellular
• Often dome shaped at the free surface. matrix.
• Located at places that can greatly stretch: • “Blast” - Creates the matrix
• Urinary bladder • “Cyte” - Maintains the matrix
• “Gland” - one or more cells that produce a particular product. • “Clasts” - Breaks down the matrix for remodelling
• 2 major gland types: Cells found in the Extracellular matrix:
1. Endocrine glands Osteoblasts
• Ductless Osteocyte
• Secretes hormones Osteoclasts
2. Exocrine glands Fibroblasts
• Empties substances through ducts Fibrocytes
• Include sweat and oil glands Chondroblasts
Chondrocytes
3 major components of the Extracellular matrix:
2. Connective Tissue
A diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in the body. Protein fibers
Found everywhere in the body. Collagen fibers - flexible but resist stretching.
FUNCTIONS: Reticular fibers - form a supporting network (branch of collagen
1. Enclosing and separating other tissues. fibers).
2. Connecting tissues to one another. (e.g. tendons, Elastic fibers - fibers with the ability to return to their original shape
ligaments) after stretched or compressed.
3. Supporting moving parts of the body. Ground substances
4. Storing compounds. (e.g. fats, bones) Shapeless BACKGROUND against which the collagen fibers are seen
5. Cushioning and insulating. (e.g. fats) through the microscope.
6. Protecting. (e.g. bones) Mostly water with adhesion proteins, and polysaccharide molecules.
Variations in blood supply: Fluid
Classification of Connective tissues Resembles a sponge
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER Compact
Where the basement membrane of the epithelia rest. More solid than spongy
1. Loose connective tissue (Fibers < Ground substance) Mineralised matrix
Areolar: FIBROBLASTS! Can soak up excess fluid. 5. Blood
Adipose: ADIPOCYTES (FAT CELLS)! Fluid matrix
Reticular: LYMPHATIC TISSUE; forms “Stroma” (internal supporting network)
2. Dense connective tissue (Fibers > Ground substance) 3. Muscle Tissue
Dense collagenous [tendons, muscle, dermis of the skin] Main function is to “Contract”, or to shorten.
Dense regular collagenous Movement
Dense irregular collagenous
Dense elastic [vocal cords, walls of large arteries]
Dense regular elastic
Dense irregular elastic
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
3. Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
Most abundant type of cartilage
Covers ends of bones (joint areas)
(+) Connection of ribs to sternum
(+) Respiratory tract
Fibrocartilage
Resist pulling or tearing
(+) Knee & Jaw
(+) Intervertebral discs of spine
Elastic cartilage
(+) External ear
(+) Epiglottis

4. Bone
Spongy
Spaces between bony plates
 4. Nervous Tissue Events in Tissue repair
• Forms the Brain, Spinal Cord, & Nerves. • Capillaries become very permeable.
• “Action potential” - communication of neurons with one another or with other • Clotting proteins arrive
tissues by means of electrical signals. • Formation of granulation tissue.
• Consists of: • Regeneration of surface epithelium.
1. Neurons
2. Glial cells - support cells of neurons
Regeneration of Tissues
Tissue membranes
1. Mucous Membranes
• Lines cavities that open to the outside of the
body.
• e.g. digestive, respiratory, & reproductive tracts
2. Serous Membranes
• Lines cavities that do not open to the outside of
the body.
• e.g. pericardial, pleural, peritoneal cavities
3. Synovial Membranes
• Lines cavities of freely moveable joints.
• (+) “Synovial fluid”

Tissue repair
• Regeneration Inflammation
• Replacement of destroyed tissue with same
type of cells. • Occurs when tissues are damaged.
• Stem cells • May be caused by INFECTION or TRAUMA.
• Fibrosis Mobilizes the body’s defences and isolates and destroys micro-
• Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue organisms, foreign materials, and damaged cell IN ORDER FOR
(SCAR) TISSUE REPAIR TO PROCEED.
Organs of the Respiratory system oral cavity by the palate
 Anterior hard palate (bone)
 Nose
 Posterior soft palate (muscle)
 Pharynx
 Larynx Paranasal Sinuses
 Trachea  Cavities within bones surrounding the
 Bronchi nasal cavity
 Lungs – alveoli  Frontal bone
 Sphenoid bone
Function of the Respiratory System
 Ethmoid bone
 Oversees gas exchanges between the
 Maxillary bone
blood and external environment
 Exchange of gasses takes place within Function of the sinuses
the lungs in the alveoli  Lighten the skull.
 Passageways to the lungs purify, warm,  Act as resonance chambers for speech
and humidify the incoming air  Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
The Nose cavity
 The only externally visible part of the Pharynx (Throat)
respiratory system  Muscular passage from nasal cavity to
 Air enters the nose through the external nares (nostrils) larynx
 The interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum Three regions of the pharynx
 Nasopharynx – superior region behind
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
nasal cavity
 Olfactory receptors are located in the
 Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
mucosa on the superior surface
 Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached
 The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa
to larynx
 Moistens air
 The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are
 Traps incoming foreign particles
common passageways for air and food
Lateral walls have projections called
Structures of the Pharynx
conchae
 Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx
 Increases surface area
 Tonsils of the pharynx
 Increases air turbulence within the nasal cavity
 Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the nasopharynx
 The nasal cavity is separated from the
 Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx Primary Bronchi
 Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue
 Formed by division of the trachea
Larynx (Voice Box)  Enters the lung at the hilus (medial depression)
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
 Routes air and food into proper
and straighter than left
channels
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller
 Plays a role in speech
and smaller branches
 Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages
and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic Lungs
cartilage (epiglottis)  Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
 Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
Structures of the Larynx
 Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)
 Thyroid cartilage  Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
 Largest hyaline cartilage  Left lung – two lobes
 Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)  Right lung – three lobes
 Epiglottis
Coverings of the Lungs
 Superior opening of the larynx
 Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the
 Routes food to the larynx and air toward
lung surface
the trachea
 Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
 Vocal cords (vocal folds)
 Pleural fluid fills the area between
 Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
layers of pleura to allow gliding
 Glottis – opening between vocal cords
Respiratory Tree Divisions
Trachea (Windpipe)
 Primary bronchi
 Connects larynx with bronchi  Secondary bronchi
 Lined with ciliated mucosa  Tertiary bronchi
 Beat continuously in the opposite direction of  Bronchioli
incoming air  Terminal bronchiole
 Expel mucus loaded with dust and other
debris away from lungs
 Walls are reinforced with C-shaped
hyaline cartilage
Bronchioles by diffusion
 Smallest branches of the bronchi  Oxygen enters the blood
 Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
 All but the smallest
 Macrophages add protection
branches have
 Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar
reinforcing cartilage
surfaces
 Terminal
Events of Respiration
bronchioles end
 Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and
in alveoli
out of the lungs
Respiratory Zone  External respiration – gas exchange
 Structures between pulmonary blood and alveoli
 Respiratory bronchioli
 Respiratory gas transport – transport of
 Alveolar duct
oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
 Alveoli
bloodstream
 Site of gas exchange
 Internal respiration – gas exchange
Alveoli between blood and tissue cells in
 Structure of alveoli systemic capillaries
 Alveolar duct Mechanics of Breathing
 Alveolar sac (Pulmonary Ventilation)
 Alveolus  Completely mechanical process
 Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli  Depends on volume changes in the
in the respiratory membrane thoracic cavity
Respiratory Membrane  Volume changes lead to pressure
(Air-Blood Barrier) changes, which lead to the flow of
 Thin squamous epithelial layer lining gases to equalize pressure
alveolar walls  Two phases
 Pulmonary capillaries cover external  Inspiration – flow of air into lung
surfaces of alveoli
 Expiration – air leaving lung
Gas Exchange Inspiration
 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane  Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
contract  A person’s size
 The size of the thoracic cavity increases  Sex
 External air is pulled into the lungs due to  Age
an increase in intrapulmonary volume  Physical condition
Exhalation  Residual volume of air – after exhalation,
 Largely a passive process which depends about 1200 ml of air remains in the lungs
on natural lung elasticity  Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
 As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs  Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
 Forced expiration can occur mostly by over the tidal volume
contracting internal intercostal muscles to  Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
depress the rib cage  Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Pressure Differences in the  Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
Thoracic Cavity
 Approximately 1200 ml
 Normal pressure within the pleural
 Residual volume
space is always negative (intrapleural pressure)
 Air remaining in lung after expiration
 Differences in lung and pleural space
 About 1200 ml
pressures keep lungs from collapsing
 Vital capacity
Nonrespiratory Air Movements
 The total amount of exchangeable air
 Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
 Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
actions
 Dead space volume
 Examples
 Air that remains in conducting zone and
 Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris
never reaches alveoli
 Laughing
 About 150 ml
 Crying
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
 Yawn
 Functional volume
 Hiccup
 Air that actually reaches the respiratory
zone
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
 Usually about 350 ml
 Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air
 Respiratory capacities are measured
with each breath (tidal volume [TV])
with a spirometer
 Many factors that affect respiratory capacity
Respiratory Sounds Internal Respiration
 Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope  Exchange of gases between blood and
 Bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing through trachea and bronchi body cells
 Vesicular breathing sounds – soft  An opposite reaction to what occurs in the lungs
sounds of air filling alveoli  Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to
External Respiration blood
 Oxygen movement into the blood  Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue
 The alveoli always has more oxygen than Neural Regulation of Respiration
the blood  Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted
 Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the to the brain by the phrenic and intercostal
area of lower concentration nerves
 Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen  Neural centers that control rate and depth are
 Carbon dioxide movement out of the located in the medulla
blood  The pons appears to smooth out respiratory
 Blood returning from tissues has higher rate
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli  Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15
 Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon respirations per minute
dioxide  Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often
 Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich due to extra oxygen needs
and carbon dioxide-poor Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth
Gas Transport in the Blood  Physical factors
 Oxygen transport in the blood  Increased body temperature
 Inside red blood cells attached to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin  Exercise
[HbO2])  Talking
 A small amount is carried dissolved in the  Volition (conscious control)
plasma  Emotional factors
 Carbon dioxide transport in the blood  Chemical factors
 Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)  Carbon dioxide levels
 A small amount is carried inside red blood  Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the main regulatory
cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding chemical for respiration
sites than those of oxygen  Increased carbon dioxide increases respiration
  Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on  Overinflation of the lungs leads to a
the medulla oblongata permanently expanded barrel chest
 Oxygen levels  Cyanosis appears late in the disease
 Changes in oxygen concentration in the Chronic Bronchitis
blood are detected by chemoreceptors in  Mucosa of the lower respiratory
the aorta and carotid artery passages becomes severely inflamed
 Information is sent to the medulla oblongata  Mucus production increases
 Pooled mucus impairs ventilation and gas exchange
Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease  Risk of lung infection increases
(COPD)  Pneumonia is common
 Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and  Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early
emphysema Lung Cancer
 Major causes of death and disability in  Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in
the United States the United States
 Features of these diseases  Increased incidence associated with
 Patients almost always have a history of smoking smoking
 Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes  Three common types
progressively more severe  Squamous cell carcinoma
 Coughing and frequent pulmonary  Adenocarcinoma
infections are common  Small cell carcinoma
 Most victims retain carbon dioxide, are hypoxic and have respiratory Sudden Infant Death syndrome (SIDS)
acidosis  Apparently healthy infant stops
 Those infected will ultimately develop breathing and dies during sleep
respiratory failure  Some cases are thought to be a problem of the neural respiratory control
Emphysema center
 Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break  One third of cases appear to be due to
through heart rhythm abnormalities
 Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis Asthma
 Airways collapse during expiration  Chronic inflamed hypersensitive
 Patients use a large amount of energy to bronchiole passages
exhale
 Response to irritants with dyspnea,
coughing, and wheezing
Developmental Aspects of the
Respiratory system
 Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus
 Lungs are not fully inflated with air until
two weeks after birth
 Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface
tension is not present until late in fetal
development and may not be present in
premature babies
 Important birth defects
 Cystic fibrosis – oversecretion of thick mucus clogs the respiratory
system
 Cleft palate
Aging Effects
 Elasticity of lungs decreases
 Vital capacity decreases
 Blood oxygen levels decrease
 Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
 More risks of respiratory tract infection
Respiratory Rate Changes Throughout Life
 Newborns – 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
 Infants – 30 respirations per minute
 Age 5 – 25 respirations per minute
 Adults – 12 to 18 respirations per
minute
 Rate often increases somewhat with old
age