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Contents
Preface iv

SECTION I FOUNDATIONS

CHAPTER
CHA 1 CHAPTER
CHA 2
Planet and Population: Rocks and Minerals—
An Overview 1 A First Look 21
Earth in Space and Time 2 Atoms, Elements, Isotopes, Ions, and
The Early Solar System 2 Compounds 22
The Planets 2 Atomic Structure 22

Earth, Then and Now 3 Elements and Isotopes 22

Life on Earth 6 Ions 22

The Periodic Table 23
Geology, Past and Present 7
Compounds 23
The Geologic Perspective 7
Geology and the Scientific Method 8 Minerals—General 24
The Motivation to Find Answers 8 Minerals Defined 24

Wheels Within Wheels: Earth Cycles and Systems 9 Identifying Characteristics of Minerals 24
Other Physical Properties of Minerals 24
Nature and Rate of Population Growth 11
Growth Rates: Causes and Consequences 11 Types of Minerals 27
Growth Rate and Doubling Time 13 Silicates 28
Nonsilicates 29
Impacts of the Human Population 14
Farmland and Food Supply 14 Rocks 32
 Case Study 2 Asbestos—A Tangled Topic 32
Population and Nonfood Resources 15
Igneous Rocks 34
Uneven Distribution of People and Resources 16
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks 34
Disruption of Natural Systems 16
 Case Study 1 Earth’s Moon 18 Metamorphic Rocks 36
S U M M A R Y 18 The Rock Cycle 39
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 20 SUMMARY 40
EXERCISES 20 KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 40
EXERCISES 40

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SECTION II INTERNAL PROCESS

Earthquake-Related Hazards and Their
CHAPTER
CHA 3 Reduction 70
Ground Motion 70
Plate Tectonics 41 Ground Failure 75
Plate Tectonics—Accumulating Evidence 43 Tsunamis and Coastal Effects 76
The Topography of the Sea Floor 43  Case Study 4.1 Megathrusts Make Mega-Disasters 78

Magnetism in Rocks—General 43 Fire 80

Paleomagnetism and Seafloor Spreading 45 Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting 81

Age of the Ocean Floor 45 Seismic Gaps 81
Polar-Wander Curves 46 Earthquake Precursors and Prediction 81

Plate Tectonics—Underlying Concepts 48 Current Status of Earthquake Prediction 81

Stress and Strain in Geologic Materials 48 The Earthquake Cycle and Forecasting 82

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere 50 Earthquake Early Warnings? 83

Locating Plate Boundaries 50 Public Response to Earthquake Hazards 84

Types of Plate Boundaries 52 Earthquake Control? 84

 Case Study 4.2 Understanding Faults Better—Parkfield and
Divergent Plate Boundaries 52
SAFOD 85
Convergent Plate Boundaries 52
Future Earthquakes in North America? 86
Transform Boundaries 55
Areas of Widely Recognized Risk 86
How Far, How Fast, How Long, How Come? 56 Other Potential Problem Areas 87
Past Motions, Present Velocities 56 SUMMARY 88
Why Do Plates Move? 57 KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 89
EXERCISES 89
 Case Study 3 New Theories for Old—Geosynclines and
Plate Tectonics 59

Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle

SUMMARY 60
60 CHAPTER
CHA 5
K E Y T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S 61
E X E R C I S E S 61
Volcanoes 90
Magma Sources and Types 91
CHAPTER
CHA 4 Styles and Locations of Volcanic Activity 93
Continental Fissure Eruptions 93
Earthquakes 62
Individual Volcanoes—Locations 94
Earthquakes—Terms and Principles 64 Shield Volcanoes 95
Basic Terms 64 Cinder Cones and Pyroclastics 95
Types of Faults 65 Composite Volcanoes 96
Earthquake Locations 66
Hazards Related to Volcanoes 97
Seismic Waves and Earthquake Severity 67 Lava 97
Seismic Waves 67 Pyroclastics 99
Locating the Epicenter 67 Lahars 101
Magnitude and Intensity 68

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 Case Study 5.1 Living with Lava on Hawaii 102 Volcanic Eruption Precursors 109
Pyroclastic Flows—Nuées Ardentes 104 Evacuation as Response to Eruption Predictions 111
Toxic Gases 105
More on Volcanic Hazards in the
Steam Explosions 105 United States 111
Landslides and Collapse 106 Cascade Range 111
Secondary Effects: Climate and Atmospheric The Aleutians 112
Chemistry 107
Long Valley and Yellowstone Calderas 113
Issues in Predicting Volcanic Eruptions 108  Case Study 5.2 Redoubt Volcano, Alaska 114
Classification of Volcanoes by Activity 108 S U M M A R Y 118
K E Y T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S 118
The Volcanic Explosivity Index 109
E X E R C I S E S 119

SECTION III SURFACE PROCESSES

CHAPTER
CHA 6 CHAPTER
CHA 7
Streams and Flooding 120 Coastal Zones and
The Hydrologic Cycle 121 Processes 146
Streams and Their Features 121 Nature of the Coastline 147
Streams—General 121 Waves and Tides 147
Sediment Transport 122 Sediment Transport and Deposition 149
Velocity, Gradient, and Base Level 123 Storms and Coastal Dynamics 149
Velocity and Sediment Sorting and Deposition 124
Emergent and Submergent Coastlines 151
Channel and Floodplain Evolution 126
Causes of Long-Term Sea-Level Change 151
Flooding 127 Signs of Changing Relative Sea Level 153
Factors Governing Flood Severity 127 Present and Future Sea-Level Trends 154
Flood Characteristics 129
Coastal Erosion and “Stabilization” 154
Stream Hydrographs 130
Beach Erosion, Protection, and Restoration 155
Flood-Frequency Curves 130
Cliff Erosion 158
 Case Study 6.1 How Big Is the One-Hundred-Year Flood? 132

Consequences of Development in Floodplains 134 Especially Difficult Coastal Environments 159

Barrier Islands 159
Strategies for Reducing Flood Hazards 135
Estuaries 161
Restrictive Zoning and “Floodproofing” 135
 Case Study 7 Hurricanes and Coastal Vulnerability 162
Retention Ponds, Diversion Channels 136
Costs of Construction—and Reconstruction—in
Channelization 137
High-Energy Environments 164
Levees 137
Recognition of Coastal Hazards 164
Flood-Control Dams and Reservoirs 139 S U M M A R Y 16 6
 Case Study 6.2 Life on the Mississippi: The Ups and K E Y T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S 16 6
Downs of Levees 140 E X E R C I S E S 16 6
Flood Warnings? 142
S U M M A R Y 14 4
K E Y T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S 14 5
E X E R C I S E S 14 5

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Ice Ages and Their Possible Causes 198

CHAPTER
CHA 8  Case Study 9 Vanishing Glaciers,
Vanishing Water Supply 200
Mass Movements 167 Wind and Its Geologic Impacts 202
Factors Influencing Slope Stability 168 Wind Erosion 203
Effects of Slope and Materials 168 Wind Deposition 204
Effects of Fluid 169 Dune Migration 205
Effects of Vegetation 171 Loess 205
Earthquakes 171 Deserts and Desertification 206
Quick Clays 172 Causes of Natural Deserts 208
Types of Mass Wasting 173 Desertification 208
S U M M A R Y 210
Falls 173
K E Y T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S 210
Slumps and Slides 174 E X E R C I S E S 210
Flows and Avalanches 175

Consequences of Mass Movements

Impact of Human Activities 175
175
CHAPTER
CHA 10
A Compounding of Problems: The Venezuelan Coast 178 Climate—Past, Present,
Possible Preventive Measures 179 and Future 211
Slope Stabilization 180
Recognizing the Hazards 182 Major Controls on Global Climate;
The Greenhouse Effect 212
Landslide Warnings? 185
 Case Study 8 The Vaiont Dam—Reservoirs and Landslides 188 Climate and Ice Revisited 213
S U M M A R Y 19 0 The Hidden Ice: Permafrost 214
K E Y T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S 19 0
E X E R C I S E S 19 0 Oceans and Climate 214
The Thermohaline Circulation 216

CHAPTER
CHA 9 El Niño 216

Other Aspects of Global Change 219

Ice and Glaciers, Wind Evidence of Climates Past 221
 Case Study 10 Taking Earth’s Temperature 224
and Deserts 191
Whither for the Future? Climate Feedbacks,
Glaciers and Glacial Features 192 Predictive Uncertainty 226
Glacier Formation 192 SUMMARY 227
KEY TERMS AND CONCEP TS 227
Types of Glaciers 193
EXERCISES 228
Movement and Change of Glaciers 193
Glacial Erosion and Deposition 195

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SECTION IV RESOURCES

CHAPTER
CHA 11 CHAPTER
CHA 12
Ground Water and Water Weathering, Erosion, and
Resources 229 Soil Resources 258
Soil Formation 259
Fluid Storage and Mobility: Porosity and
Permeability 230 Soil-Forming Processes: Weathering 259

Subsurface Waters 231 Soil Profiles, Soil Horizons 261

Aquifer Geometry and Groundwater Flow 232 Chemical and Physical Properties of Soils 263
Confined and Unconfined Aquifers 232 Color, Texture, and Structure of Soils 263
Darcy’s Law and Groundwater Flow 233 Soil Classification 264
Other Factors in Water Availability 233 Soils and Human Activities 266
Consequences of Groundwater Withdrawal 234 Lateritic Soil 266
Lowering the Water Table 234 Wetland Soils 267
Compaction and Surface Subsidence 234 Soil Erosion 267
Saltwater Intrusion 236 Soil Erosion versus Soil Formation 271
Strategies for Reducing Erosion 272
Impacts of Urbanization on Groundwater
Recharge 237  Case Study 12.1 Plantations in Paradise: Unintended
Consequences 275
Karst and Sinkholes 239 Irrigation and Soil Chemistry 276
Water Quality 241 The Soil Resource—The Global View 276
Measures of Water Quality 241  Case Study 12.2 Soils and Suspects 278
 Case Study 11 What’s in the Water? 242 SUMMARY 278
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 279
Hard Water 243
EXERCISES 279

Water Use, Water Supply 244

General U.S. Water Use 244
Regional Variations in Water Use 246
CHAPTER
CHA 13
Case Studies in Water Consumption 248 N Mineral and Rock
1 km

The Colorado River Basin 249

Resources 280
The High Plains (Ogallala) Aquifer System 251
The Aral Sea 252 Resources, Reserves, and Ore Deposits 281
Lake Chad 252 Types of Mineral Deposits 282
Extending the Water Supply 253 Igneous Rocks and Magmatic Deposits 282

Conservation 253 Hydrothermal Ores 284

Interbasin Water Transfer 254 Sedimentary Deposits 285

Desalination 255 Other Low-Temperature Ore-Forming Processes 286

SUMMARY 256 Metamorphic Deposits 288
K E Y TE R MS AN D CO NCE P TS 257
E XE RCISES 257

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Mineral and Rock Resources—Examples 288 Environmental Impacts of Coal Use 327
Metals 288 Gases 327
Nonmetallic Minerals 288 Ash 328
Rock Resources 289 Coal-Mining Hazards and Environmental Impacts 328

Mineral Supply and Demand 289 Oil Shale 330

U.S. Mineral Production and Consumption 290 Oil Sand 331
World Mineral Supply and Demand 291 SUMMARY 332
K E Y TE R MS AND CONCE P TS 332
Minerals for the Future: Some Options E XE RCISES 332
Considered 293
 Case Study 13.1 The Not-So-Rare Rare Earths 294
New Methods in Mineral Exploration 294 CHAPTER
CHA 15
Marine Mineral Resources 298
Conservation of Mineral Resources 298 Energy Resources—
 Case Study 13.2 Mining Your Cell Phone? 300
Alternative Sources 334
Impacts of Mining-Related Activities 301
SUMMARY 305 Nuclear Power—Fission 336
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 305 Fission—Basic Principles 336
EXERCISES 305
The Geology of Uranium Deposits 337
Extending the Nuclear Fuel Supply 337

CHAPTER
CHA 14 Concerns Related to Nuclear Reactor Safety
Concerns Related to Fuel and Waste Handling
338
339
Energy Resources— Risk Assessment, Risk Projection 339
 Case Study 15.1 A Tale of Two Disasters:
Fossil Fuels 307 Chernobyl and Fukushima 340

Formation of Oil and Natural Gas Deposits 310 Nuclear Power—Fusion 344
Supply and Demand for Oil and Natural Gas 311 Solar Energy 344
Oil 312 Solar Heating 345
 Case Study 14.1 The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: To Drill Solar Electricity 346
or Not to Drill? 314
Geothermal Energy 348
Natural Gas 316
Traditional Geothermal Energy Uses 349
Future Prospects for Oil and Gas 317
Alternative Geothermal Sources 351
Enhanced Oil Recovery 318
Unconventional Natural Gas Sources 318 Hydropower 352
Conservation 319 Limitations on Hydropower Development 352

Oil Spills 320 Energy from the Oceans 354

 Case Study 14.2 Energy Prices, Energy Choices 322 Wind Energy 355
Coal 325  Case Study 15.2 Electricity’s Hidden Energy Costs 358
Formation of Coal Deposits 325 Biofuels 360
Coal Reserves and Resources 325 Waste-Derived Fuels 360
Limitations on Coal Use 325 Alcohol Fuels 360
S U M M A R Y 3 61
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 362
EXERCISES 362

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SECTION V WASTE DISPOSAL, POLLUTION, AND HEALTH

CHAPTER
CHA 16 CHAPTER
CHA 17
Waste Disposal 364 Water Pollution 396
Solid Wastes—General 365 General Principles 397
Municipal Waste Disposal 365 Geochemical Cycles 397
Sanitary Landfills 366 Residence Time 397
Incineration 368 Residence Time and Pollution 398
Ocean Dumping 370 Trace Elements, Pollution, and Health 399
Point and Nonpoint Pollution Sources 400
Reducing Solid-Waste Volume 371
Handling (Nontoxic) Organic Matter 371 Organic Matter 400
Recycling 372 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 401
Other Options 373 Eutrophication 402

Toxic-Waste Disposal 376 Industrial Pollution 403

 Case Study 16.1 Decisions, Decisions . . . 377 Inorganic Pollutants—Metals 403
Secure Landfills 378 Other Inorganic Pollutants 407
Deep-Well Disposal 378  Case Study 17.1 Lessons from Minamata 408
Other Strategies 379 Organic Compounds 409
Problems of Control 410
Sewage Treatment 379
 Case Study 17.2 The Long Shadow of DDT 411
Septic Systems 379
Thermal Pollution 412
Municipal Sewage Treatment 381
Agricultural Pollution 412
Radioactive Wastes 383
Fertilizers and Organic Waste 412
Radioactive Decay 383
Sediment Pollution 414
Effects of Radiation 383
Pesticides 415
 Case Study 16.2 The Ghost of Toxins Past: Superfund 384
Nature of Radioactive Wastes 386 Reversing the Damage—Surface Water 416
Historical Suggestions: Space, Ice, and Plate Tectonics 387 Groundwater Pollution 417
Seabed Disposal 389 The Surface–Ground Water Connection Explored 417
Bedrock Caverns for Liquid Waste 389 Tracing Pollution’s Path 420
Bedrock Disposal of Solid High-Level Wastes 389 Reversing the Damage—Ground Water 421
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP): A Model? 390 Decontamination After Extraction 421
The Long Road to Yucca Mountain: A Dead End? 390 In Situ Decontamination 421
No High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Yet 393 Damage Control by Containment—The Rocky Mountain
SUMMARY 394 Arsenal 421
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 395
EXERCISES 395 New Technology Meets Problems from the Past:
California Gulch Superfund Site, Leadville,
Colorado 423
SUMMARY 425
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 425
EXERCISES 425

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 Case Study 18 Indoor Air Pollution? 440

CHAPTER
CHA 18 Acid Rain 442
Air Pollution 427 Regional Variations in Rainfall Acidity and Impacts 443

Air Pollution and Weather 444

Atmospheric Chemistry—Cycles and Residence
Thermal Inversion 444
Times 428
Impact on Weather 446
Types and Sources of Air Pollution 429
Particulates 429 Toward Air-Pollution Control 446
Carbon Gases 429 Air-Quality Standards 446
Sulfur Gases 431 Control Methods 446
Nitrogen Gases and “Smog Ozone” 433 Automobile Emissions 449
The Ozone Layer and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 433 Carbon Sequestration 449
S U M M A R Y 4 51
Lead 435
K E Y T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S 4 51
Other Pollutants 438 E X E R C I S E S 4 51

SECTION VI OTHER RELATED TOPICS

Cost-Benefit Analysis 466
CHAPTER
CHA 19 Problems of Quantification 466
Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Federal Government 466
Environmental Law
Laws Relating to Geologic Hazards 467
and Policy 452 Construction Controls 467
Resource Law: Water 453 Other Responses to Earthquake Hazards 468
Surface-Water Law 453 Flood Hazards, Flood Insurance 469
Groundwater Law 453 Problems with Geologic-Hazard Mitigation Laws 470
Resource Law: Minerals and Fuels 454 The National Environmental Policy Act (1969) 470
Mineral Rights 454  Case Study 19 A Tale of Two Pipelines 472
S U M M A R Y 4 74
Mine Reclamation 455
K E Y T E R M S A N D C O N C E P T S 4 74
International Resource Disputes 456 E X E R C I S E S 4 74

Law of the Sea and Exclusive Economic Zones 456

Antarctica 458
CHAPTER
CHA 20
Pollution and Its Control 458
Water Pollution 458 Land-Use Planning
Air Pollution 458 and Engineering Geology 476
Waste Disposal 461
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 462 Land-Use Planning—Why? 477
Defining Limits of Pollution 462 Land-Use Options 478
International Initiatives 463

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The Federal Government and Land-Use Arranging Events in Order A-1

Planning 480 Correlation A-2
Maps as a Planning Tool 480 Uniformitarianism A-3
 Case Study 20.1 How Green Is My—Golf Course? 484 How Old Is the Earth? A-4
Engineering Geology—Some Considerations 486 Early Efforts A-4
Testing and Scale Modeling 490 Nineteenth-Century Views A-5
Case Histories, Old and New 490 Radiometric Dating A-5
The Leaning Tower of Pisa 491 Radioactive Decay and Dating A-5
The Panama Canal 491 Choice of an Isotopic System A-5
Boston’s “Big Dig” 493 Radiometric and Relative Ages Combined A-6
Dams, Failures, and Consequences 493 The Geologic Time Scale A-6
The St. Francis Dam 494 Geologic Process Rates A-7
Other Examples and Construction Issues 494 SUMMARY A8
 Case Study 20.2 Three Gorges Dam (It’s Not Only KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS A8
About Safety) 496
SUMMARY 499 Appendix B
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 499
EXERCISES 500 Mineral and Rock Identification B-1
Mineral Identification B-1
Appendix A A Note on Mineral Formulas B-1
Geologic Time, Geologic Process
Rock Identification B-1
Rates A-1
Introduction A-1 G LO S S A RY G 1
Relative Dating A-1 I N D E X I 1

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