By Roy C.E.

Ahlgren
HYDRONICS for PLUMBING ENGINEERS

Rules of Thumb
Designers frequently use rules of thumb for estimating The total head loss in this system is simply the length multi-
component size. These rules are based on engineering facts, plied by the friction head loss rate:
assumptions, and approximations about the way things work. Pump head = System length (feet) × Unit friction loss rate
It’s wise to know the basis of these shortcuts to judge the (foot pounds per pound of head loss per unit length)
amount of uncertainty in the rule of thumb analysis.
Many HVAC professionals use the following rule of thumb Pump head = 5,000 feet × 1.56 feet of head loss
100 feet of length
for estimating the flow required to provide comfortable condi- Thus, the pump head equals 78 feet of head.
tions in heating or cooling systems. Figure 1 is a typical end-suction pump selected for 1,000
Q = ṁcp ∆t gpm and 78 feet of head. The system curve shows that the
where pump actually will provide more than 1,000 gpm because the
Q = Heat transfer rate (British thermal units per hour) constant revolutions per minute (rpm) impeller is trimmed in
ṁ = Mass flow rate (pounds of liquid per hour) ⅛-inch increments, and the 10-inch impeller shown is slightly
cp = Specific heat of the liquid (Btu/lb-°F) larger than required.
∆t = Temperature change of the liquid (°F) This analysis assumes that the system uses 60°F water, and
that’s not very useful in an HVAC system. While it could cool
If flow is measured in gallons per minute (gpm), the rule of
very hot air, it probably couldn’t dehumidify it. In a heating
thumb becomes:
Q = 500 gpm ∆t system, 60°F water is too cool to keep people comfortable.
Thus, let’s assume a chilled water temperature of 40°F or
In this equation, the constant assumes specific gravity, and a hot water temperature of 200°F and see the effect on the
the specific heat of the liquid equals one. In other words, the system and pump.
liquid is water at standard conditions (60°F), with no additives. At 40°F, water is more viscous. The friction loss rate for 1,000
There isn’t much uncertainty in applying it, at least not as gpm in 8-inch pipe rises to 1.61 feet per 100 feet. For the 5,000-
much uncertainty as exists in rules of thumb for determining foot system, the total head loss increases to 80.5 feet.
pump head, for example. At 200°F, water is less viscous. The friction loss rate for 1,000
gpm in 8-inch pipe is only 1.42 feet per 100 feet. Thus, system
Is that Really True? head loss drops to 71 feet.
Assume a closed system of 5,000 feet total equivalent length.
The cooling and heating system heads have been plotted
That’s the same as saying everything in the system—real things
on the pump curve showing that the actual cooling system
such as heat exchangers or elbows—has the same head loss as
flow for this pump will be approximately 975 gpm, about 2.5
5,000 feet of straight pipe, an approximation in itself. Applying
the rule of thumb at a 20 degree
delta tee, we find that 1,000 Figure 1  Typical end-suction pump for 1,000 gpm and 78 feet of head
gpm is required to provide 10
million Btuh. If the delta tee
were only 10°F, the required
flow would be doubled.
Now select a pump. A flow of
1,000 gpm at 60°F in standard
8-inch steel pipe will require
1.56 foot-pounds of work per
pound of liquid. This friction Cooling
head loss rate is available in
tables, charts, and calculators Heating
available from many sources.

56  Plumbing Systems & Design  DECEMBER 2008 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG

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percent less than the rule of thumb flow. The actual heating
system flow will be about 1,140 gpm, or 1.14 percent more than
the rule of thumb.

What About the Specific Heat?

The specific heat of water also changes with temperature. The
rule of thumb assumes that specific heat equals one, which is
approximately true for a range of temperatures near 95°F. How-
ever, as water temperature leaves that range, specific heat rises.
At 40°F, specific heat is about 4 percent more than the stan-
dard conditions assumed in the rule of thumb. At 200°F, the
specific heat is about 6 percent greater. An increase in specific
heat means that each pound of liquid can carry that much
more heat for the same temperature change. Therefore, the
decrease in flow in a chilled water system caused by increased
viscosity is offset by an increase in specific heat. In heating
systems, both flow and specific heat increase, resulting in a
built-in safety factor.
Based on all this, the rule of thumb looks pretty accurate, but
any analysis of this type depends on the pump curve. A steeper
pump curve will result in smaller changes of flow for the same
changes in system friction loss. Perhaps the value of this discus-
sion is simply to recognize that any rule of thumb depends on
the assumptions and approximations used in creating it.

Roy Ahlgren is a consultant to the hydronics

industry. He served as chair of the ASHRAE Technical
Committee on Hydronic and Steam Systems and
was the director of the Bell & Gossett Little Red
Schoolhouse. For more information or to comment on
this article, e-mail articles@psdmagazine.org.
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DECEMBER 2008  Plumbing Systems & Design  57