Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas & Epics

Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics
of India in Puranas and Epics

A Geologist’s Interpretations
Written by a geologist who read the texts of the
Puranas and the Epics in conjunction with a
mass of studies on geological history of the
larger Indian continent and his own extensive
field work in different parts of the country, this
illustrated book endeavours to demonstrate
that the narratives by scholarly sages embodied
in these ancient Sanskrit works do not represent
figments of poetic imagination, but provide —
if shorn of metaphors, idiomatic pharases
and allegories — the revealing facts and
invaluable information on the geography and
geomorphological layout, the ethnicity of the
people who lived in different parts of the
country, the flora and fauna that peopled the
land of Bharatvarsha, and the drastic
geodynamic events and climatic changes that
overtook the land particularly in the last 12,000
years of the Holocene Epoch — called the
Chaturyuga in the Puranas and Epics.
The scholars of the Puranas and Epics time
were quite knowledgeable about the origin,
evolution and progression of life, including the
coming of man, the interior of the earth, the
dynamics of crustal upheavals, the occurrence,
mining and metallurgy of minerals, the tapping
of natural gas, reclaiming land from seas, and
building bridges across even a sea.
The relevant original Sanskrit text given in
the Devandgari script is accompanied by the
author's interpretation, rigorously tested
on the anvil of incontrovertible evidence
adduced from scientific studies on geological
phenomena, human genetic markers, climate
changes and backed up by tell-tale
photographs.
Jacket Illustration:
The Puranaland in the Jambudweep continent
[From: Google Earth].
2012 pp. xxxii+244

Illus. col. 65,b/iu48 Size 19cm x 25cm
Bibliography Index
ISBN-978-81-7305-422-8 ^ 1500
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Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics
of India in Puranas and Epics
—A Geologist’s Interpretations —
K.S. Valdiy a
Aryan Books International

New Delhi
Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
— A Geologist's Interpretations —
ISBN: 978-81-7305-422-8 (HB)

978-81-7305-431-0 (PB)
© K.S. Valdiya, 2012
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic and mechanical, including photocopy, recording
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Published in 2012 by
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Printed in India at Mudrak, Delhi-110091

Indira
Sameer, Panchmi
and
Aryaman
Foreword
Various factors sum up to make a study valuable and expedient. The reach
and scope of the topic selected, the significance of the primary data used,
the propriety of the line of approach followed, the sobriety of the inferences
drawn and conclusions arrived at, and above all, the competence of the
scholar to do justice to his subject are, admittedly, the most potent ones
among them. And, I have no hesitation in stating that this book, authored
by K.S. Valdiya, is worthwhile on all these counts.
The epics and the Puranas constitute the primary source material of
the present study and define its spatio-temporal scope. To begin with, this
in itself is a notable point. For, who can deny the importance of the epics
and the Puranas? The two together constitute the two eyes, so to say,
through which one can see the panorama of unity in diversity that
characterizes Indian culture. Their significant role in formation of Indian
psyche can hardly be exaggerated. Besides, they are valuable not only
from an Indian point of view but have a universal relevance and appeal
as well. In fact, as a set of global literary heritage, they stand unique in
their content and coverage. To be sure, there is no other known ancient
literature anywhere in this world that is as rich in knowledge and wisdom,
and as expansive in its geographical and chronological horizons as the
epics and the Puranas. The Rigveda is, undoubtedly, the earliest book
viii Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
known to us, but it is surpassed by the Puranas in antiquity of contents.

Though couched in a much later language, the Puranas provide us a lot
of pre-Rigvedic information.
A study of the epics and the Puranas is most welcome today because
of another reason too. The European scholars, who initiated modem study
of ancient Indian texts in nineteenth century, labelled them as 'mythology',
meaning thereby that they were figments of poetic imagination and the
descriptions contained in them were not factual. This stigma falsely
attached to them has ever since deterred many a worthy scholars from
taking them seriously. Even today, in certain quarters, this false notion
persists. As a result, the epics and the Puranas could not get the attention
they deserve. Prof. Valdiya is right in totally rejecting this 'mythology
thesis' since the perpetrators of this thesis are doubly wrong. Firstly, it is
incorrect to label all epic and Puranic descriptions as mythology. Secondly,
and more importantly, mythologies are not unreal. Due mostly to phonetic
resemblance, the English term 'myth' and Sanskrit word ‘mithyaa’ have
been confused with each other and taken to denote the same sense. But,
basically they have different connotations. While the Sanskrit word
'mithyaa' means 'false', the English term 'myth' originally meant 'word'
or 'speech' (equivalent to Sanskrit 'vaach'), a meaning still preserved in
Greek. The modem distortion, nay, complete reversal in the meaning of
'myth' is uncritical and unfortunate to say the least, for 'myth' in its pristine
sense is closer in meaning to 'real' than to what we understand by 'fact'.
Fortunately, this truth is being realized gradually and cultures are being
defined now in terms of their unique 'systems of images' (Bimba-Vidhaana)
constituted by networks of symbols, metaphors and myths.
Prof. Valdiya is an eminent geologist with commendable reach in
many other disciplines, and it is but natural that his writings would have
an impact of his unique academic make-up. With a true scholar's politeness
(vidyaa dadaati vinayam), he writes in the Preface of this work: "I wish to
emphasize that this is not a scholarly treatise, nor a comprehensive analysis.
It is just a geologist's interpretation." In fact, it is this geologist's perspective,
the geologist's angle of looking at things, that makes this book extremely
significant and distinguishes it from all other over three dozen books
hitherto published in the field of epic and Puranic studies.
Foreword IX
As a well-informed geo-scientist of the 21st century, Prof. Valdiya is

fully aware of the nature of networking between and among various
natural subsystems: geomorphology, climate, flora and fauna and its
bearing on human habitat. He knows very well how landforms change
ceaselessly by continuous actions of frost, glaciers, wind and flowing water,
as also abruptly with episodic tectonic movements. So, unlike other studies,
in which Puranic geography is perceived as something static that has
remained unchanged since olden times, the present shady underlines the
fact that the physiography of the Indian continent is not the same as it
was when the Puranas were written. The inference is drawn, therefore,
and rightly so, that it would not be possible to find a complete one-to-one
correspondence or isomorphism between the Puranic and present
physiographies of India.
The present study collects and reproduces several epic and Puranic
descriptions that clearly indicate tectonic movements, such as the sudden
uplift of Vindhya Giri at the occasion of sage Agastya s journey towards
South India or the abrupt sinking into sea of Dwaraka soon after Lord
Krishna's death. What is the most noteworthy point in this context is that
this study authenticates these episodes on the basis of modern earth-
scientific evidence. This indicates that these descriptions are not spurious,
as suspected by many, but based on real happenings.
There are several other praiseworthy features that distinguish the
present study from all others in the field. The identificati on of Epic-Puranic
mega-island Jambudveepa and its various constituent lands, called
'varshas', is masterly and trustworthy. It may be noted that except for
one of these varshas, namely, Bhaaratavarsha or the land of Bharatas
(which was the India of pre-partition times), the exact location of others
was almost unknown so far. Then, special efforts have been made to bring
together and critically examine in different chapters the Epic-Puranic data
on rivers and mountains as also on flora and fauna of India. Tire places of
pilgrimage referred to in the texts under study are described and their
significant role in national and cultural integration of India emphasized.
Information that the texts provide on major ethnic units and social groups
of ancient times has been delineated intelligently showing Bhaaratavarsha's
close cultural contacts with Ilaavritvarsha, located to its northwest.
X Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
Some of the inferences drawn and conclusions arrived at in this study

are extremely thought-provoking and truly seminal. For instance, it is
demonstrated authoritatively that Purana scholars' conception on the
origin, evolution and progression of life - including the coming of man -
is compatible with the modem palaeontologists' deductions based on fossil
records. Extremely interesting is also the fact, appropriately underlined in
this study, that almost all the Jyotirlingas, the celestial symbols of God
Shiva, are located in places characterized by very spectacular, unique
landforms and extraordinary geological features shaped by uncommon
earth processes. This speaks volumes about the keen observations, and
incredible knowledge of the leaders of the Purana society. Then, evidence
on the basis of comprehensive geological and bathymetric investigations
backed up by tell-tale satellite picture has been adduced to show that it
would not have been much difficult to build a bridge of sorts to link
Rameshwaram with Lanka. Furthermore, it has been shown that the history
of human movements indicated by genetic-marker studies tallies
remarkably well with the accounts given in the Puranas and epics.
Needless to say, these findings amply testify to the authenticity of the
Epic-Puranic descriptions. The last one, it may further be noted en passant,
has even a far reaching implication for the highly debated issue of the
original homeland of the early Aryans.
Interestingly, the author has equated the 12,000-year-long Chaturyuga
(Krita, Treta, Dwapara and Kali) with geologists' Holocene Epoch, which
is the 11,000-year-long period of social and cultural development of
humans.
I have a great and genuine pleasure in putting this study, presented
in the form of a book, with a nice get-up, in the hands of academicians
and enlightened lovers of the epics and the Puranas.
Prof. Shivaji Singh

President, Akhil Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana
[Former Professor and Head, Department of Ancient History,
Archaeology and Culture, University of Gorakhpur
Former Expert Member, Archaeological Advisory Board,
Government of Uttar Pradesh]
Preface
I read the texts of the Purans and the epics in conjunction with a mass of
studies on the geological history of the Indian continent, and my own
fieldwork in the Himalaya, the Kachchh-Saurashtra region, the Aravali,
the Vindhya, the mountainous Peninsular India and the western coastal
belt. I realized that the accounts given in the works of Valmiki and Krishna
Dvaipayan Vyas cannot be rubbished and ignored. They do provide kernels
of truths, of revealing facts, even though they are enmeshed in verbose
language, full of metaphors and allegories. As I read and re-read these
works, my awareness increased considerably of the historical values of
the narratives in the Purans by scholarly sages and spiritual leaders.
The interpretation of these narratives and descriptions brings out the
perspective of the geography of the lands inhabited by the peoples of the
Puran time. The authors of these works adopted the mode of story-telling,
presumably to convey the subjects to the general public in a memorable
and enjoyable manner. I realized that we tend to interpret, and have indeed
interpreted, the ancient texts by taking meaning today of the words of the
language that has evolved considerably over the last at least three to four
thousand years. Surely, the meaning of the three-to-four thousand years
old words and phrases have changed, and cannot be taken to mean the
same thing or convey the sense the original authors wanted to. Moreover,
idioms embellish languages, as they do both English and Hindi today. The
Sanskrit of the past, when in wide use, must have been enriched by idioms.
xii
Being careful of the strong possibility of idioms in the Puramc narratives,

I have desisted from literal translation of shlokas.
Shorn of metaphors and desisting from resort to allegories, I read the
texts in the context of natural geodynamic events of the eleve
thousand years of what the earth scientists call the Holocene Epoch. I
have endeavoured to find the geological reality lying behind the stories
and anecdotes narrated by various sages and passed down the oral pipe
fr°mi have" ventured8to highlight only a few of the many crucial pointsas
examples to show the depth of wisdom, the spectrum of knowledge^ and
the range of interests of the authors of the Purans, the Ramayan and the
Mahdbhdrat that were conceived three to four thousand years agaFr«n
the accurate and comprehensive accounts of geograp Y
encompassing not only the Indian subcontinent but also Central Asia,
obvious that among the peoples of the Purana times lived great explorers
and intrepid adventurers who roamed the lands and the seas.
d emerged that Mount Meru, located at the centre of ^ continent
fambudweep, was the focal point of what I would like to call the Puranland.
It turns out that the Meru is the Puranic name of the Pamir massif o e
present. The history with geography given in the Purans and epics is
therefore, of the vast stretch of the land encompassing the countries of the
Indian subcontinent and Central Asia around the Pamir massif.
Most of the mountains and rivers discussed in the Pâns and the
epics have been precisely located in modem maps. The scholars knew
trends and dimension of mountains and the precise sources of rivers
emanating from them. They knew the rivers' points of discharges m o c
seas. They were quite familiar with the natural environments wi*Mherr
floras and faunas of the terrains. They were aware
movements that caused shifting of the courses of rivers and their blockages
leading to formation of lakes. Their spiritual leaders chose to locate the
holy shrines in geomorphically picturesque and geologicaUyoctoordHmy
places, characterized by singularly fantastic geodynamrc
from uncommon earth processes. And these were located m different par s
ofTlTcountry extending from the Mount Kailas m the north to
Kanyakumari hi the south, from Saurashtra in the west to Assam m he
east. Importantly, the spiritual leaders and the scholar y sage® ™ ?
peoples to visit religiously and regularly these shrines as well as tee ths
developed on the river banks in different parts of the country. The id.
Preface xiii
behind this practice seems to be to persuade the people to know peoples

who speak different languages, eat and dress differently, have different
lifestyles and observe different socio-cultural practices. This was a
marvellous mode of integrating the peoples of the country.
The rishis (sages) were fired by the mission of spreading education
and knowledge of the philosophy of life, as they established ashram after
ashram in wooded tracts of the tribals in different parts of the country.
Profound thinkers and keen observers that they were, the Puranic
scholars had a fairly accurate idea of the structure of the earth, and the
origin, evolution and progression of life on land. They not only knew where
the ores occur, but also methods of the mining and converting them into
metals. They also harnessed the gases that oozed out from underground
sources and burned as flames. They had fairly good grip of the science of
engineering of fortifying towns, reclaiming lands from the sea, and building
bridges across even a sea. And they could interpret uncommon signals of
geophysical changes and anomalous behaviour of birds and animals; and
had the prescience of imminent occurrence of natural hazards.
These and many things more that I could read between the lines of
ancient texts of the Purans and the epics are discussed briefly. Admittedly,
I could not help but project my perception based on my understanding of
the geological setting, geographical layout and geodynamic development
in the Indian continent.
I wish to emphasize that this is not a scholarly treatise, nor a
comprehensive analysis. It is just a geologist's interpretation, presented
with a modest objective of providing a few telling examples indicating
that the Purans and epics do contain reliable source material for writing
the geography and the history of India in the prehistoric times.
K.S. Valdiya
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research
Bengaluru - 560 064
<ksva ldiya@gmail.com>
Note: Departingfrom the practice of Sanskrit scholars, who apply standardforms of diacritic
signs or use diacritical letters, the author has spelt names ofpersons, places, rivers, mountains,
etc. as is commonly spelt and pronounced today in the larger part of India, in the Survey of
India maps, in atlases, in medias, and in such Hindi-English dictionaries as by Dr Hardev
Bahri (2009). However, for some very common words, the universally accepted spellings are
retained.
Acknowledgement
3 *
This work has greatly benefited from comments and suggestions for
improvement received from Dr S. Kalyanaraman (Chennai), Professor
R.N. Iyengar (Bengaluru) and Professor Shivaji Singh (Gorakhpur), who
rigorously reviewed the draft manuscript. I am profoundly grateful to
them. I received abundant encouragement from Prof. Shivaji Singh. He
has been kind enough to pen the Foreword for this little work of mine.
Sincere thanks are due to Kanchan and Deepa Pande (Mumbai),
Rajeev Upadhyay (Nainital), B.D. Kharkwal and M.C. Joshi (Haldwani),
who provided valuable material and helped me at every stage of writing.
Shri Vikas Arya (New Delhi) enthusiastically took up the task of
publishing the book. Thanks to his keen interest and untiring efforts, this
work has got a shape, and a get-up.
I am deeply grateful to the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced
Scientific Research, Bengaluru for very warm hospitality and for extending
all facilities and financial help.
March 30, 2011 K.S. Valdiya

Contents
<£t*
Foreword vii
Preface xi
Acknowledgement xv
List of Illustrations xxiii
1. Purans: The Ancient History 1

Meaning of Purdn 1
Mode of Narration 1
Transmission of History 2
Focal Themes 3
Encyclopaedic in Dimension 4
Authors of the Purans and Epics 6
Vdlmiki Rdmdyan: The Epic 7
Mahdbharat: The Epic 8
Time of Composing Puranic Verses 10
2. Geography of Modem India and Changes of Landforms 12
with Time
An Assemblage of Domains 12
Northern Mountain Girdle 13
Indo-Gangetic Plains 17
Peninsular India 18
xviii Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
Coastal Plains 22
Quaternary Tectonic Events: Landform Changes 24
Processes Leading to Landform Changes 24
Formation and Effacement of Lakes 25
Shifting of River Courses 25
Disappearance of Rivers, March of Deserts 26
Rise and Fall of Sea Level along Coasts 27
Changes in River Deltas 28
Tectonic Resurgence of Peninsular Plateaus 28
Increasing Heights of Mountains 28
Changing Face of the Land of India 29
Corruption and Change of Old Names 30
3. Puranland: Position and Extent 32
Mega Island Jambudweep 32
Position of Bharatvarsh 33
Extent of Bharatvarsh 34
Northern Neighbours 36
Greater Puranland 43
Ethno-geopolitical Provinces within Bharatvarsh 43
4. Mountains of Bharatvarsh 51
Seven Kulparvats 51
The Himalaya or Himvant 53
Latitudinal Subdivision 54
Mountains Beyond the Himalaya 55
Mountains of Northwestern Frontier 56
Mountains of Western Coastal Belt 56
Mountains of Southern Bharatvarsh 60
Mountains of Lanka 64
Mountains of Southeastern Bharatvarsh 64
Mountains of Eastern Bharatvarsh 68
Mountains of Central Bharatvarsh 70
Patal Lok 71
5. Rivers of Bharatvarsh 73
Comprehensive Listing 73
Contents xix
The Saraswati River 77

The Yamuna River 82
The Ganga River 82
The Saryu and the Gandaki Rivers 88
The Lauhitya River 89
The Mahanadi River 89
The Narmada River 90
Tie Godavari River 92
The Sabhramati and the Mahi Rivers 94
6. Mora and Fauna of Bharatvarsh 95

Richly Endowed Land 95
Life in the Outer Himalaya 96
Flora of the Indo-Gangetic Plains 99
Flora and Fauna of the Dandakaranya 100
Floral Wealth of Malaya Giri 102
The Lankan Flora 103
Plants in the Northern Sahyadri 103
7. Peoples of the Puranland 105
Central Jambudweep Countries 105
The People of Ilavritvarsha 107
Ethnic Groups 107
Socio-political System 107
Archaeological Evidence 110
The People of the Countries Neighbouring Ilavritvarsh 111
The People of Bharatvarsh 112
Common Genetic Traits: Human Migration 113
Archaeological Evidence of Immigration 115
Ethnic Groups: Sur and Asm 117
Upward Mobile 'Sur' Group 120
Decline of a Civilization 122
People of the Himalayan Domain 124
The Kirats 124
The Khasas 126
The Nags 126
Integration of People 127
129
8. Teerths and Holy Shrines
Attempt at Integration and Unity of Bharatvarsh 129
130
Jyotirlings: God's Celestial Symbols
132
Shrines in Himalaya
134
Western Indian Shrines
137
Holy Places in Indo-Gangetic Plains
140
Shiva Shrines in Central India
Shiva's Celestial Symbols in South India 140
141
The Human Traits of Pur an Gods
145
9. Ashrams and Purs
145
Objectives of Establishing Ashrams
146
Viewpoints of Aborigine Tribals
146
Some Well-known Ashrams
148
Cities and Towns: Purs and Puris
148
Elite-centric Settlements
149
Mathura
150
Dwarka
152
Hastinapur
153
Ayodhya
154
Other Towns
155
The Harappan Towns
158
10. Tectonic Movements and Natural Hazards
158
Manifestation of Tectonic Movements
159
Uplift of Vindhya Giri
160
Sinking of Western Coastal Tract
162
Earthquakes and Tsunamis
169
Rivers Changed Courses
174
Climate Changes
177
The Concept of Pralaya
11. Understanding of Geology and Knowledge of Engineering 181
181
Scholars' Grasp of Sciences
181
Nature of Earth's Interior
183
Evolution of Life
185
Progression of Life
Anthropo-social Development of Humans 191
Contents xxi
Natural Gases, Minerals, Metals and Metallurgy 192

Engineering of Bridge Building 194
Town Planning 196
Knowledge of Aerodynamics 197
12. Long Summary of the Book 200
223
235
List of Illustrations
2.1. Various geomorphical provinces or domains of the Indian

subcontinent. (From: Valdiya, K.S., 2010, The Making of India:
Geodynamic Evolution, Macmillan, New Delhi)
2.2. Satellite picture-based map showing the relief of India. (Courtesy:
NGRI, Hyderabad)
2.3. (A) Satellite view of the Himalaya, or Himvan or Himvant. South of
the Pamir massif lay Kimpurushvarsh, and close to the wilderness
of the Tarim plain was Bhadrashwavarsh.
(B) The Himalayan province forming the northern girdle of India
is made up of four geologically contrasted and geomorphologically
distinctive latitudinal belts or subprovinces. Inset shows the festoon
of curved mountain ranges that the Himalaya is. (From: Valdiya,
K.S., 2010, The Making of India: Geodynamic Evolution, Macmillan,
New Delhi).
2.4. Sketch map of the triangular Peninsular India showing uplands
and plateaus surrounded by bordering mountain ranges and the
fringe of coastal plains. (From: Valdiya, K.S., 2010, The Making of
India: Geodynamic Evolution, Macmillan, New Delhi)
2.5. Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent, and the drainage pattern
and water divides. (From: Valdiya, K.S., 2010, The Making of India:
Geodynamic Evolution, Macmillan, New Delhi)
xxiv Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
3.1. Map of southern Asia showing a mountain knot called the Pamir
in tire centre of the continent. Mountain ranges diverge from this
knot of sorts, and rivers flow radially in all directions. This water
tower of Asia (Jambudweep) is described as Meru or Mahameru in
the Purans and the epics. (From: Encyclopaedia Britanica World Atlas,
2006).
3.2. Bharatvarsh of the Puran time lay south of the Meru masiff, across
the arch-shaped Himalaya mountain belt and stretched upto the
ocean. Notice the spectacular curves and bends in the mountain
arc, the Himalaya. False-colour satellite picture. [Courtesy: A.K.
Singhvi]
3.3. The Puranland including Bharatvarsh and the countries around
the Meru massif. Understandably, in the Puran times they had
different names and quite different political boundaries.
3.4. (A) Satellite view from north of the Pamir massif — a mountain
knot of sorts. A number of rivers and mountain ranges seemingly
radiate from the massif. Grey-green swathe of land in the left is
the Tarim Basin in China. The Tienshan Range is in the foreground.
(B) Closer view of the Pamir massif, deeply dissected by rivers.
[From: Google Earth]
3.5. Relief map of the Pamir massif and the surrounding terrains
including the floodplains. (Picture taken by Mallickarjun Joshi of
the model in the Bharatmata Mandir, Varanasi).
3.6. The Purans described the countries of Central Asia as clustered
around the Meru Parvat — the Pamir massif of the present. The
political boundaries are not shown.
3.7. Important geopolitical divisions within northern Bharatvarsh
during the Rigvedic and early Puranic times.
3.8. Important states or kingdoms during the epics time, particularly
in the Mahabharat period.
4.1. Sketch map showing various Kulparvats and Mary adapar vats
(border ranges) described in the Purans and the epics.
4.2. Latitudinal subdivisions of the Himalaya, according to the
Mahabharat. Their present-day names applied by the earth scientists
are given in brackets.
Inset shows the four neighbours of Bharatvarsh.
4.3. The Nishadh and the Malyawan ranges of the Puran period and
their modem names. Note the location of the Sui Gas Deposit in
List of Illustrations . xxv
the southern hilly terrain. It was the site where Agni was manifest
in the form of continuous flame.
4.4. Hills of Prabhaskshetra, now known as the Kathiawad Peninsula
or Saurashtra. Present-day names are given in brackets.
4.5. (A) Satellite pictures of die 1645 m high Kalsubai (possibly the
Gomantak) surrounded by very rugged terrain.
(B) From the Matheran Hill the sea is visible. [From: Google Earth],
4.6. Satellite pictures of the Mahendra Parvat at the southeastern
extremity of the Malaya Giri — the present-day Cardamom Hills.
Across the sea lay Lanka — Sri Lanka of the present.
prom: Google Earth]
[The lower picture is the blowup of the southern part of the above]
4.7. Sketch map showing the Southern Sahyadri comprising the Sahya
and Malaya Giri in the southern part of Bharatvarsh.
4.8. Sketch map shows uplands and hill ranges of the Bastar Plateau
in southern Chhattisgarh and the adjoining part of Orissa. Names
of the mountains given in the Puran time are in bold letters.
4.9. Satellite pictures of the three hill ranges, one of which could have
been the Rishyamuk described in the Valmiki Rdmayan.
(A) The Bailadila Hill, Bastar, (B) Tulasi - Goiparvatam Hills, Bastar,
(C) The Balaghat Range, Maharashtra. [From: Google Earth]
4.10. Underground world in the country of limestones and dolomites.
There are chambers characterized by stalagmites, stalactites and
pillars, together giving impression of a palatial residence.
The lower picture shows the pillars formed by the fusion of
stalagmites and stalactites.
(From: Illustrated Family Encyclopaedia, Dorling Kindersley, pp. 116-
117, London, 2007, p. 188).
4.11. Sketch map shows the hill ranges of central Bharatvarsh. The
present-day names are given in brackets.
5.1. Map shows some of the rivers mentioned in the Purans. In the
brackets are given their modem names, if there are changes.
5.2. Satellite picture shows many abandoned channels of the Saraswati
River. The Vdman Puran mentions seven channels, and the
Mahdbhdrat (Shalya Parv, 41) identifies six more. Saraswati
frequently shifted its course. (Courtesy: A.K. Gupta, 2002).
5.3. Satellite imagery shows the branching off of the Saraswati near
Anupgarh. Both the branches disappear under the desert sands.
(Courtesy: A.S. Rajawat, SAC, Ahmadabad)
xxvi Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
5.4. The Saraswati of the Puran and epics time originated in the
Himalaya. It had two branches — the eastern Tamasa and the
western Shatadru. It flowed through what are today Haryana and
Rajasthan, abandoning one channel after another. It discharged
into the Gulf of Kachchh, which then extended upto the Rann of
Kachchh.
5.5. The seven rivers that branched off from the celestial Ganga
descending on the Kailas are represented by the rivers that bear
very different names today. Neotectonic activities that overtook
the Himalaya repeatedly in the last 11,000 years of the Holocene
Epoch must have separated the sources of the present-day rivers
from the original locations.
5.6. In the zone of collision of India with Asia — the zone now occupied
by the rivers Sindhu and Tsangpo — is associated with great crustal
upwarp represented by the domal Gurla Mandhata and Kailas
massifs. The Mansarovar and the Rakshastal (Bindusarovar Lake)
lie in this zone. Note the multiplicity of faults (shown by dot-and-
dash lines) that cut the zone. (After Laccasin et ah, 2004; Murphy
et ah, 2002).
5.7. (A) The Harsil lake of the past formed because of blockage due to
a huge debris dam at Bhuki-Jhala in the upper reaches of the
Bhagirathiganga, is now represented by a mass of sediments.
(B) Another lake must have formed upstream of Byasi on the Ganga,
NE of Rishikesh (satellite picture from Google Earth).
5.8. (A) View from north. The satellite picture shows the upper reaches
of the Kali Gandaki flowing in the N-S oriented tectonic graben
straddling across the Annapurna-Dhaulagiri Range in the south
and the Nepal-Tibet border in the north. [From: Google Earth].
(B) Picture shows the upper reaches of the Gandaki where the
sedimentary rocks forming the Jurassic Saligram Formation abound
in Shaligram.
5.9. Picture of a Shaligram or Shalgram from the Himalaya.
5.10. (A) The Narmada originates, according to the Purans in
Udayachal, which is today known as the Maikal Hills with its
Amarkantak Plateau. The tributary rivers include Kapila coming
through Kanha Reserve Forest in the south, the Payoshni emerging
from the Bhanrer Hills in the north, and the Kaveri coming from
region in the south. Their modem names are given in brackets.
List of Illustrations xxvii
(B) The precipitous scarp that defines the eastern edge of the
Amarkantak plateau (Udayachal), from where the Narmada
originates.
(C) A few kilometres downstream of the point of origin, the rushing,
foaming Narmada falls down the high scarps.
5.11. The Dakshinganga included the Godavari, the most important river
described in the Purans and epics.
6.1. The herb Selagmella bryopteris growing in the Western Ghat could
be the Mrit Sanjeevani described in the Valmiki Ramayan. (From:
Ganeshaiah et al., 2002).
6.2. The Salla (pine) tree in Manaskhand (Ûttarakhand) Himalaya
with a mountain goat. [From an old issue of National Geographic]
7.1. Countries of Central Jambudweep described in the Purans and
the epics. The present-day countries are given in brackets. The dots
represent towns and cities of the present time. Compare it with
Fig. 3.3.
7.2. Genetic markers of the people of different regions indicate that all
humans emerged from a common ancestral stock and later moved
out in successive waves to different parts of the earth at different
intervals (Based on Gadgil et al., 1998).
7.3. Stone Age settlements in northwestern India, including the
Himalaya.
7.4. Distribution of settlements of Pre-Harappa, Early Harappa and
Mature Harappa periods indicating gradual expansion of the
domain of the group of the people called Sur. (From Valdiya, 2002;
Based on Joshi and Bisht, 1984)
7.5. In the Later Harappan time new settlements suddenly appeared
in large numbers in the Siwalik Hills and the plains in front of the
hills. This was the consequence of mass migration of the people,
who fled the middle reaches of the Saraswati. (From Valdiya, 2002,
Based on Joshi and Bisht, 1984).
8.1. Location of twelve divine symbols of Lord Shiva — fyotirlings — in
different parts of Bharatvarsh, implying sociocultural unity of the
country in the Puran time.
8.2. (A) Aerial photograph taken from the north of Mount Kailas. It
brings out prominently the celestial ling in the centre, surrounded
by depression and series of hills along the periphery representing
:viii Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
the yoni. The mount is made up of sandstones and conglomerates

emplaced by a braided river.
(B) View of the Kailas from the east.
8.3 (A) and (B) Satellite photographs of the Mount Kailas in the
backdrop of the Rakshastal-Mansarovar Lakes — Bindusarovar-
Mansarovar of the Puran times. [From: Google Earth].
8.4. Map shows the location of Kedamath in the amphitheatre-shaped
glacial valley of the Mandakirti River. It is within the Badarikshetra
of the Purans. Badarinath is the holy shrine of Vishnu. It is quite
possible that the Dhauli River to the right might have once come
across the high mountain from the Kailas region.
8.5. Photo taken from the south of the 6940 m Mount Kedamath and
the Chorbari Glacier, the origin of the Mandakini River. (From:
Ganga: A River of Civilization, 2004, Uttaranchal Tourism
Development Board, Dehradun)
8.6. (A) Satellite photograph of the Girnar Hill in Saurashtra — the
Prabhaskshetra of the Purans. The central plug-like intrusive
laccolithic body represents the swayambhu ling, the depression
between the plug and the peripheral ring of hills is the celestial
yoni. The outwardly dipping lava beds form a ring of hills along
the periphery. [From: Google Earth]
(B) A view of the central plug — the Jyotirling — of Mount Girnar.
8.7. (A) Satellite picture of the Pavagarh Hill, ENE of Vadodara, is
characterized by spectacular diverging spurs representing lobes of
lava flows.
(B) Notice the sausar-shaped depressions with rims atop the hill
and also the peculiarly carved steep to vertical scarps on all sides.
8.8. (A) Photograph of the Brahmagiri situated southwest of the source
of the Narmada River.
(B) Satellite picture of Trayambakeshwar. Notice the three
spectacular arms (spurs resembling a trishul (trident)) made up of
lava lobes of the Brahmagiri mountain sheltering the shrine of
Shiva. Note the source of the Narmada from within the trishul.
8.9. (A) Bheemeshwar shrine is close to the source of the Bheemrathi
(=BhIma of the present) in the scarp-defined northern Sahyadri.
(B) Omkareshwar resides close to the island between two branches
List of Illustrations xxix
of the bifurcated River Narmada. The river flows in a rift valley of

Precambrian origin that represents tectonic divide between northern
and southern India. [From: Google Earth]
8.10. (A) Kashi (Varanasi) is located on the Ganga that suddenly swings
in the NE direction to flow in that direction for about 100 km before
resuming its easterly course.
(B) Prayag (Allahabad) was earlier the confluence of the Ganga
and the Yamuna. After the eastern branch of the west-flowing
Saraswati suddenly swung southwards and joined the Yamuna,
Prayag became Triveni, where the waters of the Saraswati also
mingled with those of the Ganga and the Yamuna.
8.11. Satellite photographs of the flat-topped Maikal Range with its
Amarkantak shrine of Shiva overlooking sheer scarps on all sides.
Notice amphitheatre-like deep cuts of the river Narmada flowing
west from the lava pile. [From: Google Earth],
8.12. (A) Quartzites and shales of the Mesoproterozoic Cuddapah
Supergroup form the geomorphic eminence Shrishailam (Srisailam)
on which sits Mallikarjun — combined Parvati and Shiva. The
shrine is ensconced within a box formed of river bends.
(B) The Dhanushkoti island — one among the string of coral islands
linking underwater Tamil Nadu with Sri Lanka — provides the
abode to Shiva's celestial symbol in the form of Rameshwar.
9.1. Map shows the location of some well-planned cities, towns and
ashrams described in the Purans and epics.
9.2. Satellite pictures show the modem cities:
(A) Ayodhya on the bank of the Saryu.
(B) Mathura on the bank of the Yamuna.
(C) Haridwar or Gangadwar on the bank of the Ganga.
9.3. An artist's visualization of parts of the city of Dwarka, close to the
sea coast. (Courtesy: A.S. Gaur, NIO, Goa)
9.4. (A) Satellite photograph shows Dwarka-Bet Dwarka secured from
three sides by the sea and by a tidal flat in the east. Raivat Parvat
lay to the east of Dwarka. [From: Google Earth].
(B) A retaining wall protecting Bet Dwarka against wave erosion
contains 3528-year old pottery piece. Its offshore part has sunk
into the sea. (After: S.R. Rao, 1999).
xx Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Purdnas and Epics
9.5. (A) Photographs of the remains of the dockyards (upper) and of

drainage and brick-made storage pot at Lothal.
(B) An artist depicts a large store house for cargos adjacent to
dockyard connected by a canal to the sea — Gulf of Khambat.
(Courtesy: A.S. Gaur, NIO, Goa)
9.6. Well-planned cities of the Harappa Civilization
(A) Kalibangan (After Lai, 1979)
(B) Banawali (After Bisht, 1984)
(C) Surkotda (After Joshi, 2008)
(D) Kalibangan (After Bisht, 1998)
10.1. The Vindhya terrane is cut by many faults. Reactivation of one of
these in the Middle to Later Holocene time must have resulted in
the uplift of a part of the hill range. (Based on Ram, et al, 1996).
10.2. (A) Along the Oman Oceanic Trench plunges down the oceanic
crust into the trench formed at the end of the Arabian Sea with its
NNE-SSW trending Owen Fracture. The phenomenon brings about
strong tectonic upheaval, including the heaving up of the coastal
belt and uplift of hills. The Owen Fracture with its ridges prods
the coastal landforms.
(B) The Makran Hills along the coast is the result of the above-
mentioned phenomenon. [From: Google Earth]
10.3. Satellite picture shows the part of the forested land that sank into
the sea off Mumbai dockyard (arrow). The hill of Matheran lies to
the east of the sea. [From: Google Earth].
10.4. (A) The faulted northern extremity of the Aravali terrane, in which
were located Hastinapur, Indraprastha and Kurukshetra, is
recurrently rocked by earthquakes of low and moderate intensity
(magnitudes). (Modified after Bhadauria et al, 1998).
(B) Distribution of epicentres of historical earthquakes in
northwestern part of India (From Valdiya, 2002).
10.5. The land in Gujarat is cut by a number of long deep faults.
Movements along them not only caused sinking (drowning) and
uplift of the land, but also generation of earthquakes. (Based on
Valdiya, 2002).
10.6. (A) The Yamuna migrated eastward as borne out by abandoned
channels, cut off meanders and levees. (Bakliwal and Sharma, 1980)
(B) The Ganga has flowed through many channels. The abandoned
channels are occupied by petty streams or are wet grounds.
(Parkash et al, 2000).
List of Illustrations xxxi
10.7. Satellite picture shows the NNW-SSE trending fault tearing apart
the Siwalik Range, and dislocating the hill range. The faulting
opened an easy passage southwards to the eastern branch of the
Saraswati. The deflected Saraswati first flowed southwestwards
through the channel of the Drishadvati (Chautang Nala), until
the land to the east of the fault subsided 1*1—20 m, forcing the river
to flow south to join the Yamuna. (Photo courtesy: NRSA,
Hyderabad).
10.8. The way the Saraswati's eastern (Tamasa) branch got deflected
southwards. (After Valdiya, 2002).
10.9. Abrupt deflection westwards of the western (Shatadru) branch of
the Saraswati leading to the river become wholly dry. (From:
Valdiya, 2010).
10.10. Changing courses of the Brahmaputra River (Tsangpo in Tibet).
(After Clark et al., 2004).
10.11. Summary of major changes in the monsoon condition during the
Holocene Epoch — in the last 11000 years — in the central Ganga
Basin, the Deccan Plateau and Rajasthan. The larger part of this
time span encompasses the Chaturyug of the Purans and the epics.
(Modified after V.S. Kale in Singhvi and Kale, 2009).
10.12. Large-scale extinction of animals and plants in the last 500 million
years, as the testimony of fossils demonstrates. (After Palmer, 2006)
11.1. Five inner continuous shells and two outer discontinuous layers of
earth as deduced from combination of geophysical methods.
11.2. Life appeared in the form of a herb or an aushadh, according to the
Purans. Sketches of bluegreen algae and a cell.
11.3. Rendition of the half-ape half-human anthropoid Sivapithecus
resembling modem orangutan. The Lower inset shows skull of the
creature. (Courtesy: A.C. Nanda)
11.4. (A) and (B) Partial skull of Homo erectus ruimadicus, a short stocky
female dwarf found at Hathnora on the Narmada bank. (Courtesy:
A. Sonakia)
(C) Satellite picture of the Narmada showing the location of
Hathnora where the skull of Homo erectus namadicus was found.
11.5. People of the Sindhu and Saraswati floodplains during the Harappa
period from 5500 yr B.P. to 3300 yr B.P. used copper and bronze
tools, toys and ornaments. (Based on Bisht, 1993; Joshi and Bisht
1999).
xxxii Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
11.6. Satellite pictures of the Ram Setu — a chain of coral islands betw een
Sri Lanka and Rameshwaram on the Tamil Nadu coast. The temple
town is located in the Island Dhanushkoti. [From: Google Earth].
11.7. Sea level has been rising all through the time. It stood nearly 10
metre below the present level 5500 year ago. (After Hashimi et al,
1995)
11.8. Stretching the author's imagination a bit far:
(A) Hanuman used a paraglider to cross the sea, lurching forward
from the 1645 m high Mahendra Parvat.
(B) Smoke-filled big balloon with a basket must have been the
Pushpak Viman used by Ram's party.
1
Purans: The Ancient History
MEANING OF PURAN
The Sanskrit word Puran OJJFT) means ancient. Its Hindi equivalent is purdna
(Sî)/ meaning olcL The works known as the Purans indeed chronicle the
history of very ancient times, embodying the accounts of the people living
in what are today India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Western
Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The accounts relate to
the life-styles, cultural perceptions and religious practices, the struggles
for survival and expansion, and the conflicts for resources and political
supremacy of aristocrats, elites, ruling classes and tribals. The common
people do not figure much in the narratives by sages who recounted the
history of their lands and people.
MODE OF NARRATION
The historical accounts coupled with descriptions of geography and

environments of various terrains are given in the mode of samvad -
questions and answers commonly between gods and their devotees, and
between rishis (sages) and munis (ascetics or commentators). In order to
explain or elucidate their points, particularly of profound nature, the
narrators used the metaphoric language and embellished it profusely with
2 Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
allegories and idioms. Hyperboles are galore, and the poetic and idiomatic
language is not amenable to easy interpretation. Some parts of the
narratives are quite abstruse and have, therefore, been dismissed by
historians as fanciful, fabulously exaggerated and even self-contradictory.
The original language in which the history was told and retold has
evolved over the last three to four thousand years, and the meanings of
words and phrases have changed considerably. Yet, the interpreters or
translators and bhdshyakdrs of our time, retaining the original terms have
taken their meanings in the sense or meanings of the present time. Take
the example of units of time (varsh, pal, ghati), distance (yojan) or number
(shat, sahasra, laksh, koti). The measures of these units must have been
then quite different from what they are today, even though there is almost
a universally accepted view that the concepts and meanings of basic
numbers have not changed since the Vedic time (R.N. Iyengar, per.com.,
2010). However, the Puranic history that is read today has also suffered
the ravages of repeated narration, translation, interpolations and
interpretation by scholars with differing perceptions in the last two
thousand years of our time. As a consequence, there is often a lack of
consistency and uniformity, rightly inviting dismissive appraisal of modern
historians. Moreover, the narratives are overburdened by superfluous, often
irrelevant, sub-stories, anecdotes or biographies of the persons discussed.
It must be admitted that for the common Indians, "the past is not
dead and lives with us". Therefore, they tend to accept without critical
analysis whatever their forefathers created for themselves—their
civilization, their perceptions and their deductions.
TRANSMISSION OF HISTORY
The historical accounts in the Purans, embellished with poetic and

idiomatic metaphors and replete with allegories, were transmitted orally
down the generations. As already stated, the accounts were narrated in
courses of samvad by the leaders of the society who were invested with
the aura of divinity, or by the scholars known as maharshis and rishis.
Despite repeated narration at different times in different places, by different
persons, the accounts are nevertheless quite structured and amenable to
reconstruction in the perspective of the geography of land and natural
Purans: The Ancient History 3
(geodynamic) events that took place. However, the reconstruction of

history suffers from lack of chronological order. Another negative point is
the exasperating repetitions of developments or events, descriptions of
situations, geneologies of rulers and rishis, and even of villains.
It may be emphasized once again that the original text of the Purdn
went through exercise of repeated interpolations by later writers (whom
some call storytellers), thus diminishing the credibility of the Puranic
h#s6u*y- However, there were some later scholars whose works provided
accurate information of the geography and people, such as Ban (who
wTofe KManibari), Ballal Sen (the author of Adbhut Sugar), and Varahmihir
(who penned Brihat Samhitd).
FOCAL THEMES
Like history taught today in schools, colleges and universities, the Puranic
history is also focused on rulers—kings, satraps, tribal chiefs, power-
wielding aristocrats, elites and gods. Their dynastic lineages, exploits, virtues
and vices are comprehensively described.
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, forming the trinity or Trimurti, figure
very prominently and repeatedly. They are portrayed as the persona of
God endowed with supernatural powers, winning manners,
magnanimous nature and helpful demeanour. They are depicted as ever
helping those who sought their blessings and guidance. In order to help
mankind, one of the gods, Vishnu, reincarnated himself a number of times
and undertook Herculean tasks of weeding out evil persons who violated
the laws of the land. Also discussed comprehensively are the abodes and
seats of Gods.
The third principal theme is the endless confrontations, conflicts and
combats between the immigrants coming mostly from the northwest who
settled down commonly in urban centres, and the forest-dwelling
aborigines or tribals—ddvdsis—who felt displaced and discriminated
against.
One very important aspect of the Puranic society was the primacy of
spiritual leaders—the gurus—the scholarly sages and saints (rishis and
maharshis). They had deep roots in the society and played crucial roles as
mentors of rulers in matters of governance as well as sociocultural niceties.
Teerthatan, pilgrimage, is emphasized as an absolutely essential karma

(deed or ritual) of the people, as well as those in the governance of states
or societies. It was, and continues to be, regarded as a means of attaining
spiritual fulfilment or salvation or deliverance from sins. Rishis, achdryas
and even saintly persons in the political structures advised their audiences
on the desirability of undertaking pilgrimage. In order to suggest itinerary
of pilgrimages, the knowledge of geography of the country was essential.
And they did have that knowledge in full measure. Behind the idea of
pilgrimage seems to be the objective of promoting national integration of
people by visits of persons of one area to another where the people spoke
different language, had different lifestyle, wore different kinds of garments
and ate differently. In short, the pilgrimage to various teerths were
undertaken to inculcate a sense of national unity.
ENCYCLOPAEDIC IN DIMENSION
In addition to the five focal themes, the Purans embody detailed manuals
on religious rites and rituals, such as havan, hom, puja, dan, shradh, vrat,
deekshd, prdyaschit, etc. Also discussed are protocols for ceremonies of
foundation-laying (shildnyds) and dedication of statues (prdn pratisthd)
{Agni Purdn, 156-210; Narad Puran, 65-67; Ling Purdn).
The emphasis is on the sublime unity in worshipping Brahma, Vishnu
and Shiva. The Purans aim at offering ways of integrating dharma (duty)
with arth (pursuit for wealth), leading ultimately to moksh (eternal bliss).
In other words, for upright living one should combine pursuits for
prosperity with righteous duties of life.
^ff%cTT: II 16 II
(Mahdbhdrat, Adi Parv,, 1)
Not only spiritual-religious but also mundane matters are discussed

comprehensively with elaborate explanations and illuminating examples.
The contents of Agni Purdn, Matsya Purdn and Narad Purdn embody a
variety of subjects of general as well as specific interests. For example:
(i) Architecture and civil engineering involving methods for
construction of temples, palaces, forts, residential houses (vdstu
shdstra), wells and ponds within household premises and
temples, making of shikhars of temples and caning of statues and

their dedications (Agni Puran, 39-43, 46, 53-64, 93-96, 103; Matsya
Puran, 117, 254-270; Garud Puran, Acharkand, Prasadkand, 33,
34).
(ii) Importance and methods of planting trees around temples and in
mten centres (Agni Puran, 70; Matsya Puran, 59; Bhavishya Puran,
150-155; Psdma Puran).
(*) Madkanel plants, herbal medicines and concoctions for treatment
of common sicknesses and diseases, including epidemics; and
treatment for snake bite (Agni Puran, 58, 254; Garud Puran,
Acharkand, 128-172 and 180-182).
(iv) Physiology of human body, functioning of different parts of body
(dyurved), daily exercises including pranayam and dsans (Agni
Puran, 279-282).
(v) Treatment of domestic animals including elephants and horses
(Agni Puran, 287-295; Bhavishya Puran, 23-25).
(vi) Rules related to grammar (vydkaran), poetry (kavya shastra), dance
(nritya shastra), drama (ndtak shastra), music (sangeet shastra),
education (shiksha nirupan) (Agni Puran, 336-349; Narad Puran,
52-53; Garud Puran, Acharkand, 184-190).
(vii) Sainya vigydn, encompassing composition, weaponization and
force formation of armies for defence as well as offence, and
deployment of combat columns in battlefields (vyuh rachand),
various types of weapons (astra vigydn), target pr actice, fabrication
of noose, etc. (Agni Puran, 249-252).
(viii) Astrology based on mathematics (ganit shastra), positions and
conjunctions of stars and planets (jyotish vigydn) (Agni Puran, 246;
Narad Puran, 54-59).
(ix) Interpretation of dreams, anomalous behaviour of animals,
serpents, birds, and of extraordinary geophysical changes (Agni
Puran, 229-232; Matsya Puran, 229-234, 242, 243).
(x) Statecraft, embracing duties of kings, rulers and state officials,
the policy of sam, dam, dand, bhed—tact, reward, punishment,
diplomacy—and of diplomatic relations of states, etc. (Matsya
Puran, 215, 216, 220-227).
(xi) Mineralogy or ratna vigyan, related to gold, silver and precious

and semi-precious stones (Garud Puran, Acharkand, 54-66; Agni
Puran, 246).
This is not to state that all Purans discuss all these and other subjects.
Rather, different Purans have different contents, and emphasize different
aspects of knowledge. However, the focal themes are common.
Needless to state that the original text of the Puran is a compendium
of knowledge embodying in a holistic manner, spiritual, religious, cultural,
literary, military, financial, historical and geographic aspects. Besides, a
host of mundane matters are incorporated. As the knowledge was
transmitted orally through the vehicle of Samvdd or narration, more and
more information was added over the time. The sciences of geology and
astronomy provide chronological order to otherwise disjointed accounts.
The natural events that shaped the landform sculptured the landscape
and profoundly influenced the social pattern were attributed to
supernatural powers.
AUTHORS OF THE PURANS AND EPICS
Vyas is credited with the authorship of the Puran. However, the word
Vyds is a designation for the scholars who rank top among the vachaks
(narrators). The vachaks themselves are best amongst the brahmans (or
vipras) (Bhavishya Puran, Brahma Khand, 216)
(Bhavishya Puran, Brahma Parv, 216)

The Kurma Puran (Chapter 50, v. 1 and 9) describes existence of 28
Vyasas, the first being Swayambhuv Manu and the last one Krishna
Dvaipayan.
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(Kurma Puran, 50)
Krishna Dvaipayan, the son of Rishi Parashar, was a great scholar
and a profound thinker. The Pandav chief Yudhisthir suggested that he
write a bhdshya (treatise) on Valmiki's Ramayan. The Vdlmiki Ramayan

provided him knowledge of the geography and history of the land called
Bharatvarsh and the neighbouring countries in the northwest. What
Krishna Dvaipayan wrote comprised thousands of verses dealing with
disparate subjects such as dharma, arth and kdm and history, geography
and sociology. The voluminous work was reorganized into eigh teen parts—
the Brehmdnd, the Padma, the Vishnu, the Shiva, the Bhdgwat (the Devi),
the Bhevishi/a, the Narad, the Mdrkandeya, the Agni, the Brahmavaivarta,
the Ling, the Varah, the Skanda, the Vdman, the Kitrma, the Matsya, the
Canid, and the Brahmanda Puran. It is believed that the Brahmdnd Puran,
the Vayu Puran and the Matsya Puran represent the oldest of all Purans.
Some scholars have very little belief in the authority of the Brahma
Puran (R.N. Iyengar, per.com., 2010).
^WI<v?Wu: 'JTM ipj: II 20 II

W WT 'qT^T ^w|c^c| ^ |
^ di^kd,^ ii i3 ii
SI§J^ckMc| ^ I
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sJ^JIUSPhRi uT^dH II 15 II
(Kurma Puran, 50)
Krishna Dvaipayan must have organised his magnum opus in

eighteen parts or volumes. But the various Purans were re-written at
different time and expanded and embellished by later scholars. This is
evident from variations in content, style, emphasis and phraseology. It
may be emphasized that the basic material for writing the Puran was
available in the Vedic literature, and that the original text of the Puran
was enlarged and considerably embellished in different times and different
places.
VALMIKI RAmAYAN: THE EPIC:
There was a scholarly rishi Valmiki who lived on the bank of the Tamasa
River, a tributary of the Ganga. He later shifted to the Ganga bank near
what is today Bithoor (in the district Kanpur). He was a poet of great
sensitivity who stepped into the world of poetry when he saw a pair of
Kraunch (heron curlew, a variety of swan) bird writhing in mortal agony
when hit by a hunter's arrow. He is regarded as the first poet (adikavi) in
Sanskrit language. This genius had extraordinary knowledge of the
geography and history of Bharatvarsh and its neighbours. Along with
Sita and Lakshman, Ram had spent some time in his hermitage during his
exile. Later abandoned by Ram, Sita lived in his ashram where her
twins - Lav and Kush - were bom. Valmiki had brought them up. He
thus had an intimate and first-hand knowledge of the history of the
powerful Ikshwaku rulers of Ayodhya, of Ram's exile in Dandakaranya,
and his punitive expedition to Lanka to get back his wife, abducted by
Ravan, the king of Lanka.
The Rdmayan that Valmiki wrote is the most authoritative and
authentic history and geography of Bharatvarsh during the time of the
Purans. The work is a lyrical prose expressed in shloks (verses). It seems
that the Valmiki Rdmayan provided the original material to Krishna
Dvaipayan Vyas for writing his Purdn.
7P7FFT test ^kT*J
Twm +io<i4W *hi<hh, i
^ fliwfW Vitold n
(jBrahma Purdn, Pratham Khand: 30)
One of the special features of the Valmiki Rdmayan is the detailed

advisory on the construction of palaces, forts, temples, the duties of state
officials, etc. (Chapter 7). It may be pointed out that there are several
versions of the Rdmayan—the Adbhut, the Vasisht, the Adhyatma, the
Tulasidas, etc. However, Valmiki Rdmayan is considered an authentic basis
of history (itihas). It is this Valmiki Rdmayan that forms the basis of all
dance-dramas still enacted in Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Java and
Sumatra.
MAHABHARAT: THE EPIC
After the Mahabharat war was over, the author of the Purdn, Krishna
Dvaipayan Vyas, wrote the history of Bharatvarsh and the debilitating
war that had engulfed practically the whole country (Matsya Purdn, 53).
He based the accounts of geography and history on the works of Valmiki,

and divided the voluminous contents into eighteen volumes of the Puran.
Uplift ^TT I
Hkni«HNHRgcrt I
rUsj'^'l TTItFi 11 69 II
{Matsya Puran, 53)
It is believed that this great work evolved in three stages—the Jaya

(with its 8000 verses), the Bharat (made up of 24,000 verses), and the
Mahabharat (with its 100,000 verses).
It is said that the learned and indefatigable Ganesh—who had
exceptional talent for stenography or rapid writing—wrote down the
verses composed and uttered by Vyas. Ganesh must have put the stamp
of his own perception in writing the history of Bharatvarsha.
Recapitulating the summaries of accounts given in the Purans, the
Mahabharat is a history of the kings and princes of the Yadu and Kuru
clans, and the rise and fall of the various kingdoms involved in the
Mahabharat war. While the Yadav supremo Krishna does not figure in
most of the Purans after his departure from Mathura to Dwarka, he is the
real hero—the central figure—in this epic. He is the one who played the
key role in the great war. The acme of the epic is the Bhagvat Geeta—the
song celestial—spoken by Krishna in the battlefield in the Kurukshetra
area to the deeply distraught Pandav commander Arjun. The Geeta is the
encapisiculation of the supreme spiritualism and pragmatic philosophy
of life and an exhortation to live a life of action, dignity , grace and verve.
Apart from dealing with a variety of subjects, the Mahabharat
elaborates on pilgrimage and on adventures related to rdjsuya and
ashvamedh yagya of the Pandavs. The accounts of pilgrimages and
adventures provide portrayal of the geography of the whole country and
the countries to the northwest. Natural hazards such as earthquakes,
landslides, avalanches and seastorms and uplift and subsidence of ground
are graphically described a number of times. There is a column on the
pattern of drainage, indicating their knowledge of geology.
The Bhishma Parv of the Mahabharat devotes a large chapter on
rdjdharma (state-craft), enunciating principles of governance, justice and
LO Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
punishment, and diplomacy. It spells out the norms and protocols to be

observed by rulers and administrators and the codes of conduct in business
deals, legal deeds and tax collection.
TIME OF COMPOSING PURANIC VERSES
[t is significant that the Puranic accounts on the Yadav supremo Krishna

ends with his leaving Mathura to resettle at Dwarka on the sea coast.
Ihere is no mention of the Mahabharat War and happenings thereafter
in most of the Purans, excepting a few. It seems that Krishna Dvaipayan
Vyas wrote most of the Puran volumes sometime after Krishna left
Mathura and before the great civil war.
Interestingly, according to K.P. Jayaswal the Mahabharat War
occurred at 1424 bc (3424 yr B.P.) and A.S. Altikar places the time at 1400
yr bc (3400 yr B.P.) (in Lai, 1988). However, the great event happened in
950 yr bc (2950 yr B.P.) according to F.E. Pargiter, in the ninth century bc
according to H.C. Roy Chaudhuri, and in 836 yr bc (2836 yr B.P.) according
to Lai (1988). Making use of planetarium software related to solar and
lunar eclipses and position of stars, Iyengar (2003) concluded that the
great civil war occurred in the year 1478 bc. Narhari Achar (2008), on the
other hand, dates the Mahabharat War in November 3067 bce. From
archaeological and seismotectonic evidence, I would go by Iyengar's
calculation, implying that the great Mahabharat war happened nearly
3500 years ago.
For threo major reasons I am inclined to accept the time of the
Mahabharat War deduced by Iyengar (2003). One, the 20-m uplift of a
stream terrace in the Yamuna valley, related to reactivation of a major
fault and tearing apart of the Siwalik Hills which occurred 3663±215 years
ago (sometime between 3878 to 3448 yr B.P.), was responsible for the
abrupt southward deflection of the eastern Tamasa branch of the
Saraswati (Valdiya, 2002) resulting in stupendous decline of the river
discharge and consequent great exodus of the Harappans from the middle
reaches of the Saraswati around 3750 yr B.P. (B.K. Thapar, 1975). Two,
the archaeologists conclude that the Painted Greyware Culture—which
represents a settled agrarian economy, iron technology and growing
specialization in craft (Bhan, 2000)—coincides with the timespan described
in the Mahabharat (Lai 1998, 2002; Joshi, 2008; Ramakrishna Rao, 2008,
p. 252). Three, the flourishing culture that the Purans and epics describe,
and the existence of a large number of teerths on the banks of rivers full of
water, implies that the climate conditions were favourable and that the
rainfall was sufficient to make the rivers flowing full and the land green.
A variety of geological evidence clearly shows that in the period 8500 to
3500 yr B.P., the rainfall was quite high (Singh et ah, 1974; Bryson and
Swain, 1981; Wason, 1995; Naidu, 1995; Enzel et ill, 1999; Valdiya, 2010
and Verma and Rao, 2010). Taking the geochronological date of the tectonic
event, the climate conditions during the Puran times, the archaeological
deductions and testimony of the constellation of stars, it seems very
probable that the Mahabharat War occurred around 1478 bc, that is,
approximately 3490 years ago. That means that the epic Mahabharat was
written sometime after 3500 yr B.P.
If that is the case, then the epic Mahabharat was written sometime
later than 3500 yr B.P.
Geography of Modem India and
Changes of Landforms with Time
AN ASSEMBLAGE OF DOMAINS
In Puranic literature and religious invocations, India is described as a part

of Jambudweep, a mega-island or mahadweep (continent). If India (Bharat)
and its surrounding terrains of neighbouring countries—Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tibet,
Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka—are included, the
land is indeed a continent—the Indian continent (Valdiya, 2010). The
continent encompasses five distinctly different geomorphological domains
or provinces. In the north is the mountain province of the Himalaya,
girdling the almost flat expanse of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Plateaus and
uplands constitute the larger part of the Peninsular India in the south,
while coastal plains form a narrow fringe of the triangular Peninsular
India. In the far east, the flood plains of the Irrawaddy River make up the
long swath of land in the heart of Myanmar, which is bordered in the east
by the Shan Plateau (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2). Each of these provinces or domains
is a geologically contrasted and geomorphologically distinctive unit, having
very different histories of evolution in the sense of earth science. There are
many physiographic subdivisions within each of the four major domains.
Geography of Modem India and Changes of Landforms with Time 13
Fig. 2.1. Various geomorphical provinces or domains of the Indian subcontinent.

(From: Valdiya, K.S., 2010, The Making of India: Geodynamic Evolution, Macmillan,
New Delhi)
In the geographical confines of India (Bharat), liigh mountains cover

nearly 11% area, small mountains and hills in the altitudinal range of 900
to 2100 m are spread over 18% of the land, plateaus (300 to 900 m in
height) make up 28% and plains encompass 43% land of the country.
NORTHERN MOUNTAIN GIRDLE
Majestically high mountains form the northwestern, northern and

northeastern border. Forming a colossal rampart that isolates India from
the rest of Asia, the Himalaya comprise a number of curved mountain
chains, forming a festoon of lofty mountains. The 1300-km long Patkai
Hills-Naga Hills-Arakan Yoma, forming the India-Myanmar Border
Ranges in the east, includes such high peaks as the 3014-m high Japro
and the 3053-m tall Mount Victoria, respectively in the Naga Hills and
the Arakan Yoma. The 2400-km long main Himalaya in the north contains
the world's two highest mountains, Sagarmatha or Everest (8848 m) and
Mount Godwin Austin or K2 (8611 m). In the northwest, the Hazara
Ranees (6000-3000) and in the west 400 km long Sulaiman Range (
1600 m) and 400-km long Kirthar Range (2400-1000 m> form the
mountainous western front of Pakistan. The Kirthar Range gradually bends
westwards and extends 600 km westward in Balochistan and forms the
Makran Ranges (2000-200 m) (Figs. 2.2 and 2.4).
There are four latitudinal belts or terrains within the vast expanse of
the Himalaya. Each of these belts or terranes has its own distinctive
geological setup evolutionary history and geomorphological developmen
These are the Siwalik in the south, the Lesser Himalaya and Great
Himalaya or Himadri in the middle and the Tethys Himalaya in the north
<Flg The Siwalik Ranges rise abruptly above the vast flat expanse of the
Indo-Gangetic Plains of northern India. These 250 to 800 m h.gh talk
form the southern front of the Himalaya. They are made up of sediments
deposited 16 to 1.5 million years ago by rivers in their channels an
floodplains. The Siwalik Ranges have southern scarp faces and northern
steeply sloping flanks. There are long flat stretches of gravely plants calle
duns within the otherwise rugged terrains. These plams have provi ec
the land for habitation and cultivation in the densely wooded Suva i.
domain Owing to dense forests teeming with a wide variety of wild
animals, the Siwalik is a sparsely populated belt of the Himalaya.
Overlooking the Siwalik, the mountain ranges of the Lesser Himalaya
rise to formidable heights, as exemplified by the Pirpanjal (3500 m)-
Dhauladhar-Mussoorie-Nainital-Mahabharat ranges which are
generally higher than 2000 m in the immediate proximity of the Siwa i.
In the middle latitudinal belt, the terrain is beautifully gentle, no more
than 600 to 2000 m in elevation. The summits are commonly rounded, e
slopes are gentle and covered with thick layers of soil, and the valleys;o
rivers and streams are commonly wide and locally lined by stepped flat
terraces. Rivers and streams flow unhurriedly in their winding courses.
Some rivers that are older than mountains they cross-such as the Sindhu,
90 95
VO
CO
to
O
% North western Himalaya

2 North eastern Himalaya
3. Afekan-Voma ranges
4 Shillong Plateau
5 Saurashtra Plateau
6 AravaNis
?: Virdhyan and Satpura
V * '* ' 8&1Q Western Ghats
9 Eastern Ghat«
70 75 80 85 90 95
Fig. 2.2. Satellite picture-based map showing the relief of India. (Courtesy: NGRI,
Hyderabad)
Fig 2.3. (A) Satellite view of the Himalaya, o, Himmn o, Himml. Sooth of the Pamir ma:
wilderness of the Tarim plain was Bhadrashwavarsh.
Geograph, of Modem India and Changes of Landforms with Time
15
Gandak ^v 6 Yamun5' the Ga"g5, the Kali, the Kamali, the

and d m ^ K°S1, fh<! SubansW and the Siang-have cut deep gorges
to c ! " PathS Th,S has made the laidscape quite rugged due
to contmued drssection. The Lesser Himalaya was once a richly forested
errarn, but presently bereft of sylvan cover over greater par, owing to
e pressures of high populaHon density. The Lesser Himalayan terrane is
made up of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks, older than 540
million years. The sediments were laid down in the shallow basin of a *a
e of temperature and pressure during the mountain-budding tectonic
processes converted some of these into metamorphic rocks. Thf igneous
rocks comprise mostly granites and basaltic lavas.
North of the Lesser Hiamalayan terrain stands in spectacular
magmhcence the lofty Great Himalaya or Himadri. Among the highest
S' Tr d Na"f PaAat <8126 m)' Nunkun (7135 m> Kedarnath

( 0 m) Badaimath (7068), Nanda Devi (7816 m), Dhaulagiri (8172 m)
Sagarmatha or Everest (8850 m), Kanchenjungha (8586 m) and NamchS
Barwa (7756 m). Precipitously high scarps form the southern face of this
formidable mountain rampart. The rivers that cross these ranges have cut
deep gorges characterized by vertical to convex walls. The Himadri Ranges
are made up of very thick piles of metamorphic rocks and granites formed
at very high pressures and temperatures. The granites are mostly 22 to 20
million years old while the metamorphic rocks are quite older.
Beyond the Great Himalaya lies the vast expanse of the Tethys
Himalaya, a rugged terrain with fantastically sculptured landforms and
desolate landscape. This montane cold desert is devoid of vegetation,
except in some valleys where clusters of trees have established their
precarious foothold. The Tethys terrain is made exclusively of sedimentary
rocks, ranging in age from more than 600 million years to 65 to 45 million
years. The sediments were deposited in what is known as the Tethys Sea.
The Himalaya province ends up against mainland Asia, a 30-60 km
wide zone of collision of India with Asia demarcating the margin of India.
The collision took place 65 to 50 million years ago. The rivers Smdhu and
Tsangpo occupy the collision zone. This zone, 3600 to 5000 m above the
sea level, has very gentle topography fashioned by rivers in their
floodplains.
To the north of the collision zone lies the Ladakh-Kailas and the
Karakoram ranges. To the east, the Ladakh-Kailas Range is represented
by the Nyechentanghla or Gangdese Range in southern Tibet. To the north
is the Karakoram that ends up in the Pamir massif, a mountain knot of
sorts. These belts belong to an orogenic province older and quite different
from the Himalaya. The holy Kailas (6714 m) is made up of feldspar-rich
sandstones and conglomerates laid down 27 to 10 million years ago in the
channel of a broad braided river, precursor to the Sindhu-Tsangpo. The
conglomerate beds rest on the Ladakh-Kailas granites emplaced 70 to 40
million years ago. The Nyechentanghla—Gangdese belt extends
southeastwards through the northeastern Lohit district in Arunachal
Pradesh and further down south to the Shan Plateau-Tenasserin Hills in
Myanmar.
The Pamir bends south around a giant knot of mountains and
embraces the Hindukush Range of Afghanistan, which then joins up with
the Kopet Dagh-Elburz Range in northern Iran. The Hindukush includes
the massifs of Badakshkan, Nuristan and Kabul.
Geography of Modern India and Changes of Landforms with Time 17
Diverging from the Pamir knot, there is yet another orogenic belt, the
Kunlun, embracing the Aghil and Altyntagh ranges; and then across the
Takla Makan Desert, in the north lies the Altai-Tienshan Range, extending
east-northeast of the Pamir.
One of the most remarkable features of the Himalaya province are
the knee-bends of mountain ranges at the northwestern and eastern ends
(Figs. 2.1 and 2.3 inset). In western Kashmir, the entire mountain system
turns abruptly southwards from its northwesterly trend, making an acute
angle near Muzaffarabad. The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is at the pivot of
this knee-shaped or syntaxial bend. There is another syntaxial bend south
of the Hazara syntaxial bend. The bend about the Quetta-Sibi axis is
between the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. After the bend, these ranges
gradually turn westwards forming the E-W trending Makran Ranges.
In Arunachal Pradesh, the bend of the mountains around the Namcha
Barwa is of a different kind. Here, three different mountain systems having
different trends lie in juxtaposition.
INDO-GANGETIC PLAINS
The world's largest alluvial plain built by rivers stretches south in front of
the Himalaya. Extending nearly 3400 km from the southern limit of the
Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in the east to the ends of the delta of the Sindhu
River in the west, it is a 150 to 500 km wide flat expanse, being widest
(550 km) in Panjab and narrow (90-100 km) in Assam. In the northeastern
part, the Sindhu plains give way in northwestern Rajasthan and adjoining
Haryana to the sandy desert of the Thar. The desert sands are the sediments
of the now vanished River Saraswati, reworked considerably by dry winds.
The average altitude above sea level of the Indo-Gangetic Plains is 150 m,
ranging from the tide level at the mouths of the Ganga and Sindhu rivers,
to 291 m in an area between Ambala (Haryana) and Saharanpur (Uttar
Pradesh). The alluvial plains are the consequences of the deposition mainly
during the last 11,000 years by the rivers of primarily two systems—the
Ganga-Brahmaputra and the Sindhu.
In the Ganga Basin, there is little variation in relief or landscape over
hundreds of kilometres. The monotony of flatness is, however, relieved in
limited areas by bluffs, levees and abandoned channels, oxbow lakes and
the ravines with badlands, in the Yamuna and Chambal valleys. In Bengal
and Bangladesh, bits or jheels (marshes and lakes) associated with chars
(uplands) are quite common. In the main Ganga Plain, three distinct
physiographic units belonging to three different time period are
recognizable—the Older Alluvium or Bhangar, the Newer Alluvium or
Khadar and the apron of coalescing debris fans or Bhabhar at the foothills
of the Himalaya. Until about 3000 to 2500 yr B.P., the Ganga Plain was
densely forested with prolific fauna.
The Sindhu Plain is largely a Khadar expanse (known in Panjab as
Chung), rising 180 to 3 m above the sea level. To the west of the plain is a
16-24 km wide apron of riverine debris, known as the Peidmont Belt.
As already stated, the Thar Desert represents a plain built by the
now vanished River Saraswati. The Saraswati Plain slopes southwestward
from the elevation 150-300 m in the northeast down to less than 20 m in
the Rann of Kachchh, which represents the delta of the Saraswati. The
western part of the Thar is covered with thick masses of sand dunes of a
variety of shapes and sizes.
PENINSULAR INDIA
The triangle-shaped Peninsular India extends 2200 km from north to south

and 1400 km from east to west. Kanyakumari forms the apex of the
triangle. It is a collage of terrains of different geological histories, dominated
by uplands and plateaus, and bordered on three sides by mountains
and hills. Coastal plains fringe the two sides of the triangular Peninsula
(Fig. 2.4).
In the northwest, the Aravali Range stretches 800 km from the
northeast to the southwest. This belt is made up of all kinds of rocks older
than 2000 million years. Significantly, the highest peak—Mount Abu or
Guru Shikhar (1727 m)—is in the axis that joins Mount Kailas (6714 m) in
Tibet with Mount Gimar in Saurashtra. The axis constitutes the water-
divide of the rivers of the Sindhu and Ganga systems and has been a
physiographic feature of crucial significance since the very distant past.
The NE-SW trending Aravali gradually bends eastwards and extends
as the Satpura Range just parallel to the Narmada-Son rivers. The Satpura,
as the name implies, comprises seven (sat) hill ranges (pura) that rise 900
Fig. 2.4. Sketch map of the triangular Peninsular India showing uplands and plateaus
surrounded by bordering mountain ranges and the fringe of coastal plains. (From:
Valdiya, K.S., 2010, The Making of India: Geodynamic Evolution, Macmillan, New Delhi)
to 1000 m above the mean sea level. The seven montane series include the
Rajpipla Hills (associated with the 1325 m high Astambadongar peak) in
the west, the Mahadev Hills (with the 1350 m-Dhupgarh) and the Maikal
Hills (with the 1127 m-Amarkantak upland) in the middle and the Ranchi
hills (with the 1142 m Goru peak) and the Rajmahal Hills (400-570 m) in
the far east. In eastern India, the Satpura Range is represented by the
Meghalaya Massif (with the 1963-m high Shillong peak). This belt is
juxtaposed against the Indo-Myanmar border ranges.
Interestingly, from the Maikal Hills three major rivers flow radially—
the Mahanadi goes in the southeastern direction, the Son flows northwards
and then northeastwards, and the Narmada takes the westerly course
(Figs. 2.5 and 3.7).
20 Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Pur anas and Epics
Fig. 2.5. Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent, and the drainage pattern and water
divides. (From: Valdiya, K.S., 2010, The Making of India: Geodynamic Evolution,
Macmillan, New Delhi)
Along the western border of the Indian Peninsula stretches the 1600-
km long Sahyadri Range, from the Tapi Valley in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south. Three distinct sectors are recognized in the
Sahyadri. The Northern Sahyadri (with the 1646-m Kalsubai and the
1569-m Mahabaleshwar peaks) in Maharashtra are made up of 60-65

million years old basaltic lavas. The Central Sahyadri in Karnataka (with
the 1892-m Kudremukh and 1714-m Pushpagiri and 2637-m Nilgiri peaks),
comprises predominantly 2500-3000 million years old granites, gneisses
and high-grade metamorphic rocks, and the Southern Sahyadri (with the
2695-m Anaimalai, and the 2670-m Elaimalai peaks) are made up of
charnockites and khondalites that are older than 550 million years. The
western face of the Sahyadri Range is a precipitous escarpment practically
all along its extent. It is characterized by scarps disposed en echelon and
alternating with very narrow irregular terraces giving rise to a "landing
stairs" known as the Western Ghat. The mountain range is the Sahyadri
and its escarpment the Western Ghat.
The Sahyadri is a water-divide of rivers. The east-flowing rivers are
old and very long, discharging into the Bay of Bengal, like the Godavari,
the Krishna, the Tungabhadra, the Kaveri, the Noyil, the Vaigai and the
Tamrapami. The west-flowing rivers, on the other hand, are quite young
and flow just 50-65 km, descending into the Arabian Sea, such as the
Ulhas, the Vaitarna, the Kalinadi, the Gangavali,, the Sharavati, the
Netravati, the Payaswini, the Ponnaru, the Periyar, the Pamba, the
Achankovil and the Kakkad. These rivers descend through their
progressively deepening gorges and frequently drop as cascades or
waterfalls.
The mountain ranges of the East Coast comprise a series of
physiographically discontinuous hill ranges, embracing the Shevaroy Hills
(1525-1645 m) in Tamil Nadu, the Nallamalai Hill-Velikonda Hills (1525-
1647 m) in Andhra Pradesh, and the Eastern Hills with the 1644-m
Deodimunda, the 1517-m Nimgiri, the 1501-m Himgiri, the 1169-m
Malayagiri, the 1680-m Armakonda, the 1643-m Galikonda, and the 1620-
m Sinkramgutta in Orissa. While the Shevaroy Hills and the Eastern Hills
are made up of charnockites and khondalites of Mesoproterozoic ages,
the Nallamalai Hills are built of 1700-1000 million years old sedimentary
rocks.
The central part of Peninsular India is a composite of plateaus and
uplands, rising 600 to 900 m above the sea level on the average. In the
northwest, the 500 to 600-m high Malwa Plateau is a terrain of flat-topped
22 Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Purdnas and Epics
hills and rolling plains made up of 65-60 million years old lavas. To the
northeast is the Bundelkhand Upland, 300 to 600 m above the sea level,
made up of Late Archaean granites and gneisses. Flowing through the
undulating terrain of the Bundekhand Upland, the Chambal, the Betwa
and the Dhasan rivers have carved deep gorges and spectacular badlands,
particularly in the Chambal Valley terrain.
The northern fringe of the Vindhyachal Plateau is formed by the 760-
1220 m high Kaimur Range, and in the south by the Bhanrer Range.
Composed of Proterozoic sedimentary rocks, the Vindhyan is dramed by
the rivers Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken.
South of the Vindhyan across the Narmada valley and Satpura Range
is the Deccan Plateau having a landscape characterized by stepped flat
terraces made up of 60-65 million years old basaltic lavas. The Godavari
and the Krishna drain it southeastwards. Covering the whole of Karnataka
and adjoining parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, the Mysore
Plateau is a 800-900 m high terrain of undulating topography with NNW-
SSE and N-S trending linear hills and isolated hillocks made up of Archaean
granites and gneisses associated with metamorphic rocks. Among the
linear hill ranges may be mentioned the Bababudan Range (with the 1913
m Millainagiri peak), the Ramanagaram Range (with 1255-m Madhugiri),
the Bangalore Range (with the 1467-m Nandi Durga), the Chitradurga
Range and the Biligirirangan-Mahadeswaramalai Ranges (with their
1750-m and 1487-m peaks, respectively).
COASTAL PLAINS
The Peninsular India is fringed by a narrow coastal plain of more than

6000 km aggregate length (Figs. 2.1 and 2.4). It extends from the Sindhu
delta in the west to the mouth of the Ganga-Brahmaputra and beyond in
the east.
The Makran Coast includes the Sindhu deltaic plain made up of an
arcuate zone of older tidal flats. The coast is characterized by uplifted
stepped terraces. Eastwards the Sindhu Delta coalesces with the Rann of
Kachchh, the latter representing the palaeodelta of the River Saraswati
that disappeared nearly 3700 years ago. The Rann is made up of 350 km
long and 150 km wide tidal-flat deposits encrusted and impregnated with
salt, owing to the fact that it remains under sea water during the monsoon
period. It was once—possibly in the Middle Quaternary time (sometime
between 800,000 and 130,000 years ago)—connected with the Gulf of
Khambhat through the Nalsarovar, a shallow brackish-water lake
northeast of Saurashtra. The Gujarat Plain is the prolongation of the
alluvial plain of the Sabarmati and Mahi rivers. The Okhamandal-Dwarka
belt in the western margin of Saurashtra seems to have subsided
northwards along an east-west line. Coral reefs with carbonate clastic
sediments (sands) and sand dunes form fine terraces along the southern,
coast of Saurashtra.
The 8- to 24-km wide Konkan Coast of Maharashtra shows tell-tale
signs of uplift all along its extension, as borne out by rocky raised beaches,
cliff-faces, near shore islands, estuaries, coves and bays. The Kanara Coast
further south is 30 km wide in the north and about 70 km wide near
Mangalore. The coastal belt exposes laterite-covered gneisses and
charnockites. Rivers have cut deep channels as they descend from the
Sahyadri. Many of these rivers show anomalous behaviour. In Kerala, the
Malabar Coast is like the Kanara Coast physiographically and in the matter
of anomalous behaviour of rivers. An 80-km long and 5-10 km wide lagoon
is barred by a 55-km long sand spit, giving rise to the Vembanad Lake.
Five rivers, including the Periyar and the Pamba, discharge themselves
into this lake. There are a number of barred lagoons of this kind, and are
known as kayals in Kerala.
The 120-km wide East Coast comprises beaches, sand dunes and sand
spits. Many lagoon lakes associated with backwater swamps occur along
the coast. The Pulicat Lake to the north of Chennai is barred by a long spit
of sand and contains within it the Sriharikota Island. The Kolleru is a lake
of consequence in Andhra Pradesh. The 70-km long and 22 to 7 km wide
Chilka Lake in Orissa occurs in the southwestern part of the Mahanadi
Delta.
The Sundarban Delta built combinedly by the Ganga, Brahmaputra
and the Meghana rivers is a part of the coastal plain in the Bengal Basin.
It is characterized by many abandoned channels, lakes and swamps in
the tidal flats. The plain is no more than 3 to 20 m above the mean sea
level.
QUATERNARY TECTONIC EVENTS: LANDFORM CHANGES
The continental expanse of India experienced many events of crustal

disturbances or tectonism in what the geologists call the Quaternary period,
that is, in the last 1.8 million years. Crustal unrests or disturbances relate
to uplift, tilt and subsidence of the ground or the landforms. Abrupt tilt
and subsidence of the ground due to faulting are accompanied by
earthquakes. The larger the magnitude of earthquake, the greater the
displacement of the ground. The shaking and displacement result in slope
failures or landslides in the hilly and mountainous terrains. Greater shaking
causes larger mass movements or slope failures.
There were several events of tectonic movement in the Quaternary
times that brought about considerable changes in the physiography of
India.
PROCESSES LEADING TO LANDFORM CHANGES
The tectonic movements are episodic, occurring at longer or shorter

intervals. But there are natural processes that go on ceaselessly. These are
(i) the frost action causing shrinking and expansion of rocks and their
disintegration, (ii) the action of glaciers that deeply scrape the valley slopes
and floors, (iii) the wind action that cause abrasion, removal and spreading
of grains of rocks and sediments, and thus forming a variety of landscape,
(iv) the action of flowing water in streams and rivers, entailing erosion of
rocks and deposition of detritus (sediments), and so on. Simultaneous with
landslides and other mass movements, the process of erosion is accentuated
due to uplift of the land. During slow pace of uplift, water works inexorably
and persistently, denuding the ground of its soil cover, scraping the rocks,
and cutting deeper and deeper the valleys in some places, and transporting
the eroded material eventually to deposit or dump into piles elsewhere. In
this way, there are slow physiographic changes over long periods of time.
However, in the events of spasmodic crustal disturbance, the running
water works furiously, bringing about considerable changes in the
landforms and profound modifications in the face of the landscape.
In the snowy mountains of the Flimalaya, the advance and retreat of
glaciers in the last 56,000 years have brought about perceptible changes
in the profiles of the snow-fed rivers. When the glaciers advance, they
push forward enormous masses of debris; and when they retreat, they
leave behind their loads as moraines, forming a variety of landforms.
Formation and Effacement of Lakes
The sudden rupturing of ground causes earthquakes. The earthquakes

often trigger massive landslides that may block stream and river channels
by forming debris dams. These natural dams as well as uplift of the
downstream block along faults that are formed or reactivated, cause stream
ponding—or blockage—and resultant formation of lakes in the riverine
setting. More and repeated landslides and continued erosion generating
large volumes of debris (sediments) may lead to eventual filling up of lakes
and formation of marshes and flat plains of limited extent. Recurrence of
earthquakes may cause failure of the natural debris dams and draining
out of the sediment-filled lakes. The result of this phenomenon is the
development of flat terraces on the banks of the rivers or streams. The
stepped terraces that line the valleys on one or both sides of the valleys
imply more than one event of formation and draining out of riverine lakes.
Examples of such natural lakes that were subsequently drained out
are galore in the Himalaya province. The Dal and Wular lakes in Kashmir
are remnants of the very large Karewa Lake, resulting from damming of
the River Jhelam. The various margs, such as Gulmarg, Sonmarg and
Khillanmarg represent recently uplifted marginal terraces of that lake.
Another such lake is the Lamayuru in Ladakh. The capital of Nepal,
Kathmandu, sits on the flat plain that emerged when a large lake was
drained out. In Uttarakhand, similar lakes were formed at Goting in the
Western Dhauli River, at Burphu in the Gori, at Garbyang in the Kali
River, in the Wadda area in a tributary of the Kali in Pithoragarh, and in
the Bhimtal area in a branch of the Gaula River in Nainital. The
Naukuchiatal, the Bhimtal, and the Nainital in Kumaun and the Rara
and the Pokhara in Nepal are the lakes which escaped effacement in the
absence of much sediment.
Shifting of River Courses
In plains and flat uplands and plateaus, uplift or sinking of the ground,
even if at very slow rates, has forced rivers to change their courses, abandon
their older channels and carve out new ones. The abandoned channels of
meandering rivers are represented by oxbow lakes. Ground subsidence
caused impeded flow of rivers and resultant waterlogging and
development of swamps, as seen in northern Bihar and in Assam between
Kaziranga and Majuli. These water bodies are known as jheels in Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar, beds in Assam, Bengal and Bangladesh, and kayals in
Kerala.
Tectonically induced shifting of courses by rivers has led to drying
up of the older rivers and emergence of new ones. This phenomenon with
its multiple implications has resulted in the uprooting of riverine settlements
and exodus of people on large scales, as happened when the Saraswati
River dried up due to shifting away of its two main branches.
The Yamuna, Ganga and Ramganga rivers in Uttar Pradesh are
gradually shifting eastwards. In contrast, the Gandak and the Kosi in
Bihar migrated westward and far more frequently—the Kosi moved 112
km between ad 1736 and 1964, and the Gandak 105 km in the period
1735-1875 (Mohinder and Parkash, 1994). The abandoned channel of
the Gandak, known as the Burhi Gandak, flowed past Kushinagar (now
called Kusia) during the time Gautam Buddha, who lived there 2600 years
ago. The Son River has also changed courses, as testified by its abandoned
channels now known as the Punpun, the Kao and the Banas tributaries
(Tomar and Tomar, 1995). The Tista River suddenly deflected in ad 1787
from its original southerly course meeting the Ganga to a southeasterly
path to join the Brahmaputra. The Brahmaputra in Assam flowed 20 km
north of the present course about 200 years ago (Gilfellon et al., 2003).
This river in Bangladesh, in the period ad 1720—1830, abandoned its easterly
channel past Mymensingh through the Meghna River to flow straight
south to join the Ganga. The old course is known as Burho Brahmaputra
and the new as the Jamuna. It was the 20-m uplift of the Madhupur tract
along a series of faults that caused the drastic change of the course of the
Brahmaputra.
Disappearance of Rivers, March of Deserts
Most spectacular was the shifting—rather deflection—of the course of

the River Saraswati of the Vedic time. It was a major river, formed by the
Geography of Modem India and Changes of Landforms with Time 27
confluence of the Shatadru (now called Satluj) and the Tamasa (today
known as the Tons) with its Yamuna branch. The Saraswati flowed
through Haryana, adjoining parts of Panjab, and northwestern Rajasthan
and eastern Sindh. It emptied itself in the Gulf of Kachchh, which then
embraced the Rann of Kachchh. This river vanished sometime around
3800±100 years ago. This is discussed at length elsewhere.
The disappearance of the Himalayan-bom perennial river Saraswati
converted the fertile plain into a desolate desert where the wind sifted the
river sands relentlessly and piled them into dunes of a variety of shapes
and sizes. The march of the desert continues since then.
The Sabarmati-Mahi plain on Gujarat represents the southern margin
of the Thar Desert. The dry desertic conditions ended around 10,000 yr
B.P. in the Mahi domain and about 5000 yr B.P. in the Sabarmati plain
(Juyal et al, 2003). Rivers of the northern Gujarat plain have been changing
courses and direction, their older channels now represented by buried
channels and oxbow lakes. Like the Saraswati, the Aravali-bom Sabarmati
River once discharged into the Rann of Kachchh. The development of
rugged badlands in the Mahi valley implies severe erosion, induced by
tectonic resurgence of the land following or accompanying heavy
rainfalls.
Rise and Fall of Sea Level along Coasts
Archaeological evidence corroborates oceanographic inferences that in

6000 yr B.P., the sea level along the Gujarat Coast was .approximately 6 m
higher than at present (Hashimi et al, 1995; Gaur and Vora, 1999). This
means that quite a wide stretch of the Gujarat coastal belt was under
water and that the sea-shore was quite inside the land 6000 years ago.
Down south, recurrent crustal movements along the multiple NNW-
SSE and N-S trending faults in the Konkan-Malabar coast caused
formation and effacement of lakes at many places. Those lakes are now
represented by flat swathes of muds and clays, and intensively cultivated.
Geological evidence points to the entire western coastal belt and the
mountainous part of the Peninsular India intermittently or continually
rising up in the last 1.6 million years (Valdiya, 2001).
Changes in River Deltas
Along the East Coast in the Kaveri Delta, the river has been changing its
many courses (Ramaswamy, 2006). The large delta in Orissa, a product
of the work of the Brahmani, Baitami and Mahanadi rivers, is growing in
the northeastern direction, as evident from the development of spits. Some
workers believe that the Chilka Lake in the southern part of the Mahanadi
Delta is a result of sea level rise in the period 6000 to 8000 yr B.P. This
implies that the southern part of the delta is being encroached upon by
marine waters. The Sundarban Delta, formed of sediments brought by
rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna, has been consistently growing
in size, and continues to grow as these rivers bring more and more
sediments from the mountains.
TECTONIC RESURGENCE OF PENINSULAR PLATEAUS
The Deccan and Mysore Plateaus have experienced tectonic resurgence

in the geologically recent times. This is borne out by knickpoints, and high
waterfalls in river and stream channels, their entrenched meanders, and
20-25 m deep incisions in wider valleys, as particularly seen in the
mountainous belt in western Maharashtra. In the Mysore Plateau, many
rivers and streams were ponded owing to movement on active faults
resulting in the formation of a large number of lakes, some of which lasting
until about 4900 years ago. The lakes were later wiped out, and are
presently represented by flat expanses of arable land of black muds and
clays, such as those along the wide valleys of the Shimsha, the Kaveri, the
Kabini (Kapila) and the Suvamawati rivers (Valdiya, 1998, 2001a). These
muddy-clayey flat lands are today intensely cultivated for paddy and
sugarcane.
INCREASING HEIGHTS OF MOUNTAINS
The mountain ranges of the Himalaya are gaining height through the
geological ages. This fact is established through geodetic measurements
and various lines of geological evidence. Levelling observations across
central Nepal shows that the terrane is rising at the rate of 3 mm/year
(Jackson and Bilham, 1994) and in the southwestern Uttarakhand, the
Siwalik ranges are uplifting at the rate varying from 1 to 0.8 millimetre
per year (Rajal et al, 1986; Chander and Gahlaut, 1994). The global
positioning system measurements indicate that the Meghalaya Massif is
rising up (Paul et al., 2001). The Himadri or Great Himalaya has witnessed
uplift at the rate of 0.7 to 1.1 mm/yr while the Nanga Parbat-Haramosh
massif is rising at the rate of about 3-4 mm/yr (Whittington, 1996). Across
the Sindhu River, the Karakoram Range rose up rapidly at the rate of 2
mm per year (Zeitler et al., 1982).
The consequence of the secular uplift is that the mountainous terrain
which had earlier relatively gentle relief and mild topography became
progressively rugged and characterized by extreme relief (Valdiya, 1993).
In the Pensinsular India, the Satpura along with the adjacent belt
has been gradually rising and there was rapid uplift in the last 11000
years, the cumulative uplift in the past 1.6 million years being of the order
of 1000 m (Krishnaswamy and Raghunandan, 2005). The Aravali Range
has not escaped uplift in the geologically recent past (Valdiya, 2002, 2010).
Studies show that the Sahyadri Range from end to end has been
tectonically resurgent and gaining height progressively (Valdiya, 2010).
The result of the progressive, and sometimes episodic, rise of the
Himalayan terrain is that the mountain ranges art; today formidable and
difficult to cross, the passes becoming impassable, the terrains becoming
rugged, and the rivers not lending themselves to navigation.
The past must have been quite different. This is evident from the
widespread occurrence of a variety of stone implements indicating that
the tool-making humans lived there, and interacted with each other. The
Stone Age people preferred to live around lakes, along river valleys on
terraces, and in flat stretches of land with water aplenty. The settlements
are found in the Karewa basin in Kashmir and in many Siwalik dunes in
Jammu, Himachal and Nepal.
CHANGING FACE OF THE LAND OF INDIA
It should be quite obvious from the forgone that the physiography of the
Indian continent is not the same as it was when the Purans were written.
What are impregnable mountain barriers today might have had easily
negotiable passes; where there are dry channels and marshes in the present.
there must have been perennially flowing rivers; where there were large
water bodies in the Puranic time, there are now flat stretches of muddy
land; where desertic condition then prevailed, there the lands now support
life in all its variety, and vice versa. The face of India's land has been
changing generally, gradually, and sometimes suddenly, and in some places
radically.
So much has changed, and so fast has been the processes of change
in our own time due to inexorable and often very cruel human
interventions, that comparison is very difficult. We are witness to the drastic
changes in our environment and physiography of the land due to what
man himself is doing recklessly—damming the rivers, removing the
protective forest cover, cutting the hill slopes for roads, and mining,
canalizing the rivers, adopting scientifically inappropriate pattern of
urbanization, and so on.
The descriptions of the geological features given in the Purans and
epics would, therefore, not tally rigorously with what are given in modem
geography books.
CORRUPTION AND CHANGE OF OLD NAMES
Usage tends to corrupt the older names, and in many cases newer names
replace the older ones. There is also a tendency of the migrant people to
give the names of villages, rivers and mountains of their ancestral lands to
those in the terrains they resettle in. Therefore, quite a number of rivers,
mountains and settlements have the same names, leading to errors in
correlation and locating them in atlases. Take the name of the River
Yamuna, also pronounced and corrupted to 'Jamuna' or 'Jamna'. It is the
river that became very prominent when the westward-flowing River
Saraswati deflected southwards and joined it, becoming a major tributary
of the Ganga. It then became a major river of the Ganga basin. The new
river that formed when the eastward flowing Brahmaputra swerved
southwards to join the Ganga in Bangladesh is known as the Jamuna.
Between the Meghalaya and Mikir Hills in Assam flows the Kopili, meeting
the Brahmaputra southwest of Naugaon. A branch of the neighbouring
Dhanshree captured its headwards. The new channel is named Jamuna
or Yamuna. The Gomati and the Saryu in north-central Uttar Pradesh
of Modem M, md Clm„ges of Lmdforms ^ ^
Gujarat. A number of mountain pJteV ■“ Kver in northem

*“*Mo“‘MS» ftesouthwestern hZITt^TI,
as Kailas or Kailish. There are examples galore. ' K V k"0'™
when^Xs^X" |f S°mewhat d“—t from wha, i, was
time had, presumab^XX* I" °f »*

mountains, and the dpodIp rrmiri ^ mg around and across the
region to anothertE eXt ^ “%“•» fro”> «
•he Stone Ages (pXoiX M T ? dis«b“«on of settlements of
immediately thereafter (Valdiya, 1993^ “ ^ Neohthic Period) and
Puranland: Position and Extent
MEGA ISLAND JAMBUDWEEP
According to the Purans, there are seven mega-islands or continents in

the earth, each one bigger than the other, and all of them surrounded by
oceans of salt water. The mega-islands are Jambudweep, Plaksh, Shalmal,,
Kush, Kraunch, Shdk and Pushkar (Shiva Purdn, Pancham Umasanhita, 17;
Kurma Purdn, 43, Vishnu Purdn Part 2, 2, Narsimha Purdn, 30).
Wl: II 2 II
Wd HSIgfal: 1
gfq) WPKfo WR: II 3 II
(Kurma Purdn, 43)
^3pÎ8JIf4 jjHl tg^t I

<jn?T: Wtti II 5 II
(Vishnu Purdn, II, 2)
^ ^qr: | gw4i^HilH|UIN*^lmiTl(lTKr^pn: II 5 II
(Narsimha Purdn, 34)
(A)
Fig. 5.7. (A) The Harsil lake of the past formed because of blockage due to a huge
debris dam at Bhuki-Jhala in the upper reaches of the Bhagirathiganga, is now
represented by a mass of sediments.
(B) Another lake must have formed upstream of Byasi on the Ganga, NE of Rishikesh
(satellite picture from Google Earth).
Fig. 3.1. Map of southern Asia showing a mountain knot called the Pamir in the
centre of the continent. Mountain ranges diverge from this knot of sorts, and rivers
flow radially in all directions. This water tower of Asia (Jambudweep) is described as
Meru or Mahameru in the Purans and the epics. (From: Encyclopaedia Britanica World
Atlas, 2006).
Puranland: Position and Extent 33
It should be obvious that the seven mega-islands that the Purans refer
to are the seven continents we know today—Eurasia, Africa, South
America, North America, Arctic, Australia, and Antarctica. The scholarly
sages of the Puran times were, thus, aware of the extent of the earth and
its continents and oceans. This awareness must have come from exploration
and surveys by travellers and adventures, in addition to intelligent
inferences and speculation of the authors.
POSITION OF BHARATVARSH
In the middle of Jambudweep is situated the many-splendoured mountain

Meru, the focal point of the world of the Puran people. Resplendant in
the rising sun, the spectacular mountain stands like a mass of gold (Kurma
Puran, 43; Vishnu Puran, Part 2, 2).
^fgW: BHWHI ljilBT4T RuqcT: 7JB: I
4*4 B«^ BFPtef%$4: II 6 II
(Kurma Puran, 43)
BB*dHlA0m' 4*4*11*44: I
4*4TfB 4T4d>H4d: II 7 II
(Vishnu Puran, II, 2)
South of the Meru stretches from the eastern sea to the western sea
the arcuate mountain chain Himvdn or Himalaya (Fig. 3.2). Between the
Himalaya in the north and the sea in the south lies Bhdratvarsh (Vishnu P,
2, 3; Matsya P, 113, Mahdbhdrat, Bhishma Parv, 5).
'^RFcTFTr^ff B*44: f*44: II 3 II
4*4lfM %: 444)4! B*^ ehHehH4d: I
11 6 11
%T: 4#4& 4 44^ c)tjL|4dl: I
(Shiva Puran, Pancham Umasanhita, 17)
44* %Bt£4Nt I
4*f 4341*4 4TB BT*4t 44 *F4fcf: 11 1 11
(Vishnu Puran, 2, 3)
14 tB44 4*f BRcT 4TB f4?J4*( 1128 II
(Matsya Puran, 113)
^ <| *lRcl ^ cTcff II 7 II

(Mahdbhdrat, Bhisma Parv, 5)
*rRcr ^pf ^f^rn i
g *TRcft ^ TPjfcl: II 1 II
(Shiva Purdn, Pancham Umasanhita, 18)
Surrounded on three sides by the ocean, the triangular Bharatvarsh

extends a thousand yojans from the source of the Ganga in the Himalaya
to Kanyakumari in the south, and stretches ten thousand yojans from east
to west in its northern part (Matsya Purdn, 113).
WBT slMlW-tHlH: JWffil'a: II 15 II
m $ I
#3RHT ^5f $J sfatel II 1 II
3TFPTC3 TffFTT: Wraf^T: I
fcphjssl cj PcRdM: WMfq <3 II 10 II

(Matsya Purdn, 113)
EXTENT OF BHARATVARSH
Bharatvarsh of the Puran time extended, as at present, from Badarikshetra

in the Himalaya to Setu Rameshwaram-Kanyakumari in the south, and
from a place Kapil on the bank of the Kapili River in the present-day
Assam, to the Sindhu River in the west (Bhavishya Purdn, Pratisarga Parv,
322). Judging from the distribution of ashrams, teerths and purs, it can
reasonably be inferred that the activities of the Puran people were
concentrated in the land between the Himalaya and the Godavari River
and between Saurashtra in the west and the River Gandaki in the east,
and to the Orissa Coast in the southeast. Mention of the Tungabhadra
and Kaveri rivers in pilgrimages of sages and in adventures of warriors
implies that the suzerainty of the rulers in the Puran-times extended up to
the ocean in the south.
Bharatvarsh was a large country divided into a large number of
kingdoms or states where people lived belonging to different ethnic groups
and speaking different languages (Vishnu Purdn, 3; Mahdbhdrat, Bhishma
Parv, 5).
35
The Vanar king Sugreev's intimate knowledge of the geography of

the country and neighbouring lands was simply astonishing. This is borne
out from the search parties he dispatched in order to locate Sita, the
a ucted wife of Ram (Valmiki Rdmdyan, Kishkindha Kand, 44) One
party went as far northeast as the Indo-Myanmar border ranges of the
present,where stood the magnificent Saumnas Shring in the Udaygiri
Range. The sun in the Bharatvarsh of Jambudweq, rose from behind the
“\and ltS horizontal ray§ dispelled the darkness on the ground
(Valmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand, 40). The Saumnas could be the
present 3014 m Japro in the Naga Hills or the 3053 m Mount Victoria in
the Arakan Yoma, more probably the former.
{Valmiki Rdmdyan, Kishkindha Kand, 40)
The second party was sent southwest where they would see a mineral-
rich mountain with a strange horse-face (aratja) peak, and the great
mountain (Sahya) covered with great many flowering trees including
sandalwood From there they proceeded south to the Malaya Giri (Valmiki
Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand, 41).
qTeprffrgtT:
1%f^T
-qffRTcifl TT^Tf7Tfr;
dfHitiW
{Valmiki Rdmdyan, Kishkindha Kand, 41)
It is obvious that the second search party was sent to the Sahyadri
Range in the west where the lofty 1892-m Kudremukh (horse-face -
ayomu ) stands strikingly in the area today mined intensively for iron
ore Very significant is the statement that the mountain, with horse-face
peak (ayomukh or Kudremukh of the present), was rich ,n minerals. It is
well known that in the Kudremukh area occur Karnataka’s very rich iron-
ore deposits. From the Kudremukh, they proceeded south to the Malaya
Gin—represented today by the Anaimalai-Cardamom hills.
The third search party led by Hanuman went south and then
southwest to the Malaya Giri, the Cardamom Hills of the present.
Yet another party was sent east across the sea to the islands in the
ocean—Yavdweep (Java), Suvarnadweep (Sumatra), and Roopyakdweep.
One has to cross the mountains and the sea, the latter by swimming or on
boats to explore these islands (Vdlmiki Ramdyan, Kishkindha Kand, 40).
|| 30 II
^ tTUr) ^ II
(Vdlmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand, 40)
After consolidating his position as the monarch of the Kosal kingdom.

Ram launched an ambitious military-cum-diplomatic campaign for
suzerainty—the Rdjsuya Yagya—and sent his forces to different parts of
the country under command of his brothers.
Following the advise of the saintly Bhishma, the Pandavs went on a
long pilgrimage across the country, visiting various teerths, shrines and
cities (Mdhdbharat, Teerthyatra Parv, 82), presumably to understand the
socio-economic conditions and problems of the people inhabiting the
different parts of their land.
From the accounts of these pilgrimages and military campaigns, it is
obvious that Bharatvarsh of the Puran and epics times had a large aerial
extent—as large as India was before August 14, 1947.
NORTHERN NEIGHBOURS
Northwest of Bharatvarsh, across the Himalaya, was a country known as

Ildvritvarsha, forming a bow-shaped terrain around the Meru massif of
great height and tremendous splendour (Mdrkandeya Puran, Varah Puran,
75, Matsya Puran, 113; Devi Puran, 8; Kurma Puran, 43; Mahdbharat, Sabha
Parv, 28). The white snowy peaks of the Meru glisten like gold in sunshine.
It has a shape of an inverted cup or lid of a vessel.
TT^fre^fcT WI 9SI«W: HHcRT: I
■4^5'lrH^lf'n fq<-dlulT #3$: 33F: II 19 II
^ ciFi H*i4t>ra*£T I
(Matsya Puran, 113)
In the identification of the Meru in the Puranland, I have

understandingly not taken into consideration the deductions given in the
works of the astronomers who believe in the centrality of the polar star
Dhruv and the elementary theories of stars and planets (Iyengar, 2011).
There are subsidiary mountains around the Meru—the Gandhmddan
in the south, the Vipul in the west, the Suparshwa in the north and the
Mandar in the east (Kurma Purdn, 43; Matsya Purdn, 113; Vishnu Purdn,
Part 2, 2).
ra II 13 II
era dcWlfMHfa^d^ I
^WSMIUera 'cPfaT: I
fakbL-qr Tfaell fUM'jHI^d^F'^dl: II 14 II
>j4ui 'TFT TF*FTK5: I
f^vl: qf«rt 3*Jel: II 15 II
(Kurma Purdn, 43)
■^T qm -^rot 7p%jr^: |
f^vi: qfsrt qr£ n is n

{Vishnu Puran, Part 2, 2)
The countries neighbouring Ilavritvarsh are Bhadrashwavarsh in the
east, Hiranyavarsh in the northeast, Kimpurushvarsh in the southeast,
Bharatvarsh in the south, Harivarsh in the southwest, Ketumaldvarsh in the
west, Ramyakvarsh in the northwest, and Kuruvarsh in the north (Vaman
Purdn, 13; Kurma Purdn, 43; Vishnu Purdn, Part 2, 2; Matsya Purdn, 113;
Vardh Purdn, 75).
^rReT&Tfq T1^«T 11 3 11
■'jj^qfsrosnfq Itrar) ^ '&&& i
qfsM qteri 11 4 11
qfg^ qfaqfa} i
■3^ ra II 5 II
(Vaman Puran, 13)
qfsrt 1
^ 11 ^PJeFf II 21 II
qra -tfm qtf cm: i
•3tRI: WPq*lT II 12 II
(Kurma Puran, 43)
«lsa%f: tW: 3uRT?1 ^ I

q4 £ <J dq^fadlfcl: II 24 II
(Vishnu Puran, 2)
qsira qRcf ^ i
^rRlifq cp<.q; <$>q;j>jqiifq?spiT: II 44 II
(Matsya Puran, 113)
High mountain ranges separate most of these countries from one

another (Fig. 3.3). The important mountain ranges are the Gandhmadan
and the Kailas extending ESE from the Meru and the Nishadh and
Pariyatra extending southwest and the west (Kurma Puran, 44).
II 37 II
RpTO: MlRqM^q H4km4dlfa4) I
qqpjqf q«TT fel4 II 38 II
(Kurma Puran, 43)
These two mountains (maryadaparvat) define the northern-

northwestern border of Bharatvarsh with the countries of "Meruland".
Comparing this scenario of configuration of mountain ranges, it
emerges that the Meru at the centre of Jambudweep is the Pamir massif in
Central Asia (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5), and the countries described as Ilavritvarsh,
Ketumaldvarsh, Harivarsh, Bhadrdshwavarsh, Hiranyavarsh, Ramyakvarsh
and Kuruvarsh are the Central Asian countries Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,
Afghanistan, Sinkiang (Xinjiang), Uzbekistan-Kyrgystan and Kazakhstan,
respectively. Ilavritvarsh embodied the larger part of Tajikistan parts of
northeastern Afghanistan (Badkhshan-Wakhan), and parts of eastern
Turkmenistan, southeastern Uzbekistan and southern Kyrgystan (Fig. 3.6).
The picturesque Farghana Valley that figures prominently in history spans
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. This must have been the theatre of
all activity—the rangbhumi—of the people of the Meruland. Harivarsh is
Fig. 3.3. The Puranland including Bharatvarsh and the countries around the Meru
massif. Understandably/ in the Puran times they had different names and quite
different political boundaries.
what we know today as Afghanistan. The Puranic, name of Turkmenistan

is Ketumalavarsh and of Uzbekistan, Ramyakvarsh. Hiranyavarsh is now
kpown as Kyrgystan, and Kuruvarsh as Kazhakhstan. Bhadrashwavarsh
encompassed Sinkiang (Xinjiang), the state of the Uighurs in China. In this
deduction I find considerable area of agreement with Ali (1981).
This surmise is further corroborated by the pattern of drainage of the
Pamir massif. The Sita River originates from the eastern flank of the massif
and the Mandara flows through Bhadrashwavarsh.
ufa'iTnkVI: TPTT I
(Skanda Purdn)
The Alaknanda flows south to Bharatvarsh. The Suchakshu or Chakshu

flowing west across a number of mountains and through Ketumalavarsh
discharges into a sea. The Bhadrd flowing northwards through Kuruvarsh
empties itself in the northern sea (Kurma Purdn, 44; Vishnu Purdn, II, 2).
TftrTT ^dl<f3 'MlrM-dR^RT: I
ii 30 ii
Wfo WR f^n RmItWI: II 31 II

q<=bdlW*lT I
■qf^q ^ n 32 11
qso cTsjlrnM^rRTfq q«JT
^flrlJTxaqtffcT wRl: II 33 II
(Kurma Purdn, 44)
Wfa WR ^ II 36 II
HR-dHpl-ihalcM ■Hdidi'HlSir I
qfaq ^sjqMHsq II 37 II
qsn ^thPiOithist q*q
wj} 11 38 11
(Vishnu Purdn, Part 2, 2)
Fig. 3.4. (A) Satellite view from north of the Pamir massif — a mountain knot of sorts.
A number of rivers and mountain ranges seemingly radiate from the massif. Grey-
green swathe of land in the left is the Tarim Basin in China. The Tienshan Range is in
the foreground.
(B) Closer view of the Pamir massif, deeply dissected by rivers.
*
'srrtuW#*T" > '■ %
& ' K
Fig. 5.10. (C) A few kilometres downstream of the point of origin, the rushing, foaming
Narmada falls down the high scarps.
Position and Extent
41
^ fqoHidl ^ ^3R«f cRq; 11 5 11

■Hc^l *(cf mrara TTcTT II 6 II
cT^Kncoi^KSHl ?RTRT^ II 7 II
"dl'kiiq^cqi TTRFdT f?TO' F^lPlPlH II 10 II
-qj^ 7U -q^p^t II
If^ftfcT fdls4ldl %JR ^ || 13 ||
3lf^l II 15 II
(Markandeya Puran, 53)
Bie Suchakshu River flowing northwest through Ketumalavarsh is

the Fiiramc name for the Oxus or Amu Darya of the present. Practically
following the Turkmenistan-Uzbekistan border, the Amu Darya discharges
mfo the Aral Sea (Fig. 3.6). The north-flowing Bhadrd with its Madhudhdrd
branch is the present-day Syr Darya, which also discharges into the Aral
Sea. The Bhadrd flowed through Kuruvarsh, is now represented by
Kazakhstan. The Sita River is the Tagdumbash branch of the Yarkand
Rive- flowing east past Kashgar into the sea of sands—the Takla Makan
desert within the Tarim Basin. Bhadrashwavarsh is the Puranic name of
the state now known as Sinkiang or Xijiang of the Uighur people in western
China. Steeped in the romance of the overland trades in the ancient time,
Kashgar was a very important trading centre. The Alaknandd descended
south from the Meru. It is possibly the present-day trunk branch of the
Gilgit River, a tributary of the Sindhu. Alternatively, it could be the Chitral
River that joins the Kabul River, an important tributary of the Sindhu
that meets the sea through its multiple distributories.
River Harirud and the Helmund River of the present, draining
respectively western and southwestern Herat province of Afghanistan,
flowed through Harivarsh, the Puranic name of the southwestern-western
part of Afghanistan.
A strong support for equating Ketumalavarsh with Turkmenistan is
provided by the description in the Vardh Puran (Chapter 134) that fire
god Agni dwells in an area called Bhaumshilatal where tire ground is in
an extremely heated condition—so much that one cannot touch the
ground (Vdman Puran, Chapter 80). Obviously, it was an area of high
heat flow related to ceaseless burning of natural gases.
Fig. 3.6. The Purans described the countries of Central Asia as clustered around the
Meru Parvat — the Pamir massif of the present. The political boundaries are not
shown.
Turkmenistan is a country endowed with extremely large deposits of

natural gases, as borne out by the pipelines that take the inflammable
methane gas on large scales to Russia, Iran, Europe and China. It is but
natural for the methane gas to have oozed out and flared up in flames in
the areas characterized by active faults, fractures and fissures.
43
Ketumalavarsh (Turkmenistan) of the Purans was indeed the country of

the fire god Agni.
GREATER PURANLAND
It is obvious from the reading of the various Purans that the land of the
people of the Jambudweep encompassed much larger territory than the
present Indian subcontinent. It embraced besides India, Pakistan, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, the Central Asian countries including
Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgystan, Kazakhstan and
Sinkiang or Xinjiang. It was a community of nations inhabited by people
belonging to different ethnic groups, speaking different languages, having
diverse socio-cultural systems, wearing different apparels and eating
different kinds of food. However, they had close connections, as reflected
in the free peregrinations of people across borders, the patterns of
emigrations and immigrations, and the intermarriages among the people
of different states. In Bharatvarsh the Kuru clan dominated the region of
the Saraswati-Yamuna-Ganga rivers. To distinguish this state from the
central Jambudweep country north of the Meru, the latter was called
Uttarkuru or Kuruvarsh. The universal recognition of the venerated supreme
spiritual leaders of Ilavritvarsh such as Brahma and Vishnu as god
throughout Bharatvarsh and the integration in the pantheon of Shiva_
the supremo of the Himalayan Kirat tribe—bears eloquent testimony to
the unification of the people of the greater Puranland.
The fact that Kirat supremo Shiva's shrines were located at Kailas in
Tibet, at Badrikshetra in the Himalaya, at Kashi and Baidyanath in the
Ganga plain, at Omkareshwar in the Narmada Valley, at Tryambakeshwar
in the Godavari domain, at Girnar in Prabhaskshetra in Saurashtra, at
Shreeshail (Srisailam) on the bank of the Krishna in Andhra Pradesh, and
at Rameswaram in the Dhanushkoti island close to Lanka (Fig. 8.1), is a
very strong pointer to the supremely meaningful and very effective efforts
made to bind the people of the Puranland together.
ETHNO-GEOPOLITICAL PROVINCES WITHIN BHARATVARSH
The swathe of land between the rivers Saraswati and Drishadvati was
described as Brahmavart by the great law-giver Manu. It included
Kurukshetra as its capital place.
ct<^q Pi (ha «5Jiq4«-q^ 11

(Manusmriti, 2:27)
The vast stretch of the region extending from the Saraswati and
Shatadru in the east through the Vipash (=Beas), the Airavati (=Ravi), the
Asikni (=Chenab) and the Vitastata (=Jhelam) in the middle to the Sindhu
(=Indus) and the Kubha (sKabul River) in the west was known as
Saptasaindhav (Rigved, 7-36-6; 6-61-8). The country extending south from
the Himalayan heights to the Vindhya Range was called Arydvrat
(Manusmriti, 2:21).
WTT^ TT«1^T: JMORd: II

(Manusmriti, 2:21)
From an analysis of the accounts of travels, pilgrimages, expeditions

and locations of vibrant places, it appears that Aryavrat extended far south
of the Narmada up to the Godavari and southeast up to the Kaling coast.
South to southwest of Saptasaindhav, the territory Prabhaskshetra,
also called Prabhaskhand, encompassed not only what is today the
Sarurashtra Peninsula, but also the whole of Kachchh domain, including
the Rann. The Rann in that period must have been under the sea water.
This can be inferred from the location of Dholavira (Bisht, 1953; Agrawala,
1991, 1989)—a flourishing seaport in the distributory of the Saraswati
River. Sivewright's Survey (1907) showed that the Rann was navigable
even during the time of Alexander's invasion. It was eventually filled up
with sediments brought by rivers, including the mighty Saraswati, and
turned into a salt-encrusted marshy land devoid of vegetation. This barren
land with "desert's watery pools" and inhabited by Gaur ("wild bulls")
has been described as Irina in the Rigved (8.7.69.6, 8.4.10). The Gaur is a
unique subspecies of ass occurring only in Kachchh. This animal is on the
verge of extinction today. In the Tritteeya Sanhita (Yajurved), there is a
mention of a Pradara—fissure, crevice or opening (Iyengar and
Radhakrishna, 2007) existing in Irina. Very likely, this Pradara is what is
today known as E-W trending 80-km long Allahband Fault, the "band"
or escarpment resulting from repeated movement on the rupture plane
V Fn 81
76° I
BHADRASHWAVARSH
~PT
36'
ILAVRITVARSH
(.(K* bul)
KAILAS
KEDARKHAND'^ jjJfnsarovar
KURUJ^NGAL ÂNsk Lj Tsangpo
w \%^ ) { <c
Fig. 3.7. Important geopolitical divisions within northern Bharatvarsh during the
Rigvedic and early Puranic times.
(Rajendran et al, 2002). However, Iyengar and Radhakrishna (2007)

identify the Luni—Jawai plains west of the Aravali Range as Irina.
That the territory called Prabhaskhand was in Saurashtra is further
evident from the fact that Arjun in connection with ashwamedh expedition
from the south came straight to Prabhas, before reaching Dwaravati, that
is Dwarka (Mahdbhdrat, Ashwamedh Parv, Chapter 84, verses 10-53).
Prabhaskhand was then a large territory, encompassing not only
Saurashtra but also the Kachchh domain with its Ranns, as pointed out
by Iyengar (2004).
The Skand Puvdn (Manaskhand, 5) recognized a number of provinces
in the Himalayas—one of them was Manaskhand, another Keddrkhand.
East of Baudhachal (possibly the 3015 m Dudhatoli massif in Uttarakhand)
up to the Kakgiri (possibly the Api-Nampa in western Nepal), the region

was known as Mdnaskhand. Its northern boundary across the 7756 m
Nandadevi Parvat was marked by the Mansarovar Lake, and the southern
limit passed by Moteshwar (present-day Kashipur) (Skand Puran,
Manaskhand, 40).
TfFT: '3# II 10 II 3R9FT 5 II

cTFT ^ W\: HHUHsflfd f^^T: I
R 'RIRTir fSRfafRTfRRf I
II 21 II
TfPRT: W( II
TTTSJFf %FTfth I
(Skand Puran, Manaskhand 5 and 40)
West of Baudhachal lay Keddrkhand extending up to the Tamasa River

(sTons) in the west, and from Gangadwar (sHaridwar) in the south to the
snow-white Bandarpunchh-Kedamath Range of the Himadri mountain
in the north.
3WTI5R tFlkf ^dHcKpiiH)
d*Rlld<£fl: d>4^Mvl
(Skand Puran, Manaskhand 40)
The Puranic provinces—Manaskhand and Kedarkhand—are today

known as Kumaun and Garhwal, respectively, in the state of Uttarakhand.
From the comprehensive details given of the mountains, rivers, lakes,
caves and teerthsthan of the geographic terrain in eastern Uttarakhand, it
appears that Manaskhand was a much frequented region. The sources
and confluences of rivers including Shyama (now known as Kali), Gauri
(Gori), Ramsarita (Ramganga), Saryu, Gomati, Pamapatra (Panar), and
Charmanyavati (Charma) are precisely described along with the holy
places at the confluences such as Pancheshwar, Rameshwar and
Bageeshwar (^Bageshwar). The source of the Shyama (Kali), for example,
is correctly identified at the southern-southwestern foot of the Lipi Parvat,
now called Lipiulek, at the India-Tibet border.
Tff|PPlFl ^ ^ II 10 II
3TrfM*J3 RHPMMcjd I
HH^W 'J'nTtTtsrf WRvfT PdPMM^ II 4 II
(Skand Purdn, Manaskhand, 116-117)
The Shyama flows south and joins the Saryu at Pancheshwar, where
resides Maheshwar Shiva. And there is a mountain named Sthakilkedar
Parvat between the two rivers. The Sthakilkedar is now known as
Thalkedar—a celebrated Shiva shrine.
Ijrer: ^TTfetidt4d: II 4 II
II 5 II
(Skand Purdn, Manaskhand, 115)
Between the Ramsarita (Ramganga) and the Saryu is a forest of cedar

trees on the Darugiri, with its famous cave—Patiilbhuvaneshwar
characterized by spectacular underground interior architecture.
11
(Skand Pur an, Manaskhand, 103)
To the south of Patalbhuvaneshwar, the Saryu is met by the

Parnapatra (Panar) River, just 4 km upstream of the Saryu-Ramganga
confluence Rameshwar—the gateway to Kurmachal, now known as
Kumaun.
II 86 II
(Skand Purdn, Manaskhand, 95)
Significantly, a large number of lakes (hrids) in Nainital district find

mention in the Manaskhand—Nainital, Bhlmtal, Naukuchiatal, Naltal,
Ramtal, Sitatal. Most of these lakes survived ravages of time.
Tjf^TFfvJT HHUTddfl I
^kTT ÎHWllHI: II 3 II
wi ^ TOt Rfl: I
TO: TTTc^Rlb1! II 4 II
TOt Hd4R: TO^FRPTO: II 5 II

TOt TTRf^: teMkRTO: RldWt: I
tt«t TOTTOTT: <£Ttaf^: ^JcT: I
(Skand Puran, Manaskhand, 45)
Far northwest, ensconced between the Gandhmddan (^Little Pamir)

in the north and the Hemkiit (sLadakh-Kailas Range) in the south lay
Kimpurushvarsh, where lived people full of life—the men having golden
yellow skin and the women fabulously beautiful (Matsya Puran, 113, 114;
Varah Puran, 75).
tr wmm EWl i
^c|ufc|iJif»r 'TO: TOJtTT: II 66 II

TO: TR I
H^K^dH'chl^ll ^TFRt ^ RFM: II 67 II
(Matsya Purdn, 113, 114)
In the Mahabhdrat (Sabha Parv, 28), it is stated that Kinnars (=Kiratsj

lived in Kimpurushvarsh. In the Vishnu Purdn, there is a description that
in the eastern part of Kimpurushvarsh the ground is parched and bereft
of vegetation—presumably owing to the frigid aridity of the cold desert.
From these descriptions it appears that the Puranic Kimpurushvarsh
encompassed what is today the Baltistan part of northwestern Kashmir,
including the Gilgit and Skardu regions. It is the northwestern extension
of Ladakh where the people are of the Khas stock. The Ladakh part is
dominated by the ethnic group exhibiting pronounced mongoloid features
of the Kirats.
The land of the Kurus in the Indo-Gangetic Plains was politically
and culturally the most important state. The region between the Ganga
and Yamuna rivers was known as Kururashtra and its capital was
Hastinapur on the bank of the Ganga. To the north lay the state of Pdnchai.
The land enclosed by the rivers Yamuna and Drishadvati encompassing
the present Hansi, Hissar and Kurukshetra districts of Haryana was called
Purdnland: Position and Extent
49
36° 68e* 76s
ILAVRITYARSH
BHADRASHWAVARSH
DARAD
'GANDHAR
I / âd^-tr,gart
|HARIVARSH / nVlK^C7'''''- '
V^TvVêdarkhand
KURU (pANCHAL V Brahamputra(Tsangpo)
?8° J&s' t r - .
^VaBHIR *%uru ^ KOSAL PRAGJYOTISH
VIDEH*" KAMRUP
. /. ,% ^ \ 0> '
, SAUVIR . MATSYA
SHALVA /
%L- 11 /^7au't'Wa
"PUNDRA
da>herAks0i?sen VAIt MAGADH
/ / PULlND 1
SÎdashArna ^ng van
^
ASHMAK VIDAR>BH L%r U^L
( r'$/f v
'dandak
flAHASASHT
4 \x
'MAHiS^K
,
16J
500 Km
L-1
LANKA
-M°i ____
^X°S.S,a'eS °r kin®d°mS d’‘™8 «“ •>*« particularly in the

Kurujangal (Vdman Puran, 22). It was described as Brahmavart in Panini's

work. Kurukshetra was the capital city.
■HtWdl'INSciik’TA $6*11^ II 46 II
(Vdman Puran, 22)
By the Mahabharat times, many states or kingdoms had emerged

south of the Vindhyan Range in central and southern Bharatvarsh—
Pandya, Dravid, Undra, Kerala, Andhra, Talvan, Kaling, Ushtrakamik,
Atavipuri (Fig. 3.8) and the city states of Yavans (Mahabharat, Sabha Parv,
31).
muî^ I
3IRjf^crl4HI>^^ +fd^l^4)f3|4>ld II 71 II
(Mahabharat, Sabha Parv, 31)
Many of these states survived the ravages of time and persisted to the
historical period—some of them up to the present.
Mountains of Bharatvarsh
<&
SEVEN KULPARVATS
The Purans and the epics name a large number of mountains, but are
silent about the plains in the greater Puranland. Even on the mountains,
no precise details are given about their configuration. Absence of mention
of plains is intriguing. For, the people who composed these works lived in
the floodplains of rivers, and probably on the flat terraces lining the river
valleys in the adjoining mountainous regions. The Himalaya, the Vindhya,
the Mahendragiri, the Malaya, and the Sahya mountain ranges figure
prominently in the Purans and the epics, including the Vatnan Puran
(Chapter 13), the Matsya Puran (Chapter 114), and the Narasimha Puran
(Chapter 30). These are described as Kulparvats. Some of the mountain
ranges were described as Maryaddparvat, implying ranges bordering the
country (Fig. 4.1).
W3 fep: ~3><rm4dl: I
'q^T: W: II 17 II
t4dl^ 7T%RT: II 18 II
(Matsya Puran, 114)
Fig. 4.1. Sketch map showing various Kulparvats and Maryadaparvats (border ranges)
described in the Purans and the epics.
53
^4i: W: |
TT<TT5T ^TdMcfdl: II 14 ||
(Vaman Puran, 13; Kurma Puran, Purv Vibhag, 43)
TT^T* 44^*^: -H|iL|4rff

TTTf^T^: $dr) *TR^ cfxriHcfai: II 12 II
(Narasimha Puran, 30)

Besides the Kulparvats, scores of hill ranges are mentioned (Vaman
Puran, 13).
ho«U5<-5ll ’JTO TT^lffH: I

fowiO^lRjui) tot f^Tf. II 15 |;
^Wd: 7T tfÎ ^<|rj<»T; |
^TT3T: ^H^W«TT II 16 II
îRlRw^JT TTf^^hlNd: I
^RlRt^l WRT81T II 17 II
wilH’dSspfjS: I
#1^1: ?Irml5-^5fq M ]8 ,,
(Vaman Puran, 30)

The mountains are mentioned as sources of rivers, the sites of shrines,
the places of pilgrimage and also as natural boundaries or barriers between
states and countries.
THE HIMALAYA OR HIMVANT
The Kulparvat Himalaya, also called Himvant and Himvan extends north
of Bharatvarsh m a great arc. It stretches from the eastern sea to the western
sea (Matsya Puran, 113) in the form of a giant measuring rod of the earth
(Shiva Puran, Parvatkhand).
3T^W 1*FRT: TPJsf) |

ftFraFf 11 11 11
(Matsya Puran, 113)

Abounding in flora and fauna, the mineral-rich mountain is the abode
of snow (Shiva Puran, Parvatkhand). In the lower altitudes, it is covered
by a blue garment of forests of cedar trees (deodar), and in the higher

elevation, it wears a turban of white cloud (Matsya Purdn, 117). This is the
description given by Prince Pururava, who saw the mountain somewhere
from the valley of the River Airavati (Ravi).
^ II 4 II
n 5 u
(Matsya Purati, 117)
Latitudinal Subdivision
The arc-shaped Himalaya province comprises five latitudinal belts of

mountain ranges: (i) the Upgiri (submountain), (ii) Bahirgiri (the outer
mountain), (iii) the Antargiri (inner mountain), (iv) the Krauch Giri, and
(v) the Hemkut (Mahdbhdrat, Sabha Parv, 27, Bhishma Parv, 5).
(Mahdbhdrat, Sabha Parv, 27)
(Mahdbhdrat, Bhishma Parv, 5)
The five latitudinal divisions identified in the Himalayas by the Puranic

scholars are exactly what the geologists now recognize (Fig. 4.2). The Upgiri
is today called the Siwalik by earth scientists. The Bahirgiri is the Lesser
Himalaya and the Antargiri the Greater Himalaya or Himddri. The Krauch
Giri is described as the Tethys Himalaya by geologists. The Hemkut is
today represented by the Ladakh-Kailas-Gangdese Range in the extreme
north beyond the Himalaya. However, the difference lies in that the
Ladakh-Kailas-Gangdese Range is geologically an altogether separate
range, beyond the geological junction of India and Asia (Valdiya, 1998,
2010).
In the Kurma Purdn (Chapter 43) the 6714-m Kailas standing north
of the Mansarovar Lake is referred to as the Kesarachal.
Mountains of Bharatvarsh 55
Fig. 4.2. Latitudinal subdivisions of the Himalaya, according to the Mahabharat. Their
present-day names applied by the earth scientists are given in brackets.
Inset shows the four neighbours of Bharatvarsh.
TTOTl II 37 II
(Kiirma Puran, Chapter 43)
Mountains Beyond the Himalaya
In the Mahabharat (Bhishma Parv, 5) it is stated that north of the Kailas

Range are the Mainak, and still further north the mineral-rich splendid
Hiranyashring.
xl3cf 'SrfcT I
trfbmt hlft: II 42 II
(Mahabharat, Bhishma Parv, 5)
The Mainak appears to be the southeasterly extension of the
Karakoram Range (with its 8611 m high K2). The Karakoram in the west
is connected with the Gandhmadan Parvat, now known as the Little Pamir.
Thus, according to Puranic geography, the Gandhmadan is a part of the
Karakoram Range. The Karakoram—that is the Gandhamadan—
separates the Himalaya from the Pamir massif of Central Asia—the Meru
Parvat of the Puran time. The Hiranyashring is today known as the Kunlun.
While the Gandhmadan (Karakoram) extends east-southeast from

the Meru, the Nishadh diverges southwestward from the mountain knot.
In order to reach Harivarsh, the Pandav warrior Arjun crossed the
Gandhmadan, and then the Nishadh to its west. The Nishadh is today
known as the Hindukush. Rivers Gandhavati and Nanvati originate in
the Nishadh (Matsya Purdn, 121; Vdyu Purdn, 47). These rivers possibly
refer to two tributaries of the Kabul River—the Kubhd of the Rigvedic
time.
MOUNTAINS OF NORTHWESTERN FRONTIER
Along the western frontier of Bharatvarsh is the Malyawan Giri, trending

in the southwestern direction and extending up to the sea, and drained
by east-flowing rivers (Matsya Purdn, 13, v 34-35). The Malayawan, in all
likelihood, is the arcuate chain of the Sulaiman-Kirthar ranges of the
present. Interestingly, there was a peak in the Malyawan where Agni was
aflame ceaselessly (Mahabharat, Bhishma Parv, 7).
'5TtT cbldfal’HUd'to
<T«IT HlrMdld: # lJ/u^chl 11 26 11

<T«tT ^ II 27 II
(Mahabharat, Bhishma Parv, 7)
Pakistan's richest and renowned gas deposit of the Sui area is located
in the domain of the Sulaiman Range. In the Mahabharat time, the
underground natural gas possibly leaked out and burnt uninterruptedly.
This phenomena was described as the manifestation of Agni.
MOUNTAINS OF WESTERN COASTAL BELT
The Saurashtra region, also known as the Kathiawad Peninsula, is an

uplifted block where small hills and hillocks are formed of lava flows,
some basic, some felsic in composition (Fig. 4.4). The Harivansh Purdn (38)
describes the Raivat Parvat, situated not far from the sea.
II 45 II
(Harivansh Purdn, 38)
57
N.uYh and the Milyaw5n ranges of the Puran period and their modem
the she h 6 *A °Catl0n °f the Sul Gas DePosit in the southern hilly terrain It was
the site where Agm was manifest in the form of continuous flame.
Fig. 4.4. Hills of Prabhaskshetra, now known as the Kathiawad Peninsula or

Saurashtra. Present-day names are given in brackets.
In and around the Raivat, the Yadavs celebrated their annual fair, and
celebrated it with great gaiety. It seems to be a cluster of hills, today known
as the Barda Hills (81 m to 149 to 240 m high cluster of hills) and the Venu
Peak (194 m). The Raivat lay to the east of Dwarka, the capital of the Yadavs.
In the southcentral part of Prabhaskshetra—modem Saurashtra—was
the celebrated site of Shiva's Jyotirling in the form of a naturally formed—
swayambhu Ling—the symbol of procreation (Harivarsh Puran, 38). It looked
like a lotus pierced by the point of a trident (Mahabhdrat, Teerthyatra Parv,
82).
HglÛ^ Trrf^WT TT=T ^ ll 67 II

(Mahabharat, Teerthyatra Parv, 82)
It is the Gimar Hills with its 341 m high peak at the centre of a circular
depression that opens towards Junagarh in the west.
Moving southeast of Prabhaskshetra, we come to the Sahya Giri. The
Sahya, the third prominent Kulparvat of Bharatvarsh, is presently known
as the Sahyadri. The Sahyadri of today extends 1600 km south from the
River Tapi in the north to Kanyakumari. However, the Puranic Sahya
extended up to what is now known as the Nilgiri. The Northern Sahyadri
encompasses nearly the whole of western Maharashtra.
The Sahya is shown as the source of the eastward-flowing rivers—
the Godavari, the Bheemrathi (Bhima), the Tungabhadra, the Kaveri and
the Kalaswani (Vaman Puran, 13, v. 28-30). The rivers retained their names
except the Kalaswani, which could be either the Kabini (a tributary of the
Kaveri) or the Moyar-Bhavani, which also joins the Kaveri in the Tamil
Nadu plain.
It was in one of the ranges of the Sahya, a place called Yagyagiri, that
Krishna and Balaram stayed for some time, hiding from the terror of
Jarasandh's chasing forces (Harivansh Puran, 39). From there they had
proceeded to Mount Gomantak with its many peaks and pinnacles. One
of them was sky high. From the top of it they could see riot only the sunrise
but also the wave-agitated sea with its islands (Harivansh Puran, 39).
dd^J,dl dPH^W: I
PcfteMId II 64 II
yÛPM I
444IW9i) #4 ^ ÎPcTCI "9%^ II 67 II
(Harivansh Puran, 39)

The Gomantak could be the 1645-m high Kalsubai (near Igatpuri) of
the present (Fig. 4.5A). It is the highest peak of the northern Sahyadri. It
commands the view of distant sea. The Gomantak could also be the
Matheran Hill situated east of Mumbai (Fig. 4.5B).
The place where Krishna and Balram were in hiding, was an

extremely rugged terrain with steep slopes and difficult scarps, the streams
dropping as waterfalls, and the slopes strewn with broken pieces of blue
rocks (talus). The forest was infested with tigers (Harivansh Puran, 40).
The bluish green, rather greenish blue, rocks mentioned are the basaltic
lavas interbedded with volcanic ash rocks that make up the Sahyadri.
The present-day Sahyadri slopes are broken by vertical scarps, and
characterized by waterfalls and by fans and cones of talus or scree.
■^fas'iicnn u 10 11
Sfll£<rld<rvl3: II 2 II
(Harivansh Puran, Vishnu Parv, 40)
MOUNTAINS OF SOUTHERN BHARATVARSH
The Vdnar team, headed by Hanuman in search of Sita, the abducted wife
of Ram of Ayodhya, went south from Kishkindha. They came across the
terrain where the trees were not bearing flowers and fruits, and many of
them were practically bereft of foliage. And the rivers were without water
(Vdlmiki Rdmdyan, Aranyakand, 48).
famuli; MufafSldl: I
fTOfaT: ^ TJyT ^ 11 9 II
(Vdlmiki Rdmdyan, Aranya Kand, 48)
It was a drought-affected arid terrain that the Vanars had crossed. It

seems that they had come to the present Rayalseema region in
southwestern Andhra Pradesh, which continues to be afflicted with
perennial drought; and its landscape is practically desolate during the
period of no rainfall. East of this dry land was Prasarvan Giri, covered
with trees, shrubs and climbers. Beyond it lay the endless ocean resplendent
with ripples, and agitated by strong waves (Vdlmiki Rdmdyan, Kishkindha
Kand, 52 and 53).
Fig. 4.5. (A) Satellite pictures of the 1645 m hi oh Knic k-- ,
surrounded by very rugged terrain. 8 ‘ 131 (Posslbl.y the Gomantak)
(B) From the Matheran Hill the sea'is visible
, 4.6. Satellite pictures of the Mahendra Parvat at the southeastern extremity ot me
alaya Giri — the present-day Cardamom Hills. Across the sea lay Lanka
mka of the present. [From: Google Earth]
he lower picture is the blowup of the southern part of the above]
fr^cKdi ri^ t^T #q^ S-lfac)^ II 32 II

<PFF^ ¥R I
3tLlKHfVl4'-a 111 II
(Valmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand, 52 and 53)
The Prasarvan Giri appears to be the Puranic name of the 1525-1647-

m Nallamalai-Velikonda Hills, covered thickly with forests. The high
ranges of the hills overlook the Bay of Bengal lying to the east. The Bay
becomes very rough in the months of the monsoon seasons. The Vanars
had seen the sea in its wild state. The Valmiki Ramayan mentions the name
of Vindhyagiri in connection with the Andhra Pradesh mountains. The
geologists know that in terms of the age as well as in rock formations, the
mountains of the Cuddapah Basin of Andhra Pradesh, including the
Nallamalai, are correlatable closely with those of the Vindhya Basin. Tliis
possibly explains the inadvertent naming of the Andhra mountain. Maybe
Valmiki was aware of the similarity of the rock types and of the
contemporaneity of the Vindhya and Nallamalai.
From there onwards, the search party—and later Ram's army-
headed southwest (Valmiki Ramayan, Aranya Kand, 64)-and then took a
southerly course.
R*lAdi ^ UdlH
(Valmiki Ramayan, Aranya Kand, 64)
■5FTFT TIB) || 23 II
(Valmiki Ramayan, Yuddh Kand, 4)
It may be mentioned that Ram's army set on the course to Lanka

through cooler shady forested terrain, where cool water, fruits, nuts and
honey were available aplenty (Valmiki Ramayan, Yuddha Kand, 4)
■'TvPJyFffiT ?lld^HHc|lR>J|| |
W 1THrraT ^ 5^ II 10 II
i|4di^ u 59 11
«jfHy^ll«r ^HTf5 l-bd<=lPd ^ I
(Valmiki Ramayan, Yuddh Kand, 4)
Evidently, from Andhra Pradesh they went to the Malaya Giri—the

present Cardamom Hills through the Anaimalai Hills, forming the
southern Sahyldri Range (Fig. 4.7). The Mahendra Parvat lay at the
southeastern extremity of the Malaya, overlooking the Tamraparni River
on the one side and the sea on the other. The mountain was covered with
forests and biodiverse groves, and rivers descended in many places as
waterfalls. In the forests lived chirping birds and roaring tigers and
leopards, and roamed herds of elephants. From the Mahendra top, one
could see fish and turtles in the sea (Valmiki Ramayan, KishkindhI Kind
67, Yuddh Kind, 4)
M^PM Ur) UR: UfTCU WTCU U II 71 II

pHtfifll'jd'Hfefl I
urd<ri)tMUu'3><rlH. II 41 II
tWUTlW UR) I
wftarcrcn n 93 n
(Valmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand 67, Yuddh Kand, 4)
Not only the description of the biodiversity, geomorphology and

drainage of the Malaya Giri but also the location of the Mahendra Parvat
at its southern tip tally very well with the situation today (Fig. 4.6). The
Southern Sahyadri (Annaimalai-Cardamom Hills) shows very youthful
topography, characterized by high peaks, steep slopes broken by scarps,
and a multiplicity of waterfalls as streams drop across the scarps. This
topography is a result of neotectonic movements that the southern
Sahyadri has experienced (Valdiya and Narayana, 2007). One can have
a glimpse of the sea and Sri Lanka from the Mahendra Parvat, rising
1654 m above the sea level.
It was the 1645-m Mahendra Parvat top from where Hanumln, with
his prodigious strength, air-travelled to Lanka across the sea. The peaks
of the Mahendra Parvat are made up of various high-grade metamorphic
rocks that contained minerals weathering to brownish soil. It was
covered with forest of a variety of trees (Valmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha
Kind, 67).
Fig. 4.7. Sketch map showing the Southern Sahyadri comprising the Sahya and Malaya
Giri in the southern part of Bharatvarsh.
%<?IWohd5J||RrH: II 36 II
ftHsKlftl ^ Wfft rf |
% #7 || 37 ||
(Valmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand, 67)

The sea below lay motionless in places, rippled in some parts and
agitated by waves in other parts. Lanka was situated four hundred yojans
across the sea. Engineer Vishwakarma had built a beautiful city in Lanka
('Valmiki Ramayan. Kishkindha Kand 64, 58)
sbls'tffHq ^Rd: I
M4dHI>l¥ II 5 II
^ Sift ÊpvPT Wfftft I
afwnî ^ W Ptfndi fer^ftun n 20 II
(Valmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand 64, 58)
64
It may be pointed out that some scholars, including H.D. Sankalia

(1966) and M.V. Kibe (1936), hold quite different views on the location o
the Mahendra Parvat and Lanka, for example, placing the Mahendra in
Madhya Pradesh.
MOUNTAINS OF LANKA
In his flight to Lanka, Hanuman noticed a wide variety of flora in the

dense forests that covered the island and its mountain massif. The massi
was as high as the Malaya mountain of Bharatvarsh (Vdlmiki Ramayan,
Sundar Kand 1)
■gW ^ II 204 II
(Vdlmiki Ramayan, Sundar Kand 1)
Looking at the modem map of Sri Lanka, it wiU be apparent that the
central mountain massif embraces the 2243-m Adam's Peak, 25 -m
Pidurutalagala, 2359-m Totupola, etc,, comparable with the 269o-m
Anaimudi, 2506-m Venbadishde (Palni), 2019-m Kottaimalai, W7„-m
Devaramalai, and 1856-m Agastyamalai. Furthermore, the compositions
and ages of rock formation of the Malaya Giri (Cardamom Hills) in Kerak,
are indistinguishable from those of Sri Lanka. As a matter of fact, e
Lankan terrain is the continuation across the sea of the Kerala geology
(Valdiya, 2010).
MOUNTAINS OF SOUTHEASTERN BHARATVARSH
Turning north from Lanka across the Prasarvan Giri (Nallamalai-

Velinkonda Ranges), we come to a region from where Hanuman (and
later Ram with his army) began their adventures-the region of Rishyamuk
Parvat. It is the region east of the SE-flowing Godavari in its middle reaches,
encompassing what is today the southern Chhattisgarh and adjoining
parts of Orissa and Maharashtra. Its northern part is describe as
Danddkdranya, the densely forested massif of the Bastar Plateau of e
present Its southwestern boundary is defined by the Godavari
(Dandakaranya is in today's Chattisgarh). This is obvious from the
statement of Sugreev asking his search part to look for Sita first in the
mountains, river valleys and caves of the Dandakaranya region on the
bank of the Godavari and then proceed to Andhra, Pundra, Chola and
Pandya (Valmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand 41).
II 11 II
Jiki«u7 i
cT^JF%Tf£ mull's II
(Valmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand 41)
It was at Panchvati on the bank of Godavari that Ram lived with Sita
and Lakshman during most of the time of his exile (vanvas). In the area of
Venkatapuram town, within the longitudes 80°15' and 80°30' and
latitudes 19°14' and 19°30', there are a number of towns named
Sitaramnagaram, Sitanagaram, Sitampeta, Ramannagudem, Ramnagar,
Ramchandrapuram, Ramankkapet, and so on—all within a short stretch
of the river. A tributary coming from the east is named Ramamidi. The
naming of villages after Ram and Sita is not without significance. Although
these names provide very poor testimony, they could be taken to suggest
the possible location of Panchvati.
?<rlNH7*UM
Jikic|Aii: ^ ci?q wti
(Valmiki Ramayan, Kishkindha Kand 13)
Ram, Lakshman and Sita used to see the hill extending across the
terrain in the east. This hill could be the 972 m Doli Range trending NNW-
SSE, presently within the Nagur Reserve Forest.
The Valmiki Ramayan describes the joys of Ram, Sita and Lakshman
witnessing sun-rise across the hill range covered with a variety of trees
and climbers, and full of bird life (Valmiki Ramayan, Aranya Kand 11, V-
75-76). In the caves in this hill range lived Vanars, the tribals of the land
(Valmiki Ramayan, Aranya Kand 73).
W: WMl (14)
<=H^|Ru|: (28)
It was at Panchvati that a tribal woman Surpanakha's nose was cut,

and where several thousand strong forces of tribal chiefs—Khar and
Dushan—were wiped out, thus precipitating a war with the Lanka king
Ravan. After Sita was abducted by Ravan, Ram and Lakshman looked
for her all around and then went on a trail to the east. Crossing the high
mountain ranges they came to the Rishyamuk Parvat just east of the Lake
Pampasarovar. Covered by forests and infested with serpents and
elephants, the ascent to the mountain was difficult (Skanda Purdn, Brahma
Khand; Vdlmiki Rdmayan, Aranya Kand, 73).
W*TT: I
sfijFTI II 32 II
('Valtniki Rdmayan, Aranya Kand, 73)
In the Rishyamuk Hill, Ram and Lakshman met Hanuman and

Sugreev. They became their abiding friends and devotees, providing the
army and wherewithals for the war with Ravan.
There are two hill ranges that could have been the Rishyamuk of the
epic. From the descriptions and deductions, it appears that the series of
hills trending NNE—SSW and hillocks east of the River Sabari in the Sukma
division of Jagdalpur district was the Rishyamuk (Figs. 4.8 and 4.9). Some
of the hills rise to the elevation of 726 m (Goiparvatam) and 1194 m (Tulasi).
In the terrain of the Sabari River, the overlooking Tulasi Dongar hill range
have caves, such as the Gupteshwar Cave, characterized by spectacular
columns of dolomites (M. Ramakrishnan, per. com., 2011). These caves
must have provided shelter to the Vanars, including their leaders Sugreev
and Hanuman (Fig. 4.10). Before launching the war after the end of the
rainy season. Ram and Lakshman lived at Neelkanth peak within the dense
forest (Narsimha Purdn, 50). It could have been the Tulasi Hill located on
the bend of the Sabari River.
$dcirT ^ Hld-W OSIHfa: II 33 II

It may be recalled that Ram ate the wild berry jujube (“her") offered
reverentially by a tribal woman Shabari. The river Sabari possibly derives
67
Puran time are in bold letters.5 ?

rsr trar
N
pia,“u * —>=
f h<? mountains given in the
its name from Shabari which is pronounced as Sabari by the local people
t>netters mat were present there.
Although no lake exists today, the structural condition and
SZce ofa'TakfthT °f ™ are su8*“tive of possible

existence of a lake that could have vanished-a palaeolake There is a
SW-flowtaSri 'T 1, ‘he ^ ^ at MohPadar-the consistently

direchon anftb t 7 ' ^ WNW' flows a few kilometres in that
*is=sr*iit
of the 1194-m Tul^mi 7^°^ ^ MohPad-Kokavada area
ground evidence m support of the postulation.

68 Geography, Peoples and Geodynatnics of India in Pur anas and Epics
The 687- to 883-m high Bailadila Hill is another possible candidate

for the name Rishyamuk. Here, too, there is no trace of a lake and there
are no geological-geomorphic indication of a palaeolake.
My assumptions are quite at variance with the widely held view that
the Rishyamuk was somewhere in Maharashtra, between the rivers
Godavari and Tungabhadra. It may be stated that the descriptions of the
flora, fauna and geomorphology of any of the hill ranges in this terrain do
not match with those given in the Valrniki Ratnayan. Moreover, Ram, Sita
and Lakshman travelled straight south from Chitrakut. They came to the
Panchapsar Sarovar in the densely forested Dandakaranya, full of animals
and birds, and the hills broken by beautiful waterfalls (Valrniki Ramayan,
Aranya Kand, 7, 8).
This vast dense Dandakaranya forest was and still is in the Bastar
Plateau (Bhattacharya, 1999) and not elsewhere.

East of the Dandakaranya was the Mahendra Giri, a kulparvat of the
Puranic narratives, in the southeastern part of the Kaling state (Orissa).
After taking bath in the eastern sea and later in the River Vamsadhara
(sBamshadhara), the Pandav head Yudhishthir climbed up the Mahendra
Giri to spend a night there (Mahabharat, Teerthyatra Parv, 114).
cj>F=m ^
II 30 II
The proximity of the hill where Yudhishthir spent his night with the
sea shows that it is the same Mahendragiri which presently stands 1501
m high in the SE-SW trending Nayagarh Range of the coastal hills in
Orissa.
MOUNTAINS OF EASTERN BHARATVARSH
The Satpura Range of the present extending eastward is represented by

the hill ranges of the Ranchi-Chhotanagpur Plateau. They possibly
represent the Riksh or Rikshwan in the Purans (Vaman Puran, 13; Matsya
Puran, 114), the Mailan Hills forming the northern boundary and the
Ramgarh Hills making the southern limit of the Puranic Riksh Giri. If the
Fig. 4.9. Satellite pictures of the three hill ranges, one of which could have been the
Rishyamuk described in the Valmiki Ramayan.
(A) The Bailadila Hill, Bastar, (B) Tulasi - Goiparvatam Hills, Bastar, (C) The Balaghat
Range, Maharashtra. [From: Google Earth]
„ 4 10 Underground world in the country of limestones and dolomites^ There are
[ambers characterized by stalagmites, stalactites and pillars, together giving
re lowerpictureslmws thepilUrs formed by the fusion of stalagmites and stalactites,

rom: Illustrated Family Encyclopaedia, Dorling Kindersley, pp. 116-117, London, 2007,
p. 188).
Fig. 4.11. Sketch map shows the hill ranges of central Bharatvarsh. The present-day
names are given in brackets.
Suvarnamukhari River (Skanda Puran, Uttarkhand) is the same as the

present Subamarekha in Orissa that rises in the hills northeast of Ranchi,
then the array of hills Ghatikachal, Griddhachal, Hastiparvat and Arunachal
mentioned in the Skanda Puran correspond to the present Tikarpara Hills,
the Garhjat Hills (with 1187 m Malayagiri) and the 1165-m Simlipal-
Maghasani Hills in Jharkhand.
The Riksh Parvat or Rikshwan lay east of the Vindhyachal. ITie Sonpar
Hills and the Deogarh Hills (1030 m) of the Baghelkhand Plateau possibly
represent the Rikshwan. The Shuktiman Parvat, extending eastwards
parallel to the Rikshwan, embraces what are at present the Ramgarh Hills-
Dalma Hills, stretching from Raigarh in the west to Jharkhand in the east.
Between the Chhotanagpur Plateau and the Venlcatachal massif (with
its 1366-m high Parasnath Hill) in the north, nestled the lake Kamalsarovar
where Rishi Shukdev established his ashram. Once Sage Agastya visited
this place and assisted the people there to tame (or train) a river (Skanda
Puran). This river must be the Damodar which time and time again even
today gets wild and destructive during floods.
In the extreme east stretches for tens of yojanas the Udaygiri, its highest
peak being Saumnas. The mighty peak glitters like gold as the sun rises
from the east, its rays dispelling the darkness from the land of Jambudweep
(Valmiki Rdmdyan, Kishkindha Kand, 40).
^ II 57 II
■Stfar fÔRR: I
^Tt II 51 II
(Valmiki Rdmdyan, Kishkindha Kand, 40)
The Udaygiri appears to the Patkai-Naga Range, and the Saumnas is

the 3014-m high Mount Japro in the Naga Hills or the 3014-m Mount
Victoria in the Arakan Yoma. In all probability, the Saumnas is the Japro.
MOUNTAINS OF CENTRAL BHARATVARSH
The Vindhya or Vindhyachal is the most important kulparvat in central

Bharatvarsh. The present Vindhya runs ENE-WSW to E-W through the
middle of the country from near the Ganga-Son confluence in the east to
the Bhanrer Hills and beyond in the western border of Madhya Pradesh.
The Purans identified two parts of this long Vindhya Range—the eastern
part was known as Vidhyachal, and the western known as Pdriydtra
(Matsya Purdn, 114; Vdman Puran, 13). The Pariyatra gradually bends
northeastwards to embrace the southern part of the Aravali. From the
Pariyatra rise the rivers Betwa, Chambal and Kshipra.
The Mahabhdrat mentions the Vaidurya Parvat, overlooking the
Narmada River from the south. It seems to be the western part of the
Satpura Range, including the Rajpipla Hills, with its 1325-m tall
Astambadongar Peak.
''Ffo ^1 ^
(Mahabhdrat, Van Parv, 114)
Far to the north lay Arbud Parvat, the son of Flimalaya (Mahabhdrat,
Teerthyatra Parv, 82), where there was a fissure in the earth. Yudhishthir
was advised to visit this place. The fissure represents one of the faults—
such as Phulad Dislocation or Kaliguman Dislocation—that cut the Aravali
along and across its trend. It may have become active and open due to
displacement along it following a tectonic movement at the time of the
writing of the Mahabharat.
cTrft '
^ ^ 1155 II
The 1722-m high Mount Abu is the highest peak of the Aravali Range
straddling NE-SW across the western part of central Bharatvarsh. The
geologists have demonstrated that the NE-SW trending structural grain
of the Aravali extends to the Himalaya (Auden, 1937), and a number of
Precambrian rock types and structures of the Aravali are closely
correctable with those of the Himalaya (Valdiya, 1976). Obviously, the
Puran scholars did have an idea that the Aravali is in some way
structurally or genetically related to or linked with the Himalaya.
pAtAl LOK
There is frequent mention of the tribals called Danavs and Dasyus living
or hiding in Patal Ldk. One of such Dasyu king was Bali, whose habitat
was vast and full of splendour. Ahiravan, the step-brother of the Lanka
king Ravan, also lived in Patal Lok.
^ ^cf> dfam I
sffrRT -#3 MMMWJfc||faHI II 17 II
(Kurma Puran, Purv Vibhag, 42)
The Patal Lok in all probability means the underground, subterranean

chambers, mutually connected with networks of tunnels, often labyrinthine
in pattern of caves. The underground channels are formed by underground
water seeping and flowing through joints, fissures, fractures and cavities
in carbonate rocks like limestones and dolomites. The carbonate rocks are
highly soluble; and water percolating through sinkholes on the ground
surface easily dissolves its way through cracks and cavities. The result is a
spectacular underground world of caves with small and large chambers
(Fig. 4.10). The chambers are characterized by picturesque bun-shaped
bulges, stalactites hanging from the roofs and stalagmites standing on
floors. Their fusion forms ornate pillars (Fig. 4.10). The chambers form
and become progressively enlarged in several levels or horizons.
Some of the chambers are so large that hundreds of people can
comfortably live inside them. The Stone Age people lived in such caves.
Understandably, the forest dwellers—the tribals—found the underground
caves extremely suitable for living, and for safety.
Caves are very common in the limestone countries. Extensive and
wide belts of carbonate rocks (limestones and dolomites) occur all through
the Lesser Himalaya, the Vindhyan, the Dandakaranya hill ranges in
Chhattisgarh, the Pandikunta-Rajaram belt in the Godavari Valley, the
Nallamalai Range in Andhra Pradesh, the Badami Hills in northern
Karnataka, and so on. These are the belts of the underground world which
the Purans and the epics described as Fatal Lok.
The Puran scholars recognized seven types of Patal—tal, atal, taldtal,
sutal, vital, rasdtal, and patal (Shiva Puran, Pancham Umasanhita, 15) (cf.
Fig. 4.12). In the Patal (large underground caves), there are palatial
chambers with golden yellow pillars and structures resembling temples.
These are made of fused stalagtites and stalagmites, and glimmer like
precious stones.
SRlvr facM ^ || 22 II
ddldd W: W*TI I
^TI II 23 II
d-^41 fsîlNr I
WRIEST W II 24 II
(Shiva Puran, Pancham Umasanhita, 15)
II 22 II
yi'HI^RlId^: II 16 II
(Kurma Puran, Purv Vibhag, 42)
Even gods liked to live in caves of this kind. One such underground
Patal was in Manaskhand (Kumaun of the present). At Pdtalhhuvaneshwar
(in district Pithoragarh), Shiva's consort Parvati spent time with her large
entourage (Skanda Puran, Manaskhand, 103, V-ll, 63, 64).
Mldld^ci^l^M ■qRll^ ^pRHHI: II 64 II
(Skanda Puran, Manaskhand, 103).
5
Rivers of Bharatvarsh
COMPREHENSIVE LISTING
The rivers figuring prominently in the Purans and the epics are the
Saraswati, the Yamuna, the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Narmada and the
Godavari. The rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Narmada and the Saraswati flowing
into the seas were regarded great, very important and very sacred (Skand
Puran).
^31: TRf: TEpETI: I
(Skand Puran)
^BI*fFTT dIHMufT W TO: I

7T^rr JikicKl
UE^Mdl TOTTO: TOP^T: II 13 II
(Narasimha Puran, 30, 31)
Other major rivers—the Saryu, the Gomati, the Gandaki, the

Tungabhadra, the Kaveri, the Mahi, the Sabhramati (Sabarmati), the
Sindhu, the Vitastata (Jhelam), the Airavati (Ravi) and the Shatadru
(Satluj) are mentioned frequently. There is no mention of the largest river
of India, the Brahmaputra (Fig. 5.1). However, from the description it
appears that this river was known as the Lauhitya. The listing of the names
of rivers is comprehensive (Vaman Puran 13; Vishnu Puran, 3; Mahabharat,
Bhishma Parv, 9). The sources of these rivers are mentioned and we find
them to be very precisely located in the mountains. Moreover, the sources
of important (major) rivers were honoured by establishment of teerths
there.
II 19 II
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Rivers of Bharatvarsh 75
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(Vaman Puran Part 2, 13)
It is obvious from the list that the Puranic people were not only great
adventurers but also keenly observant explorers. Though the sources of
rivers and the points of their discharge into the seas have been identified,
intriguingly, there is no mention of their floodplains and of their deltas
before their discharging into the seas (Fig. 5.1). The Purans state that the
Saraswati, the Yamuna, the Shatadru, the Vitastata, the Airavati, the
Ganga, the Saryu and the Gandaki originate in the Himalaya. The Vedwati
(sBetwa), the Sindhu (Kali Sindh), the Kshipra, and the Mahi have their
sources in the Pariyatra Range—the western extension of the Vindhva
including the northeastward bend of the southern Aravali. The Mahanadi,
the Narmada and the Tamasa (Tons) emerge from the Shuktiman Parvat,
that is, the mountain ranges that include the Maikal Hills. The Vindhva
Giri is the source of the Payoshni, the Nirvindhya, the Surasa and others.
Very significantly, a river originating in the foothills of the Riksh Parvat
(Ranchi) was filled with sands. It could be the Damodar River of the
present. The Godavari, the Bheemrathi (Bhlma), the Krishna, the Vena,
the Tungabhadra, the Kaveri, etc. spring from the Sahya kulparvat. The
Fig. 5.1. Map shows some of the rivers mentioned in the Purans. In the brackets are*
given their modem names, if there are changes.
Kritmala and Tamraparni emerge from the Malaya Parvat, and so on

(Vaman Puran, 13; Vishnu Puran, Part 2, 3).
The names of many of these rivers persist without change, and
some names have also suffered a little corruption. Comparing with the
modern atlases, it emerges that the Puranic scholars were quite
Fig. 5.2. Satellite picture shows many abandoned channels of the Saraswati River.
The Vaman Puran mentions seven channels, and the Mahabharat (Shalya Parv, 41)
identifies six more. Saraswati frequently shifted its course. (Courtesy: A K Gupta
2002).
knowledgeable about the drainage pattern of the rivers and of the lands
watered by them.
The rivers were regarded in tremendous esteem, worthy of veneration
owing to their properties of purifying the body and the soul. This is quite
understandable—the rivers provided sustainance to all kinds of life,
including the very precious plant resource. In order to honour the rivers,
a large number of teerths, invariably associated with temples, were
established on their banks.
In this chapter, only those rivers are dealt with that figure prominently
and repeatedly in the Puranic narratives. The objective is to demonstrate
that the Puranic people not only valued the bounty of nature but were
also keen observers who ranged the land from the northern frontier of the
Himalaya to the boundary of the ocean around.
It is rather strange that the Sindhu River that the inunigrants crossed
repeatedly to come to settle down in the floodplains of northern Bharatvarsh
is mentioned but sparingly, although it is mentioned that the Sindhu with its
hundred and nine tributaries discharged into the western sea (Skand Puran).
Rh fg^TSflTII ?Rf: II 55 II
m II 56 II
(Skand Puran, Nagarkhand 16, 130)
THE SARASWATI RIVER
The Saraswati was a great river venerated by the people of the

Saptasaindhav region of the country. The Rigved (2-41-16; 6-61-2; 6-61-81)
had described it as naditame—the finest of all rivers, surpassing all other
rivers in splendour and power (Fig. 5.4). Originating in the snowy
Himalaya, flowing down to the plain covered with plaksha forests, and
through the place (dham) of Shiva (Badarikashram in Kurukshetra), it
goes under the mass of sands as it flows westward, and reappears again
before it discharges into the western sea (Skand Puran)
M WZ( WRR: faPhidl I
SfcfcM qrW«WR%<rl'l 11 49 II
(Skand Puran, Prabhaskhand (7), Part I, 33)
Fig. 5.4. The Saraswati of the Puran and epics time originated in the Himalaya. It had
two branches — the eastern Tamasa and the western Shatadru. It flowed through
what are today Haryana and Rajasthan, abandoning one channel after another. It
discharged into the Gulf of Kachchh, which then extended upto the Rann of Kachchh.
SRrafcl WWcW fWTWPf II 24 II
drHkrtM fit: SfT

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cTFqTtT: 3lfwr WlrfM) II

<5^3 fwfa SFffo Mp)-cHir^# II 26 II
(Skand Puran, Prabhaskhand (7), Part I, 35)
Cutting its way through many mountain ranges of the Himalaya,
the great river Saraswati came to the foothills where it flowed with great
force as rapids (Vaman Puran, 31; Mahdbhdrat, Shalya Parv, 41).
(Mahabharat, Shalya Parv, 41)
The ashrams of sages Vasishth and Vishwamitra v/ere located on the

two banks of the Saraswati at a place where it forcefully debouched onto
the plain (Mahabharat, Shalya Parv, 41).
■^T: wfcl^RTk fasnfasRS ^fhTcT: II 4 II
qfa<WIHqi5 II 5 II
Downstream the river broke into seven tenors (dhara)—or flowed

through seven different channels or courses at different interval of time.
These channels were known as Apaga, Mandakini, Madhustrava, Vasu,
Papnashini, Kaushiki and Hiranyawati. These channels (like the River
Drishadwati) were ephemeral rivers in which water flowed only during
the rainy season (Vaman Puran, 34, 143)
■fUWdl cp-jt II 6 II
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WlW II 7 II
^15cft HSIÎ eM feKUddl 5^ I

q^fqxciqei: iraf q4faeqi TRWdltf II 8 II
(Vaman Puran, 34)
The existence of seven dhdras or channels (Fig. 5.2) is corroborated by

satellite imagery (Gupta et al, 2002). The statement that the seven rivers
were ephemeral implies that the Saraswati discharge had declined by the
time the Purans were written.
After watering the land of Kurukshetra, the Saraswati turned
westward and traversed the forested tracts, including Sitavan, Aditivan,
Kamyakvan, Dvaitvan Vyasvan and Madhuvan (Vaman Puran, 33, 34;
Narad Puran, p. 710; Mahabharat, Teerthyatra Parv, 43).
5^ WfW-jrbl f^T 1? II 1 II
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cbiujcb ^ CR |
ot||q^q 'g ■qq 'JUR ixrteblqiA^ R 114 II

cf«TT R*pT R^ I
^ RIR R^fc^RWH^ II 5 II
(Vaman Puran, 33)
The forested sector must have been the middle reaches of the
Saraswati, now represented by the Ghagghar between Kaithal-Hisar in
the east and Anupgarh in the west. This is the tract where the floodway is
more than 13 km wide. The floodway at present is flooded when the
ephemeral Ghagghar is in high spate during rainy seasons. It is today
completely reclaimed for intensive agriculture and urban development.
When Balram, the elder brother of Krishna, was on a pilgrimage along
the Saraswati, he came across a place, Nagdhanwa, swarming with snakes
(Mahdbharat, Shalya Parv, 37). It must have been a waterlogged terrain
with many swamps and pools as is common in areas of river ponding due
to neotectonic activities—sinking, uplift or displacement of the ground.
^cf-HHttMH I
zr II 30 II
(Mahdbharat, Shalya Parv, 37)
Further downstream, the Saraswati dried up over a long stretch.

During their exile (vanvds) the Pandavs and, in course of his pilgrimage,
Balram had noticed the river disappearing under the sands (of the desert)
at Vinashan (Mahdbharat, Van Parv, 25; Shalya Parv, 37 V-l). Significantly,
the present-day Ghagghar branches off into two channels near Anupgarh
(Fig. 5.3)—the northern branch flowing west and losing itself at Marot in
Cholistan and the southwestern branch vanishing at Beriwali in the
Jaisalmer area (Yashpal et al, 1980; Sahai, 1999).
rTfft fcWR ^FTTRPl I
■q5f W WWd) II 1 II
(Mahdbharat, Van Parv, 25)
The northern branch is now called the Hakra in Cholistan. Further

downstream, the river is under a vast cover of thick desert sediments.
According to the epic, the "underground" (antahsalila) Saraswati
reappears in a number of spots such as Chamsodbhecl and Udpan, where
teerths are developed. Balram was able to recognize the underground
Saraswati, on the basis of moisture in the soil with a carpet of vegetal
greenery ( Mahabharat, Shalya Parv, 35).
II 89 II
'sii-iPn fSR*T TOWp-l 11 90 II

Balram had detected presence of the Saraswati in what is presently
known as the Nara reach of the Saraswati. The Nara discharges into the
Gulf of Kachchh, which until some hundred years ago extended north
and encompassed the whole of the Rann of Kachchh. Balram had started
his journey from the place where the Saraswati emptied itself into the
ocean—the Saraswati-Sindhu Sangam ( Mahabharat, Shalya Parv, 35).
Tif§FT n 77 11
There is convincing evidence for the existence and greatness of the
River Saraswati (Fig. 5.4), which disappeared owing to strong and repeated
tectonic activity in the region of its floodplain (Valdiya, 1996, 2002, 2010).
The evidence is provided by geomorphological and seismotectonic features.
In the Siwalik terrain and the foothills occur within river terraces plentiful
rounded fragments of the rocks which exist far north in the inner
Himalayan ranges (Puri and Verma, 1998; Puri, 2008). The channel of the
Ghagghar is extraordinarily wide (6—8 km), and the floodplain is made
up of 5 to 30 m thick sediments which only a great river of voluminous
discharge could have deposited (Courty, 1995; Sahai, 1999; Raghav, 1999).
The sands and the heavy minerals in them indicate derivation from the
rocks of the Himalaya (Courty, 1995). The underground hidden channels
in the Jaisalmer and Hakra basins within the realm of the Thar desert are
filled with inexhaustible sweet water (Soni et al, 1999), dated 6000 to
22,000 year B.P. in the aquifers at the depth of 60-250 m and 1800 to
5000 yr B.P. in the level 30-50 m in the Jaisalmer area (Nair
et al., 1999) and 4700 to 12,900 yr B.P. in the Hakra sector (Giyeh and
Ploethner, 1995). Near absence of tritium, a heavy isotope of hydrogen, in

82
the fossil water provides indubitable indication of the fact that the fossil
waters are certainly not the result of recharge from rainwater (Nair et ah ,
1999). There is a large delta with distributaries in the northern fringe of
the Rann of Kachchh, implying that the Saraswati discharged into the
Gulf of Kachchh (Malik et ah, 1999). All these lines of evidence point to
the existence of a major Himalayan-bom river flowing through Haryana,
Rajasthan, Cholistan and Sindh (Fig. 5.4), and emptying itself in the
Arabian Sea (Valdiya, 1996, 2002, 2010).
As already stated, several hundred settlements, including major urban
centres like Ganweriwala, Kalibangan, Banawali, Kunal, Rakhigarhi and
others located on the banks of the Nara-Hakra-Ghagghar channel, and
the Chautang (=Drishadwati of the Puran time), indicate that it was a
flowing river full of water and life (Lai, 1971, 1979, 2002; Mughal, 1995;
Thapar, 1975; Bisht, 1984; Joshi and Bisht, 1994).
THE YAMUNA RIVER
The Yamuna is the second prominently figuring river of the Puran time.
The Yamuna, as we know today, is a branch of the Tamasa (Tons). The
Tamasa was once the eastern branch of the Saraswati that deflected
southwards sometime between 3900 to 3700 yr B.P. and jomed a petty
river of the plain that the Yamuna was until then.
The Yamuna and the Saraswati were once in close proximity. A great
spiritual centre—Badarikashram—lay in between the two rivers. It then
flowed past Indraprastha, the capital of the Pandav kingdom, and then
by Mathura, the birth place of the Yadav prince Krishna. These two well-
known facts need substantiation.
Since the time of Krishna and Balram, the Yamuna has moved 10 to
16 km eastwards (Bakliwal and Sharma, 1980). The eastward shifting of
the Yamuna is primarily due to the slow, gradual rise of the Aravali and
the land on its flank.
THE GANGA RIVER
The Ganga is less frequently mentioned in comparison to the Saraswati,
the Narmada and the Yamuna. However, its descent or origin in the
Himalaya—rather its revival by King Bhagirath—forms a very important

83
part of the history embodied in the Purans. This river has, indeed, played
a significant role in the lives of the people of the Ganga Plains.
It may be emphasized that the word “Ganga” in Pahari language of
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand means a large river. Many
rivers in Bharatvarsh bear the name “Ganga" as a suffix—the Uttarganga
and the Kishanganga in Kashmir, the Jadhganga, the Bhagirathiganga,
the Balganga, the Rishiganga, the Dhauliganga, the Goriganga and the
Ramganga in Uttarakhand, the Penganga and the Wainganga in southern
Madhya Pradesh and adjoining Maharashtra, the Dudhganga in
northwestern Karnataka, the Mahasweligangii, the Ambarganga, the
Nilwalaganga, the Ginganga and the Kaluganga in Sri Lanka, and so on.
Rivers Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri (Fig. 5.11) were called
Dakshingangd (Skand Puran, Revakhand, 4, V-24). It is, therefore, necessary
to bear this fact in mind when interpreting the meaning of the descent of
the Ganga from the heaven. To my mind, the descent of the Ganga from
heaven implies precipitation—snowfall and rain—from the sky due to
condensation of cooled cloud. The descent, therefore, means that meteoric
(rain) water falling in large volume from the sky collecting in a catchment
in the mountainous terrain and giving rise to a big river—the Ganga.
The narrative is that the celestial river after getting down to the earth
first filled the Bindusarovar Lake before flowing in seven dharas (channels)
(Fig. 5.5), namely, Vasvaksara, Nalini, Pavani, Saraswati, Jambu, Jagmu
(or Hladini), Sita, Ganga and Sindhu ( Valmiki Rdmdyan, Bal Kand, 43;
Mahabhdrat, Bhishma Parv, 6) and finally emptied itself in the sea. The
Valmiki Rdmdyan (Bal Kand, 24 and 43) give different names.
^ f^T ftWTT Wf $ 3rfcffecn |

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(Mahabhdrat, Bhishma Parv, 6)
The area of descent is regarded as the Kailas, north of the lakes
Mansarovar and Rakshastal in southwestern Tibet. The Bindusarovar

Neotectonic activities that overtook the Himalaya repeatedly in the last 11,000 years
of the Holocene Epoch must have separated the sources of the present-day rivers
from the original locations.
mentioned in the Mahabharat is probably the Rakshastal of the present. If
the whole lofty terrain encompassing the Mount Kailas (6714 m), the
Mansarovar lake and the Gurla Mandhata (6739 m) at the India-Tibet-
Nepal tri-junction is taken as the catchment, then the picture becomes
clear, and the Puranic and epic descriptions stand out as very accurate
and extremely meaningful.
TfH, '■PRTT Pifnd HOf 118 II

fiM wit ^ -q^cr ^ i

f^T^T: Tiraf f^T RflcMdl: ^pTh II 12 II
^ ^ f*P%j4h H3H<0 I
Rk?i^cTT R^î Hal-41 tj f^l ^piT: II 13 II
(Valmiki Ramayan, Bal Kand, 24 and 43)
From the southwestern flank of the Gurla Mandhata flows Humla
Kamali, and traverses through western Nepal to join the Kali and become
the Saryu (also called Ghaghara in the plains). The south-flowing Kali
(Shyama in the Skand Puran) originates south of the Lipi Parvat (Lipulekh
Pass) on the water-divide of the Gurla. The Valmiki Ramayan states that
the Saryu emerges from the Mansarovar Lake region. Indeed, Lepulekh
(Lipi Parvat) is just south of the Mansarovar. Three rivers—Hladini, Pavani
and Nalini—of the celestial Ganga (Fig. 5.5) descended on the Kailas and
flowed east (Valmiki Ramayan, Bal Kand, 24, 43). These three rivers are
the branches of the present Tsangpo River—the Brahmaputra in India.
The Sita, Mahanadi and Suchakshu rivers, flowing west, are presently
known as the Sindhu and the Satluj. The seventh river is the Yagra that
flows northwards, emptying itself in the Lake Ngangla Ringco (Fig. 5.5).
If the change of the rivers due to tectonic movements in the last 5000-
4000 years is ignored, then the description of the seven branches of rivers
diverging from the Kailas is very accurate.
It may be argued that the sources of the present rivers are quite away
from the Mount Kailas, although these lie within the domain of the Kailas-
Gurla Mandhata Dome (Fig. 5.6)—representing a great crustal upwarp
at the tectonic junction of India and Asia (Valdiya, 1987, 1988). The
separation, as already stated, is due to Late Quaternary tectonic
movements entailing accentuation of crustal upwarp and rise of the area,
bringing about considerable changes in landforms south of the Kailas.
The uplift of the mountain range is testified by' incisions—deep vertical
defiles due to riverbed erosion—seen in the rivers mentioned above. These
rivers are described as antecedent rivers—rivers older than the mountains
they cross. Originating earlier than the ridges formed, they continued to
deepen their channel and flow uninterruptedly across the montane barriers
developed even as the mountains rose higher and higher. There are tell-
X.._ w-~;;
‘ ”'K
r'
A i*i» J f L.Kunggyu— ~
- '
Lulung
SW Tethys Himalaya Kailas Range NE

_ Indus-Tsangpo Kailas (6700m)
Jungbwa Nappe
Suture Zone Katlas Conglomerate
K'^gar N"’opc X*™ianglaJu"9bw» _ Pnrchei^ (Moiasse)
e Ophiolfte M|| Fl/sch with ophiolitic melange

\ 10 km i
Fig. 5.6. In the zone of collision of India with Asia — the zone now occupied by the
rivers Sindhu and Tsangpo — is associated with great crustal upwarp represented
by the domal Gurla Mandhata and Kailas massifs. The Mansarovar and the
Rakshastal (Bindusarovar Lake) lie in this zone. Note the multiplicity of faults (shown
by dot-and-dash lines) that cut the zone. (After Laccasin et al., 2004; Murphy et al,
2002).
tale evidence of very active tectonism in the valley of the Humla Kamali
(up the head of the Saryu), where the riverine terraces have been sharply
uplifted and cut by the NW-SE trending fault exhibiting seismicity (Heim
and Gansser, 1939; Gansser, 1991; Laccassin et al., 2004; Murphy et al,
2005).
The rising mountain ranges of the Himalaya must have impeded,
and even blocked, the flow of the rivers, causing ponding and formation
of lakes (Valdiya, 2001; Valdiya and Pande, 2009). The testimonies of the
sediments filling the lakes indicate that there were a number of tectonic
upheaval in the Late Quaternary time, including at 20,000±3000 yr B.P,
18,000±3000 yr B.P. and 13,000±200 yr B.P. in the Kali Valley (Juyal et al.,
2004) and 16,000 to 11,000 yr B.P. in the Gori Valley (Pant et al, 2006) in
Uttarakhand.
In this geodynamic perspective must be taken the chronicle of King
Bhagirath bringing the Ganga for resurrection of his 60,000-stong
population of the state his father had ruled. It seems that massive landslides
during a cloud burst or a strong earthquake accompanying strong tectonic
movement on active faults crossing the path of the Ganga blocked it in a
number of places, including Bhuki-Jhala (near Harsil) in the upper reaches
and near Byasi, on the Ganga NE of Rishikesh, leading to drastic dwindling
of the discharge due to impoundment of water in the lakes formed behind
the debris dams, thus nearly drying up of the Ganga downstream of the
dams (Fig. 5.7). King Bhagirath must have striven very hard to get the
debris dams demolished to drain out the lakes and bring back the Ganga
to life. In his Herculean efforts he sought and got great help from Shiva
and his tribal people, the Kirats, who inhabited the Kedarkhand region.
This is what is meant by Bhagirath performing tapasya to please Lord
Shiva who blessed him. Bhagirath then monitored the flow of the revived
river up to Haridwar (Devi Puran, 70) and then to the Gangasagar, where
it enters the sea.
iftgR *FWdl W HSIcHHI II 1 II
(Devi Puran, 70)
THE SARYU AND THE GANDAKI
According to the Vdlmiki Ramayan (Bal Kand, 24), the Saryu River flowing
past Ayodhya, the hometown of Ram, originated in the beautiful lake in
front of Mount Kailas. It must have been the Mansarovar (Fig. 5.5).
TFT TO II 8 II
cFTOITTTTT: II 9 II
m: ^rTT TTT^: ^ '
(Vdlmiki Ramayan, Bal Kand, 24)
It has already been explained in the preceding section that the Saryu
(also called the Ghaghara) is known as the Karnali in Nepal. Its
headwaters, called the Humla Karnali, originates in the southwestern flank
of the Gurla Mandhata, just south of the Mansarovar (Figs. 5.5 and 5.6).
The Humla Karnali flows in the zone of a NW-SE trending active fault
(Heim and Gansser, 1939; Gansser, 1991). The geological evidence
combined with occurrence of earthquakes in this belt leaves no doubt as
to inference that the Saryu originated in a zone of tectonic turmoil.
The Gandaki River, presently called the Gandak, is also described as
Shdlgrdmi. It emerges from the mountain containing Shalgrdm or Shaligram
(Skand Purdn; Padma Purdn, Patal Khand, 109). The Puranic narrative states
that Vishnu blessed Tulsi, the wife of slain tribal chief Shankhchud, that
"you will flow as River Gandaki and would be intimately associated with
me in my Shalgram form (Shiva Purdn, Dwiteeya Rudrasanhita, Yuddh
Khand 41).
Tra WRT: II 41 II
ifllfdUFT: teMl^rfTt "TSîT^PT: I

(Shiva Purdn, Dviteeya Rudrasanhita, Yuddh Khand, 41)
The Gandaki, today known as Kaligandaki in Nepal, originates in

the Nepal-Tibet border ranges far north of the Annapurna-Dhaulagiri
Range. It flows through the Muktinath-Jomosom terrain (Fig. 5.8) made
up of sedimentary rocks characterized by rich assemblage of coiled
ammonites (Fig. 5.9) such as Microcephalitis, Macrocephalitis, Perisphinctis,
Fig. 5.7. (A) The Harsil lake of the past formed because of blockage due to a huge
debris dam at Bhuki-Jhala in the upper reaches of the Bhagirathiganga, is now
represented by a mass of sediments.
(B) Another lake must have formed upstream of Byasi on the Ganga, NE of Rishikesh
(satellite picture from Google Earth).
(B)
Fig. 5.8. (A) View from north. The satellite picture shows the upper reaches of the Kali
Gandaki flowing in the N-S oriented tectonic graben straddling across the
Annapurna-Dhaulagiri Range in the south and the Nepal-Tibet border in the north.
(B) Picture shows the upper reaches of the Gandaki where the sedimentary rocks
forming the Jurassic Saligram Formation abound in Shaligram.
Phylloceras, Lytoceras, Hoplites, etc. of the

Upper Jurassic age forming the cores of
concretion balls or nodules called
Shaligram (Colchen et al., 1986; Bassoulet
et al, 1986). The Shiva Puran describes the
Shalgram having formed by innumerable
insects with sharp teeth forming circular
features.
era «bVxi!N n 43 n
gllgUimftMl *n ft II 51 II
(Shiva Puran, Dviteeya
Rudrasanhita, Yuddha Khand, 41) Fig. 5.9. Picture of a Shaligram or
Shalgram from the Himalaya.
The narration that the Gandaki re¬
presenting the very pious Tulsi will be intimately associated with the
Shaligram is very apt and well-validated by palaeontological evidence. It
is obvious that the Puran scholars not only knew the source of the Gandaki
very well but also the fact that the source area is replete with the ammonite
fossils occurring abundantly as Shaligram in the upper reaches of the river.
THE LAUHITYA RIVER
It is interestingly significant that India's largest river Brahmaputra is hardly

mentioned in the Purans. In its place, the Lauhitya finds mention in a
number of places. The Lohit is a major tributary of the Brahmaputra of
the present. It appears that once the Brahmaputra was merely a tributary
of the major river Lohit or Lauhitya originating from the foot of the
Himshring, the Namcha Barwa of the present. More will be discussed about
it in Chapter 10, on tectonic movements.
feHdcMK ft:^T (22)

(Maisya Puran, 114)
THE MAHANADI RIVER
One of the very prominent rivers in the Puranic narrative is the Mahanadi,
flowing through Kaling in the southeastern part of Aryavart. The other
river in this state figuring frequently is the Vaitarani. The Mahanadi

originates in the eastern flank of the Udayachal, known today as the Maikal
Hills. The Udayachal is part of the Shuktiman. The Maikal is linked in the
north to the Riksh or Rikshwdn Parbat (Kurma Puran, 36). The two rivers
flow into the southern sea (Skand Puran).
HSIÎ Ttfagf I
mmaMsfr fol: !4PdPMd: II
(Skand Puran)
4>f<rl^l: ^ ^ II 4 II
(Mahdbhdrat, Teerthyatra Parv, 114)
Two major branches of the Mahanadi indeed spring from the Maikal
Hills. A number of important teerths were located on the Mahanadi and
the Vaitarani.
There is one more river, Suvarnamukhari, in Kaling that is mentioned
in the Skand Puran (33, V-42-43) as originating from the Agastya Parvat
flowing north in its upper reaches and discharging into the southern sea.
If it is the same as the Subamrekha of today flowing along the boundary
of Orissa and Bengal, then the Agastya Parvat is the old name of a high
Ramgarh Hills overlooking the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand, from where
in the Subamrekha originates.
(Skand Puran, Vaishnav Khand, 33)
THE NARMADA RIVER
The Puranic narratives state that the Narmada descended from the sky
on Udayachal and flowed swiftly as a foaming river west with great force
(Vdman Puran, 38). The west-flowing Narmada empties itself in the western
sea, i.e., the Arabian Sea at Narmada Sagarsangam, an important teerth.
Joined downstream by the Payoshni, springing out from the Varah Parvat
in the north (Skand Puran, Revakhand), it flowed far westwards. It is stated
that the Udayachal is situated on the back (west) side of Kalingdesh (Kurma
91
isfoday^kr^wnâs^the
include Kapila coming ^Tv"* f W1?n“
*£ S"5™ “ Uday5cha1' which
"«*»■• The tributary rivers
emerging hL the BhLt Ss M n^'L tht-" “* S°'1,h' "* Pa^
the south. Their modem names a^ g^T^lt C°mi"8 fr°m "
ofZ: f“ ? obvious.lhat *<= Narmada of the Purans is the Narmada
part of irMa^lSafong fte J
irrrtsnms £?v ~ i' *• »■

er Hills. The Purantc name of the Bhanrer is thus the Varah Parrnt
^
^sTirctfU^ |
„9„
The Heran ,oms the Narmada about 50 km west of Jabalpur
II 33 ||
WHfiMiil ^tftspTT II 24 II
(Kurina Puran, 36)
Further downstream, the Narmada meets successively the Vishkulya

and the Kdveri, both flowing northwards from the hills on the left
(southern) side of the Narmada (Padma Puran, Swarga Khand, 80). These
hills are now known as the Mahadev and the Satpura. It is stated that at
the confluence of the Narmada-Kaveri was located the capital of Kuber,
a chief of the Yaksha tribe. The Kdveri appears to be the present-day Sukta
River that flows through the Khandwa district and meets the Narmada
near Balri (Fig. 5.10).
From the repeated descriptions in the Purans and the epics of the
Narmada, it is obvious that this river provided sanctuary, sustenance and
life to a very large number of people. The central reach of the Narmada
valley must have been a fairly well populated terrain in the Puran time. It
was covered by tropical moist deciduous forests when the climate was
warm and the monsoon rain intense in the period 11900-8500 yr B.P., by
tree-savanna forests with cool and dry climate during the time 8500-7000
yr B.P. and by dry deciduous forests in the time span 7000-5100 yr B.P.
(Verma and Rao, 2010). This is revealed from the study of pollens recovered
from sediments of the Kusumelli swamp in the Sehore district, Madhya
Pradesh, about 60 km WNW of Hathnora, where the skull of the earliest
human being in India was discovered. The Narmada was extolled in
superlative terms—"The very sight (darshan) of the Narmada eliminates
all sins" (Padma Puran, Swarga Khand, 80), and "the Ganga is holy at
Kankhal, the Saraswati at Kurukshetra, but the Narmada is holy
everywhere—in villages, in forests" (Matsya Puran, 186, 180).
ui4 ^ ■yjqr n 10 n
(Matsya Puran, 186, 180)
THE GODAVARI RIVER
The Godavari is well known in the Purans and epics for the location of
the Agastya and Panchvati ashrams on its bank. Rishi Agastya, the pioneer
Fig. 5.10. (B) The precipitous scarp that defines the eastern edge of the Amarkantak
plateau (Udayachal), from where the Narmada originates.
Fig. 5.10. (C) A few kilometres downstream of the point of origin, the rushing, foaming
Narmada falls down the high scarps.
Fig. 5.11. The Dakshinganga included the Godavari, the most important river described
in the Purans and epics.
who spread education in southern India, lived very close to Panchvati.

Ram (with Sita and Lakshman) spent most of the time of his exile at
Panchvati. From the ashram were visible high hills in the east—
characterized by caves, lush forests and a wide variety of animals and
birds. The 972-m high Doli Range trending NNE-SSW is possibly that
hill. The caves provided habitat to the people of the Vanar tribe.
The source of the Godavari is at the foot of the mountain Brahma
Giri overlooking the Trayambakeshar Jyotirling, west of Nashik.
Archaeological finds provide evidence of Neolithic culture of the
period 9000 to 5000 yr B.P. in this part of the country (S.R. Rao, in The
Hindu, 17-9-2009).
THE SABHRAMATI AND THE MAHI
The Sdbhramati and the Mahi in western Bharatvarsh (Fig. 5.1) are the
two rivers mentioned frequently in the Puranic literature, primarily in
connection with the teerths worth visiting.
On the bank of the Sabhramati (sSabarmati of today) stood a "paradise
on earth called Khetak" (Padma Puran, Uttar Khand, 202). Khetak is
possibly Kheda of the present.
The Mahi originates in the upland Malwa Plateau. Flowing through
the hill ranges (of the Aravali of the present), the Mahi discharges into the
sea at a renowned teerth Mahisdgarasangam on the western coast (Skand
Purdn, Kumarika Khand). There were many teerths upstream in the Mahi
River, implying that during that period of history there was larger
discharge in the river. This means that during that time the rainfall was
quite higher. This is testified by the remains of flora and fauna described
from this part of the country.
The location of a very large number of teerths along the banks of the
Sabhramati and the Mahi implies that these rivers were full of water.
Their higher discharge indicates greater rainfall in the catchment areas.
Studies of texture of sands and carbonate concretions in the bedded form
in riverine sediments, and of spores and pollens in the lake sediments in
different parts of India, including Rajasthan and Gujarat, indicate moderate
to heaw rainfalls in the period 8500 to 3500 year B.P. (Singh et ah, 1974;
Bryson and Swain, 1981) and very heavy rainfall in the Didwana-
Lunkaransar areas in Rajasthan in the time span 6300 to 4800 yr B.P.
(Enzel et ah, 1999).
Fluvial activity represented by river erosion of the Late Pleistocene
sedimentary formations, commonly manifesting itself in the deeply incised
meandering of streams and ravines and in the development of badlands
in the Mahi Valley (Chamyal et ah, 2003) further corroborates the inference
that during the Puran period Gujarat was blessed with greater quantity
of rainfall.
6
Flora and Fauna of Bharatvarsh
RICHLY ENDOWED LAND
Looking at the listings of plants, animals and birds, it is quite clear that
the people of the Puran time were knowledgeable about the biological
wealth and diversity, but only of the areas of their settlements and of the
forests around the places they lived in. Both Bharatvarsh and Ilavritvarsh
were endowed with bioresources of a wide variety of kinds.
The people knew, as stated above, only those which grew within
and around the settlements—mostly the fruit-bearing and flowering trees
and shrubs. In the forests they recognized mostly those genera from which
they harvested spices and extracted medicines of a large variety. From the
names mentioned, it is evident that they consumed, apart from many
fruits from the forests, such vegetables and fruits as brinjal, pointed gourd
('Trichotha), bitter gourd (Momordica charantin), white yam, sweet potato,
seasam, pomegranate, tamarind, black plum (Crassa carrada), regina,
pumpkin, betelnut, walnut, jackfruit, etc. The scholars have not mentioned
names of plants growing wild in deep forests and in high mountains in
the Himalaya, except cedar (deodar) and silver brich (bhojpatra). Either
they did not care to name them, or possibly they failed to name the plant
varieties.
There is no mention in Puranic descriptions of rock-types, of soils

and their types or variation, nor of the processes leading to formation of
soils. All that is mentioned are the colours of rocks and soils.
They greatly valued having trees and shrubs around their settlements
and shrines. Planting of trees in and outside the premises of temples was
regarded as a religious act of great importance. This fact is repeatedly
emphasised in all the Purans, especially in the Agni Puran (Chapter 38)
and the Matsya Puran (Chapter 59): "Whoever plants trees gets an assured
place in paradise. The number of plants one grows, the number of
generations before and after him obtains salvation (Matsya Puran, 59).
ehHHclIHlfd xP^f II 16 II
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(Matsya Puran, 59)
So far as the animals and birds are concerned, the Puranic people
not only knew their generic names, but also had very strong bond of love
for them. This is reflected in the invariable association of Gods with animals
and birds as their vdhan (vehicles). The word god's vdhan symbolized their
love for animals and birds, and their importance in their daily life. Vishnu's
vdhan was the eagle (Garud), Shiva's bull (Nandi), Brahma's swan (Hans),
Durga's lion, Indra's elephant (Airavat), Ganesh's mouse, Lakshmi's owl,
Agni's ram. Yam's buffalo, and Kartikeya's peacock (Saraswati, 2005).
LIFE IN THE OUTER HIMALAYA
During his adventure in the Outer Himalayan terrain. Prince Pururava

followed the course of the Airavati River (sRavi). He saw a wide variety
of life, particularly in the belts presently called the Siwalik and the adjoining
Lesser Himalaya (Matsya Puran, 188; Harivarsh Puran, 48). The list of the
plants, animals and birds he saw is very impressive.
The flora includes, among others, Indian dammer, Xanthochynus
victorious, oleander (Indian rosewood), silk-cotton tree, banyan. Ficus
Flora and Fauna of Bharatvarsh 97
religiosa ('peepal'), Emblica myrobalan ('aonla'), Palmyra, Indian cherry

{Chebulic myrobalan), 'siris' (a thorny flowering tree), Cordia myxa (a tree
with viscid fruits), margosa ('neem'), Himalayan silver brich ('bhojpatra'),
Himalayan wild cherry, sandalwood tree ('chandan'), Butea monosperma
('palash'), Beleric myrobalan, turmeric, cardamom, Chinese soapberry,
walnut, date, woodapple, Terminalia arjuna, cedar ('deodar'), screwpine,
coconut tree, cutch tree ('khair'), Bauhinia variegata, Grezvia asiatica,
Terminalia catappa, Fonesia asoka ('ashok'), basil or Ocymum sanctum ('tulsi'),
Alagrum hexapetalum (a creeper), pearl millet, Saccharum (a grain), 'sahijan',
Vitex negundo, Gentian cherla, Acasia, Feronia elephanta, betelnut tree, Indian
hogplum, cane, nutmeg, Ganderussa (a medicinal plant), Chironjia sapida
(Indian coral tree), Calotropis gigantean, 'kovidar', and many others.
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98
II 13 II
(Matsya Purdn, 118)
The birds of the Siwalik and adjoining Lesser Himalaya comprised

peacock, wood pecker, sparrow, Euculus indicus, black Indian cuckoo
('koyal'), water fowl, swans, crows, parrots, stork, pewit, sandpiper, black
partridge, pin-tailed pigeon, white kite, ducks, pigeon, crane, canary
'maina', red-legged partridge, quail, cuckoo, stork Falcon cheeta (kite),
bluejay, skylark, etc.
Among the animals were deer, stag, leopard, cheetah, lion, wolf, bear,
monkey, rabbit, Indian fox, jungle cat, domestic cat, elephant, buffalo,
white-footed antilope ('neelgai'), yak/ bullock, white ass, sheep, dog, musk
deer, Arda jamlator, heron curlew ('kraunch'), jackal, camel, rhmo, pig,
horse, donkey, etc.
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cT«7T ÎH^H*? ^$<1^ I
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73fl^ I
li.ai-ifs'ie.i^ T=T^ft 'TO-JPH1 II 61 II
^crllFHdH^ ÎW^ ^zj ^q: || 65 II
(Matsya Puran, 118)
In the foothills of the Siwalik, where the River Saraswati debouches

onto the plain, there were dense forests abounding in horse chestnut,
banyan, jackfruit, mango, jambo, etc. (.Mahabharat, Shalya Parv, 55)
FLORA OF THE INDO-GANGETIC PLAINS
In the middle reaches of the Saraswati River, including the famous

Dvaitvan, the floodplain was covered by forests dominated by Shorea—
sal or shdl, and comprising horse chestnut, Beleric myrobalan, cane, jujube
(Zizyphus jujube), cutch tree ('khair') Capparis aphylla (a thorny shrub),
Salvadora persica (a fruit tree), Nuclea cadamba ('kadarnb'), Xanthochynus
pictorious, Terminalia arjuna, Bassica latifolia (butter tree), 'siris', mango,
oleander, palmyra, woodapple tree, tamarind, jasmine, 'maulshree', coral
jasmine, and many others.
^K'Wd'lS'lldel^
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W ll^tfd^f II 17 II
TT«TT TsTf^TT: fmhri: I

f^cN^T: h1î4)=o(UI:
■HâlaWî ^Jj|: II 23 II
(Mahabharat, Van Parv, 25, 27, 37, 177)
Among the renowned forest reserves in the Saraswati floodplain were

the well-known Kamyakvan and the Dvaitvan, where the sages had
established their ashrams. In the forests lived a wide variety of animals
and birds including peacock, red-legged partridge, pied cuckoo, and black
Indian cockoo ('koyal').
(Mahabharat, Van Parv, 27)
In the eastern part of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the flood-plain of the

Saryu River provided sanctuary to a rich assemblage of animals and birds.
Lion, panther, leopard, tiger and boar lived in the forests dominated by
jujube and 'dhav' (a medicinal plant also known as dhaul) trees.
pHgc’iliy<=Kjt& I
II 15 II
■HchM s|<v0l*T3I 4H?UI cHH, I
(Vdlmiki Rdmayan, Bal Kand, 24)
Significantly, in addition to various stocks of horses and elephants

there were hippo (Hippopotamus) in the marshes of the Saryu River (Vdlmiki
Rdmayan, Bal Kand, 6). This fact is a matter of great palaeontological
importance. It demonstrates that until about the Ramayan time, the hippos
survived in the Indian subcontinent. They suffered total extinction
thereafter.
South of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the Vindhya terrain was full of
flowering and fruit-bearing trees and a variety of climbers. In the forests
lived deers, boars, buffaloes, tigers, monkeys, jackals and rabbits.
FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE DANDAKARANYA
Ram with Sita and Lakshman had spent most of their years of exile at
Panchvati. The ashram lay in the southwestern margin of the great
Dandakaranya—the forest that encompassed the present southern
Chhattisgarh and adjoining parts of Orissa. They had crossed this

fabulously biodiverse forest, with hills characterized by caves, to settle
down at Panchvati. The forests, including those in the hills around the
Pampa lake, reverberated with the sounds of birds and beasts (Vdlmiki
Rdmdyan, Aranya Kand, 15, 73, 75). The vegetation included, among many
others, Shorea (sal), jambo (jamun), Chironjia sapida, Nepal ebony ('tendu'),
jackfruit, banyan, horse chestnut, Ficus religiosa ('peepaT), oleander,
mango, 'dhav', saffron (tilak), Mesea ferrea, red sandalwood, Indian coral
tree, indigo, Nuclea cadamba, Fonesia asoka, Cordeii myxa, marking nut tree,
'karveer', 'malati', cutch tree ('khair'), date, Tinish' (a variety of Shorea
with leaves resembling those of cutch tree), screwpine, Xanthochynus
pictorious, lime tree, sapphire berry, palmyra, Butea monosperma, water
hyacinth, Gaertnera racemosa, 'chhitwan', rose, and Michellia champaca.
H^Hlftdl W: Wit I
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II 18 II
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srftpjMl I
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MHdl^Âa I
3T^fr%: HklMuja +dA><rd*iTh^: II 24 II
(Vdlmiki Rdmdyan, Aranya Kand, 15, 73, 75)
FLORAL WEALTH OF MALAYA GIRI
The Cardamom Hills of the present was known as the Malaya Giri in the
Puran time. Understandably, the mountain ranges were covered by lush
forests of a wide variety of trees, climbers and shrubs in a terrain drained
by swift-flowing steams that descended as water-falls (Vdlmiki Ramdyan,
Yuddha Kand, 4). The Vdnar army of Ram in its march towards Lanka
saw a wide variety of plants in the lush forests comprising trees, climbers,
shrubs and grasses. The plants included clove tree, cardamom, black
pepper, long pepper, cinnamon, Michellia champaca, saffron, 'tinish',
mango, Fonesia asoka, 'sinduwar', 'karveer', Alagrun hexapetalum, 'karanj',
horse chestnut, banyan, Fonesia ('neep'), Emblic myrobalan, jambo ('jamun'),
'chiribilwa', rose, 'hintal', swallow-wort, Bassica latifolia, lotus, 'bakul',
'vanjuT, Holarrhrena antidysentrica, Terminalia arjuna, Nuclea cadamba, saral
pine, wild cherry, jackfruit, Nepal ebony ('tendu'), 'sakhu-sal', water-
hyacinth, Citrus jambhiri, long pepper 'priyangul', 'chhitwan', Bauhima
variegata, and others.
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f^rm^rsr wit st^tt: m^+iw«tt ii 8i ii

(’Valmikr Ramdyan, Yuddh Kand, 4)
It was possibly in the Anaimalai Hills of the northern Malaya Giri,

that soars to a height of 2600 m like the Himalayan ranges, where
Fig. 6.1. The herb Selaginella bryopteris growing in the Western Ghat could be the Mrit
Sanjeevani described in the Valmiki Ramayan. (From: Ganeshaiah et al.r 2002).
Fig. 6.2. The Salla (pine) tree in Manaskhand (Ûttarakhand) Himalaya with a
mountain goat.
[From an old issue of National Geographic]
Hanuman found the Mrit Sanjeevani along with the Vishalyakarani and
Suuamakarani, the plants of exceptionally great medicinal value (Vdlmiki
Rdmayan, Yuddh Kand, 74)
<JcWo41ch7 ^ feSMVMuItoft I
yctu^jufl' TT^TPft ^ M 33 II
(Vdlmiki Rdmayan, Yuddh Kand, 74)
According to Ganeshaiah et al. (2002), Selaginella bryopteris of the

family Selaginellanaecae growing in the Western Ghat and Desmotrichum
fimbriatum of the family Orchidacea are the possible candidates for the
herb Sanjeevani (Fig. 6.1). For, these herb species possess properties of relief
from heat shock, acute pain and possibly unconciousness.
THE LANKAN FLORA
Geologically, Sri Lanka is exactly like the southern part of Kerala in terms
of rock types and structural architecture. The flora of Sri Lanka is also
indistinguishable from that of the Malaya Giri. This is quite obvious from
the floral names given in the Vdlmiki Rdmayan (Sundar Kand, 2). The
listing includes screw pine, 'saral pine', oleander, date, 'neep', long pepper,
Anthocephalus chinensis, Nuclea cadamba, Chironjia sapida, Citrus jambhiri,
Bauhinia variegata, 'kovidar', and others.
wnq ®Bf®l«hKIS nsfrra igfaRTFt I
3TOFTF1 4>)fcKKl'gr 4»tefl<l€T ^MdTd II 10 II

13«RRpra5f«r cT«TT I
WFJ r^MI+>lfd II 11 II
(Valmiki Rdmayan, Sundar Kand, 2)
PLANTS IN THE NORTHERN SAHYADRI
The Gomantak Parvat in the northern sector of the Sahyadri, where

Krishna and Balram had taken shelter to escape the terror of Jarasandh's
horde, wore a cover of forests with a rich variety of plants (Harivansh
Purdn, Vishnu Khand, 40). On the basis of geomorphic peculiarity and
unique location, the present Kalsubai Peak appears to represent the Puranic
Gomantak. The forest comprised many genera of trees, and abounded in
peacocks among other birds and animals. The flora included jackfruit,
Indian hogplum, mango, cane, 'finish', sandalwood tree, Xanthochynus
victorious, cardamom, chilli shrub, long pepper, resin tree, Shorea (sal),
'hintal', nutmeg, Terminalia arjuna, margosa ('neem'), screw pine, plantain,
woodapple, 'padar', lotus, Michelia champaca, 'maulshree', 'tinduk', Fonesia
asoka, jambo ('jamun'), etc.
II 11 II
Mdldfcrrl+fcrld II 12 II
ill^llcnq4^Tf> q^fqdd^dq II 13 II
tfd’jfadq II 15 II
ch^ch^cd^jftrcTR; i
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PsWm^VH pftcii^'qxiMi^Mq I
Hd«lfi?,J|faMT'N(4d ^Rlf^t: II 6 II
(Harivansh Puran, Vishnu Khand, 40).
7
Peoples of the Puranland
<££*
CENTRAL JAMBUDWEEP COUNTRIES
Around the Meru Parvat, presently known as the Pamir, it may be

recapitulated, the semicircular territory was Ilavritvarsh in the Pur an times.
Across mountain ranges lay Bhadrashwavarsh in the east, Bharatvarsh
in the south, Ketumalavarsh in the west, and Kuruvarsh or Uttarkuru in
the north. To the northeast was Hiranyavarsh, to the southeast
Kimpurushvarsh, to the southwest Harivarsh, and to the northwest
Ramyakvarsh (Figs. 3.3, 3.6, 7.1). These countries formed what may be
called the Puranland. It was a confederation of sorts, and the people living
here had close connections and frequent interactions. From the
configuration of mountain ranges and drainage patterns of rivers, it is
inferred that the Purans and the epics were dealing with the countries of
Central Asia, including Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan and Sinkiang (Xinjiang) and northeastern Afghanistan of the
present time. The Ferghana Valley with its beautiful landscape straddles
across Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. And Ilavritvarsh
encompassed this picturesque land.
In this deduction, there is considerable agreement with the inferences
of Ali (1981).
Fig. 7.1. Countries of Central Jambudweep described in the Purans and the epics.
The present-day countries are given in brackets. The dots represent towns and
cities of the present time. Compare it with Fig. 3.3.
Peoples of the Puranland 107
f THE PEOPLE OF ILAVRITVARSHA
Ethnic Groups
Ilavritvarsh was the theatre of activities of the people of the Purana period.
In this varsh (country) lived people of two predominant ethnic groups—
Dev or Devata and Ddnav (Matsya Purdn 113, V-19). V/hile the Devatas
lived predominantly in urban centres, the Danavs inhabited the forested
tracts and mountains, some even caves.
The Devata men were tall with splendid physique, fair skin with pinkish
hue on faces, and the women were very pretty—apsara-like beautiful with
pink cheeks, lotus-like eyes and blonde hair {Matsya Purdn, 114). They
lived mostly on fruits and vegetables, and their favourite drink was somras.
■'raw wntf: ii 71 n
(Matsya Purdn, 114)
Not many scholars would agree with my postulation that the devs
and danavs were two distinct ethnic groups. For, the Vedic scholars attribute
the word dev to the root deev, meaning 'to shine'—that is bright objects of
the sky (R.N. Iyengar, per. com., 2010). In my perception the fair coloured,
cultured and relatively prosperous people of urban centres perhaps
compared themselves with what are bright in the sky. It is like the early
inhabitants of the Sindhu-Saraswati floodplains calling themselves arya,
meaning gentleman. The use of the word Sur for the devatas or devs is a
later development—in the Puranic time.
Socio-political System
The Devatas had a sociologically and culturally advanced society. Brahma

and Vishnu were their spiritual leaders who commanded not only
tremendous veneration of the people but also had considerable say in the
matters of governance of the state and social practices. Brahma was a
great scholar, well-versed in philosophy, metaphysics and religion. Vishnu
was an able and benign custodian who took care of the well-being of the
society.
Assessing and analyzing critically multitudes of anecdotes, episodes

and incidents described, interpreting sans metaphors the situations
portrayed, and considering the totality of the Puranic history, I believe—
even if it appears fanciful or wild imagination—that the Purans relate the
history of primarily two races—the Surs and the Asurs.
The Devatds had a democratic system of governance. They presumably
elected their president, called Prajdpati (like we do our Rashtrapati), for
specific periods. One of the Prajdpatis was Kardam, whose son Ila governed
the province of Bahleek (=Balkhash=BalakhsBactria), now in Turkmenistan.
The country was named after him. The Prajdpati was assisted by a team of
Lokpals (^ministers), constituting a cabinet of sorts. The team was headed
by Indra, who was not only the prime minister but also the minister for
defence and internal security. Kuber was the minister for treasury and
finance, Varun the minister for weather and climate, Agni the minister for
energy. Yam the minister for justice, and Ashwinikumdrs the minister-duo
for health and medicare, and so on. Indra was also an elected position.
One of the Indras was Yagi and another Rochan. This is evident from the
development that once happened. The PafaZ-dwelling Nahus of the Danav
group was able to get himself elected/installed as Indra (Devi Bhagwat
Purdn, 6, V-14). It is a different thing that his tenure was short-lived and
that he was thrown out.
Brahma and the eight Lokpals, including Indra, lived in palatial
residences on the flanks of the Mount Meru.
am: II 31 II
dVJKrHH'rldaM f^TRJ ^ I
îftdl+Ml'cdHi MteMIdl: II 32 II
(Vishnu Purdn, Part II, 2)
However, Vishnu lived far away in an island in a lake of milky white

water (Vishnu Purdn, Part II, 2, 11; Narasimha Purdn 30; Devi Purdn 8).
Vishnu's abode was Ksheersagar, possibly an island in a lake in the eastern
part of Tajikistan adjacent to Sinkiang—that is Bhadrashwavarsh of the
Puran times. Vishnu had darker skin, unlike that of the Ilavritavarsh
Devatds. He was possibly related to the people of Bhadrashwavarsh.
Once Brahma ordained that those who have taken up the avocation
of ensuring safety (raksha T3TT) of living creatures (wild life) will be called
Rdkshasa, and those who have chosen the profession of performing prayers
or pujas (yakshan or yajari) will be known as Yaksh (Valmiki Ramayan,
Uttarkhand, 4).
' ?fct ^ qcRJ II 13 II

(Valmiki Ramayan, Uttarkhand, 4)
Likewise, the musicians were designated as Gandharv, and the

danseuse Apsara. In other words, the Yakshs and the Rakshasas did not
belong to different ethnic or racial groups, but were really different
communities of professionals who took up self-chosen avocation of social-
cultural work. These were the vocational groups just such as we have at
present—the priests (pujdris), the forest conservators or forest guards, the
musicians, etc. Take the example of Kuber, the minister for treasury in the
council of the Prajapati of the Devatds. In the Matsya Puran (Chapter 9),
Kuber has been described as a king or chief of a Yaksh group.
■qft cfsijsR? ^ ^ -rtt |
arercnjfcT ^ 11 9 11
WR5 Ml II 10 II
(Matsya Puran, 9)
It is also stated that Skand, after whom the Skand Puran is named,
and who led a contingent of Devata army, was a Yaksh (D.D. Sharma,
2009) by profession.
Living in forests, and in the mountain caves, the Danavs were despised
by the urban Devatds. For, they spoke different languages, practiced
different social and religious customs, and hunted animals and birds for
food. The two groups were, therefore, in constant conflict. The embattled
Danavs were frequently vanquished by the Devatds. How ever, there were
many instance of the Danavs overpowering the Devatds and forcing them
to retreat in the battlefields. For example, once Vrittasur Danav defeated
Indra (Bhdgwat Puran, 6, V-12).
In search of green pastures or simply out of a sense of adventure,
quite many people of the Devata group migrated to Bharatvarsh across
the high mountain barriers. The migrations may have taken place
intermittently over long period of time. Some were exiled from Ilavritavarsh
to Bharatvarsh—they were sentenced (administered shdp) to serve for a
specified period or life-long. Many of the exiled returned home on the
completion of the term (shdp mukti)—*JJcTT: Wlf (Vishnu Purdn, Part II, 2).
Some returned to their heaven-like home after completing their missions
(swargarohan). The way people travelled with ease from Ilavritvarsh to
Bharatvarsh and back time and time again, implies that the paths of travel
were easily negotiable and that relation of the people living across the
border mountains were quite friendly and cordial.
Archaeological Evidence
Archaeological evidence shows that in northwestern Afghanistan and

adjoining Turkmenistan, particularly in the basins of the Bhadra and
Suchakshu rivers (respectively the Syr Darya and Oxus or Amu Darya),
the people fortified their towns and there were temple complexes. Round
and square hearths or altars are found in the region west of the Pamir
massif (Verma, 2008). The altars indicate that Agni was worshiped. The
altars and fortification of towns also occur in Bharatvarsh of the Vedic
period (Rigved 10.14, 13-14). In this Central Asian region (Ilavritvarsh,
Ketumalavarsh), the archaeological evidence points to a highly urbanized
culture as evident from well-planned settlements with large-sized houses,
temples (such as at Dashly-3, in Bacteria and Toglok-21 in Margiana) and
citadel complexes at Gorur (Lai, 2001). The Beshkent Culture from
southern Tajikistan reveals ritual hearths—the yagyakund and swastik
symbol marking sites of graves (Bryant, 2001; Verma, 2009). In the plains
of the Amu Darya (Suchakshu River) and in the lower reaches of the
Murghab River (Bhadra River)—in what used to be known as Bactria-
Bargiana (sBahliksBalkhash) in Turkmenistan—similar archaeological
evidence was unearthed such as ash pits on raised platforms in a circular
altar inside a fortress or temple-complex. The fire altars have been dated
4100 to 3750 yr B.P. (Bryant, 2001), coeval with the Harappa Civilization
in the Sindhu-Saraswati plains in Bharatvarsh (Verma, 2008).
Peoples of the Purdnland 111
THE PEOPLE OF THE COUNTRIES NEIGHBOURING ILAVRITVARSH
The people of the countries neighbouring Ilavritvarsh were not much

different from the people of Ilavritvarsh. The Kuruvarsh people were
healthy, well-bred, youthful-looking and fair-skinned and their women
were exceptionally beautiful—they were like apsards (Matsya Purdn, 113;
Mahabharat, Bhishma Parv, 6, V-33, 34).
ypvfrfWTCFM: ^ 3 fePT^RT: II 73 II
faspft TF5IFR1 feîmfelMHI: II 74 II
(Matsya Purdn, 113)
The people of Ketumalavarsh and Harivarsh were strong, brave and
cheerful. They had wheatish colour. Some had blonde hair, and the women
were extremely beautiful (Matsya Purdn, 113). The urban people were
cultured, well-dressed and looked handsome in their tall gait, and black
and blonde hair.
^ fy44^41: II 65 II
(Matsya Purdn, 113, V-65)
(Kurma Purdn, 45)

The Bhadrashwavarsh people were strongly built and had splendid
physique. Their white skin sparkled in the sun. The women were beautiful
like flowers (Matsya Purdn, 113). The mongoloid people do have very white
skin and are often characterized by the shine of perspiration. Most of the
Uighur people of Sinkiang of the present time bear such features.
7) ^T: ttSWvdl HSNdl:
II 53 II
(Matsya Purdn, 113)
^miî ssfefeRi: n 6 n
I II
'3W: ?pvTT: II 5 II
W7) WP: II 3 II
II 4 II
r«b«p! felT wm troPWT: II 7 II
1 iftK'JldUft'RT: II 8 II
(Kurma Purdn, Purva Vibhag, 45)
THE PEOPLE OF BHARATVARSH
The ethnic groups that inhabited different terrains of Bharatvarsh from

the earliest time of the human history comprised people who had darker
skin, were sturdy in built, and strong in physique. They lived in forests,
hills and mountainous regions adjacent to flood-plains (Fig. 7.3). They were
the aborigines, the tribals—adivasis—belonging to different groups. They
spoke diverse languages belonging to Austric-Asiatic groups, had different
sociocultural practices and worshipped naturally sculptured angular-
conical or peculiarly shaped pieces of rocks jutting out and above ground.
The finding in the Middle Pleistocene (0.8 to 0.13 million years ago)
sediments of the skull of Homo erectus namadicus, an Acheulian tool-maker
pygmy hominin, in the central sector of the Narmada Valley (Sonakia,
1984) implies that India has been inhabited by people from a very distant
past. Together with those Austric-speaking people who came from outside
the subcontinent in the early phase of human migration, these original
inhabitants today constitute only 8% of the Indian population, the
remaining 92% being the descendents of immigrants (The Hindu, January
12,2011) who came intermittently in successive waves. The Bheels, Santhals,
the Mundas, the Ordons, the Gonds, the Todds (in the Nilgiri) and the Jarawas
(in the Andaman Island) represent the aborigines—the adivasis.
Despite their large numbers, the aborigine tribals were overwhelmed
by the people who lived in the northwestern part of the country, in the
flood-plains of rivers Sindhu, Saraswati, Yamuna, Sabhramati and along
the western coast. Quite a proportion of those people were immigrants
from the countries of the Meruland. These people were wheatish to brown
in colour, with darker hair and brown eyes, sturdy in built and were
educated and urbane.
Belonging to different ethnic/racial stocks such as negroid, mongoloid,
caucasoid, etc., the immigrants came from different regions. This explains
the tremendous diversity in the people of India.
It may be stated that while R. Thapar (1989-1991), Sarianidi (1993),

Witzel (1993,1995), Sharma, R.S. (1999), and Verma (2008), among others,
contend that the people of the Sindhu-Saraswati-Ganga plains—who
called themselves Aryans—had immigrated from Margiana and Bactria
in Central Asia, Lai (2010) strongly refutes the theory of the original home
of the Aryans being outside Bharatvarsh. He believes that some of the
Aryans emigrated westwards in second millennium bce, westwards to
the Central Asian countries from their original home in Bharatvarsh.
COMMON GENETIC TRAITS: HUMAN MIGRATION
Comprehensive studies of genetic markers mitochondrial DNA and Y-

chromosome and gene mapping demonstrate that all people of the
Puranland emerged from a common stock (Barnabas and Suresh, 1998;
Chaubey et al, 2007). It is a well known fact that the humans world over
originated in eastern Africa (Fig. 7.2) and left the homeland (presumably
during a prolonged drought) in waves of migration first around 1,35,000
years ago and later 80,000 to 75,000 years ago. Stopping over for some
time in West Asia, one group moved out eastwards, crossed the Arabian
Sea, migrated along the western coast of India and came to southern India
and Sri Lanka. Some of these Austric-language speaking primitive people
sailed across the Bay of Bengal to the Andaman Islands and beyond to
East Asia and northern Australia. Since then, continuous gene flow among
major groups of people diluted the original ethnic features of the original
inhabitants of southern India and elsewhere. "There is now a genetic
closeness of the ancestral North Indians to the Central and West Asian
countries" (Reich et al, 2009).
"At some point of time the ancient North Indian and Ancient South
Indians mixed, giving birth to a different set of population. And that is
the people which exists now" (K. Thangarajan of Centre for Cellular and
Molecular Biology, in Times of India, 2009).
There was demographic expansion just after the arrival of modem
humans from Africa (Chaubey et al, 2007). In other words, going back to
the pre-Vedic time, there was autochthonous—within the Indian
subcontinent—origin of castes in the non-tribal population, and the in-
India population grew progressively with time.
Fig. 7.2. Genetic markers of the people of different regions indicate that all humans
emerged from a common ancestral stock and later moved out in successive waves to
different parts of the earth at different intervals (Based on Gadgil et al, 1998).
People who lived in the countries north, west and southwest of the
Meru massif immigrated 10,000 to 8,000 yr B.P. to settle down in the
plains of the Sindhu and Saraswati rivers (Gadgil et al, 1998). Synthetic
genetic mapping of second principal component from eastern Asia reveals
that yet another group of people fanned out from the southeastern radiative
centre (Fig. 7.2) and settled down in the period 10,000 to 8,000 year ago
in the terrains of the India-Myanmar border ranges, in Arunachal Pradesh,

Bhutan, northern Nepal, northern Uttarakhand, northern Himachal
Pradesh and Ladakh (Gadgil et al., 1998). These yellow-skinned people
have conspicuous mongoloid features.
In this perspective of genetic-anthropological studies is viewed the
history of the people of the Bharatvarsh during the Pur an period. The
history of human migration indicated by genetic-marker studies tallies
remarkably well with the accounts given in the Purans and the epics. The
people who came from the Meru region called themselves Arya. Those
who came from Southeast Asia and settled down in the northern
Himalayan belt were known as Kirats (Vaman Purdn, 13). People who
came from West Asia and settled down in the western border were known
as Yavans, and in the far north Turushka. The Yavans were the Arabian-
and Greek-speaking people and the Turushka, possibly the Turkish¬
speaking immigrants.
^ ■qf&3 ^RT: I
3TTAJT II 11 II
(Vaman I-’uran, 13)
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF IMMIGRATION
At the foot of the Bolan Pass in the Kirthar Range (Pakistan), there was a
settlement at Mehrgarh, dated 9000 to 5500 yr B.P. (Jarrige and Meadow,
1980). There were several settlements in that period—Gumla, Saraikhola,
Takshshila, Periano, Rahmandheri, Harappa, Jalalipur, Balakot, and also
in the Saraswati plain (see references in Valdiya, 2002) These settlements
date back to the period 5500 to 3900 yr B.P. They are widely distributed in
the plains of rivers of the Sindhu and Saraswati systems and along the
coast of Saurashtra and in Kachchh. Archaeologists assign them to the
pre-Harappa, Early Harappa and Mature Harappa Civilization (Fig. 7.4).
The Late Harappa settlements of the time period 3900 to 3300 yr B.P. are
concentrated in the Siwalik Hills and their foothills, including northern
belt of the plains and also in the coastal belt in southern Gujarat. There is
thus a clear evidence of gradual eastward as well as southward movement
of the immigrants.
Fig. 7.3. Stone Age settlements in northwestern India, including the Himalaya.
It will be obvious that the flood-plains of the Saraswati and Sindhu

river systems supported a socioculturally and economically advanced
culture 5500 to 3300 years ago.
The immigrants settled down in the land stretching from the River
Kubha (Kabul River), the Sindhu and Vitastata (Jhelam) in the west, Askini
(Chenab), Purushni or Airawati (Ravi) and Vipash (Beas) in the middle
and the Saraswati and Yamuna rivers in the east. The land was known as
Saptasaindhav, the land of seven rivers (Rigved, 7-36-6; 6-61-10),
representing the early stage of the expansion of the immigrants.
Peoples of the Purdnland 117
SARAIKOTA
, / i) MANDA_r\
I of f 0 b2°
GUMLAl
''RAHMANDHEf
k HARAPPA —-^ROPARy
MUNDIGAK PERIANO f A /ÂGWANPUF£p O/
DABARKOT £ /jALILPU^; BANAWALl P f^
MEHRGARH
MEHRGARH *o
/ Qnpo V_ ,<Lb- _ !? a^ u° (° ALAMGIRPUR
o° ^Pof^T^y ^ SISWAL/Wq
SISWAL#^ V \ b
/' SOT HI ^
lODARO/^C GANWARIWALA
GANWA-RIWALA MITAT
MOHENJODARO MITATHAIA^ V
V a It
7* w . A> .
1 KOTDIJl
>kAMR°^ ^ PACHPXDR^
\balakot] (g\ o \\cHANHU p~^
ALLAHOINO \ ”,
K>~/ DHOLAVIRA ^
DESALPUR
m«c^
(C®o q3Bp
j
/ / 1
u
KSURKOTADA/ \
rvÔ LO TH A L
V *^Go oW^MEHGAM
R0JDI f ^BHAG^RAV
PRABHAgNÔ
Early Harappa site Middle (Mature) Harappa site
Fig. 7.4. Distribution of settlements of Pre-Harappa, Early Harappa and Mature

Harappa periods indicating gradual expansion of the domain of the group of the
people called Sur. (From Valdiya, 2002; Based on Joshi and Bisht, 1984)
ETHNIC GROUPS: SUR AND AS UR
The Purans and the epics recount the adventures and invasions of the
people who were fairer or light brown in colour, rather tall in built, who
believed in the social order governed by religious edicts given by sages
and saints, and who observed rituals such as horn, havan and yagya. They
belonged to the group called Sur. They had very close ethnic, social and
political affinities with the Devatas living across the mountains in the
countries around the Meru massif. Evidently, a sizeable proportion of the
Surs included people who had immigrated from the land they described
as sumrg (paradise)—the land of Devatas—and integrated with the people
who inhabited the flood-plains of rivers such as Sindhu and Saraswati. In
addition to the immigrants from the Meruland countries, the Sur Group,
thus, included a large proportion of the urbanized people who lived in
the river plains like Sindhu, Saraswati, Yamuna, Ganga, Narmada,
Mahanadi, Godavari, Mahi, Sabhramati, etc. Many of the elites among
the aborigines took to the lifestyle of the immigrants, adopted their religious
and cultural values, and obtained benefits of education and training. Some
of them rose to become rulers, some commanders of armies, some social
leaders and some very learned acharyas and rishis—pre-eminent scholars
and sages. The Sur Group was indeed a melting pot of a number of ethnic
and racial stocks.
The immigrants who tried to move beyond their occupied territories
had to contend with fierce resistance of the aborigines, the tribals of
Bharatvarsh. The forest-dwelling aborigines were dark-skinned, sturdy
and strong in body and spoke different (Austric-Asiatic) languages. They
lived altogether different lifestyles, and worshipped peculiar pieces of rocks
jutting out of the ground and venerated them as symbols of procreation.
These people lived on the harvests of forests and their wildlife. The whole
spectrum of these aborigine tribals (ddivasis) were called Asur. Since there
were no educationists, no thinkers, and no scholars among the Asurs,
they failed to make progress (D.D. Sharma, 2009). Remnants of these
people today are found amongst Kols, Bheels, Mundas, Oraons, Gonds,
etc., as stated above.
In the Taittireya Brahman (Part 3, Chapter 25), it is admitted that the
Asurs of Bharatvarsh were the people who had come to the land first. In
other words, they were the original dwellers of the land "3RJTM '31? ?3
Since the Asurs were overpowered and their lands annexed by the
expansionists among the Surs, they do not figure prominently or in flattering
terms in the narratives of the Purans and the epics authored by the sages
and scholars belonging to the Sur group. The Puranic history is, thus.
considerably skewed and biased in favour of the Surs who called

themselves, egotistically, Arya (gentlemen).
However, there is no denying that the Asurs (aborigine ddivdsis) were
quite powerful people and excelled the Surs in jungle v/arfare—in guerilla
fighting. Not once but many a time they defeated the Surs in battles.
■*fa ^jj ftpSidlHtl: II 23 II
(Bhdgwat I-’urdn, 10)
Once an army of the Asm chiefs—Shumbh and Nishumbh—beat the

Sms, compelling them to seek the active help of their revered Goddess
Devi (Bhdgwat Puran, 5, V-ll).
Among the powerful and exceptionally strong Ddnav leaders or
chieftains may be mentioned Madhukaitabh, Mahisasur, Dhumralochan,
Chand-Mund, Raktbeej, Nishumbh-Shumbh, Tripur Kalnemi, Tarakasur,
Jalandhar and Shankhchud. The Devatds and the Surs had to seek active
participation of Shiva, Vishnu and Devi to defeat these warlords (e.g.
Shiva Puran, Purv Vayaveeyasanhita, 20 and 22). Significantly, many of
these tribal chiefs who fought the Devatds were deeply devoted to the
gods worshipped by the Surs, and quite many of them got such as Prahlad,
Virochan, Ravan, and other god's strong blessings.
It may be emphasized that the dominantly urban Sms and forest¬
dwelling Asurs were in constant conflict over land, water and forest
resources. Even Rigved (2-9-6, 2-12-11) describes the battle between the
Surs under the command of Divodas. Shambhar was the leader of the
Asms living in the hills. He had his strongholds in hundred-odd fortresses
in the hills. The fortresses seem to have been impregnable, possibly for
iron was used to fortify them.
TlfaW*! ^3 **4k*qH Tl clKfcj (Rigved II, 20:8)
ûjihIhI fa I (Rigved II, 20:8)
fa TJfcj) fa I
(Rigved, 20:8 X 98:12)

■*T: yrcp fawj
(Vayu Puran, Part II, 39)
^ M fay: yp:
(Mahabharat, Van Parv, 226; Shanti Parv, 227)
This implies that the Asurs were well-versed in architecture and were
competent builders (Rigved, 10.98.12). They knew Vedic lores and were
brave and good in character. The defeat at the hands of tribals angered
the Surs. That explains why they scornfully called them Dasyu, Das, Pani,
Rdkshas, etc.
UPWARD MOBILE 'SUR' GROUP
The settlers of the Sindhu-Saraswati plains—Saptasaindhav—developed

an upward mobile culture. In course of time, they completely dominated
the people of Bharatvarsh. The Skand Purdn describes Bharatvarsh as
karmabhumi—the land of all kinds of exciting activities, the theatre of
actions where a large variety of people lived, spoke different languages,
practiced varied forms of religious rituals, and had different lifestyles
(Kurina Purdn, Poorv Vibhag, 45, 46).
-INI 'THT cj>4cl II 20 II

(Kurina Purdn, Poorv Vibhag, 45)
31 ft hxq I fa 4^-M3 hm<=ii:
(Kurma Purdn, Poorv Vibhag, 46)
Going by the description in the Rigved and the Purans, the inhabitants
of Saptasaindhav had an agro-pastoral society in which cattle-herding
was the prime occupation. The farmers harvested barley, wheat and
possibly rice; and reared stocks of cattle, sheep, goats and horses. Discovery
of burnt stubbles of cereal plants along with cutigens and pollens in the
sediments of lakes Lunkaransar and Didwana in western Rajasthan shows
that the people had taken to agriculture as early as 8000 to 9000 yr B.P.
(Singh et al, 1974; Bryson and Swaine, 1981). Marks of plough furrows in
the field outside Kalibangan (Lai, 1971) on the Saraswati bank corroborates
the deduction that they harvested grains.
The people living in urban centres fortified their cities very well. There
were well-planned towns. Houses were constructed along N-S and E-W
grids, with wide streets and lanes. They used bricks of standard proportion.
Some houses had bathing places, connected to municipal drainage system
or to cesspits and garbage traps (Bisht, 1984, 1991).
The warriors rode horses and horse-driven chariots. This is evidenced

by clay toys having wheels with radial spokes. They made copper vessels
and tools such as arrowheads, axes, sickles, knives, daggers, chisels, nails,
fishhook, etc. (Bisht, 1999; Lai, 2002). The finding of gold and silver
ornaments speak of their affluence. The metal technology involving copper
and bronze is described in the Rigved (Romila Thapar, 2000).
The homes had wells within the courtyards, the welts being excellently
lined by bricks of special shape.
Among these people were enterprising ones who established trade
connections with overseas countries, particularly for precious stones. Along
the coast lived intrepid seafarers who went abroad in ships (big boats) to
the Gulf countries across the Arabian Sea and to Java, Sumatra and Thailand
beyond the Bay of Bengal (Vdlmiki Ramayan, Krishkindha Kand, 40).
II 30 II
(Valmiki Ramayan, Krishkindha Kand, 40)
In the society of the Surs of Bharatvarsh, scholars and teachers

(imaharshis, rishis) were held in high esteem. As a matter of fact, they formed
the acme of the societal order. The rishis had their own schools of learning
located in ashrams. The ashrams were developed away from urban centres,
usually in forests. Among the well known maharshis are Valmiki, Kashyap,
Atreya, Vishwamitra, Gautam, Markandeya, Galav, Bhardwaj, Vasishth,
Uddalak, Shaunak, Dhaumya, Durvasha, Jabali, Krishna Dvaipayan Vyas
and Shukdev. The objective of the ashrams, as explained elsewhere, was
to spread education on matters of language, philosophy and religion, and
many mundane subjects of practical utility. Pioneer educationist Agastya
crossed the Vindhya Range to establish ashrams in southern Bharatvarsh.
The establishment of ashrams in forests and remote areas was viewed with
suspicion, and in many cases with hostility, by the forest dwellers—the
tribal adivasis belonging to the Asur group. They thought that this was an
attempt of the Surs to colonize their lands; and they reacted by harassing
the inmates of ashrams, disrupting havans and horns, the rishis and munis
performed.
Performing a havan was regarded as the most important religious
ritual, and altars (yagyakund) were built in houses, temples and ashrams.
This is borne out from the unearthing of fire-altars in many settlements of

the Harappa period (Lai, 2002). The charcoal recovered from hearths in a
few settlements give calibrated radiocarbon ages of 5100±800 yr B.P.
(Kalibangan), 4000±20 yr B.P. (Laduwala), 3790±90 to 3380±90 yr B.P.
(Sirsa) (Courtey, 1995). These dates suggest that the settlements belong to
the Mature Harappa civilization.
In my opinion, the Purans and epics give historical accounts of the
people of the Harappa civilization (Valdiya, 2002).
DECLINE OF A CIVILIZATION
Owing to drastic decline in the discharge, and later drying up of the

Saraswati River, there were mass exodus of the people of the middle
reaches of the Saraswati. Earlier, the people migrated upstream to the
foothill plains and to the Siwalik Hills, and later downstream to the coastal
belt of Kachchh and Saurashtra. During the first exodus, very large number
of settlements suddenly appeared in the foothill plains and the Siwalik
Hills where there was abundance of water and food (Fig. 7.5).
The uprooting of the people on a large scale had tremendous impact
on the economic conditions, cultural values, civic sense, and aesthetic
appreciation of the people. There was deterioration everywhere. The
predominant urban culture gave way to the rural agriculture in the frontier
areas of resettlement. Although the number of settlements increased, their
size diminished. Towns built were not planned well and they lacked
sanitary system. Poor quality of brick was used for construction. There
was impoverishment of the people as evident from rarity or near absence
of ornaments and jewellery. There was a perceptible decline in the civic
sense—the streets were encroached upon by private bath platforms and
pottery kilns, use of bricks from older houses, disrepair and siltation of
ditches around the fortification of towns, and so on (Bisht, 1998). This
was noticed even in the city of Mathura on the bank of the Yamuna, as
pointed by Krishna to his people before abandoning the town for Dwarka.
SPTFfKTTig TtfPU 5FPT5T II 58 II
Fig. 7.5. In the Later Harappan time new settlements suddenly appeared in large
numbers in the Siwalik Hills and the plains in front of the hills. This was the
consequence of mass migration of the people, who fled the middle reaches of the
Saraswati. (From Valdiya, 2002, Based on Joshi and Bisht, 1984).
The script, which now read from left to right, was sparingly used
indicating little development in its form and shape.
The unified national culture of the people of the Purana time was
replaced during and after the Mahabharat time by a multiplicity of smaller
states or kingdoms and principalities (Fig. 3.8).
PEOPLE OF THE HIMALAYAN DOMAIN
The Kirats
The northern mountainous belt of the Himalayan domain from Ladakh

to Arunachal Pradesh (Bhotant) and the belt of the Indo-Myanmar border
ranges were peopled by an ethnic group of mongoloid affinity. They are
referred to as the Kirats in the Rigved, the Purans and the Mahdbharat.
fadldUM d^lt) II 11 II
(Matsya Purdn, 114)
f+lldfaidlMW feiyRuil cfTT II 20 II

(Mahdbharat, Van Parv, 90)
The Kirats spread far beyond Ladakh and also lived in the area of the
Gandhmadan Parvat, which is today represented by the Little Pamir and
linked to the Karakoram Range. This is obvious from the narrative that on
his way to Ilavritvarsh, the Pandav warrior Arjun crossed the
Gandhmadan inhabited by the Kumars, that is Kirats (Mahdbharat, Sabha
Parv, Teerthyatra Parv, 143).
HSIcHH: r«M<MRdRlRitII 6 II
(Mahdbharat, Sabha Parv, Teerthyatra Parv, 143)
The Kirats lived not only in the Himalayan province but had spread
south and settled down in parts of the Indo-Gangetic plain extending up
to Bengal (Matsya Purdn, 121)
r+<ldl!M «TRcTFTfq II 47 II
MNIdH ^fVI+H HrWH HHmHIRd^N ^ II 50 II
WIFp) ^ II
(Matsya Purdn, 121)
The fruit- and root-eating and skin-cloth wearing Kirats had come
from the land of the rising sun—a country beyond the borders in the
east.
^ W? fWM) fll: II 8 II
4><rl‘JelMHI 3 ^ PMIdUM^cIWH: 119 II

(Mahabharat, Sabha Parv, 52)
The statement ■Hcb)',f in the Skand Puran,

(Manaskhand, 7, V-20, Kedarkhand, 206, V 1-6) clearly demonstrates that
the Kirats made use of medicinal herbs quite commonly.
As already stated, the genetic mapping of the first principal
component for Asia reveals that the people inhabiting the northern
Himalayan belt and spreading in eastern India characterized by mongoloid
features, had come across the mountain in the east 10,000 to 8,000 years
B.P. from the radiative centre in Southeast Asia (Gadgil et al, 1998).
The hunting-gathering aborigine Kols were subjugated by the Kirats
and established firm control in western Nepal, northern Uttarakhand and
northern Himachal Pradesh. In Uttarakhand, their stronghold was
Kedarkhand (Skand Puran, Kedarkhand, 181, V-19, V-55, 56; Matsya Puran,
113; Vdman Puran, 13, V-ll; Mahabharat, Van Parv, 90). In the Spiti-Lahaul
region of Himachal Pradesh, the Kirats were—and continue to be—known
as Kinnars.
The Kirats venerated their spiritual supremo Shiva. Shiva often lived
in the Kailas-Mansarovar area and in the Badarikshetra (Kedar) in the
Himadri domain in the Kiratland. He dressed in skin cloths like the Kirats,
and led a life of austerity and simplicity. Shiva sometimes commanded
the fighting forces of the Kirats, as borne out by an incident when Arjun
was up in his adventure in the Himalaya. He was stopped by Shankar
(Shiva) himself dressed as he was like a Kirat (Mahabharat, Van Parv, 39).
W cIK-MIHW II 11 II
(Mahabharat, Van Parv, 39)
The Kirats had adopted the naturally sculptured angular- conical

projections of rocks (called phutling) of the aborigine Kols and recognized
them as their deity. Later on, this conical feature became the symbol the
Swayambhu Ling of their Lord Shiva.
Strongly built, fair-skinned and well-versed in mountain warfare but
very temperamental, the Kirats and Kinnars loved music, dance, merry
making, and water sports. The women were beautiful and quite liberated,
and occupied exalted position in the society.
The Khasas
An ethnic group, branching off from the 'Aryan' group in the distant past
in the original place in the region of the Meru massif, followed the 'Aryans'
to emigrate to Bharatvarsh (D.D. Sharma, 2009) and swept through the
Bahirgir (Lesser Himalaya) terrain from Dardistan (KashgarsKhashgarh)
in the west, through Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand to
western Nepal. Their original place, according to the Garud Purdn, was
between the Meru and the Mandar mountain.
^HIW: II 58 II
(Garud Purdn, Poorvkhand, 55)
The Khasas had appeared as nomads quite early in the Vedic time,
as evident from their mention in the Rigved, Vayu Purdn (45, V-135; 47, V-
47; 35, V-4), Vishnu Purdn (Brahmakhand), Mdrkandeya Purdn (1, V-21),
Devi Bhdgivat Purdn and Mahabharat, Sabha Parv (32, V-24), Bhishma Parv
(9, V-89), Dron Parv (121, V-47). The Khasas spread also onto the northern
part of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (Vayu Purdn, 45, V-135; Devi Bhdgivat
Purdn, part IV, 8).
fPlI&l: WFTf: WRWI: ^1T: II 135 II

(Vayu Purdn, 45)
MTcfft f? TTOfq ^ I
sMl^c|IM<l TIM: II 30 II
Hnkhi vuti i
(Devi Bhdgivat Purdn, part IV, 8)
The Nags
The third prominent tribe that settled down in the Himalaya province
and the foothill belt of the Indo-Gangetic Plains is the Nag. They had
come from the southeastern part of Ilavritvarsh (now in northeastern

Afghanistan). Moving across what is today the Northwestern Frontier
(Khybar-Pakhtoonwa) Province of Pakistan, they occupied Kashmir and
spread as far east as the Ganga Valley (D.D. Sharma, 2009). Their main
theatres of activity were in Kashmir and the Kangra Valley in Himachal
Pradesh. Later, they made their capital at Nagpur near Naimisharanya
ashram on the bank of the Gomati River (Mahdbhdrat, Adi Parv) in Uttar
Pradesh.
TTM wp WF
(Ma'habharat, Adi Parv, 20)
Racially not different from the Aryans, the Nags adopted the serpent
hood as their insignia and venerated Shiva as their deity (Vdyu Puran, 99).
II 66 II
'Hfau-lO 7M HMIêf) II 67 II
(Vdyu Puran, 99)
The peace-loving Nag rulers had a marvellous sense of architecture

and aesthetics, and they built cities with splendid structures, such as at
Takshshila in northwestern Bharatvarsh (Skand Puran). They had a highly
civilized society and very rich culture (D.D. Sharma, 2009).
INTEGRATION OF PEOPLE
The acceptance by the Kirats and the Khasas of the Astir KoTs naturally
formed symbol of procreation—the phutling as Shiva Ling—invested the
phallus-shaped totem or statue with tremendous aura of reverence
throughout Bharatvarsh. The 'Ayans' also adopted the Ling as the symbol
of divinity and included Shiva in the pantheon of their Gods—as one of
the trimurti—Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Eventually, the spiritual guru
of the Kirats also became the spiritual supremo of all the people of the
country, belonging to both the Sur and the Asur groups. This was the first
and most crucial development related to integration of the people, living
in different parts of Bharatvarsh, speaking different languages and having
different lifestyles and beliefs.
Over the time, Shiva became the pre-eminent God of the people of
Bharatvarsh. This is testified by the fact that Shiva's Swayambhu (naturally
formed) Jyotirling (celestial procreative symbol) exists in different parts of
the larger country. Shiva himself tells Kartikeya and Parvati that his
Divyalings are located in several places (Skanda Purdn, Vdman Purdn, 60,
V-10; Shiva Purdn, Mahdbhdrat, Van Parv, 45). This is described in the
chapter on the Teerths.
8
Teerths and Holy Shrines
ATTEMPT AT INTEGRATION AND UNITY OF BHARATVARSH
The people of the Puran period were keen and inverterate travellers, going
mostly from shrine to shrine, from teerth to teerth. There were more than
500 teerths in that period. The shrines were located commonly atop high
hills commanding panoramic views of the lands around, and in the bathing
ghats developed on the banks of rivers with free flow of water. Some of
the shrines, especially of Shiva, were established in sites that are not only
picturesque, but also geomorphologically spectacular and geologically
extraordinary, formed by uncommon earth processes. Going on a
pilgrimage was considered an imperative dharma, a must in the life of an
individual. This is evident from the maharshis and elderly persons
motivating or advising kings and warriors to go on pilgrimages. Bhishma,
for example, had advised the Pandav brothers to go on a long journey
through the length and breadth of the country (Mahdbharat, Teerthyatra
Parv, 45). The Padma Puran describes scores of teerths located in different
parts of the country (Padma Puran, 13, 80-83, 203-206, 228).
The idea of undertaking pilgrimage seems to be to stimukite rulers
and commoners alike to get away from the humdrum of routine or
sedantary life, and to see different parts of the country, know the people
having different lifestyles, languages, dresses, food, and socio-cultural
practices. The real objective of pilgrimage was to know the people, forge
friendly relations with them, and understand the cultural variety of the
nation that Bharatvarsh was. As D.D. Sharma (2009) aptly puts it, the
pilgrimage "provided a fertile ground for cross-fertilization of thoughts
and cultural elements". Teerthdtan was an effective way of national
integration—of unifying the people of different regions of the country.
Another objective of the pilgrimage was to encourage marathon
walking and train people to endure the hardships of travels.
JYOTIRLINGS—GOD'S CELESTIAL SYMBOLS
Once Shiva told his wife Parvati, and on another occasion his son Skand,
where his abodes are located in different parts of Bharatvarsh (Fig. 8.1).
The abodes—dhdms—were represented by naturally formed swayambhu
lings—the jyothirlings. These are: Kailas to the north of the Himalayas,
Kedamath in the Himalayas, Somnath in the Prabhaskshetra in western
Bharatvarsh, Nagesh in Darukavan (Gujarat), Mahakal in Ujjayini (Ujjain),
Vishwanath in Kashi, Vaidyanath in eastern Bharatvarsh (Jharkhand),
Amarkantak in the Udayachal (Maikal Hills), Omkareshwar on the
Narmada, Trayambakeshwar, Ghushmeshwar and Bheemeshwar in the
northern Sahyadri domain, Mallikarjun in the Shreeshail Hill on the River
Krishna, and Rameshwar in the Dhanushkoti Island on the southeastern
coast (Shiva Puran, Triteeya Rudrasanhita, 42).
I <=IRIUI4Î ^ II 29 II
^ ^l^blcrt I ^ Timi' fi>l<=IM^ II

gK^dlPt W^TFT if: I ^ ^f^J II 22 II
(Shiva Puran, Triteeya Rudrasanhita, 42)
If one looks carefully at the locations of these twelve dhdms with their
Jyotirlings, one would be struck by the realization that practically all these
places are characterized by singularly unique, spectacular landforms and
extraordinary geological features shaped by uncommon earth processes.
All the facts speak volumes of the great vision, the penetrating intellect
and the incredible knowledge on earth science and profound pragmatism
Teerths and Holy Shrines 131
Fig. 8.1. Location of twelve divine symbols of Lord Shiva — Jyctirlings — in different
parts of Bharatvarsh, implying sociocultural unity of the country in the Puran time.
of the people who discovered them and made them fabulous national
monuments by investing divinity on the naturally formed symbols of srishti
or creation. There is no denying that they were not only intrepid explorers
and very keen observers, but also deeply perceptive earth scientists.
SHRINES IN HIMALAYA
Mount Kailas in the northern periphery of the Himalaya is situated on the

Hemkut Range—the Ladakh-Kailas-Gangdese Range of the present (Fig.
5.6). Located in the country of the Kirat tribe, Kailas is the principal, or
perhaps the original, abode of Shiva. Shiva was the spiritual supremo of
the Kirat people.
The geologists know that the 6714-m high Mount Kailas making the
Ling is an extraordinary feature (Figs. 8.2 and 8.3). Resting on the basement
of granites is a 2000-m thick succession of pebbly felspathic sandstones
and conglomerates with intercalation of subordinate shales. These
sediments were laid down sometime in the time span of 27 to 23 million
years ago by a river that alternately meandered and flowed as a braided
system (Heim and Gansser, 1939; Brookfield and Andrews-Goodspread,
1984). The fascinating fact is that when the rivers laid down sediments,
the belt was at a level considerably less than 2100 m above the sea level, as
the plant fossils of rosewood Prunus and palms Sabal major, Livistona and
Trachycarpus discovered in the adjoining Ladakh area testify (Lakhanpal
et al., 1983). Moreover, the climate was warm and moist. In the adjoining
Sindhu Valley in Ladakh, remains of such animals as goats, deers, rodents
and python-like snakes (Nanda and Sahni, 1990) indicate what the climate
and physiographic conditions could have been. Stream erosion over a
period of millions of years has sculptured the fantastically marvellous
landform. It has been shown that Mount Kailas forms a mountain of
eminence from where seven rivers originate and flow radially in different
directions. Among these rivers are the Sindhu flowing NW, the Saraswati
(Shatadru=Satluj) southwest, the Saryu (Karnali^Ghaghara) descending
south and the Brahmaputra (comprising the Hladini, the Pavani and the
Nalini branches) going east and the Yagra going north (Figs. 5.5 and 8.1).
In the Badarikshetra in the ever-snowy Himadri Range of the
Himalaya is situated the second Jyotirling Kedarnath (30°44'N:79°32'E).
The backdrop of Kedarnath is the 6940 m high Mount Kedarnath
made up of nearly 21 million years old granite (Fig. 8.5) that intrudes
high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Precambrian age (older than 550
million years). The shrine at an altitude of 3835 m above the sea level is
ensconsed between two snouts of the Chorbari Glacier—the source of the
River Mandakini (Fig. 8.4). The glacier has carved out a picturesque
(B)
Fig. 8.2. (A) Aerial photograph taken from the north of Mount Kailas. It brings out
prominently the celestial ling in the centre, surrounded by depression and series of
hills along the periphery representing the yoni. The mount is made up of sandstones
and conglomerates emplaced by a braided river.
(B) View of the Kailas from the east.
(B)
Fig. 8.3. (A) and (B) Satellite photographs of the Mount Kailas in the backdrop of the
Rakshastal-Mansarovar Lakes — Bindusarovar-Mansarovar of the Puran times.
Fig. 8.4. Map shows the location of Kedarnath in the amphitheatre-shaped glacial
valley of the Mandakini River. It is within the Badarikshetra of the Furans. Badarinath
is the holy shrine of Vishnu. It is quite possible that the Dhauli River to the right
might have once come across the high mountain from the Kailas region.
amphitheatre-shaped valley, filled with moraine deposits. An exotic block

of rock, either fallen from the mountain slope or emplaced by a retreating
glacier, represents the celestial ling. The Vdman Puran (Chapter 60) alludes
to toggles falling as a result of the crumbling of mountain and forming the
platform for Kedar. This alludes to the possibility of rock-fall or landslide.
II 10 F
(Vdman Puran, 60)
One of the fascinating natural phenomena occurring in the glacial

valley of Kedarnath is the fresh-snow avalanches. Huge masses of loose
crystals of snow and ice admixed with air and water move down the
precipitous slopes and, getting airborne, advance like whirlwinds. The
phenomenon gives impression to the common man as a smoke wreathing
the great splendid peak of the Kedamath. The credulous believers take
this as the smoke from havans, or as Lord Shiva making himself visible.
The accompanying booms related to the avalanches is taken as the sound
of music related to horns or havans. It alludes to the possibility of rock falls
or landslides.
The Mandakini drains forested land between the Ganga (Bhagirathi)
and the Alaknanda (Skand Puran, Manaskhand, 61).
<T5T *Mn^TT TTfT II 18 II
II 19 II
(Skand Puran, Manaskhand, 61)
WESTERN INDIAN SHRINES
Shiva himself tells that his third Divyadhdm—celestial seat—in the form
of Somnath is located in Prabhaskshetra (Shiva Puran, Kotirudra Sanhita,
42, V 21-24; Narad Puran, Uttarkhand, 161).
In Prabhaskshetra, the Girnar Hill (21 °3' N:70°36'E) in splendid
isolation rising 341 m above the sea level seems to be the naturally formed
celestial symbol of Shiva (Fig. 8.6). The solitary eminence is formed of a
large rounded plug-like top of a laccolith nearly 15 km across. It is a
magmatic body made up of olivine-gabbro in the lower part, grading
upward to diorite and monzonite (Merh, 1995). The intrusive body is a
product of differentiation of the intruding magma as it froze on reaching
the surface. As the intrusive body rose up, it pushed up and sideways the
pile of basaltic lavas, nearly 65 million years old. The lavas were tilted
outwards in all directions, forming a ring of hills around the central body
of the magmatic rocks. The peripheral ring of hills was intruded by a ring
dyke of granophyre, possibly 62-61 million years ago.
Significantly, the Skand Puran alludes to a fiery origin of the Shivaling
by the nomenclature Tejoling (Skand Puran, Prabhaskhand, Chapter 7, Verse
Fig. 8.5. Photo taken from the south of the 6940 m Mount Kedarnath and the Chorbari
(B)
Fig. 8.6. (A) Satellite photograph of the Girnar Hill in Saurashtra — the Prabhaskshetra
of the Purans. The central plug-like intrusive laccolithic body represents the
swayambhu ling, the depression between the plug and the peripheral ring of hills is
the celestial yoni. The outwardly dipping lava beds form a ring of hills along the
periphery. [From: Google Earth]
(B) A view of the central plug — the Jyotirling — of Mount Girnar.
58) and points to the fact that the ling broke out (întruded or penetrated)
from the depth of the earth, and "was burning like the fire like myriads of
suns" and hence called Tejoling (Skand Purdn, Chapter 8, Verses 28-29 in
Iyengar, 2004). The geological evidence clearly demonstrates that the
Gimar Jyotirling is the top of a body of laccolith, or a plug broken out from
the upper part of the laccolith, and intruding the pile of Deccan lavas
formed by the cooling down of fiery molten mass of basalts (see Valdiya,
2010).
My identifying the Girnar as Somnath Jyotirling is at considerable
variance with the presently universally accepted location of Shiva's celestial
shrine in the southern coast of Saurashtra, close to the township of
Chorwad. While the central plug represents the celestial swayambhu ling,
the depression around the plug carved out by streams and the encircling
rings of hills of lavas recalls the divya yoni (Fig. 8.6).
Archaeological evidence points to several generations of settlements
in this region, including those of the Burnished Black Red Ware Culture
(Bhattacharya, 1999).
The Yadavs of Dwarka used to celebrate annual fairs and fetes with
great religious fervour and gaiety at Raivat Parvat, then covered with flora
and peopled by fauna of a large variety (Harivansh Puran, 55). They
worshipped Shiva and the Raivat was another seat of Shiva in
Prabhaskhetra. The clusters of hills (149 to 240 m) including the Barda
and the Alech faced Dwarka lying to the west. Indeed, the Raivat was
described as the gateway of Dwarkapuri (Harivansh Purdn, 55).
(Harivansh Purdn, 55)
These hills to the east and southsoutheast of Dwarka made up of

lavas quartz-felsite and rhyolite which are intruded by an arcuate body
of granophyre and a plug of rhyolite (Merh, 1995).
Rfo twWI^lPiR: I
TJcfcRT II 15 II
(Harivansh Purdn, Vishnu Purdn, 98)
The fourth Jyotirling was known as Nagesh located in Darukavan.

East of Vadodara in east-central Gujarat, there is a 530 m high eminence
Pavagarh of huge lava pile with spectacular topography formed by spurs,
representing lava lobes, diverging from a central high and the latter
characterized by circular depressions at the top (Fig. 8.7). The composition
of the lavas is extraordinarily unique—ankaramite and olivine-basalt at
the base, hyperthene-basalt, andesite, mugearite basalt and rhyolite in
the middle, and tuff (volcanic ash) at the top (Chatterjee, 1961). Here
again is a case of differentiation of the magma reaching the surface and
freezing as lava flows. The singular sausar-shaped 50-80 m deep
depressions at the top have rims of tuffs that dip away outwards. These
have been identified as rootless cones formed of lavas formed by rapid
quenching in a lake (Sheth et al., 2004). Indeed the Nagesh Jyotirlinga
represents a geologically unique feature—a marvel.
Nagesh Jyotirling at present is identified with a Shiva's symbol 23 km
north of Dwarka. Some scholars place Nagesh Jyotirling at Jageshwar in
the district of Almora in Uttarakhand. Within a very dense forest of hoary
cedrus tree deodar (=daruka), there is a cluster of temples including that of
Jageshwar (Shiva). These temples were later repaired, restored and
remodelled, among others, by the great Vikramaditya, Shalivahan,
Shankaracharya, and the Katyuri kings (Sharma, 2009).
The fifth celestial symbol of Shiva is Trayambakeshwar (Narad Puran,
Uttar Khand, 163), ensconced within the embrace of the arms of two
spectacular spurs emanating from the Brahmagiri (Fig. 8.8A). The spurs—
resembling a trident (trishul)—represent the lobes of lava flows. It is in the
amphitheatre-shaped terrain in which the Jyotirling is located. The River
Godavari springs from the nearby spot. The Brahmagiri and its peculiar
spurs are all made up of basaltic lavas 65-64 million years old (Pande,
2002).
South of Trayambakeshwar is located Bheemeshwar Jyotiring
represented by the Bheemshankar Peak (Fig. 8.9A). From its foothills
originates the River Bhima—the Bheemarathi of the Purans. The geological
setting of this area is the same as that of Trayambakeshwar.
The Ghushmeshwar Jyotirling is situated east of the township of Ellora.
The spurs of the high mountain parabolically enclose the shrine surrounded
by a large number of Baudha caves.
(B)
Fig. 8.7. (A) Satellite picture of the Pavagarh Hill, ENE of Vadodara, is characterized
by spectacular diverging spurs representing lobes of lava flows.
(B) Notice the sausar-shaped depressions with rims atop the hill and also the peculiarly
carved steep to vertical scarps on all sides.
(B)
Fig. 8.8. (A) Photograph of the Brahmagiri situated southwest of the source of the
Narmada River.
(B) Satellite picture of Trayambakeshwar. Notice the three spectacular arms (spurs
resembling a trishul (trident)) made up of lava lobes of the Brahmagiri mountain
sheltering the shrine of Shiva. Note the source of the Narmada from within the trishul.
The Omkareshwar shrine is situated close to an island between the

two channels of the Narmada River (Fig. 8.9B). West of Hoshangabacl, it
is close to the confluence with the Narmada of the Kaveri, presently known
as the Sukta, a river flowing south by Harsud in the Khandwa district.
Steep scarps of a lava hill face the holy dham of Shiva, which is located on
the thick pile of Quaternary sediments deposited by rivers in the last 1.8
million years.
The Narmada flows in a rift valley—an elongate narrow belt that
sank between the Satpura Range in the south and the Vindhyan Range in
the north (Tewari et al., 2001). It originated due to faulting down of the
crust sometime in the Precambrian time—more than 550 million years
ago—and serves as a great tectonic (geological) divide between northern
and southern India (West, 1961). The fault zone has been active time and
again in the past more than 500 million years, and continues to be the
locus of earthquakes. The Narmada Valley is a belt of high heat flow
(Shanker, 1991).
Thus, the Omkareshwar shrine is located in a tectonically very crucial
belt that served as a great geological divide of the Peninsular India.
To the northwest of Omkareshwar is the seat of Mahakaleshwar at
Ujjayini (sUjjain). The shrine is located on top of the huge lava pile of the
Malwa Plateau, and the river Kshipra meanders through the holy place.
HOLY PLACES IN INDO-GANGETIC PLAINS
Vishwanath Jyotirling is located in Kashi (Varanasi) on the Ganga. Kashi

was Shiva's favourite dham {Matsya Puran, 18). Shiva and Parvati would
not leave the place even when it used to get flooded when the Ganga was
in spate. Hence, it is called Avamuktisthan (Skand Puran, Kashikhand, Part
I, 18, V-235). It not only provided a path of mukti—freedom from the
cycle of ignorance, pain and attachment—but also was a centre of
discussions, discourses, seminars on matters of religion and spiritualism.
It was a great centre of learning and acquisition of knowledge—the sure
way of attaining salvation.
If one looks at the map, one would not fail to notice that the
consistently eastward flowing Ganga abruptly swings NE at Varanasi
and flows in that direction for about a hundred kilometres before resuming
its original direction eastwards (Fig. 8.10A). The channel swing gives the
impression of the river being forced to turn northwards. In other words,
there is a tectonic control on the flow of the river. The geologists know
that underneath the pile of thousands of metres of sediments of the Ganga
Plain, there are underground hidden ridges of Precambrian rocks trending
in the NE direction. Many of these hidden ridges are delimited by faults,
some of them active and causing earthquakes. In short, the under-surface
transverse ridges and faults seem to have been responsible for the singular
drainage pattern (Valdiya, 1976; Raiverman et al., 1993). One of these
subsurface faults, when reactivated, could have been responsible for the
NE turning of the Ganga.
West of Kashi, the Yamuna meets the Ganga. The sangam or
confluence is known as Praydg (now Allahabad) (Fig. 8.10B). Sometime
after 3800 years B.P., when the west-flowing Tamasa branch of the
Saraswati suddenly swung south to join the Yamuna, there was the
mingling of waters of three rivers—the Ganga, the Yamuna and the
Saraswati. Hence, it was called Triveni. It became a holy teerth, where the
trimurti Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva reside together.
In the plains of northern Bharatvarsh, Badarikashram—the seat
(dhdm) of Vishnu—was a favourite centre of activities of Shiva, Vishnu
and Brahma. It was also a celebrated centre of religious discourses and
scholarly pursuits. It is this area that nurtured the Sanskrit language,
grammar, science and philosophy of the Vedic and the Puran times. The
famous Vyas Ashram was nearby on the bank of the Saraswati.
That Badarikashram was in the plains is evident from the description
in the Padma Puran (Uttar Khand, 232) that it was a short distance from
Madhuvan on the Yamuna River. Moreover, Rishi Narad was advised to
proceed from Prayag to Badarikashram (Mahdbharat, Teerthyatra Parva,
45, V-13). The rivers Saraswati and Yamuna were not far from this place.
This is evident from the anecdote that once Shiva was very depressed and
in acute remorse (because of inadvertent killing of a Brahman). He came
to see Vishnu, who happened to be away. In order to get over depression
he went to the Yamuna to take a bath, and finding it without water he
moved to the Saraswati, originating in a forest of Plaksh trees, which was
also dry (Vaman Puran, 3, V-68).
(B)
Fig. 8.9. (A) Bheemeshwar shrine is close to the source of the Bheemrathi (=Bhima of
the present) in the scarp-defined northern Sahyadri.
(B) Omkareshwar resides close to the island between two branches of the bifurcated
River Narmada. The river flows in a rift valley of Precambrian origin that represents
tectonic divide between northern and southern India.
(A)
(B)
Fig. 8.10. (A) Kashi (Varanasi) is located on the Ganga that suddenly swings in the
NE direction to flow in that direction for about 100 km before resuming its easterly
course.
(B) Prayag (Allahabad) was earlier the confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna.
After the eastern branch of the west-flowing Saraswati suddenly swung southwards
and joined the Yamuna, Prayag became Triveni, where the waters of the Saraswati
also mingled with those of the Ganga and the Yamuna.
stHJSc'MlfasjcfSr ?1# «Kft#ISTO^ ll 6 II

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(Vaman Puran, 3)
That it was on the plain is further borne out by the kind of flora that
grew there—the flowering Butea monosperma ('Paldsh'), Bauhinia variegata
('Kachnar'), 'Amaltash', 'salla' (pine) and jujube {her) {Vaman Puran, 6).
71# cfH# W7t Rb^’l I
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{Vaman Puran, 6)
The holy place was called Badarikashram probably after the shrub
badari or ber, Zizyphus jujube, which grew abundantly along with 'salla'
(pine), plum and bamboo {Vdlmiki Rdmdyan, 55, V-8).
Fv^MMIfasT M -qi^: n 8 n
{Vdlmiki Rdmdyan, 55)
Kurukshetra was the most important teerth in Brahrriavart, the land

between the rivers Saraswati in the north and Drishadvati in the south
{Mahdbhdrat, Teerthyatra Parv, 83).
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{Mahdbhdrat, Teerthyatra Parv, 83)
The famous Brahmasar Lake nestled in the area. It was earlier called
Brahmasarovar {Vaman Puran, 32), close or related to the River Saraswati.
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{Vaman Puran, 32)
Associated with Badarikashram and Kurukshetra, there were tens

of teerths on the banks of the River Saraswati, and some along the
Drishadwati (Narad Puran, 156, 157). Indeed, the entire stretch of the
middle reaches of the river was dotted with teerths, visited, among others,
by Balram, the elder brother of Krishna. Balram had followed the course
of the Saraswati from where it discharges into the sea (Saraswati-samudra-
sangam) to the place where it descends onto the plain at the foothills of
Siwalik Hills (Mahdhhdrat, Shalya Parv, 40).
SHIVA SHRINES IN CENTRAL INDIA
One of the most important Jyotirlings of Shiva is situated at Amarkantak

(22°30'N:82°E) on the high point (1127 m) of the Maikal Range (Udaydchal)
in northern Chhattisgarh (Fig. 8.11). The Maikal is a NE-SW trending
flat-topped hill range with its fascinating series of buttes and mesas
sculptured by rain and wind. With its shear scarps, the hill is cut by
amphitheatre-like deep valleys and high waterfalls. The plateau is made
of pahoehoe lavas of the Deccan Volcanic Province (Shrivastava and
Pattanayak, 2002). The lavas are characterized by ellipsoidal and
spheroidal bodies resulting from a process in which balloon-like inflation
played a dominant role (Kashyap et ah, 2010).
It is the source of the River Narmada, the holiest of the holy rivers of
Bharatvarsh. Besides, the west-flowing Narmada, the Son flowing
northwards and the Mahanadi going west also originate in the Maikal
Range.
SHIVA'S CELESTIAL SYMBOLS IN SOUTH INDIA
The east-flowing River Krishna makes a singular box-like drainage pattern

by two very sharp and rectangular bends around the Shreeshailam Hill in
Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 8.12A). In his Mallikaijun form Shiva resides atop
the Shreeshailam. The term "Mallikarjun" implies combination of Mallika
(Parvati) and Arjun (Shiva) (Kurma Puran, 30, V. 45-48; Padma Puran, 21,
V 11-12). The Shreeshailam shrine is thus quite unique in the sense that
both Shiva and Parvati are enshrined in one symbol. Raghav (Ram) had
performed puja of Shiva's Ling in this shrine (Kurma Puran, Purva Khand,
20).
Fig. 8.11. Satellite photographs of the flat-topped Maikal Range with its Amarkantak
shrine of Shiva overlooking sheer scarps on all sides. Notice amphitheatre-like deep
cuts of the river Narmada flowing west from the lava pile.
Fig. 8.12. (A) Quartzites and shales of the Mesoproterozoic Cuddapah Supergroup
form the geomorphic eminence Shrishailam (Srisailam) on which sits Mallikarjun —
combined Parvati and Shiva. The shrine is ensconced within a box formed of river
bends.
(B) The Dhanushkoti island — one among the string of coral islands linking
underwater Tamil Nadu with Sri Lanka — provides the abode to Shiva's celestial
symbol in the form of Rameshwar.
h*Rcih>ih i
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(Kurrna Puran, Purv Khand, 20)
The Shreeshailam (Srisailam) Hill is made up of quartzites and shales

belonging to the Cuddapah Supergroup, the rocks dating back to the
period 1700 to 1250 million years ago (Prasad et ah, 1987; Bhaskar Rao et
al., 1995). The rocks that represent the Jyotirling could be 1400 to 1200
million years old. The box-like drainage resulting from rectangular bends
indicate tectonic control on the flow of the Krishna—the river forced to
turn north and then south by two parallel faults.
The celebrated dham of Shiva Rameshwaram is located at the
northwestern extremity of a chain of coral islands called Ram Setu or the
Adam's Bridge. The Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka is made up of Miocene
limestones, which extends underwater across the sea to Tamil Nadu
(Senaratne and Dissanayake, 1982). This limestone forms the basement
on which younger sediments ranging in age from Miocene to Pleistocene
(23 to 1 million years) were laid down. Marine corals grew there amidst
sediments and formed islands in warm shallow Welter. Most of the islands
are presently below the seawater level, but they do form a discontinuous
underwater chain, bridging Tamil Nadu with Sri Lanka.
One of these islands which rises above the sea level and is bigger in
size—the Dhanushkoti Island—provides the abode to Shiva. Rameshwar
represents Shiva, the God that unifies the entire Bharatvarsha as one
nation.
THE HUMAN TRAITS OF PURAN GODS
Having dealt at length with the abodes of Shiva, it would be in order to

bring out the humane traits of gods and show their human face.
The gods were magnificiently extraordinary personalities gifted with
singular talents, uncommon competence and progidious power. They
guided the destinies of the people and led them on the path of righteousness
and wellness. They helped the people in every way possible. They were
endowed with winning qualities, superior intellectual strength, and
sublime spiritual love that invested them with the aura of divinity. They
were regarded as gods, and venerated and adored universally. It was

these extraordinary, rather superhuman, leaders whose memories have
been perpetrated symbolically by Jyotirlings, Shaktipeeths, temples and
shrines.
In our time, great personalities and heroes are carved into statues
and placed on pedastals at public places. In the Puran time, the symbol or
images of the charismatic persons of exceptional qualities whom the people
venerated and adored were placed on platforms and put under shelters
of temples. They had not more than a dozen such venerable heroes; we
have today a quite a few thousand.
However, these gods had very human faces—quite common humane
traits. The fact that the gods often came to the rescue of the people of their
own ethnic groups, and were also involved in battles and combats with
the asurs (tribals), implies that they also had the weaknesses of the common
human being. As already stated in Chapter 7, Brahma and Vishnu were
the spiritual leaders of the ethnic group of Devatas, also called the Surs,
who peopled Ilavritvarsh and a large part of Bharatvarsh.
Shiva was the lord of the Kirat tribal group in the northern Himalayan
domain. He was an austere and ascetic character who lived very simply
like his own folks, and wore skin clothes like the Kirats. He was utterly
humane, very temperamental and used to get pleased quickly and lost his
temper quite often. Shiva fell in love with Uma, sent proposal for marriage
through a delegation of sages, married her and fathered two sons—
Kartikeya and Ganesh (Devi Puran, 7, V-20). When Shiva was ignored
and insulted by his father-in-law, Daksha, and the agonised Uma
immolated herself, he became wild with uncontrollable grief, wandering
from place to place, from mountain to mountain, seeing her in dreams,
sometimes crying, sometimes laughing (Vaman Puran, 6).
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(Vaman Puran, 6)
After the Samudramanthan, when Mohini was dancing with a jar of

elixir (amrit), Shiva fell in love with her, was erotically excited, chased her
and caught hold of her in his embrace (Bhagwat Purdn, Ashtham Khand, 12).
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(Bhagwat Purdn, Ashtham Khand, 12)
In order to win the Surs' battles against the Asms, Vishnu was twice
constrained to indulge in deceit. By impersonating, he violated the modesty
(pdtivratya) of two unsuspecting gullible wives—Vrinda, the wife of
Jalandhar, and Tulsi, the devoted wife of Shankhachud, both of whom in
the darkness of night thought they were having sex with their husbands
(Shiva Purdn, Pratham Rudrasanhita, Yuddh Khand, 23 and Dwiteeya
Rudrasanhita, Yuddh Khand, 41).
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II 39 II
(Shiva Purdn, Pratham Rudrasanhita, Yuddh Kand, 23)
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(Shiva Purdn, Dwiteeya Rudrasanhita, Yuddh Kand, 41)
For this sinful actions, Vishnu was cursed by the pious wives.
Vishnu, in his incarnations as Ram and Krishna, fought the forces of
evil and villainy, and experienced ups and downs in dealing with both
the Sur and Asur groups.
As Ram, he went through the suffering of 14-year exile (vanvds) and
the trauma of abduction of his wife Sita. During the battle with Ravan's
army, he was grievously wounded along with his brother Lakshman and
fell unconscious (Valmiki Ramayan, Yuddha Kand, 73).
TFT ^ Wf W cTWfa I
(Vdlmiki Rdmdyan, Yuddha Kand, 73)
Later in life, the immensely loving, very kind-hearted and just Ram
banished his extremely devoted, faithful and chaste wife Sita when she
was pregnant, and heartlessly ordered that she be left alone in an animal-
infested forest, without food, without means of sustenance, without
guidance, without making any arrangement for living, and without a
word of regret—just because a couple of lowly persons at Ayodhya were
critical of his taking her back because she was in the captivity of Ravan
(Vdlmiki Ramayan, Uttar Khand, 97).
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MRrMrN H^l -Hint ^ SFFtjftft 114 II

(Vdlmiki Ramayan, Uttar Kand, 97)
These facts show that Ram was, indeed, a human being with all his
foibles and goodness.
Krishna lived all his long life with gusto, joy, romance and elan. He
was utterly pragmatic in his approach to life, and pursued his policy of
love for the dear ones, sam (diplomacy), dam (reward) for the wiley, and
dand (punishment) for the cunning and villains. He was truly a karmayogi,
who lived his life the way he wanted. Bhdgwat Geeta demonstrates that he
was a greatest philosopher, thinker and doer of all times.
I wish to emphasize the fact that the great reverence with which
Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma were held by the people of the Meruland and
Bhdratvarsh led to the deification of the trinity. But the scholars and sddhaks
believed in the existence of one God, the Brahma (W), who manifests
himself or functions in three forms—Brahma, the creator, Vishnu, the
protector, and Shiva, the destroyer. In the post-Puranic time, even the
exceptionally gifted personalities like Ram and Krishna, who vanquished
the forces of evil, were deified and regarded as incarnations of the protector
(Vishnu).
Ashrams and Purs
OBJECTIVES OF ESTABLISHING ASHRAMS
The sages and saintly scholars of the Puran period were fired with the
zeal of spreading education, imparting knowledge in philosophy and
religion, and training people in the art of living with dignity, decency and
security. Towards this end, ashrams were established in different parts of
the country (Fig. 9.1), invariably in biodiverse forests away from the din
and bustle of settlements and close to nature. A chosen few went to the
specialized ashrams to obtain the benefits of training in arms and weapons.
The ashrams, to my mind, represented the great mission for education
and knowledge.
The centres of learning were associated with hermitages of rishis (sages)
who had their own schools of thoughts and philosophy. Maharshis and
rishis were the gurus (teachers). Munis were commentators, and possibly
the research scholars who helped the gurus in their academic pursuits.
Princes and sons of warriors attended these schools with the commoners.
For example, Ram got his schooling at Rishi Bharclwaj's ashram and
Krishna was in the school rim by Rishi Sandipani. The students lived in
kuteers—cottages and huts serving as hostels—under the supervision of
their gurus.
VIEWPOINTS OF ABORIGINE TRIBALS
The aborigine tribals—ddivasis—inhabiting the forests and mountains were,

however, suspicious of the rishis of the Sur communities establishing their
schools (ashrams) in their forest reserves. They were more suspicious of
yagyas and havans, the routine rituals or chores in the ashrams. For, this
mode of worship was utterly different from their own. The tribals regarded
the establishment of ashrams in forests as an attempt by the Surs to colonize
their lands.
These suspicions engendered hostility and caused conflicts and
confrontations. The tribals harassed the inmates of ashrams; there were
sniping and often combats with the forces that rulers dispatched for
punitive measures. The rulers and the gods had to come to the help of the
ashram inmates to ward off attacks and quell disturbances.
SOME WELL-KNOWN ASHRAMS
A few ashrams (Fig. 9.1) evoke interest for the key roles the gurus of the
ashrams played in the making of the history of the country, and in the
compilation of materials for reconstructing the history, social evolution,
and the geography and spiritual education of the Indian society.
Rishi Agastya was a pioneer explorer who crossed the Vindhya Range
to reach southern India. Fie was a missionary educationist who established
his ashrams in a number of places including, among others, Panchvati on
the bank of Godavari River and in the distant Malaya Giri in the southern
extremity of the Peninsular India. His disciple, Suteekshan, managed his
ashram in the Dandakaranya, while he moved to a place about 2 yojans
away from Panchvati on the Godavari bank (Padma Puran, Uttarkhand,
255). Ram with Sita and Lakshman had spent most of the time of their
exile at Panchvati. It was at Panchvati where Lakshman cut the nose of a
tribal beau Surpanakha, and where Ram and Lakshman killed the tribal
chiefs Khar and Dushan with their large forces (Padma Puran, Uttarkhand,
255). The recluse, pious and devoted Sabari lived in the forest not far from
this place. There is a river named Shabari in southeastern Chhattisgarh
close to the boundary between this state with Orissa.
Rishi Manu, who wrote the law for the people, performed tapasya at
Naimisharanya on the bank of the Gomati, a tributary of the Ganga River
(Padma Puran, Uttarkhand, 255).
Ashrams and Purs 147
Fig. 9.1. Map shows the location of some well-planned cities, towns and ashrams
described in the Purans and epics.
Rishi Bhardwaj's ashram was at Chitrakoot, on the bank of the

Mandakini or Malyawati emanating from the Vindhya Range (Valmiki
Rdmayan, Ayodhya Kand, 56). It was in this ashram where the Ayodhya
princes—Ram and his three brothers—were educated in their early years.
(Vdlntiki Rdmayan, Ayodhya Kand, 56)
The poet-laureate Rishi Valmiki had founded his ashram on the banks of
the Ganga, close to Bithoor in the present-day Kanpur district. During his
exile. Ram, with Sita and Lakshman, had lived in this ashram for some time.
Later, Valmiki's ashram provided shelter to the pregnant Sita banished by her
husband Ram. It was the birth place of the twin Lav and Kush, who probably
inspired the Rishi poet to compose the Rdmayan—embodying the most
authentic history of the Surs, and the precise description of the geography of
Bharatvarsh. It was Valmiki's Rdmayan that provided the groundwork for
the compilation of the Mahabharat by Krishna Dvaipayan Vyas.
There were a number of ashrams on the banks of the River Saraswati.
At the point where the Himalayan river debouches onto the plain at the
foot of the Siwalik Hills, sages Vasishth and Vishwamitra had built their
ashrams on the opposite banks. Flowing past Kurukshetra, the Saraswati
provided suitable sites for a number of ashrams of scholarly sages, including
Krishna Dvaipayan Vyas.
Further downstream, there were two ashrams of repute—one in
Kamyakvan and the other in Dvaitvan (Mahabharat, Van Parva, 24, 25).
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(Mahabharat, Van Parva, 24, 25)
Rishi Dhaumya's ashram was located in the Kamyak forest. It was a

great centre of academic pursuits and intellectual activity, where seekers
of knowledge came from all over the country during the Mahabharat
time. The visitors included the Pandavs from Indraprastha and Krishna
with Satyabhama from Dwarka (Mahabharat, Van Parva, 20).
CITIES AND TOWNS: PURS AND PURIS
Elite-centric Settlements
While scholars, philosophers and gurus lived in their ashrams in woods,

the kings of states and chieftains or satraps of principalities lived in purs
(cities) and puris (towns) (Fig. 9.1). In the Purans and epics are mentioned
only the capitals of states with their magnificent palaces, bejewelled gates,
walls and minarets, etc. However, these works are absolutely silent about
the residential and commercial sectors of cities for the common people, of
the streets and lanes in cities, of public facilities, of ceremonial gathering
grounds, etc. In fact, beyond mention of the public rejoicing on the
victorious returns from battlefields and mourning deaths of the kings (or
princes), there is no mention of the people's lifestyle, of their pursuits of
avocations, of their problems (except mentioning droughts and deluges).
The Purans and the epics are thus wholly focused on gods, rishis, kings
and tribal trouble-makers.
In-the present work only those cities are described which were
planned well, better fortified against enemy attacks, and which contained
municipal amenities. It may be emphasized that these cities were built in
strategic places—on trade routes, invariably on the banks of rivers or on
the seacoasts. The cities were the seats of power of the rulers.
Mathura
Mathura (27°28'N:77°41'E) (Figs. 9.1 and 9.2 middle), the capital of the
Yadav kings, was on the banks of River Yamuna. It was in one of the
prisons of King Kans where Krishna was bom to his captive mother. Not
far upstream were Vrindavan and Gokul, where Krishna and his elder
brother Balram spent their childhood with the community of predominant
cow-rearing people. Some knowledge of the joys and sorrows and of the
well being of the rural people of these rural areas can be gleaned from the
joyous, playful and adventurous life of Krishna with his friends—the Cops
and Gopis.
After slaying of Kans, Mathura was under constant threat of invasions
from Magadh's powerful king Jarasandh, the Andhak chief Kalya van
and the Chedi king Shishupal. Realizing the superiority of the enemy armies
and the disreputable conditions of defence in Mathura, Krishna left for
Dwarka with his Yadav people to settle down along the western sea coast.
From the reasons given by Krishna for abandoning Mathura, it is apparent
that it was once a well-planned city, but the condition had deteriorated
requiring extensive repair. The defensive ditches in the periphery of the
boundary wall were filled up with silt and garbage, and were devoid of
water. The boundary wall had fallen in many places. The armoury was
without arms and weapons (Harivansh Puran, Vishnu Parv, 38).
n 58 ii
Dwarka
Threatened by enemies from many sides and realizing the poor state of
defence system in Mathura, Krishna (Vishnu Puran, 23) decided to take
his people to a place which was not vulnerable to attacks from invaders
and desperadoes (Figs. 9.1 and 9.4A). He sent his trusted assistant Garud
to do a preliminary survey in the west coast. Garud recommended the
northwestern tip of a peninsula in Prabhaskshetra, which was enclosed
by the sea on three sides and a tidal flat barred the land entry from the
east (Figs. 9.3 and 9.4A). In the tidal flat tall kush grass grew prolifically.
The ground sloped northwards and eastwards (Harivansh Puran, Vishnu
Parv, 55).
II 104 II
n 105 n
Garud had suggested that a part of land be reclaimed from the sea to
develop a large city (Harivansh Puran, Vishnu Parv, 58).
WR: I
<RT: II 34 II
The city of Dwarka (24°14'N:69°E) was constructed in accordance

with the norms of architecture (vastu shastra), and on the model of
Amaravati, the capital of Indra in Ilavritvarsh. It was fortified by boundary
walls with minarets and gates and by peripheral ditches. The city had
temples, crossroads, lanes and many palaces, as they were at Amaravati
(Harivansh Puran, Vishnu Parv, 58).
(C)
Fig. 9.2. Satellite pictures show the modern cities:

(A) Ayodhya on the bank of the Saryu.
(B) Mathura on the bank of the Yamuna.
(C) Haridwar or Gangadwar on the bank of the Ganga.
Fig. 9.3. An artist's visualization of parts of the city of Dwarka, close to the sea
coast. (Courtesy: A.S. Gaur, NIO, Goa)
4c3{TH WTFlfe ^FRT: ^#T ^ II 7 II

414ai <MHl4«M 5RTRFT ^ 4T Trfcf: II 9 II
A piece of land was possibly reclaimed from the sea (Vishnu Puran,
23), presumably by building some sort of sea walls or buttress walls or
groynes. There must have been efforts to minimize erosion by sea waves.
Significantly, the remains of one of these walls or groynes can be seen
today on the eastern side of Bet Dwarka (Fig. 9.4B). A pottery piece
embedded in one of the walls gave a thermo-luminescence date of 3528 yr
B.P. (Rao, 1999). A part of this wall has sunk under water.
Marine archaeologists have found a number of relics of Dwarka that
later sank into the sea (Gaur et al., 2000). Investigations in the offshore
belt of Dwarka shows beyond doubt the existence of underwater bastions
of the walls of a fort (S.R. Rao, 1990), or bases of pillars representing a
jetty (Gaur et ah, 2004). Excavations at Bet Dwarka reveal a cultural
sequence commencing at 3800 yr B.P. and ending at about 1600 yr B.P.
(Gaur et al., 2007). From these discoveries, it is apparent that not only a
part of Bet Dwarka but also a number of settlements of the period 2050 to
1650 yr B.P. lay quite below—about 2 m below—the present sea level
(Gaur et al., 2007).
The Dwarka founded by Krishna lay close to a kush-sthali (marshy
land with weeds) in the Anart territory now known as Saurashtra (Skand
Puran, Prabhdskhand, Chapter 2, verses 3-4). It was thus located north of
the present Dwarka, possibly in the area of Bet Dwarka. Quite a part of
that original Dwarka was lost in the sea (Skand Puran, Prabhdskhand,
Chapter 14, verse 1), probably as the consequence of a tectonic upheaval
(Sankalia, 1966; S.R. Rao, 1995; Valdiya, 2002).
In the time of the Purans and the Mahdbharat, the Khambhat-
Sabarmati Basin was a vast flood-plain formed of sediments, including
those laid down in the Later Quaternary and Holocene times by the rivers
152 Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Purattas and Epics
such as the Sabarmati and Mahi (Merh 1993, 1995; Merh and Chamyal,
1997; Tandon et ah, 1997; Chamyal et ah, 2003; Jain and Tandon, 2003;
Juyal et ah, 2003). This is further evident from the fact of descriptions in
the Purans of a large number of teerths on the banks of these rivers. The
geological history of the Basin is not in consonance with postulation that
the Gulf of Khambhat extended north as far as Patan along the Sabarmati
basin. Therefore, Krishna's Dwarka could not have been located, as
suggested by Iyengar and Radhakrishna (2005), on the eastern bank of
the Cambay basin close to Patan (23°52'N:72°1'E).
The people of Dwarka and other settlements in Prabhaskshetra were
prosperous. Some of them traded with pearls, shells and corals collected
by fishermen from the seabed (Harivansh Purdn, Vishnu Purdn, 38).
HIW ^ || 39 II
(Harivansh Purdn, Vishnu Purdn, 38)
East of Dwarkapuri was Raivat Parvat, standing impressively as a

gateway to the Yadav capital (Harivansh Purdn, Vishnu Parv, 38). It was
the place where the Yadavs went with great enthusiasm to celebrate their
annual festivals and feasts with fanfare.
:
nMKliftnat: || 27 II
(Harivansh Purdn, Vishnu Parva, 56)
Hastinapur
In the Vdlmiki Ramayan (II, 60.10), Hastinapur is described as the city

located on the bank of the Ganga that flowed through the state of Panchal.
To the west in the Kurujangal region, the city of Kurukshetra was situated
on the Saraswati bank. In the east flowed the River Varuni.
^ 7tTTT '*PJ: I
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<4l<?,jn II 11 II
Vdlmiki Ramayan (II, 62.10-11)
M '■
(B)
Fig. 9.4. (A) Satellite photograph shows Dwarka-Bet Dwarka secured from three
sides by the sea and by a tidal flat in the east. Raivat Parvat lay to the east of Dwarka.
(B) A retaining wall protecting Bet Dwarka against wave erosion contains 3528-year
old pottery piece. Its offshore part has sunk into the sea.
(After: S.R. Rao, 1999).
(B)
Fig. 9.5. (A) Photographs of the remains of the dockyards (upper) and of drainage and
brick-made storage pot at Lothal.
(B) An artist depicts a large store house for cargos adjacent to dockyard connected by
a canal to the sea — Gulf of Khambat. (Courtesy: A.S. Gaur, NIO, Goa)
A town about 35 km NE of Meerut in the Mawana tahsil seems to be

the relic of the Kuru clan's capital Hastinapur. Kurujangal embraces what
is today the Rohtak-Hansi-Hissar region in Haryana (Agrawala, 1953).
Archaeological excavations at Hastinapur revealed, in addition to
the Medieval and the Sung-Kushan and the Northern Black Polished Ware
remains in the upper part, the evidence of settlements belonging to the
Painted Grey Ware period (3100-2800 yr B.P.) (1100-800 B.C) (Lai, 1988).
According to Lai, the Painted Grey Ware people witnessed the Mahabharat
history. The older Ochre-Coloured (Red) Ware settlements occur
extensively in the Ganga-Yamuna basin. If one were to compare the Painted
Grey Ware settlements with those of the Late Harappan settlements, such
as at Bhagwanpura in the Saraswati domain where the houses had as
many as 13 rooms, it can be inferred that Hastinapur must have been a
fairly developed town. This is further evident from the testimony of iron
tools and weapons, glass bangles, and the chaupar board recovered in the
excavations. Significantly, east of Hastinapur at Atranjikhera (in Etah
district), the Painted Grey Ware remains have yielded carbon date of
3155±100 yr B.P., and at Jhinghana, Narsipur, Atranjikhara and Lai Qila,
the Ochre-Coloured (Red) Ware things have yielded a thermoluminescence
date more than 3200 yr B.P. (2650-2000 bc) (Lai, 1988). The OCW
settlements existed at Hastinapur sometime between 2000-1500 bc.
Indirect testimony of Hastinapur's history comes from the existence
in the Yamuna basin of the five villages that the Pandavs had asked for,
namely, Indraprasth (sDelhi), Paniprasth (sPanipat), Sonprastha
(=Sonepat), Tilaprasth (=Tilpat) and Vrikprasth (=Bagpat), which continue
to flourish today. Varanavat, where Duryodhan conspired to burn the
Pandavs in a hut made of an inflammable material, is today known as
Bamawa, located at the confluence of the Hindan and Krishni rivulets—
the tributaries of the Yamuna.
Ayodhya
In the east was Ayodhya (26°48'N:82°14'), the capital of Kosal kingdom

of the Ikshwaku rulers on the bank of the River Sarvu (Figs. 9.1 and 9.2A).
Archaeological excavations at the point, where Ram Janmabhumi was
located, showed two levels of prehistorical occupation—Later Painted Grey
Ware Culture below and Northern Black Polished Ware above (Lai, 1988).
At the place where Ram, Lakshman and Sita crossed the Ganga and at
Bhardwaj Ashram (in the present-day Allahabad), archaeological remains
such as domestic and agricultural tools made of iron, square weights,
silver and copper coins, kiln-fired bricks and terracotta figurines indicate
Black Polished Ware Culture (Lai, 1988).
Other Towns
There are quite a few towns and major settlements mentioned in the
Purans and epics, mostly capitals of kingdoms—or seats of power of rulers.
However, there is nothing special about them to deserve discussion.
Around the Mahakal Jyotirling in Ujjayini (23°11'N:75°51'E) (Fig. 9.1),
a town developed on the bank of the River Kshipra. Archaeological
excavations revealed four periods of occupation, including the Black and
Red Ware Culture. There is clear evidence of mud fortification of the town
and of the existence of factories for smelting and forging iron (Bhattacharya,
1999).
Far in the northwest was a great centre of teaching—Takshashila
(33o40'N:72o50') (Fig. 9.1) near Peshawar of the present. It was the capital
of the state of Gandhar.
Some towns are dealt in the following pages which relate to the
expansionist planning of the ambitious rulers such as Yadu of the Yadav
clan. He advised his four sons to build outposts of their empire in central
and southwestern parts of the country they had conquered. Prince
Muchkund built his town in the Rishwan Hill, one of the Vindhyan hills
close to the Narmada River. Prince Padmavama founded his capital atop
one of the hills of the Sahyadri Range. Prince Saras went west and occupied
the lush green land of flowering trees, presumably in the coastal belt.
Significantly, Prince Saras built his capital Kraunch in an area where
copper was mined and sold. Prince Harit crossed the sea and founded his
capital in an island where fisherman dived deep to collect shells, corals
and pearls. The fishermen used boats to harvest their marine crops
(Harivansh Puran, Vishnu khand, 38).
fr&rag ^^117 11
WFT fdTFTTfSRT: I
■q^wrfsfq 3 35ft Ph^pt^ PT fdiq II 8 II
d^d Xp^f; cMm} I
■RR# ^ ^ l^q ■3^: II 9 II
tcjtyq HgMI£: RFR dMd% I
WRFSIFT ^ 3 mdfawjft II 10 II
hk^hiPm MfcT T^q *1^131 ^ I

-dU^wU^d fajd dl^Pd+H M 27 II
7R3? dl^ll **K^ H,'1I HSjU dIH fa?jdT: I
3 dTPd mt TTJFf U^SkWlPhn: || 30 II

dfqiT) dIVMdl: Udldl^dH^fdl'l I
yTd-dPd Tfdl dld^M ^ 4frRRq 1131 II
•JUd'JllPl ^ tHlfd fdMKI'kl^q Hlddl: I
MfeRMls^ -qm ■#(?: HdHdlfHd: II 32 II
(Harivansh Puran, Vishnu khand, 38)
THE HARAPPAN TOWNS
If one were to equate Harappa Civilization with the Puran-Mahabharat

culture, as a number of scholars do (Wankankar, 1987; Rao, 1991, 1999;
Gupta, 1996; Lai, 1998, 2002; Bisht, 1998; Valdiya, 2002), then there were
2600 settlements on the flood-plains of the Saraswati and the Sindhu river
systems, and in the Gujarat coastal belt, particularly Kachchh-Saurashtra
region (Figs. 7.4 and 7.5). Kachchh and Saurashtra lie within the extent
of the Puranic Prabhaskshetra. These settlements testify to the splendour,
aesthetic taste, architectural understanding and of the tastes of the
people living in these parts of Bharatvarsh in the period 5500 yr B.P. to
3300 yr B.P.
Such towns or cities as Dholavira (in the Gulf of Kachchh), Lothal (on
the Khambhat Gulf), (Fig. 9.5) Mohenjoddro (on the bank of the Sindhu),
Harappa (on the Ravi), Ganweriwdla (Hakra reach of the Saraswati),
Kdlibangdn, Kunal, Banawali and Bhagwanpurd (on the bank of the Ghagghar
reach of the Saraswati), Sothi and Rdkhigarhi (on the bank of the
Drishadwati) were well planned and the houses constructed were in
Fig. 9.6. Well-planned cities of the Harappa Civilization

(A) Kalibangan (After Lai, 1979)
(B) Banawali (After Bisht, 1984)
(C) Surkctda (After Joshi, 2008)
(D) Kalibangan (After Bisht, 1998)
accordance with the norms of architecture (Bisht, 1984, 1991, 1998; Gupta,
1996; Joshi, 1972, 2008; Joshi and Bisht, 1999; Lai, 1979, 1998, 2002;
Mughal 1974, 1995; Rao, 1991, 1999; B.K. Thapar, 1975). The cities were
divided into sectors like citadels, residential areas, commercial blocks, and
open ceremonial spaces. They used bricks of standard proportion to build
houses. Some houses had bathing place connected to the municipal
drainage system, or to cess pits. Wells had brick linings. The houses were
built on sides of wide straight streets and lanes commonly oriented N-S
and E-W (Fig. 9.6).
Ashrams and Purs 15 7
At Mohenjodaro in the Sindhu plain, the houses were constructed

on raised platforms as a measure of protection from floods. At Dholavira,
on the coast, two ephemeral streams were dammed to store rainwater. At
Lothal there was a large dockyard which could harbour even large boats
or small ships, and there was a large store house for the cargo (Fig. 9.7.).
Studies of the people inhabiting the flood-plains of the Sindhu and
Saraswati rivers, and the coastal belt of Gujarat, indicate the elegance of
tastes and the breadth of wisdom of the people who lived in Bharatvarsh
5000 to 3000 years ago.
10
Tectonic Movements and
Natural Hazards
MANIFESTATION OF TECTONIC MOVEMENTS
When the earth's crust bulges up or is split by faulting, the ground surface
rises up in some parts and subsides in the adjoining places. The rupturing
of the ground is the surface expression of faulting. The faulting entails
uplift, subsidence, displacement or dislocation and even buckling of
landforms. This phenomenon results in considerable changes in the
geomorphology and modification of landscape. Rivers are deflected
commonly abruptly and change their courses, leaving behind abandoned
channels. Along coasts, the sinking of the land leads to inland invasion of
seawater, while the uplift forces seawater to retreat and expose new land
offshore. Many islands may appear as a culmination of this phenomena.
Sudden faulting of the crust is commonly accompanied by earthquakes—
the larger the extent of rupture, the greater would be the intensity of ground
shaking, and greater the extent of geomorphological changes.
In the last fifty-sixty thousand years of the Later Pleistocene and the
Holocene epochs, Bharatvarsh has witnessed many tectonic events of great
magnitude. There were long intervals of seismotectonic quiescence with
but short intervals of trembling.
Tectonic Movements and Natural Hazards 159
UPLIFT OF VINDHYA GIRI
Once the Vindhya Giri—the eastern sector of the present Vindhyan

Ranges—started rising up, creating problems of wide implications
including blocking of sunrays. The uplift was possibly attended by strong
ground shaking with falling down, on the ground of hill-peaks, causing
widespread panic in the animal world and among people (Skand Puran,
Kashikhand, 1, V-216; Devi Bhagzvat, 10th part, 17). In his venture to
establish ashrams in central and southern India, the pioneer sage Agastya
had to cross the Vindhya Giri. In his path stood lofty, craggy hills which
had then become impassably high.
^TT II 6 II
fwnjfr n 16 n
f^PlRuil I
^crlM cR N 26 II
(Devi Bhdgwat Purdn, Dasham Skandh, 17)
Agastya made special efforts to negotiate his way (Vaman Puran, 18,
V-21).
Tj fr=RR II 21 II
(Vaman Puran, 18)
It was clearly a case of sudden uplift of a part of the Vindhya range,

making it impassably high. It may be mentioned that there is an east-west
trending fault along the northern boundary of the Vindhyan, which is
manifest in (i) a chain of uplifted land with nearly 14 m high escarpment
on the southern bank of the Ganga (Bajpai, 1989) (ii) the 20-60 m high
cliff in the Sengar Valley (Fig. 10.1), and (iii) the deep incisions or cuts into
the valley of the Yamuna, and development of deep intricate ravines
(badlands) in the Chambal and Betwa rivers (Tandon et al., 2006). There
was also an earthquake near Kalpi on the Yamuna sometime after 5000
yr B.P (Singh et al, 1997). These features and facts imply sudden uplift,
accompanied by earthquake some time after 5000 yr B.P. This could have
made the Vindhyan difficult to cross when Agastya was on his way to
southern Bharatvarsh.
Fig. 10.1. The Vindhya terrane is cut by many faults. Reactivation of one of these in
the Middle to Later Holocene time must have resulted in the uplift of a part of the hill
range. (Based on Ram, et al.r 1996).
SINKING OF WESTERN COASTAL TRACT
The Kurma Puran (Chapter 43) describes a cataclysmic phenomena of

sinking of mountains and islands and disappearance of sea water,
presumably in the western coast.
Ulfedflm cT^TT Tpft

■q%U favfaR) RF)
(Kurma Puran, 43)
One explanation of this phenomena is provided by attributing the

plunging down and or penetration sliding under continental crust of India
of the oceanic crust of the Arabian Sea. This happened often and continues
to happen along the deep oceanic trench—the Oman Trench—parallel to
the Makran Coast in Pakistan. The floor of the Arabian Sea with its NNE-
SSW trending Owen Fracture plunges under the Makran coast marked
(B)
Fig. 10.2. (A) Along the Oman Oceanic Trench plunges down the oceanic crust into
the trench formed at the end of the Arabian Sea with its NNE-SSW trending Owen
Fracture. The phenomenon brings about strong tectonic upheaval, including the
heaving up of the coastal belt and uplift of hills. The Owen Fracture with its ridges
prods the coastal landforms.
(B) The Makran Hills along the coast is the result of the above-mentioned phenomenon.
Fig. 10.3. Satellite picture shows the part of the forested land that sank into the sea off
Mumbai dockyard (arrow). The hill of Matheran lies to the east of the sea. [From:
Google Earth].
by coastal hill ranges, shaking the land violently, driving away water,
sometimes as tsunamis, sinking of a number of islands due to the
subsidence of the sea floor (Fig. 10.2). The Kurma Purdn presumably alludes
to an event of this kind that overwhelmed the world of the Puran period.
The Makran coast has risen up episodically at least nine times in the
Holocene Epoch—in the last 11000 years—as testified by nine levels of
terraces of beach sands all along the extent of the coast (Page ct al.r 1979).
The 1946 earthquake originating in the Oman Trench generated a tsunami
that ravaged even the Mumbai Peninsula.
If one were to stretch the imagination, the plunging-penetration of
the oceanic crust under the continental plate is metaphorically expressed
in Varah Avatar, the incarnation of Vishnu as Varah, his plunging deep
into the ocean and lifting up the continental land with his tusk-like teeth
(Matsya Purdn, 248). The Owen Fracture with its ridges seemingly
represents the teeth of the boar (Chandrasekharam, 2009).
WRT^f ^FT%^d^cT: II 15 II
cRT: WddRl. II 16 II
'WPPTMST 11 17 11
(Matsya Purdn, 248)
Not only the Makran Coast, but quite a part of the west coast has
been rising intermittently as evident from raised beaches and steepened
topography. The southern coast of Saurashtra (Prabhaskshetra) was
uplifted five times (Merh, 1993). A tract of land between Alibag and
Vaitama in the Konkan Coastal Belt was uplifted 6 m, and between Revas
and Srivardhan it rose 3 to 4 m (Powar, 1993). The coastal belt has also
sunk in some sectors, as borne out by a buried forest at the depths of 6 to
12 m below the sea level off the Mumbai dockyard (Sukhtankar, 1995).
Twenty kilometres west of Hazira, a 9-kilometre long river palaeochannel
at a depth of 20 to 40 m below the sea level contains stone artefacts,
potsherds, hearth pieces, animal bones, human teeth and 9500-year-old
carbonized wood. The buried channel demonstrates that the coastal belt
had sunk (Kathiroli et al, 2002).
In the Narad Purdn (Uttarkhand), there is description of an event
when the Gokarna Teerth on the west coast was drowned along a 30-
yojana stretch, forcing the people to evacuate. The fleeing people sought
the help of sage Parashuram, who lived in the nearby mountain in the
high Sahyadri. Parashuram helped them to reclaim a part of the submerged
land and resettled the people in a new township named Shurparak
(Harivansh Puran, Vishnukhand, 39).
PPIT WR: I
$5J9I<)H WR c^TT II 29 II
(Harivansh Puran, Vishnukhand, 39)
This event possibly relates to the tectonic movement that caused

sinking of the forest off the Mumbai dockyard or the coastal belt west of
Hazira in southern Gujarat. Parashuram possibly lived in the high
Matheran Hill, close to the Mumbai Peninsula and from where the sea is
visible (Fig. 10.3).
EARTHQUAKES AND TSUNAMIS
When Ram was preparing for launching his campaign for the rescue of
Sita from the captivity of Ravan, there was a terrific noise like the clap of
thunder, the mountains shook and rocks fell down violently, and the waters
of rivers and lakes were greatly agitated. Snakes came out of their holes,
and frogs fled the coast. The sea water was tossed up and waves advanced
one yojan inland (Valmiki Rdmayan, Yuddha Kand, 22).
TpfcTTa II 6 II
^ mrftr uR<iw«n ii i n
^lyitensKlPn Tf || 10 II
W RETFT: II 14 II
era) WKfa: I
II 15 II
(Valmiki Rdmayan, Yuddha Kand, 22)
Apparently, an earthquake had hit the Rameshwaram coast and a

tsunami brought waves of sea water deep into the land. The coming out
of snakes in dazed condition and other burrowing animals and fleeing
away of toads from the coasts confirms the occurrence of an earthquake
at a time when Ram Setu was being constructed. Grant and Holliday
(2010) observed that five days prior to an earthquake of magnitude more
than M 4 at L'Aquila (Italy), the activity of the common toads (Bufo bufo)
in the breading sites, declined by 96% and on the day of earthquakes by
100%. The decline persisted for 10 days after the event in the breeding
site, which was 75 km away from the epicentre. This is attributed to
perturbation in the ionosphere 85 to 100 km above the ground. Likewise,
before the Wenchuan earthquake of magnitude 8.0 on May 12, 2008 in
China, a large number of toads left their ponds and roamed on the roads
(Bapat, 2010).
The geological record shows that the East Coast of India was
repeatedly hit by tsunamis generated in the oceanic trench—the Java
Trench—in front of the Andaman Island Arc. Even in historically recent
time, tsunamis occurred on December 31, 1881; June 26, 1941; September
13, 2002 and December 26, 2004 (Rajendran et al., 2003, 2007).
Earthquakes accompanied by tsunamis have been striking the Andaman
for tens of thousand years. This is evident from the legend among the
Jarawas of the Andamans. Some tribals of the Andaman Island survived
the 2004 Sumatra disaster owing to their knowledge passed down as myth
for generations that a wave that eats the people brought on by the angry
spirit of the ancestors could be avoided by immediately running to high
ground if the ocean recedes rapidly (National Geographic News, 2005).
When Krishna was on his way to Hastinapur to negotiate peace
between the Pandavs and the Kauravs, there was a roar as if a bolt from
the blue had struck in a cloudless sky, the ground shook, the east-flowing
streams inexplicably started going westwards, the waters of lakes and
ponds spilled over their shores, cluster after cluster of trees fell to the ground,
and the noise became a roar, even as a thick cloud of dust darkened the
sky (Mahabhdrat, Bhagwatyan Parv, 84).
|| 5 ||
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fchOfll f^TT: 'Sraf ^ hwhci fo-cn II 6 II
u 7 11
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II 10 II
(.Mahdbhdrat, Bhagwatyan Parv, 84)
Towards the fag end of the Mahabharat War at Kurukshetra, when

Bheem and Duryodhan were locked in combat, there was a thundering
noise, the ground along with trees trembled, the water level in wells rose
up, the jackals cried ominously, the shrieking animals ran helter-skelter,
and the sky was filled with a thick pall of dust, even as hill-tops collapsed
(.Mahdbhdrat, Part 4, 56).
'clêtfdl: Upmfal: ■qf^ WM ^ II 8 II

Tjscft ■HcIH^HI II 10 II
tWnkt: II 14 II
TpiT «t§fq^l«hKI: f^yft I
^cTT: '■iU^MI W^Tl: - II 12 II
TflTSIl^P^T: II 13 II
f#ii ftitsKi^ci qfedH ii n ii
(Mahabharat, Part 4, 56)
Again, thirty-six years after the end of the War, the people of
Hastinapur noticed very ominous signs—there was a thundering noise,
the birds flew clockwise in circles, the river water disappeared under sands,
and there was strange change in the atmospheric circulation (Mahdbhdrat,
Mausal Parv, 1, Chapter 1).
qdlfavl WJIk) ^ chUcl'KH: II 1 II
snroczjTft yjcpn -quîfa ii 2 n
f^fr I
(Mahdbhdrat, Mausal Parv, Part 1, Chapter 1)
The people also saw anomalous behaviour of animals and birds. rlhe
jackals barked at the rising sun, the owls hooted hoarse in the night, the
sky was filled with dust that hid the moon, and the calves stopped sucking
their mothers' udders even as cows refused to let themselves be milked
(,Bhdgwat Puran, Pratham Khand, 14).
II 12 II
^R: I
II 14 II
*J¥T f^TT: TtfoFT: <^<-J-ld Wlfsfa:
ftsfas BSIWI'd ^ Wtfanjfa: II 15 II
"5 ôRl R R W: I
^ 5T^ ii 19 ii
(Bhdgwat Puran, Pratham Khand, 14)
All these ominous signs and strange anomalous animal behaviour,

including the fleeing of toads Bufo bufo from the area, are recognized by
seismologists and geologists as precursor indicators of imminent
earthquakes (Deng et al, 1981; Grant et al, 2010). It is obvious that the
land of Kauravs and Pandavs was prone to recurrent seismicity. If one
looks at the map showing the distribution of epicentres (Fig. 10.4), one
will notice that concentration of a large number of earthquakes of small
and moderate magnitudes occur in the northeastern extremity of the
Aravali terrane, defined and cut by a number of long and deep faults
(Verma et al, 1995; Bhadauria et al, 1998).
Far west on the west coast, Dwarka also witnessed anomalous
behaviours of birds and animals, a precursor sign of impending earthquake,
on the thirty-sixth year after the Mahabharat War. Rats came out of their
holes and swarmed the streets, earthem pots in houses cracked for no
reason, birds chirped ceaselessly day in day out, cranes and owls hooted,
goats barked like jackals and pigeons fluttered incessantly in the sky
(Mahabharat, Mausal Parv, 2).
fÛHfu|cblW*TT I
W II 5 II
d)4l<$4)(d cTRTfR yiR+| cffbJT^Rg I
% ||6 II
3^^4-êhHI -grcsn 'cT«TT I
sm: fawtRPpfcr ii i n
(Mahabharat, Mausal Parv, 2)
Fig. 10.4. (A) The faulted northern extremity of the Aravali terrane, in which were
located Hastinapur, Indraprastha and Kurukshetra, is recurrently rocked by
earthquakes of low and moderate intensity (magnitudes). (Modified after Bhadauria
et al, 1998).
(B) Distribution of epicentres of historical earthquakes in northwestern part of India
(From Valdiya, 2002).
It has been already stated above that the strange behaviours of animals
and birds are taken by the present seismologists to signal imminent
occurrence of an earthquake or volcanic explosion. It seems Krishna
understood the nature's signals and advised his people to leave Dwarka as
early as possible—by land routes or by boats—and stay in a safer place in
southern Prabhaskshetra (Vishnu Puran, 37; Mahabharat, Mausal Parv, 2).
ohtIh II 36
ISIFW TftWIH I
WR PW4 II 37 II
(Vishnu Puran, 37)
cftshirai <4>l*ffd II 24 II
(Mahabharat, Mausal Parv, 2)
Soon after Krishna died, Dwarka sank into the sea. It happened
suddenly. Full of crocodiles and fish, the sea rose up and submerged
Dwarka with all its precious things (Vishnu Puran, 37). Seeing this, a few
of the people that had remained in town rushed out, exclaiming "What a
fate! —Oh my God! Oh my God!", "What a bad luck!!"
ft*# $ cTfcqq WRf I
{SWT II 41 II
<T^ cl^ fl«5liq<(mra *Rrk*l 7T WK: II 42 II
SPTfTMftRt -3RI: I
Wf II 43 II
(Vishnu Puran, 37)
The suddenness of the phenomenon indicates that it was the sinking

of the ground due to faulting down of the seaward part of the land. In
other words, the seaward side subsided a few metres. This is borne out by
steep to vertical cliff faces of the coastal land, disturbed morphology of
wave-cut notches and straircase-like platform (Pant and Juyal, 1993). The
faulting must have been accompanied by a major earthquake.
The Kachchh-Saurashtra domain is prone to repeated earthquakes
(Fig. 10.5). Some very large or major earthquakes have hit the terrain in
the present time stretching back to the middle Holocene time. Soft-sediment
Fig. 10.5. The land in Gujarat is cut by a number of long deep faults. Movements along
them not only caused sinking (drowning) and uplift of the land, but also generation
of earthquakes. (Based on Valdiya, 2002).
deformation features seismites related to the Allahband shows that there

were strong earthquakes in 3000 yr B.P. and 1000 yr B.P, in addition to ad
1819 of M 7.5 (Rajendran et al, 2002). The other earthquakes are the
Anjar event of 1956 and the January 26, 2002 event of Bhuj (M 7.7). To
the east-southeast of Dwarka in the Kothiyakhad area, seismites reveal
events around 2850±90 yr B.P and 3320±90 yr B.P. (Maurya et al, 1998)
and in the Dhadhar valley at 5570±30 yr B.P. (Raj et al, 2003). The Bharuch
earthquake of 1970 is the recent event in this part of Prabhaskshetra. Little
wonder that the coastal belt of Gujarat has been affected by sinking and
uplift of the land close to the shore.
The Skand Puran (Prabhaskhand), the Ramdyan, and the Mahabhdrat

contain numerous descriptions of stars flaring up to great brilliance and
of objects falling from the sky, some of which of metallic composition. The
Someskwar Ling, close to the sea and lying to the west of Mount Kritasmar
somewhere in the southern part of Prabhaskshetra, had a fiery origin, as
evident from its qualification as Tejoling representing Kalagni Rudra (Skand
Puran, Prabhaskhand, Chapter 7, 65-68; Chapter 8, 28-29). The
Someshwar seems to represent a meteorite that fell with violent impact,
resulting in the trembling of the ground, strong waves in the sea, and
great loss of life (Iyengar, 2004).
RIVERS CHANGED COURSES
Once early in life, the Kaurav prince Duryodhan made an evil scheme of
drowning the Pandav princes in the Ganga while they were asleep
(Mahabhdrat, Sambhav Parv, 113). After playing in the city garden, the
children were asleep under trees. The garden was on the bank of the
Ganga.
cf II 29 II
(Mahabhdrat, Sambhav Parv, 113)
The city garden on the bank of the Ganga implies that the city of
Hastinapur was located on the Ganga River. Archaeological evidence at
Alamgir in district Meerut indicates Painted Grey Ware Culture associated
with the Mahabharat time (Lai, 1998, 2002). Alamgir may possibly be
close to what was Hastinapur. Archaeological excavations at Alamgir on
the bank of the River Hindan in district Meerut yielded four cultural
sequences—the Harappa, the Painted Grey Wares, the Northern Black
Polished Wares and the Early Mughal—but no evidence of town planning
(Joshi, 2008). Among the artefacts found are cubical dices marked with 1
to 6 circles on the different faces (Lai, 2002). It may be recalled that
Duryodhan manipulated by the scheming Shakuni played a game of dice
with Yudhistir. At Alamgir, pieces of dice have been found. If Alamgir is
Hastinapur, then the Ganga has receded considerably eastwards since
the Mahabharat time. The geological history of the western Ganga Plain
clearly indicates the Ganga, along with other rivers including the Yamuna,
Abandoned channel
+ Archaeological site
^ Stream migration
Fig. 10.6. (A) The Yamuna migrated eastward as borne out by abandoned channels,
cut off meanders and levees. (Bakliwal and Sharma, 1980)
(B) The Ganga has flowed through many channels. The abandoned channels are
occupied by petty streams or are wet grounds. (Parkash et ah, 2000).
has progressively shifted eastwards (Fig. 10.6) as testified by many

abandoned channels, cut off meanders and levees, due primarily to
eastward tilting of the ground since about 2500 yr B.P. (Parkash et ah,
2000). Soil mantles occur in the interflueve areas, channels are appreciably
incised, and badland ravines are quite common, particularly in the
southwestern part of the Ganga Plain (Gibling et al., 2005). All these
features imply neotectonic uplift of the terrain (Valdiya, 2002, 2010).
The Yamuna has been moving progressively eastwards (Fig. 10.6A)
since the time Krishna was bom in a city prison of Mathura on the Yamuna
bank, the extent varying from 10 km at Kiraoli to 40 km at Kamon (Bakliwal
and Sharma, 1980).
Fig. 10.7. Satellite picture shows the NNW-SSE trending fault tearing apart the Siwalik
Range, and dislocating the hill range. The faulting opened an easy passage
southwards to the eastern branch of the Saraswati. The deflected Saraswati first
flowed southwestwards through the channel of the Drishadvati (Chautang Nala),
until the land to the east of the fault subsided 14-20 m, forcing the river to flow south
to join the Yamuna. (Photo courtesy: NRSA, Hyderabad).
During their exile, the Pandavs and, in his pilgrimage during the
Mahabharat War, Balram had noticed the Saraswati disappearing in the
sands of desert at Vinashan due to dwindled discharge of the river
(Mahabharat, Van Parv, 26; Shalya Parv, 36). This is attributed to the sudden
deflection southwards near Paonta Sahab of the then west-flowing eastern
(Tamasa) branch of the Saraswati (Oldham, 1886; Valdiya, 1968, 1996,
2002). This happened because a NNW-SSE trending fault tore apart the
Siwalik Range, dislocated the western part horizontally southward and
simultaneously uplifted the western block by about 20 m (Fig. 10.7). This
development forced the river to turn south through highly crushed and
weekened rocks of the zone of faulting (Valdiya, 2002). In other words,
the fault opened an easy passage southwards for the turbulent river, which
then flowed through what was then the upper reaches of the Drishadwati
Fig. 10.8. The way the Saraswati's eastern (Tamasa) branch got deflected southwards.
(After Valdiya, 2002).
River. After some time, the land to the east of the NNW-SSE trending
fault sank 14 to 30 m (Thussu, 1999), propelling the Saraswati now to
flow straight south and join the Yamuna (Fig. 10.8). The Yamuna became
enriched with the water of the eastern branch of the Saraswati. Earlier,
only the Yamuna met the Ganga at Prayag (Âllahabad). Now the
Saraswati has also joined the Ganga through the channel of the Yamuna.
Thus, Prayag became Triveni.
It was a strong tectonic movement that caused loss of water of the
Saraswati (Godbole, 1961; Valdiya, 1968, 1998, 2002) during the twilight
between the Rigved and Brahman periods (Bhargava, 1964).
The Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF), defining the southern limit of
the Siwalik against the Indo-Gangetic Plains, was reactivated when the
NNW-SSE trending Paonta Sahab Fault was formed. The reactivation of
the HFF is manifest close to the intersection of the two faults in the 20 m
uplift of a stream-bed gravel containing carbonaceous matter. The
carbonaceous matter is dated 3663±215 yr B.P. (Wesnousky et al, 1999).
This implies that the faulting took place some time in the period 3878 and
3448 yr B.P. (Valdiya, 2002). This event is responsible for the drastic decline
of the Saraswati discharge in its middle reaches. The people were forced
to leave en masse their hearths and homes around 3750 yr B.P. (B.K. Thapar,
1975), and resettle in the greener pasture in the Siwalik and the foothill
belt of the Siwalik. This is evident from sudden appearance of a large
number of settlements in this belt (Fig. 7.5).
Earlier Later
Fig. 10.9. Abrupt deflection westwards of the western (Shatadru) branch of the
Saraswati leading to the river become wholly dry. (From: Valdiya, 2010).
Later, around 2500 B.P., the western (Shatadru) branch of the

Saraswati also swung westwards to join the Beas, leading to the Saraswati
becoming dry (Fig. 10.9).
An astonishing realization is that the River Brahmaputra flowing
through Kamrup (Assam state) is described as Ixiuhitya, originating from
a lake called Lohit at the foot of the Himshring Parvat (Matsya Purdn, 20,
V. 11-12; Padma Purdn, I, V-39.2, 52-54; Vdyu Purdn, 47, V-19 and
Mahdbhdrat, 3, 85, 13-25). The Himshring is the Puranic name of the
Namcha Barwa. Satellite imagery-based regional investigation has shown
that the Tsangpo River (the Brahmaputra in Tibet) earlier flowed eastward
past the Namcha Barwa through the Parlung River to join the Irrawaddy
of Myanmar (Fig. 10.10). Later, the Parlung was captured by the Lohit
and consequently the Tsangpo (that is, the Brahmaputra) flowed down
through the course of the Lohit abandoning the Irrawaddy. Still later, as
neotectonic upheaval continued, the Tsangpo turned southward
immediately west of the Namcha Barwa and flowed through the course
of the Siang (or Dihang) River (Clark et al,, 2004). The Siiing today
represents the Brahmaputra in Arunachal Pradesh.
The implication of the discussion is that the Tsangpo swung
southwards and flowed through the course of the Siang well after the
Purans and the Mahdbhdrat were written.
Fig. 10.10. Changing courses of the Brahmaputra River (Tsangpo in Tibet). (After
Clark et al., 2004).
CLIMATE CHANGES
The Kurina Purdn (Chapter 43) alludes to a time of disastrous climate change
at the end of an era (kalpa) when there was a prolonged drought. The
bhut (the environment with all its life) was destroyed due to the sun rays
becoming intensely, unbearably hot. Whatever water was left in the soil
and in the water bodies was evaporated, and the earth burned. It became
bereft of trees, shrubs and grasses and looked like the back of a tortoise
{Kurma Purdn, Uparivibhag 43).
cleft Tn wM i
^SEmt ■sftu II 12 II
cTR ^ WI: W -RIT# I

rn WZ PFrgcI II 15 II
ddRlI Mil <^HIHI I

fflfsHsM^gifqi niMrad n 19 11
rRT: ^*11^ cT^T I

f^TT ^Pl: PPRl II 26 II
(Kurma Purdn, Uparivibhag 43)
Thermoluminescence dating of sands and soils characterized by

calcareous concretions in the desert of Rajasthan shows that in between
predominant semi-arid condition, there were intervals of intense aridity
when hot dry winds blew in cyclic fashion during the time the humans
lived there—14,000 to 10,000 yr B.P., 5,000 to 3,500 yr B.P., 2,000 vr B.P.,
and 800 to 600 yr B.P. (Singhvi and Kar, 1992; Dhir et al, 1994). Evidently,
the people of the Saraswati flood plains—where the people of the Harappa
Civilization lived in the period 5500 to 3000 yr B.P. ago experienced and
survived the climatic extreme.
The Kurma Purdn (Chapter 43) further states that after the drought
came the deluge. There was excessively heavy rainfall when the sky was
filled with thick grey rolling clouds (that looked like herds of elephants),
lightning, downpour and flooding, culminating in the wholesale
submergence of land all over.
Pi M-iigiciWiWfsna: : I
<4friwfrl PI Rtfi=r hhl: PPfal PT: II 34 II
rtf -ipRftF I
4jqtRfyicI pf PPfR ^ MI4+H II 40 II
^ II 41 II
(Kurma Purdn, 43)
The testimony of spores and pollens of plants Pinus, Artemesia,

Syzygium, etc., recovered from the sediments of Lake Liinkaransar and
Didwana in western Rajasthan reveal that there was an interval of heavy
rainfall in the period 8500 to 3500 yr B.P. (Singh et al., 1974; Bryson and
Swaine, 1981). Oxygen-isotope study showed that the rainfall was of 65
176 ,
Geography Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas and Epics
Fig. 10.11. Summary of major changes in the monsoon condition during the Holocene
Epoch — in the last 11000 years — in the central Ganga Basin, the Deccan Plateau
and Rajasthan. The larger part of this time span encompasses the Chaturyug of the
Purans and the epics. (Modified after V.S. Kale in Singhvi and Kale, 2009).
to 100 cm/yr in the Lunkaransar Lake area 6300 to 4800 year ago (Enzel
et al., 1999). It must have been a deluge in the desert region—the world of
the Harappans—when the lakes were full to the brim.
Integrated studies of marine fauna, lake sediments and riverine
sediments all over India, including the Himalaya, the Indo-Gangetic Plains
and West Coast, demonstrate that during the time span the humans lived,
the monsoon rains were at peak in the intervals 9500 to 6500 yr B.P. and
2600 to 2000 yr B.P. (Kale and Singhvi, 2009) (Fig. 10.11).
It is obvious that there is great consistency in the accounts given by
the Purans and the climate history worked out by earth scientists.
THE CONCEPT OF PRALAYA
The pralaya (5ErPT), which recurs periodically and happens a number of

times after every manvantar, not only brings about widespread flooding of
the land with water but also causes decimation of life in the sea, and on
the land.
According to the scholars of the Purans, there is a pralaya after a
lapse of the temporal period—a manvantar. The pralaya brings in its wake
wholesale extinction of life due to severe heating by intense sunrays
followed by prolonged heavy rains (Shiva Puran, Pancham Umasanhita,
34).
cR ^crfftrj II 71 II
II 74 II
USKI-ci Tfpfa: II 77 II
(Shiva Puran, Pancham Umasamhita, 34)
P44I4><: I
TT'tlfeTf'q: || 14 n
7ET: TFM Tf«n I

fofSIT rûll II 23 II
JM3>tri)sKIWfeRsl: *W<r1$dl: I
dlrlwPd cT^T TEEfen II 34 II
^ HIVWfol ^ W4>H, 11 40 II
cRlpR: JlfavicMR: II 41 II
(Kurma Puran, Uttar Bhag, 43)
During one of the first pralayas, severe storms raged, devastating all
forests. Then came torrential rains, converting the lands into seas (Shiva
Puran, Purv Vayaveeyasanhita, 11).
^ ^ ^ ^ n io n
Wlf% Û|«=|c41pJ| ^ -q^% I
^ II 11 II
(Shiva Puran, Purv Vayaveeyasanhita, 11)
Palaeontological records indicate four major episodes of extinction

(Fig. 10.12) in the last 500 million years (Palmer, 2006):
(i) At the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary around 488 million years;
(ii) at the end of the Permian around 251 million years ago;
(iii) towards the end of the Cretaceous around 65 million years ago;
and
(iv) towards the end of the Pleistocene around 11,000 years ago.
At the end of the Permian, nearly 251 million years ago, 90% of the
marine and 70% of land-living species were wiped out (Wicander and
Monroe, 2002). Nearly 65 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous,
65-70% of species—mostly reptilian—became extinct. And at the end of
the Pleistocene over 70% of mammals including all giants became extinct
(Palmer, 2006). The Late Pleistocene extinction is attributed primarily to
climate change which drastically changed the vegetation and partly due
to hunting by the humans who had by then descended on the land.
There are a number of examples of such catastrophes entailing mass
extinction, obviously due to a variety of causes such as climate change
resulting from pollution of air, the destruction of niches or habitats of
animals in oceans and on lands, volcanic eruptions, widespread landslides
that accompany and follow strong earthquakes, and so on.
Fig. 10.12. Large-scale extinction of animals and plants in the last 500 million years,
as the testimony of fossils demonstrates. (After Palmer, 2006)
In the last just two centuries, human population has grown

explosively. The land has been plundered, ravaged, defiled and polluted—
the hungry and deprived people damaging the soils and mounting pressure
on fragile ecosystems, the rich and the powerful manipulating technology
to deface and defile the environment, the miners and the builders of roads,
big dams and heavy structures destabilising the ground (Valdiya, 1987).
This has happened and continues to happen unchecked in the time now
called Anthropocene Epoch—the period of the geological time shaped by
the actions of a single animal species—Homo sapiens. The earth is in the
threshold of this epoch of new man. Zalasiewicz et al., (2010) believe that
humans have inflicted so severe damage to the environment in the last
200 years that the earth is headed for the fifth largest extinction of animals
and plants. This would be the pralaya waiting to happen. I wonder if that
is not the event that the Kalki Avatar implies?
11
Understanding of Geology and
Knowledge of Engineering
SCHOLARS' GRASP OF SCIENCES
The scholarly maharshis and rishis were profound thinkers as well as keen
observers of natural phenomena and processes. Through meditation,
reflection and logical deductions, they came to understand how the nature
functions and evolves. They had fairly good perception of the nature of
the interior of the earth, the place of earth in the scheme of planets, the
origin and evolution of life on earth, and the knowledge of physics and
mathematics. In this chapter, only their conceptions related to earth-science
are dealt with albeit briefly.
NATURE OF EARTH'S INTERIOR
Before the Purans were written, the Rigved described the earth consisting
of seven layers, and God in the form of Vishnu (that is, nature) imparting
dynamism to them. In other words, the earth is made up of seven layers,
and its interior is in a firey hot state.
I
(Rigved, 1, 22, 16, 10, 1, 6)

Fig. 11.1. Five inner continuous shells and two outer discontinuous layers of earth as
deduced from combination of geophysical methods.
^TriFTt |
(Shatpath Brahman, 14.9.4.21)
On the basis of variation in gravity, magnetism, reflection-refraction

of seismic waves and composition of rock types, modem scientists visualize
the earth as a spherical body made up of seven concentric shells or layers—
the very hot-inner solid core, the molten outer core, the lower mantle, the
transition zone, the upper mantle, the lithosphere made up of discontinuous
Understanding of Geology and Knowledge of Engineering 183
oceanic crust and the separated or discrete plates of continental crust

(Fig. 11.1). Not only the fiery hot molten outer core but also the upper
mantle are in a state of tremendous dynamism due to ever active convection
currents.
It is obvious that the Vedic scholars were aware of the nature of earth's
interior and knew that deep down there is a source of intense heat
(Pavagee, 1912).
EVOLUTION OF LIFE
In his form as Brahma, God splashed up water of the ocean with the cup
of his hands. A bubble-like egg, made up of 24 elements, appeared. It was
lifeless and immobile.
II 36 II
(Kurma Puran, 4)
dr*i|u| fop: «I^W1 I
3TFJF1 WFM fofot: II 54 II

(Vishnu Puran, Part I, 2)
The scientists of our time have shown that life at the beginning was
in the form of inanimate molecules. Bacterial microbes were the early
manifestation of life. Later, they built layered mounds up to a metre in
1 height called stromatolites. Life evolved from one-celled prokaryote bacterial
microbe to multi-celled eukaryote organisms.
The Rigved (10.97.1) observed that an aushadh (herb) or a plant with
lotus-like flower (Matsya Puran, 168) sprang up in the olden time three
epochs before the evolution of Devatas (i.e., humans). The Matsya Puran is
quite unambiguous about the appearance of plants in the form of lotus at
the beginning. By the word 'lotus' is meant possibly a lotus-like vegetation.
■qj sffoft: "5iRn
(Rigved, 10.97.1)
■q^T ^kllfofoWI II 15 II
(Matsya Puran, 168)
Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Purdnas and
Fig. 11.2. Life appeared in the form of a herb or an aushadh, according to

the Purans. Sketches of bluegreen algae and a cell.
Single-cell life without nucleus (prokaryotes) appeared on earth 4 to

4.5 billion years ago and developed into cells with multiple nucleus
(eukaryotes) during the Late Archaean period. In Karnataka are found
evidence of organic matts formed by the cyanobacteria (algae-bacteria
combined microbe). These matts trapped and bound sediments in shallow
warm water of the sea, building layer after layer of primitive stromatolite
and oncolites 3.8 billion years ago (Venkatachala et al, 1990). Later, in
the Late Proterozoic time they proliferated to a variety of stromatolite
forms as witnessed in the Cuddapah, Chattisgarh, Vindhyan and Lesser
Himalayan basins (Valdiya, 1969, 2010). In the Vindhyan Basin at
Chorhat, a worm-like triploblastic animal appeared sometime between
1628±8 and 1599±8 million years (Seilacher et al, 1998; Ramussen et al,
2002). Not until the Lower Cambrian time was there any evolutionary
radiation. In short, life appeared in the vegetal form of microbe—algae
combined with bacteria—and grew very slowly by asexual reproduction
for a long time until about the Lower Cambrian time 500±50 million years
ago. This scheme of evolution matches fairly well with the Vedic-Puranic
concept of life appearing in the sea water in the form of a herb (aushadh)
or lotus and gradually progressing from small organic bodies to complex
forms.
When Brahma realized that amaithuni srishti (asexual reproduction)
is not leading to evolution of life as fast as he had envisaged, he introduced
the maithuni srishti (sexual reproduction) (Matsya Puran, 13-14; Shiva Puran,
Shatrudrasanhita, 3, Purv Vayaveeyasanhita, 15). The statement is an
allusion to asexual reproduction giving way to sexual reproduction as
palaentological evidence demonstrates conclusively.
1J5: 3F5TT: "gsi ^ I
(Shiva Puran, Purv Vayaveeyasanhita, 15)
PROGRESSION OF LIFE
In his attempt to evolve life (srishti), God in the form of Vishnu entered
the egg and made it chetan (animate). The first to evolve was a vriksha
(plant), then came tiryaksrot comprising animals and birds. This was
followed by urdhasrot walking upright on two feet, which included the

primates, including man as stated in the Shiva Puran, Chapters 8 and 15.
I may recapitulate what I have stated above. Explaining the mystery
of the origin of life and procreation in nature, Brahma tells sage Narad:
"In order to initiate the process of creation (srishti = nature + procreation)
I thought of Vishnu and Shiva and took the ocean water in the cup of my
hands and threw it up. An egg, constituted of 24 elements, appeared and
grew in size (Shiva Puran, Dwiteeya Rudra Sanhita, Pratham Srishtikhand,
chapter 15, Verses 23-24). Growing on all sides the gold-coloured
impenetrable and uncharacteristic egg, lay in water for thousands of years
(Ibid., chapter 8, Verses 21-22). The giant egg was without life (achaitanya)
and passive or immobile (jad) (Ibid., chapter 15, Verses 29). When God
Vishnu entered the egg, it became alive (chaitanya) (Ibid., chapter 15, Verses
31 and 33)."
3TF -pj^T fact ^ qfeHiiuwi II
(vl^ll^nf II 23 II
jlWTOil: II 24 II
Chapter 15
II
Chapter 8
H y^-Mcl II 26 II
Chapter 15
f^jpn ^ 11
11 33 11
Chapter 15
fw fasiteiF n 57
H'liw 11 58 11
(Shiva Puran, Dwiteeya Rudra Sanhita,
Pratham Srishtikhand, chapter 9)
Brahma continued, "After that I joyfully created immovable creatures

rooted to their places (Ibid., chapter 15, Verse 39). Thereafter, in accordance
with my plan, appeared triyaksrota, the creatures that were capable of
swimming, jumping, walking and flying (Ibid., Verse 40). Realizing that
my objective has not been achieved, I created urdhsrota (~ biped creatures)
that walked on two feet. This culminated in the emergence of Arvaksrota,
the Man who could walk forward, backward and sideways (Ibid., Verse
43).
7T<3: || 36 ||
rf Tllcqi 7n^q>HicHd: II
^:tsll<i^ftd4=H?l)dl ^ 7PT3T: II 40 II
cf ehHIdW ^ II 43 II
ST^qrwifrqcb^rHiT '3>%4<?l)fll $Rl sjd*t II 41 II
3WI4t4ldl II 43 II
(Shiva Puran, Dwiteeya Rudra Sanhita, Pratham Srishtikhand)
Almost the same is the account of the evolution of life given in the
Brahmand Puran (1.1.5, 57-58) and in the Vishnu Puran (1.5, 19-25).
"3^T eiehrqgsfej *jom 4 7STTOT fJcIT:
fd4qjt4ldlSM ■Jf: 7l4 fehNtPf: 71 TO: ll 57 II

1: 7f
rr«jt«4^H)d’HI wt 71 Tf1T:
rfSMldlctjtHldWI 7l4: TITOig RFft: II 58 II

(Brahmand Puran, 1.1.5, 57-58)
It is quite obvious from the accounts given in the Srishtikhand of the

Shiva Puran (Second Rudra Sanhita), in the Brahmand Purlin and the Vishnu
Puran that Brahma (God) first created a passive lifeless molecule that grew
up and became a giant nucleic molecule. Entry of God (Vishnu) into this
molecule made it lively and mobile. From it emerged, firstly, the plants
that were and continue to be rooted to their places of origin, and then
came the aquatic sessile, benthic, swimming-floating (nektonic and
planktonic), jumping (reptilian), walking (mammalian) and flying (avian)
animals. Next emerged the biped primates, the development of which
culminated in the appearance of man. This exactly is the order of the
progression of life as borne out eloquently by palaeontological records.
It may be emphasized that the Puranic sages believed—like most of

us today including many hard-core scientists—that Brahma (ITU), the
creator (God), is responsible for the origin and development of life. They
believed in one, and only one God, who manifests himself—or functions—
in three forms: As the creator Brahma (sRjH), as the caring protector Vishnu,
and as justice dispenser and destroyer Shiva ((Shiva Puran, Dwiteeya Rudra
Sanhita, Pratham Srishtikhand, Chapter 9, Verse 57).
The simple organic body that had grown to complex forms in the sea
took to the land. Then appeared in a chronological order Matsya (a fish),
Kurma (a tortoise), Varah (the mammal boar), Narsimha (an anthropoid
ape) and Vaman (human Homo erectus) (Vishnu Puran, Part I, 2, 4; Narsimha
Puran, 37-39, 44, 45; Matsya Puran, 245, 248).
II 17 II
(Narsimha Puran, 37)
ii 20 ii
f^T cHI^Hfad) II 66 II
(Matsya Puran, 248)
|| 13 ||
II 14 II
witt cumi-^fd: ii i n
cHHÎ^Pd: II 62 II
(Matsya Puran, 245)
The succession of avatars represent four milestones in the evolution

of life (Agni Puran, 2,4; Vishnu Puran, Part I, 2, 4; Vaman Puran, 28). These
are as follows:
1. The Matsya Avatar implies development of aquatic vertebrate
animals represented by a fish (matsya).
2. The Kurma Avatar means the coming to land of amphibian animals
represented by a tortoise (kurma).
3. The Varah Avatar encapsulates development of quadruped

mammals on land, as represented by a boar (varah).
4. The Narsimha Avatar implies the evolution of anthropoid primates
walking on two feet and represented by a creature half-animal,
half-human.
5. The Vaman Avatar is the coming of humans represented by a dwarf
(Vaman) species of Homo erectus.
According to palaeontological evidence, the fossil record shows the
milestones of progression of life—of the avatars in the Puranic literature—
as follows (Palmer, 2006):
1. Astonishing diversification of life at about 540 million years ago.
2. Appearance of jawless fish in the Late Cambrian around 500 m.y.
ago.
3. Invasion of land by plants in the form of moss-life bryophytes
during the Late Ordovician at about 450 m.y.
4. Evolution of amphibians in the Late Devonian around 375 m.y.
5. Evolution of mammals in the Later Triassic time nearly 215 m.y.
ago.
6. Coming of primates nearly 6 m.y. ago.
7. Descent of hominins sometime between 1.8 and 2 million years
ago.
To elaborate, during the Cambrian period almost all major vertebrate
animals had evolved in the sea, experimenting in developing new body
plans and moving into new niches (Wicander and Monroe, 2000). Along
with trilobites, sponges, coelenterates and gastropods came the early species
of fish. Towards the later part of the Silurian appeared a fish that was
armoured with bony skin without jaws, and living in estuaries, lakes and
freshwater bodies in land. This development, to my mind, is what the
Matsya Avatar encapsulates, of course metaphorically. The fact implies
that conditions favouring preservation of non-marine terrestrial life had
developed on earth. During the same period, plants also came to land
and soon proliferated extensively. The Devonian witnessed evolution of
seed. The seed freed the plants from their dependence on moist condition
and ensured their spread all over the land (Wicander and Monroe, 2000).
One of the fish types, Osteolepis, characterized by two dorsal fins

and very different kind of scales, evolved to land-living amphibians, some
of which later evolved to reptiles. This development is expressed in the
logic of Kurma Avatar. The reptile Dicynodon—recovered from the Upper
Permian sedimentary rocks in the Damodar Valley (Jharkhand)—had a
flat head and a pair of elongated tusk-like teeth in the anterior part. Another
reptile, Lytosaurus, found in the Lower Triassic Panchet sedimentary rocks
in Madhya Pradesh had complex dentition, strongly recalling those of the
mammals (Jain, 1996; Prasad, 1994). These creatures represent evolution
in the Late Triassic time of reptiles to mammals—the warm-blooded
animals with hair or fur and mammary glands and giving birth to their
youngs. This statement encapsulates the phenomenon called Vardh Avatar.
The Tertiary period was the age of the mammals.
In the flood-plains of the Siwalik Basin of the Tertiary period lived,
among a wide variety of animals, the primates including apes and
monkeys. The primates became pre-eminent in the Upper Miocene to
Pleistocene time, because of their intelligence. In the open-mix wooded
land stretching from Potwar in Pakistan through Ramnagar in Jammu,
Haritalyangar in Himachal Pradesh, Kalagarh in Uttarakhand to Tinau
Khola in Nepal, between 14 and 7 million years ago lived a human-like
ape Sivapithecus (Fig. 11.3). This anthropoid ape was no more than 5 feet
tall, had large canine teeth and heavy jaws, and resembled the modern
orangutans. Narsimha Avatar implies, to my mind (admittedly with
overstretched imagination), the coming of the half-ape half-human
Sivapithecus.
The finding of partial skull (Figure 11.4A and B) with teeth of a female
dwarf pigmy identified as Homo erectus namadicus at Hathnora (Fig. 11.4C),
east of Hoshangabad on the Narmada bank (Sonakia, 1984), shows that
humans had come to the land of Bharatvarsh sometime in the later part
of the Middle Pleistocene which spans the time 800,000 yr B.P. to 1,30,000
yr B.P. Pleistocene time. Belonging to a robust, short and rather archaic
species Homo erectus, who made Acheulian tools (Sankhyan, 2005),
represents Vdrnan Avatar (vamansdwarf).
Fig. 11.3. Rendition of the half-ape half-human anthropoid Sivapithecus resembling
modern orangutan. The Lower inset shows skull of the creature. (Courtesy: A.C. Nanda)
(C)
Fig. 11.4. (A) and (B) Partial skull of Homo erectus namadicus, a short stocky female
dwarf found at Hathnora on the Narmada bank. (Courtesy: A. Sonakia)
(C) Satellite picture of the Narmada showing the location of Hathnora where the
skull of Homo erectus namadicus was found.
ANIHROPO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANS
The geologists recognize four epochs in the Quaternary period—Lower

Pleistocene (1.81 to 0.8 m.y.), Middle Pleistocene (0.8 to 0.13 m.y.). Upper
Pleistocene (0.13 m.y. to 11,000 yr B.P.) and the Holocene (11,000 yr B.P.
to the Present). It was in the Late Pleistocene time that the hominin Homo
erectus evolved in anthropological aspects. In the Holocene, the human
Homo sapiens made progress in socio-cultural aspects.
The time-span of the human evolution is divided into four Yugs—the
Krit, the Treta, the Dxvapar, and the Kali—these yugs making the Chaturyug
(Mdrkandeya Puran, Samasya Parv, 43). If the transitional intervals of
daybreaks and dusks are included, then the span of the Krityug is 4800
years, of the Treta 3600 year, of the Dwdpar 2400 years, and of the Kaliyug
1200 years, totalling to 12,000 years of the Chaturyug (Mdrkandeya Puran,
Samasya Parv, 43; Kurma Puran, Purv Bhag, 5).
3 WFTTfal I
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ZfrfF: F?Ff RoqRI*KHf I
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tnn gKVWISFll fTM fMF: ^TTT II
(Mdrkandeya Puran, 43)
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(Kurma Puran, Purv Bhag, 5)
The 12,000 years of Chaturyug is practically the same as the 11,000-

year span of the Holocene Epoch—the epoch of human evolution in the
socio-cultural aspects.
NATURAL GASES, MINERALS, METALS AND METALLURGY
The scholars who wrote the Yajurved were aware of an inflammable

natural gas oozing out and burning on the surface. The gas was known
as Pureeshya. The gas was mined presumably for use. They also knew that
the Pureeshya springs out in many places offshore along the sea coast
(Yajurved, 11.16; 1, 28).
3#d 3lPlHcKI*rc I
Tjaczn: 3#T Tjfczf UHlfa I

3TOT IWTH^ I
(Yajurved, 11.16, 11.28, 11.29)
There is no doubt that the Yajurved refers to the gas methane that
comes from the depth of the earth and bums as flames, such as at Jwaladevi
in Dera Gopipur area of District Kangra in Himachal Pradesh. Similar
flames must have been noticed in the past in the Sui area in the Kirthar
Range (Pakistan). What is significant is the mention of the burning gas in
the sea. Recent investigations have revealed existence not only of large
deposits of gas, that is being extracted off the Andhra coast, but also at
the depth of 60 m quite large deposits of gas hydrates and gas-charged
sediments in the inner shelf of the western coast (Veerayya et al., 1998),
and in the offshore belt of the Krishna-Godavari delta off Narsapur in
Andhra Pradesh and off Chilka Lake in Orissa (Purnachandra Rao and
Kessarkar, 2001). The gas hydrate is a crystalline substance composed of
cages of water molecules hosting methane gas under low temperatures
and high pressures in almost frozen state. This means, the ancient people
had explored the offshore region and knew about the inflammable gas
that they used to mine on land.
The Purans and epics very frequently describe the royals and the
apsaras wearing gold and silver ornaments studded with precious or semi¬
precious stones. The finding of large amounts of ornamental things in the
Saptasaindhav region encompassing the flood plains of the Sindhu and
Saraswati rivers, speak volumes of the skill in the craft of jewellery making
and in the metallurgy behind the craft. Besides the ornaments, the people
used vessels and tools of copper and bronze, and weapons made of iron
(ayas). This is evident from the use of arrows with iron heads, swords,
and spears (Fig. 10.5) (Bhagwat Purdn, 8th Skand, 10).
rf ^51
II 35 II
(Bhagwat Purdn, 8th Skand, 10)
The metals were mined, refined and then forged into ornaments,
vessels and tools. This means that the people had fairly good knowledge
of mineral exploration, mining and metallurgy.
The list of precious and semi-precious stones given in the Agni Purdn
(Chapter 246) and of the armours and weapons (Chapters 246 and 278)
demonstrate that there were indeed keen geologists amongst the Puran
people. The list includes diamond, emerald, ruby, turquoise, aquamarine,
beryl, moonstone, jasper, quartz, topaz, garnet, sapphire, opal, camelian,
corundum, galena, zinc, pearl, coral, shell and many others.
TJcFT, Rei-llcrl,
'WiidHu, wr,
?Tf, WR, rWr, TfaW, RyRTcRT,
"RRuf, ^R>, , RfeJ, ilqid, PlRq'jl,
iptfRH WRpJJ, -fejpr, W 33?k I

(Agni Purdn, 246)
It is well-known that the Zawarmala near Udaipur was the source

of zinc for more than three thousand years. Samples of zinc dated from
the mines gave ages of 3260 yr B.P., 2370 yr B.P. and 2500 yr B.P. (Biswas,
2006).
ENGINEERING OF BRIDGE BUILDING
The Valmiki Rdmayana (Yuddh Kand, 22) describes the building of a bridge
across the sea to Lanka. Neel, the engineer belonging to the Vdnar tribal
group, asserts that he has the capability of bridging the ocean. Under the
supervision of this accomplished engineer, they constructed a long bridge
(Ram Setu) by use of a variety of mix of trees, shrubs, rocks and other
earth materials. Parts of the bridge could have been similar to the present-
day barge-bridges or pontoon bridges. It seems that there were then a
number of emergent islets 14, 20, 21, 23 and 23 yojans apart.
elHêtl: II 53 II
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II 54 II
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II 56 II
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wit n 57 11
cTMTT <yfS*FJ<rHISr 3lR4>df^Mld+ld I
^dldf5^ Wflffcrep-T: II 59 II
(Valmiki Ramdyan, Yuddh Kand, 22)
The existence of a large number of coral islands—even at present—

forming a chain facilitated the linking of the bridges. The modern
bathymetric chart clearly shows that the depth of the seabed today is less
than 5 m in some parts of the stretch between Sri Lanka and India. Satellite
imagery (Fig. 11.6), close-range aerial photography, bathymetric surveys
using side-scan sonar and magnetic-appliances survey, multibeam
ecosounder and sub-bottom profiler, together with borehole data-analysis
shows that 1.5 to 4 m of marine sand, followed upward by 1.5 to 2.5 m of
carbonate conglomerates overlain by calcareous marine sand with
subordinate coral limestone, make the Ram Setu (Adam's Bridge)
Fig. 11.5. People of the Sindhu and Saraswati floodplains during the Harappa period
from 5500 yr B.P. to 3300 yr B.P. used copper and bronze tools, toys and ornaments.
(Based on Bisht, 1998; Joshi and Bisht, 1999).
Fig. 11.6. Satellite pictures of the Ram Setu — a chain of coral islands between Sri
Lanka and Rameshwaram on the Tamil Nadu coast. The temple town is located in
the Island Dhanushkoti. [From: Google Earth].
Fig. 11.7. Sea level has been rising all through the time.
It stood nearly 10 metre below
the present level 5500 year ago. (After Hashimi et al., 1995)
(Badarinarayan, 2007). It is 1.6 to 4 km wide and 32 km long. Associated

with a fault zone is a scarp-like underwater feature in the shallow part,
with a series of islands of corals, the flanks of which are covered with
sandbars and clay deposits (Bahuguna et al, 2003).
Viewed in the context of the recent findings, the following statement
in the Vdlmiki Rdmdyan becomes very significant—"there were rocks on
the seabed projecting up like hillocks in the water. One of them was Mainak,
covered with vegetation".
'iCHWlfl 'Sicily
(Valmiki Ramdyan, Sundar Kand, 1)
The oceanographic studies reveal that the sea level stood 150 m below
the present sea level 18,000 years ago, 100 m below 14,500 yr B.P. and 80
m below the present level 12,000 years ago (Fig. 11.7) and that since 10,000
yr B.P., it has been rising at the rate of 20 metres per thousand years
(Hashimi et al., 1995; Nigam et al., 1992; Pumachandra Rao et al., 1996).
At this rate of sea-level rise, the water level must have stood much less
than 10 m below the present level around 5500 year B.P. This implies that
when Engineer Neel and his Vdnar people built the bridge, very large
number of coral islands must have stood above the sea water. If that was
the case, it would not have been difficult to construct a bridge of sorts.
TOWN PLANNING
Garud Puran (Acharkhand, 33, 34) embodies principles and practices of

vastushastra—the architecture of building houses, palaces, temples, forts,
roads and developing towns. The larger forts, for example, comprised Pur
(township), khetak (village) and blocks identified as dronimukh, kharwatak
and drami—all of them enclosed by high walls and surrounded by
peripheral ditches (Mdrkandeya Puran, 46).
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(Mdrkandeya Puran, 46)
If the model of Dwarka on the western coast is taken as an example,
the people of the Puran time planned their urban centres quite well (Figs.
9.3, 9.5 and 9.6). The Yadav supremo Krishna left Mathura to resettle his
people in a place far away from enemy invasions. He had to reclaim 12
yojans of land from the sea in order to build a city like Indra's Amaravati
in Ilavritvarsh with large parks, peripheral walls and ditches, palaces,
network of avenues and streets, etc. (Vishnu Puran, 23; Harivansh Puran,
Vishnu Parv, 34).
#3RHT I
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ii 14 ii
(Vishnu Puran, 23)
The reclamation of land must have required building buttress walls,

and retaining walls or gyoynes, along the shallow coastal belt. Marine
archaeologists have discovered evidence of a major centre of the mid-
Holocene time offshore Bet Dwarka. Most significant is the stone wall on
its eastern side, which contains a piece of pottery dated (by
thermoluminescence method) at 3528 yr B.P. (Rao, 1999). A part of this
wall is now under water (Fig. 9.4), submerged due to the sinking of the
ground.
Like Dwarka, the township of Mathura was also fortified by a wall
and peripheral ditches as already stated in Chapter Nine.
If the postulation that the Purans and epics describe the people
and the places of the Harappa Civilization (Rao, 1991, 1999; Gupta,
1996; Lai, 1998, 2002; Bisht, 1998; Valdiya, 2002; S. Singh, 2008) is true,
then it can safely be stated that there was a remarkably developed urban
life, characterized by reasonably sophisticated lifestyle and advanced
construction technology. In places like Lothal, Dholavira, Kalibangan,
Banawali, Rakhigarhi and others, houses were constructed along straight
wide avenues and lanes oriented north-south and east-west. The
construction material was bricks of standard proportion. Some houses
had bath places that were connected to municipal drainage system. Some
cities were divided (Fig. 9.6) into sectors—citadels, residential areas,
commercial blocks and open ceremonial places (Bisht, 1984).
Off coast Bet Dwarka underwater explorations revealed existence of
shell industry, the shells giving dates of 3470±80 and 1910±80 yr B.P.
(Gaur et al, 2005).
KNOWLEDGE OF AERODYNAMICS
In the Valmiki Ramdyan, it is stated that Hanuman took a flight to Lanka

from Mahendra Parvat by akdshmarg—by air. This spectacular flight across
the sea was undertaken to locate Sita in captivity of Ravan, the king of
Lanka. Hanuman launched himself from the top of the Mahendra Parvat
Fig. 11.8.
Stretching the author's imagination a bit far:
(A) Hanuman used a paraglider to cross the sea, lurching forward from the 1645 m
high Mahendra Parvat.
(B) Smoke-filled big balloon with a basket must have been the Pushpak Vimdn used by
Ram's party.
at the southern extremity of the Malaya Giri (Anaimalai-Cardamom Hills

(Figs. 4.6 and 4.7) of the present). Putting his feet firmly on the ground and
pressing them hard, he held his arms back around a rock, and doubled his
body so that the head came close to his waist, Hanuman lurched forward.
He moved in the direction of the wind—to Lanka (Narsimha Purdn, 51 and
56; Valmiki Ramayana, Kishkindha Kand, 37, V-43; Sundar Kand, 1).
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(Valmiki Ramayana, Sundar Kand, 1, p. 931)
Valmiki's description rules out the possibility of long jump, which

requires going back and running fast to gain acceleration before long
jumping. The way Hanuman lurched forward implies that he took a flight
of a paraglider, driven by the wind (Fig. 11.8A). The launching place,
Mahendra Parvat, at the extremity of the Malaya Giri is a 1645 m high
peak. Paragliding from this elevated spot could have driven him across
the sea.
Vanquishing Ravan, Ram and his party returned to Ayodhya in
Pushpak Viman (Padma Puran, Patalkhand, 117). It would not be stretching
the imagination far too much to presume that the Pushpak Vimdn could
have been a smoke-filled big balloon, provided with a basket slung beneath
from a net (Fig. 11.8B). It must have been driven by the southwesterly
monsoon wind and possibly pulled forward by a trained giant eagle—
Garud, the vehicle of Vishnu.
If these assumptions are correct, then Ram's army had adequate
knowledge of the science of aerodynamics.
12
Long Summary of the Book
db
PURANS: THE ANCIENT HISTORY
The works known as the Purans O^FT) chronicle the history of very ancient
times, embodying accounts of people living in what are today India,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Western Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan,
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The accounts relate to the lifestyles, cultural
perceptions and religious practices, the struggles for survival and
expansion, and the conflicts for resources and political supremacy of
aristocrats, ruling classes and tribals. The common people do not figure
much in the narratives by sages who recounted the history.
environments of various terrains are given in the mode of samvad—
questions and answers—commonly between gods and their devotees, and
between rishis (sages) and munis (ascetics and commentators). In order to
narrators used metaphoric language and embellished it profusely with
allegories and idioms. The poetic, idiomatic and metaphoric language is
not amenable to easy interpretation. Moreover, the narratives are
overburdened by superfluous, commonly irrelevant sub-stories or anecdotes
or biographies of persons discussed. Some parts of the narratives are quite
Long Summary of the Book 201
abstruce. For these reasons, the Puranic history has been dismissed by
The meaning of the language in which the Purans were written has
changed in the last two-three thousand years. The Puranic history that is
read today has also suffered the ravages of repeated narration, translation
and interpretation by scholars with differing perceptions. In addition, there
were interpolations in different times and at different places. In. spite of
all this, the accounts are quite structured and amenable to the
reconstruction in the perspective of the geography of land and the natural
(geodynamic) events that took place.
Focal Themes of the Purans
The Puranic history is focused on rulers, power-wielding elites, rishis and

gods. Forming the Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva figure very
prominently and repeatedly. The third principal theme is the endless
confrontations, conflicts and combats between the urban rich and
immigrants coming mostly from the northwest who settled down in larger
numbers in the flood-plains of Sindhu, Saraswati, etc. and the forest¬
dwelling aborigines or tribals—adivasis—who felt displaced and
discriminated against.
One very important aspect of the Puran society was the primacy of
spiritual leaders, the gurus—the scholarly sages (rishis) and saints
(maharshis). Teerthatan (pilgrimage) is emphasized as an cibsolutely essential
karma (deed or ritual) of the an individual, including those in the
governance of states or societies. It is the accounts of travels by pilgrims
and adventures of warriors that provide valuable information about the
geography of the country they ranged. It is extremely significant that the
centres of pilgrimage were located in all parts of the vast country
Bharatvarsh.
The Purans Are Encyclopaedic in Dimension
In addition to five focal themes, the Purans embody a large number of

subjects such as religious rituals and social chores; architecture and civil
engineering involving methods of construction of temples, palaces, forts.
12
Long Summary of the Book
PURANS: THE ANCIENT HISTORY
The works known as the Purans chronicle the history of very ancient
times, embodying accounts of people living in what are today India,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Western Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan,
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The accounts relate to the lifestyles, cultural
perceptions and religious practices, the struggles for survival and
expansion, and the conflicts for resources and political supremacy of
aristocrats, ruling classes and tribals. The common people do not figure
much in the narratives by sages who recounted the history.
environments of various terrains are given in the mode of samvdd—
questions and answers—commonly between gods and their devotees, and
between rishis (sages) and munis (ascetics and commentators). In order to
narrators used metaphoric language and embellished it profusely with
allegories and idioms. The poetic, idiomatic and metaphoric language is
not amenable to easy interpretation. Moreover, the narratives are
overburdened by superfluous, commonly irrelevant sub-stories or anecdotes
or biographies of persons discussed. Some parts of the narratives are quite
abstruce. For these reasons, the Puranic history has been dismissed by
The meaning of the language in which the Purans were written has
changed in the last two-three thousand years. The Puranic history that is
read today has also suffered the ravages of repeated narration, translation
and interpretation by scholars with differing perceptions. In addition, there
were interpolations in different times and at different places. In spite of
all this, the accounts are quite structured and amenable to the
reconstruction in the perspective of the geography of land and the natural
(geodynamic) events that took place.
Focal Themes of the Purans
The Puranic history is focused on rulers, power-wielding elites, rishis and

gods. Forming the Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva figure very
prominently and repeatedly. The third principal theme is the endless
confrontations, conflicts and combats between the urban rich and
immigrants coming mostly from the northwest who settled down in larger
numbers in the flood-plains of Sindhu, Saraswati, etc. and the forest¬
dwelling aborigines or tribals—adivasis—who felt displaced and
discriminated against.
One very important aspect of the Puran society was the primacy of
spiritual leaders, the gurus—the scholarly sages (rishis) and saints
(maharshis). Teerthatan (pilgrimage) is emphasized as an absolutely essential
karma (deed or ritual) of the an individual, including those in the
governance of states or societies. It is the accounts of travels by pilgrims
and adventures of warriors that provide valuable information about the
geography of the country they ranged. It is extremely significant that the
centres of pilgrimage were located in all parts of the vast country
Bharatvarsh.
The Purans Are Encyclopaedic in Dimension
In addition to five focal themes, the Purans embody a large number of

subjects such as religious rituals and social chores; architecture and civil
engineering involving methods of construction of temples, palaces, forts.
etc. (vdstu shastra); medicinal plants, herbal medicines and physiology of

human body along with treatment of people (ayurved) and their domestic
animals; rules related to grammar (vyakaran); poetry (kdvya shastra), dance
(nritya shastra), drama (natak shastra), music (sangeet shastra) and education
(;shikshd-nirupan); astrology based on mathematics (ganit shastra) and
positions and conjunctions of stars and planets {jyotish vigyan)-, the sainya
vigydn, encompassing composition, weaponization, formation of armies,
deployment of forces, etc; interpretation of dreams, anomalous behaviour
of animals and birds, and extraordinary geophysical changes; statecrafts
embracing duties of rulers, state officials and policies of diplomacy
(rdjdharma); mineralogy (ratna vigydn) related to precious and semi¬
precious stones and metals. The eighteen Purans have different contents
and emphasize different aspects of knowledge (Agni Puran, 39-43, 46,
53-64, 58, 93-96, 156-210, 229-232, 249-252, 254, 279-295, 246, 336-
349; Narad Puran, 52-59, 65-67; Matsya Puran, 59, 215, 216, 220-227,
229-239, 242, 243; Garud Puran, 54r-66, 128-172, 184-190; Bhavishya Puran,
23-25, 137, 150-155.
The sciences of geology and astronomy provide chronological order
to an otherwise disjointed accounts.
Authors of the Purans and Epics
Krishna Dvaipayan, the son of Rishi Parashar, is credited with the

authorship of the Puran. A Vyas (pre-eminent vachak) by profession,
Krishna Dvaipayan was a great scholar, a profound thinker who had
earlier written a bhdshya (treatise) on Valmiki's Rdmdyan (Brahma Puran,
30). Valmiki is regarded as the first poet (adikavi) in Sanskrit language.
This genius had extraordinary knowledge of the geography and history
of his country. His was the most authoritative work of his time.
Krishna Dvaipayan reorganized his own voluminous work into
eighteen parts—the eighteen Purans (K.urma Puran, 50; Matsya Puran, 53).
But various Purans were re-written with interpolations at different times,
and expanded and embellished by later scholars. This explains the
variations in content, style, emphasis and phraseology.
Krishna Dwaipayan later wrote the Mahabharat.
Time of Composing Puranic Verses
The Puranic accounts on the Yadav supremo Krishna ends with his leaving
Mathura to resettle at Dwarka on the western seacoast. And there is no
mention of the Mahabharat War and happenings thereafter in most of
the Purans. It seems that Krishna Dvaipayan Vyas wrote the Puran
sometime after Krishna left Mathura and before the great civil war.
However, he rewrote the whole history of the time (Matsya Puran, 53) as
the sequel to the Puran in his Mahabharat quite after the end of the war.
Making use of planetarium software related to solar and lunar eclipses
and position of stars, an eminent scientist-engineer concluded that the
great civil war occurred in the year 1478 bc. On the basis of geological,
archaeological and palaeoclimatic records, the period 3500 to 4000 yr
B.P. seems to coincide with the Mahabharat history. This implies that the
epic Mahabharat was written sometime later than 3500 years ago, and the
Puran a little earlier than 3500 yr B.P.
THE PURANLAND: POSITION AND EXTENT
Position of Bharatvarsh
According to the Purans, there are seven mega-islands (or continents,

mahddweep) in the earth, and all of them surrounded by oceans of salt
water (Kurma Puran, 43; Vishnu Puran, II, 2; Narasimha Puran, 34). These
mega-islands correspond to the present continents Eurasia, Arctic, North
America, South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica. One of the
mega-island is Jambudweep, which we know today as Asia. In the middle
of Jambudweqj is situated the many-splendoured mountain Meru, the focal
point of the world of the Puran people. South of the Meru stretches from
the eastern sea to the western sea the bow-shaped mountain chain
Himalaya or Himvan. Between the Himalaya in the north and the sea in
the south extended Bharatvarsh from Badarikshetra in Himalaya to Setu
Rameshwaram in the south and from a place Kapil on the bank of the
Kapila River in the present-day Assam to the Sindhu River in the west
(Kurma Puran, Chapter 43; Vishnu Puran, Part 2, Chapter 2, 3; Matsya
Puran, Chapter 113; Shiva Puran, Pancham Umasanhita, Chapter 18;
Bhavishya Puran, Pratisarga Parv; and Mahdbhdrat, Bheeshma Parv,

Chapter 5).
From the accounts of pilgrimages and warriors' adventures, it is
obvious that Bharatvarsh of the Puran and the epics times had a large
aerial extent—as large as India was before August 14, 1947.
Northern Neighbours of Bharatvarsh
Northwest of Bharatvarsh across the Himalaya was a country known as

Ildvritvarsh, forming an arch-shaped terrain around the Meru Parvat of
great height and tremendous splendour (Markandeya Puran, Varah Puran,
Chapter 75; Matsya Puran, Chapter 113; Devi Puran, Chapter 8; Kurma
Puran, Chapter 43; Mahdbhdrat, Sabha Parv, Chapter 28). The countries
neighbouring Ilavritvarsh were Hiraynavarsh in the northeast,
Bhadrashwavarsh in the east, Kimpurushvarsh in the southeast, Bharatvarsh
in the south, Harivarsh in the southwest, Ketumaldvarsh in the west,
Ramyakvarsh in the northwest, and Kuruvarsh in the north (Vaman Puran,
Chapter 13; Kurma Puran, Chapter 43; Vishnu Puran, Part 2, Chapter 2;
Matsya Puran, Chapter 113; Varah Puran, Chapter 75).
Comparing the scenario of configuration of mountain ranges that
constitute the boundaries of these nations of the Meruland and the pattern
of drainage in the mountainous Central Asia, it emerges that the Meru at
the centre of Jambudweep is the Pamir massif in Cenral Asia, and the
countries described as Ildvritvarsh, Ketumaldvarsh, Harivarsh,
Bhadrashwavarsh, Hiranyavarsh, Kuruvarsh and Ramyakvarsh are the
Central Asia countries—Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Sinkiang
(Xinjiang), Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgystan.
Greater Puranland
It is obvious from the reading of various Purans that the land of the people
of central and southern Jambudweep encompassed much larger territory
than the present Indian subcontinent. It embraced, besides Bharatvarsh,
the countries around the Meru massif. It was a community of nations
inhabited by people belonging to different ethnic groups, speaking
different languages, having diverse socio-cultural systems, wearing
different apparels and eating different kinds of food (Vishnu Puran,

Mahdbhdrat, Bheeshma Parv). However, they had close connections, as
reflected in free peregrinations of people across borders, the patterns of
emigration or immigrations and the intermarriages among the people of
different states.
The fact that the Himalayan ethnic group Kirats' supremo Shiva's
shrine were located at Kailas in Tibet, at Badarikshetra in Himalaya, at
Kashi and Vaidyanath in the Ganga plain, at Gimar in Prabhaskshetra in
the western coast, at Omkareshwar in the Narmada Valley, at
Trayambakeshwar in the Godavari domain, at Bheemeshwar in the
Sahyadri, Shreeshail on the bank of the Krishna in Andhra Pradesh, and
at Rameshwaram in the Dhanushkoti island close to Lanka, is a very strong
pointer to the supremely meaningful and very effective efforts made to
bind the people of the Puranland together.
Ethno-geopoutical Provinces wtthin Bharatvarsh
In the early Puran times, there were only a few geopolitical provinces,
such as Saptasaindhav encompassing the flood plains of the Sindhu and
Saraswati rivers, Brahmavart or Kurujangal occupying part of the Saraswati
and Yamuna flood-plains in north-central Bharatvarsh, Keddrkhand and
Manaskhand covering the mountainous terrain between the Tamasa (Tons)
and the Shyama (Kali) rivers, Utkalkhdnd or Kaling in southeastern part of
the country along the eastern cost, Revdkhand encompassing the Narmada-
Tapi domains, and Prabhaskhand or Prabhaskshetra in the western coastal
terrain. In later Puran times, the entire land from the Himalayan borders
to the Narmada-Godavari basins was described as Aryavrat.
MOUNTAINS OF BHARATVARSH
'Kulparvats' and 'Maryadaparvats'
The Purans and the epics name a large number of mountains, but are
intriguingly silent about the plains in the greater Puranland. Even on
mountains, no precise details are given about their configuration and trends
although the sources of rivers in these mountains are precisely detailed.
The Himalaya, the Vindhya, the Shukiman, the Mahendragiri, the Malaya
and the Sahya mountain ranges described as Kulparvats figure very

prominently. Some of the mountain ranges were described as
Maryadaparvat, implying ranges bordering the country. Besides the
Kulparvats, scores of hill ranges are mentioned (Vdman Purdn, Chapter 13;
Matsya Purdn, Chapter 114; Narasimha Purdn, Chapter 30). The names of
the mountains have remained the same all through a long period of
thousands of years.
Himalaya Giri
The Himalaya or Himvant is described more frequently and in some details

than the other mountain ranges. The Mahabharat (Sabha Parv, Chapter
27; Bheeshma Parv, Chapter 5) states that the Himalaya province comprises
five east-west trending belts of mountain ranges—the Upgiri, the Bahirgiri,
the Antargiri, the Kraunchgiri and the Hemkut. It turns out that modern
geologists describe these structurally and lithologically distinctive and
physiographically contrasted terrains as, respectively, the Siwalik, the
Lesser Himalaya, the Great Himalaya or Himadri, the Tethys Himalaya
and the Ladakh-Kailas-Gangdese Range.
The mountains beyond the Himalaya are the Hemkut and the
Gandhmadan. The geologists call the former as the Ladakh-Kailas-
Gangdese Range, and the latter as the Karakoram. The Gandhmadan (i.e.,
Karakoram) ends up in the west in the Little Pamir, the Gandhmadan in
the strict sense which forms the southern border range of the Meru Parvat
(the Pamir). Extending southwest from the Meru is the Nishad, today called
the Hindukush. The arch-shaped arcuate Sulaiman-Kirthar Ranges were
known as the Malyawan in the Puran and epic times.
Peninsular Indian Mountains
Sahya is the third prominent Kulparvat of Bharatvarsh, presently known

as the Sahyadri that extends 1600 km south from the River Tapi to
Kanyakumari. However, the Puranic Sahya stretched up to what is now
known as the Nilgiri. And the chain of Anaimalai-Cardamom Hills of
Kerala was known as Malaya Giri. One of the high peaks mentioned in
the Harivansh Purdn (Chapter 39, 40) was the Gomantak. Judging from the
physiographic and ecological details and the configuration given, it appears

to be the 1645-m high Kalsubai (near Igatpuri) of the present. The spot
from where the Vanar warrior Hanuman launched himself to air dash to
Lanka is the 1654 m Mahendra Parvat in the southeastern extremity of
the Malaya Giri. This peak continues to have the Puranic name.
The Nallamalai-Velikonda Ranges in eastern Andhra Pradesh have
been described as the Prasarvan Giri in the Valmiki Rdmdyan (Kishkindha
Kand, Chapter 52 and 53).
Mountains of Central Bharatvarsh
The densely forested Dandakaranya was in the Bastar region of southern

Chhattisgarh delimited in the west by the Godavari River. On the bank of
the Godavari was located Panchvati ashram, where Ram, Sita and
Lakshman lived most of the time of exile (vanvas). In the Rishyamuk Parvat,
Ram and Lakshman met Hanuman and Sugreev, the Vanar warriors who
became their abiding devotees and allies. The Rishyamuk is possibly the
hill range east of the present-day River Sabari, comprising the 726-m
Goiparvatam and 365-m high Tulasi peaks of the present in the Sukma
division of the Jagdalpur district. East of the Dandakaranya was the
Mahendragiri, a Kulparvat of the Puranic narration in the southeastern
part of the Kaling state—in Orissa of the present. The mountain continues
to have the same name.
The Riksha or Rikshwdn of the Purans (Vdman Purdn, Chapter 13;
Matsya Purdn, Chapter 114) is the one now known as the Mailan Hills in
the northern part. The Ramgarh Hills in the south was then called
Shuktiman.
The Vindhya or Vindhyachal is the most important Kulparvat in central
Bharatvarsh. The Purans identified two parts of this long Vindhya Range—
the eastern part known as Vindhyachal and the western as Pdriydtra (Matsya
Purdn, Chapter 114; Vdman Purdn, Chapter 13). The Pariyatra gradually
bends northeastwards to embrace the southern part of the Aravali with
its Arbud (Mount Abu) peak.
The Vaidurya Parvat, overlooking the Narmada River from the south
mentioned in the Mahabhdrat (Van Parv, Chapter 114), seems to be the
western part of the Satpura Range, including the Rajpiplii Hills.
In the extreme east stretches for tens of yojans the Udaygiri, its highest
peak being the Saumnas (Vdlmiki Rdmdyan, Kishkindha Kand, Chapter
40). The Udaygiri appears to be the Patkai-Naga Range and the Saumnas,
the 3014-m high Mount Japro in the Naga Hills.
Patal Lok
There is frequent mention of the tribals called Danavs and Dasyns living
or hiding in Patal Lok. One such Danav was King Bali, whose habitat was
vast and full of spendor. The Patal Lok, in all probability, were the
subterranean, underground chambers mutually connected with networks
of tunnels formed by underground water seeping and flowing through
joints, fissures, fractures and cavities in limestones and dolomites. The
result of dissolution of these soluble carbonate rocks by seeping water is
the formation of spectacular underground world of caves with small and
large chambers characterized by picturesque stalactites and stalagmites.
The fusion of these features formed beautiful pillars.
Caves are very common in limestone terrains. Extensive and wide
belts of limestones and dolomites occur in most of the mountains of India.
RIVERS OF BHARATVARSH
The rivers figuring prominently in the Purans and epics are the Saraswati,
Yamuna, Ganga, Mahanadi, Narmada and Godavari. Other major
rivers—Saryu, Gomati, Gandaki, Tungabhadra, Kaveri, Mahi, Sabhramti,
Sindhu, Vitastata (Jhelam), Airavati (Ravi) and Shatadru (Satluj)—are
mentioned frequently. There is no mention of the largest river of India—
the Brahmaputra. However, from the descriptions it appears that this
river was then known as the Lauhitya. The listing of the names of rivers is
comprehensive (Vaman Purdn, Chapter 13; Vishnu Puran, Chapter 3;
Mahdbharat, Bheeshma Parv, 9). The sources of these rivers are mentioned;
and the earthscientists found them to be very precisely located in
mountains. Moreover, the sources of important (major) rivers were
honoured by establishment of teerths there.
Comparing with the modern atlases, it emerges that the Puranic
scholars were quite knowledgeable about the drainage pattern of the rivers
and of the lands watered by them.
The rivers were held in tremendous esteem worthy of veneration

owing to their properties of purifying the body and the soul. This is quite
understandable—the rivers provided sustenance to all kinds of life
including the very precious plant resources. In order to honour the rivers,
a large number of teerths invariably associated with temples were
established on the banks of the rivers.
The Saraswati, Ganga and Narmada are the three rivers that meant
a lot to the people of the Puran times, for these provided sanctuary,
sustenance and life to a very large number of people. The Narmada is
extolled in superlative terms "The very sight (darshan) of the Narmada
eliminates all sins" (Padma Puran, Swargkhand, 80) and "the Ganga is
holy at Kankhal, the Saraswati at Kurukshetra, but the Narmada is holy
everywhere—in villages, in the forests" (Matsya Puran, 180, 186).
So far as the Ganga is concerned, the story of its descent needs to be
taken with caution. For, the word "Ganga" in Pahari language of Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand means a large river. Many rivers in
India bear the name "ganga" as a suffix—the Kishanganga and the
Uttarganga in Kashmir, the Jadhganga, the Balganga, the Dhauliganga,
the Goriganga and the Ramganga in Uttarakhand, the Penganga and
Wainganga in southern Madhya Pradesh and adjoining Maharashtra,
the Dudhganga in Karnataka, the Mahasweliganga, the Ambarganga,
the Ginganga, the Kaluganga in Sri Lanka. Rivers Godavari, Krishna,
Tungabhadra and Kaveri were called Dakshinganga (Skand Puran, Reva
Khand, 4).
THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF BHARATVARSH
Looking at the listings of plants, animals and birds, it is immediately clear

that the people of the Puran time were knowledgeable about the biological
wealth and diversity, but only of the areas of their settlements and of the
forests around the places they lived in.
So far as the animals and birds are concerned, they not only knew
their generic names, but also had very strong bond of love for them. This
is reflected in the invariable association of gods with animals and birds as
their vahan (vehicles). The word vahan symbolized their love for pets, and
their importance in daily life. Vishnu's vahan was eagle (Garud), Shiva's
bull (Nandi), Brahma's swan (Hans), and so on.
However, in the matter of plants, the people knew only those which
grew within and around the settlements—mostly fruit-bearing and
flowering trees, and shrubs and climbers. In the forests they recognized—
rather named—mostly the genera from which they harvested spices and
medicines of a large variety. The scholars have not mentioned plants
growing wild in deep forests and in high mountains except deodar (cedar)
and bhojpatra (silver birch) in the Himalaya. Either they did not care to
name them, or possibly they failed to identify the plant varieties.
The people greatly valued having trees and shrubs around their
settlements and shrines. Planting of trees in and outside the premises of
temples was regarded as a pious act of great importance. This fact is
repeatedly emphasized in all the Purans, especially in the Agni Purdn
(Chapter 38).
The flora and fauna have been named of the Siwalik terrain in the
valley of Airavati (Ravi) and Saraswati (Matsya Purdn, 188; Harivansh
Purdn, 40; Mahabhdrat, Shalya Parv, 55), the Indo-Gangetic Plains in the
floodplain of the Saraswati and Saryu (Mahabhdrat, Van Parv, 25, 27, 37,
177; Valmiki Ramayan, Bal Kand, 24), the Dandakaranya terrain in the
basin of the Godavari (Valmiki Ramayan, Aranya Kand 15, 73, 75), the
Malaya Giri in southern Bharatvarsh and Lanka (Valmiki Ramayan, Yuddh
Kand, 4, 74, Sundar Kand, 2) and in northern Sahya Giri, that is, Sahyadri
(Harivansh Purdn, Vishnu Khand, 40).
One of the most significant facts of great palaeontological interest to
the students of geological history of India is that hippos survived in the
Indo-Gangetic plains until about the Ramayan time (Valmiki Ramayan,
Bal Kand, 24). They suffered total extinction thereafter.
The Mrit Sanjeevani plant that Hanuman brought to revive Lakshman
in coma from a Himalaya-like high mountain (Valmiki Ramayan, Yuddh
Kand, 4) must have come from the northern part of the Malaya Giri, where
even today can be found Selaginella bryopteris of the family Selaginellanacae
and Desmotrichum fimbriatum of the family Orchidaceae which possess
properties of relief from heat shock, acute pain and possibly
unconciousness.
PEOPLE OF THE PURANLAND
In the Puranland (comprising Ilavritvarsh, Ketumiilavarsh,

Bhadrashwavarsh, Kuruvarsh, Harivarsh, Ramyakvarsh,
Kumpurushvarsh and Bharatvarsh), the people of the Ilavritv arsh and
Bharatvarsh figure prominently in the chronicles of the Purans and epics.
Ilavritvarsh seems to have been the main theatre of activities. Gods Brahma
and Vishnu and the Lokpals like Indra, Kuber, Agni, Yam, and others
lived there during the early Puran times. Bharatvarsh was the Karmabhumi
in the later Puran period.
In these two countries lived people of two predominant ethnic
groups—Devs or Devatas in and Ddnav or Dasyu in Ilavritvarsh and Surs
and Asurs in Bharatvarsh (Matsya Puran, 113). While the Devatas and
Surs lived mostly in urban centres, the Danavs and Aisurs inhabited the
forested tracts and the mountains, some even in caves.
Socio-political Systems
The Devatas and Surs had a sociologically and culturally advanced society.
In Ilavritvarsh, Brahma and Vishnu were their spiritual leaders who
commanded not only tremendous veneration of the people, but also had
considerable say in matters of governance of the state and social practices.
The Ilavrit Devatas had a democratic system of governance. They elected
their president, called Prajapati (like our Rdshtrapati), for specific periods.
The Prajapati was assisted by a team of Lokpals (ministers). The team was
headed by Indra who was not only the prime minister but also the minister
for defence and internal security. Kuber was the minister for treasury and
finance, Agni the minister for energy. Yam, the minister for justice, and so
on.
One of the Indras was Yagi and another Rochan. Once Nahush became
Indra for a short while. One of the Prajapatis was Kardam, whose son Ila
governed the province of Bahleek (sBalkhashsBalakh=Bactria), now in
Turkmenistan. The country was named Ilavritvarsh after him. One of the
Kubers—the minister for treasury—belonged originally to the class Rdkshas
(Valmiki Rdmdyan, Uttar Kand, 11). The term Rdkshas meant avocation of
ensuring safety (raksha TSJT) of living creatures (wild life), just as those who
chose the profession of performing prayers or pujds (yajan or yakshan
were called Yaksh, and the musicians Gandharv.
Two Ethnic Groups
In Bharatvarsh, the dominant ethnic groups that inhabited different

terrains comprised people who had darker skin, were sturdy in built and
strong in physique. They lived in forests, hills and mountainous regions
generally adjacent to flood-plains. They were the aborigines, the tribals or
ddivdsis belonging to different sociocultural groups. They spoke diverse
languages (Austric-Asiatic).
The Purans and the epics describe them as Asurs, who had different
sociocultural practices and worshipped naturally sculptured angular-
conical or peculiarly-shaped pieces of rocks jutting out and above the
ground.
Despite their large numbers, the aborigine tribals were overwhelmed
by the people living mostly in the northwestern part of the country in the
flood-plain of the rivers Sindhu, Saraswati, Yamuna, Sabhramati and along
the western coast. A sizeable proportion of the Surs group consisted of
immigrants who came in several waves. These people were wheatish to
brown in colour, with darker hair and brown eyes and had come across
the western and northern mountains from the countries around the Meru
massif, including Ilavritvarsh, Kuruvarsh, Harivarsh and Ketumalavarsh
and made Bharatvarsh their home.
Human Migration: Genetic and Archaeological Evidence
Comprehensive studies of genetic markers mitochondrial DNA and Y-

chromosomes and gene mapping demonstrate all people of the Puranland
emerged from a common stock. The people, who lived in the countries
around the Meru (Pamir) massif and immigrated 10,000 to 8,000 year
B.P. to settle down in the plains of the Sindhu and Saraswati rivers, called
themselves Arya and became part of the ethnic group called Sur. Synthetic
genetic mapping of second principal component from eastern Asia reveals
that yet another group of people fanned out from the Southeastern Asian
radiative centre and settled down in the period 10,000 to 8,000 years ago
in the hills of the India-Myanmar border ranges, in Arunachal Pradesh,
Bhutan, Nepal, northern Uttarakhand, northern Himachal Pradesh and
Ladakh. Characterized by conspicuous mongloid features, these settlers
in the northern Himalayan belt were known as Kirars. Shiva was their
spiritual supremo who guided and helped them.
This history of human migration indicated by genetic marker studies
tallies remarkably well with the accounts given in the Purans and the
epics (Vaman Puran, 13; Mahabharat, Van Parv, 90, Sabha Parv, 52, 143;
Matsya Puran, 121).
Archaeological evidence show that in northwestern Afghanistan and
adjoining Turkmenistan, particularly in the basins of the Syr Darya
(=Bhadra) and Oxus or Amu Darya (Suchakshu), the people fortified their
towns, there were temple-complexes, and there were fire-altars. The
Beshkent Culture from southern Tajikistan reveals ritual hearths—the
yagyakund—and swastik marking. Similar archaeological evidence is found
aplenty in the Sindhu plains, the Saraswati plains and along the western
coast (in Gujarat). The archaeologists assign them to the Pre-Harappan,
Early Harappan, Mature Harappan and Late Harappan Civilizations
dated nearly 9000 to 3300 year B.P. There is a clear evidence of gradual
eastward as well as southward movement of the immigrant Aryans and
mingling with the Sur group of northwestern Bharatvarsh.
Conflict Between Ethnic Groups
The Purans and the epics recount in great details the conflicts, battles and
combats between the Devatas and the Danavs in Ilavritavarsh and between
the Surs and the Asurs in Bharatvarsh. The embattled Danavs were
frequently vanquished by the Devatas. However, there were many instances
of the Danavs overwhelming the Devatas and forcing them to retreat from
the battlefield.
The Surs in Bharatvarsh, likewise, had to contend with fierce resistance
of the aborigines—the adivasis called Asurs (Taittireeya Brahman, Part 3,
Chapter 25). Among the forest-dwelling aborigines or tribals (Asurs), there
were no educationists, no thinkers, and no scholars. Therefore, they failed
to make progress. Remnants of these people today are found amongst
Kols, Bheels, Mundas, Oraons, Gonds, Todas, etc. However, the Asurs
were quite powerful people and excelled the Surs in jungle warfare—
guerilla fighting. Not once but many a time they defeated Surs in battle¬
fields (Bhdgawat Purdn, 5,10; Vdyu Purdn, Part II, 39). And they (the Asurs)
were well-versed in architecture, were competent builders (Rigved,
10.98.12), knew Vedic lores and were brave and good in character
(Mahabharat, Van Parv, 226, Shanti Parv, 227).
On the other hand, the settlers of the Sindhu-Saraswati plains—
Saptasaindhav—the Surs developed an upward mobile culture (Kurma
Purdn, Poorv Vibhag, 45, 46).
Going by the descriptions in the Rigved and the Purans, the inhabitants
of Saptasaindhav had an agro-pastoral society in which cattle herding
was the prime occupation. The farmers harvested grains and reared stocks
of cattle, sheep, goats and horses. And the people living in urban centre
fortified their towns, had well-planned towns with municipal facilities,
and made use of gold, silver, copper, bronze, tin and iron.
In the society of the Surs, the scholars and teachers (maharshis and
rishis) were held in high esteem. The rishis had their own schools of
learning and teaching located in ashrams spread all over the country.
Performing a havan was regarded as the most important religious
ritual. Altars (yagyakund) were built in houses, temples and ashrams. This
is borne out from the unearthing of fire-altars in many settlements of the
Harappa period (from around 5500 to 3300 yr B.P.).
ATTEMPTS AT INTEGRATION AND UNITY OF BHARATVARSH
The people of the Puran period were keen and inverterate travellers, going
mostly from shrine to shrine, from teerth to teerth. There were more than
500 teerths in that period. Going on a pilgrimage was considered an
imperative dharma—a must—in the life of an individual. The idea of
undertaking pilgrimage seems to stimulate rulers and commoners alike to
see different parts of the country, know people having different lifestyles,
languages, dresses, foods, and socio-cultural practices. Thus, the real
objective of the pilgrimage was to know the people, forge friendly relations
with them and understand the cultural variety of the nation that
Bharatvarsh was. This was an effective way of national integration—of
unifying the people of different regions of the country. "The pilgrimage

provided a fertile ground for cross-fertilization of thoughts and cultural
elements."
Shiva's celestial symbols—Jyotirlings—were located in different parts
of the country—Kailas in southwestern Tibet, Kedamath in the Himalaya,
Somnath and Nagesh in western Bharatvarsh, Mahakal and
Omkareshwar in west-central part of the country, Vishwanath and
Vaidyanath in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Trayambakeshwar,
Ghushmeshwar and Bheemeshwar in the Sahyadri Range, Mallikarjun
on the bank of Krishna (in Andhra Pradesh) and Rameshwar in
southeastern Bharatvarsh. Practically all these twelve dhams or abodes of
Shiva are characterized by unique, spectacular landforms and singularly
extraordinary geological features shaped by uncommon earth processes.
These facts speak volumes of the great vision, pragmatism, genius,
penetrating intellect and incredible knowledge of science of the leaders of
the people of the Puran time who established the Jyotirlings and
Shaktipeeths. There is no denying the fact that they were not only intrepid
explores and very keen observers, but also deeply perceptive earth
scientists.
Human Traits of Puranic Gods
The gods of the Puran period were extraordinary personalities gifted with
uncommon talents, singular competence, winning qualities, superior
intellectual, power and progidious strengths. They guided the destinies of
the people and led them on the path of righteousness and wellness. It was
these extraordinary—rather superhuman—leaders whose memories were
perpetrated symbolically by Jyotirlings, Shaktipeeths, temples and shrines.
However, these gods had very human faces—quite common humane
traits. The facts that the gods often came to the rescue of the people of their
own ethnic groups (Surs) and were involved in battles and combats with
the tribals (Asurs) implies that they had the failings and weaknesses of the
common human being. These gods lived like any other human being—they
fell in love, they married, bore children, were sometimes compelled to
indulge in deceits, practiced the policy of reward and punishment and got
involved in fighting, and endured the hardships of life.
MISSIONS OF EDUCATING PEOPLE
The sages and saintly scholars of the Puran period were fired by the zeal
of spreading education, imparting knowledge in philosophy and religion,
and training people in the arts of living with dignity, decency and security.
The ashrams were established in different parts of the country, invariably
close to nature in biodiversity-rich forests away from the din and bustle of
settlements. A chosen few went to the specialized ashrams to obtain the
benefits of training in arms and weapons.
The centres of learning were associated with hermitages of rishis (sages)
who had their own schools of thoughts and philosophy. Maharshis and
rishis were the gurus (teachers) and munis were the ascetic research scholars
and commentators who helped the gurus in their academic pursuits.
The aborigine tribals inhabiting the forests and mountains were,
however, suspicious of the Aryan rishis establishing their schools (ashrams)
in their forest reserves. The tribals regarded the establishment of ashrams
as an attempt by the Surs to colonize their lands. These suspicions
engendered hostility, and caused conflicts and confrontations. The tribals
harassed the inmates of the ashrams and there were sniping.
ELITE-CENTRIC SETTLEMENTS
While scholars, philosophers and gurus lived in their ashrams, the kings of
states, and chieftains of principalities lived in purs (cities) and puris (towns).
In the Purans and the epics are mentioned only the capitals of states with
their magnificent palaces, bejewelled gates, walls and minarets. These
works are, however, absolutely silent about the residential and commercial
sectors of cities of the common people, of public facilities, or of ceremonial
public meeting grounds, etc. There is hardly any mention of villages.
The Purans and epics describe only a few cities which were planned
well and well-fortified against enemy attacks. These cities were built in
strategic places—on trade routes invariably on the banks of rivers or on
the seacoast.
If one were to equate the Harappa Civilization with the Sur culture,
as a number of scholars and myself do, then there were 2600 settlements
on the flood-plains of the Saraswati and the Sindhu river system, and in
the Gujarat coastal belt. These settlements, many of which characterized
by very good town planning, testify to the splendour, aesthetic taste and
architectural understanding and tastes of the people living in these parts
of Bharatvarsh in the period 5500 yr B.P. to 3300 yr B.P.
TECTONIC MOVEMENTS
Uplift and Sinking of Ground
The Purans describe how once the Vindhya Giri rose up, blocking the
passage across the hills and causing obstructions to sun rays (Skand Puran,
Kashikhand, 1; Devi Bhagwat Puran, Part 17; Vaman Puran, 13; Matsya
Puran, 248). It was clearly a case of sudden uplift of a part of the Vindhya
range, related to one of the active faults that are known to cut the
Vindhyan terrane. This is further testified by evidence for occurrence of
an earthquake near Kalpi on the Yamuna sometime after 5000 yr B.P.
The Kurma Puran (Chapter 43) describes a cataclysmic phenomena
of sinking of mountains and islands and disappearance of seawater,
presumably in the western coast. Geologists know that the floor of Arabian
Sea is plunging beneath the Indian continental plate along the deep oceanic
trench—the Oman Trench—parallel to the Makran coast (in southern
Pakistan) marked by coastal hill ranges. The sudden plunging is
accompanied by shaking of the land violently, driving away of water
sometimes as tsunamis, sinking of a number of islands due to subsidence
of the seafloor. The Makran coast has risen up episodically at least nine
times in the Holocene epoch—in the last 11000 years—as testified by nine
levels of beach terraces. And tsunami continued to occur, as it happened
as late as in ad 1946.
In the Narad Puran (Uttar Khand) and Harivansh Puran (Chapter 39),
there is a description of an event when the Gokama Teerth on the west
coast was drowned along a 30 yojan stretch, forcing the people to evacuate.
This event possibly relates to the tectonic event that caused sinking of the
forest off the Mumbai dockyard or the coastal belt west of Hazira in
southern Gujarat.
Earthquakes and Tsunamis
The Valmiki Ramayan (Yuddh Kand, 22) states that when Ram was
preparing for launching his campaign for the rescue of Sita, there was a
terrific noise like the clap of thunder, the mountains shook, the rocks fell
down, the waters of lakes and rivers were greatly agitated, snakes came
out of their holes, and frogs fled the coast and the violently agitated
seawater advanced one yojan inland. Earth scientists know that these are
the precursor signs and co-seismic happenings related to big earthquake
accompanied by tsunami. The Mahabharat (Bhagwatyan Parv, 84) tells
that when Krishna was on his way to Hastinapur to negotiate peace
between the Padavs and Kauravs, there was a roar as if a bolt from the
blue had struck in a cloudless sky, the ground shook, the streams changed
their courses and trees fell down all over the place. It must have been an
earthquake. Similar phenomena happened towards the fag end of the
Mahabharat War when Bheem and Duryodhan were locked in mortal
combat in Kurukshetra. Significantly, the water levels in wells rose up,
the jackals cried ominously, the shrieking animals ran helter-skelter, even
as the hilltops collapsed (Mahabharat, 4th Part, Chapter 56). And thirty-
six years after the end of the war, the people of Hastinapur noticed that
there were very ominous signs and so did the people of the Dwarka in
distant western coast. The people also saw anomalous behaviour of
animals and birds. Earthquakes had hit both the Hastinapur region and
the Saurashtra coast almost simultaneously. It happens that both these
regions are dissected by a number of active faults, and movements along
them generate tremblors time and again. In the western coast, the beautiful
city of Dwarka sank into the sea (.Mahabharat, Mausal Parv, Chapter 2).
Rivers Changed Courses
When Kauravs and Pandavs were children, they used to play in a garden
of Hastinapur on the bank of the Ganga (Mahabharat, Sambhav Parv,
113). Since then, the Ganga has receded several kilometres eastward.
Krishna was bom in a Mathura prison on the bank of the Yamuna. This
river has shifted 10 to 40 km eastward. These facts are testified by many
abandoned channels, cut off meanders and levees, incised channels and
badland ravines, primarily due to tilting of ground—a manifestation of
tectonism. The Pandavs, during their exile, and Balram, during his
pilgrimage, had noticed the once-mighty Saraswati River drying up in
the sands of the Thar desert (Mahabharat, Van Parv, 26, Shalya Parv, 36).
This was the consequence of, as the geologist now demonstrate, the
deflection of the eastern branch of the Saraswati southwards to join the
Yamuna, due to faulting and attendant sinking of the ground.
The Purans describe the Brahmaputra River as Lauhitya, originating
from the foot of the Himshring Parvat (Matsya Puran, 20; Padma Puran, 1,
Vayu Puran, 47; Mahdbhdrat, 385). The Himshring seems to be the Puranic
name of the Namcha Barwa. Satellite imagery-based regional investigation
has shown that the Tsangpo River (the Brahmaputra in India) earlier
flowed eastward past the Namcha Barwa through the channels of the
Parlung and the Lohit rivers. Later strong neotectonic upheaval caused
the deflection southwards of the Tsangpo through the course of the Siang
(or Dihang) River. The Siang today represents the Brahmaputra in
Arunachal Pradesh. The implication of this is that the Tsangpo swung
southwards and flowed through the course of the Siang well after the
Purans and the Mahdbhdrat were written.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND CONCEPT OF PR/KLAYA
The Kurma Puran (Chapter 43) alludes to a time of disastrous climate change
at the end of a manvantar (era) when there was a prolonged drought; and
the sunrays becoming intensely hot, drying up all water bodies and
destroying all vegetation. After the drought came the deluge, culminating
in wholesale submergence of land all over.
Testimony of pores and pollens recovered from lake sediments in
western Rajasthan and thermoluminescence dating of sands and
associated concretions indicate clearly that in this hot dry Thar desert
region—the world of the Harappans—as well as in the Indo-Gangetic
plains, and the West Coast of India during the time span the humans
lived, the monsoon rains were at peak in the intervals 9500 to 6500 yr B.P.
(particularly in the interval 6300-4800 yr B.P.) and 2600 to 2000 yr B.P. It
is obvious that there is a great consistency in the accounts given by the
Purans and the climatic history worked by earth scientists.
The pralaya, which recurred periodically and happened a number of
times after every manvantar (era), not only brought about widespread
flooding of the land with water, but also caused decimation of life. The
palaeontological records, worked out from the testimonies of fossils,
indicate five major episodes of extinction in the last 500 million years—
around 488 million years, 251 million years, 355 million years, 65 million
years and about 11,000 years ago. At the end of the Pleistocene (11,000
years ago), for example, over 70% of mammals, including all giants, became
extinct.
In the time now called Anthropocene—the geological time shaped
by the actions of a single animal species Homo sapiens—the man—so severe
damage to environment has been inflicted in the last just 200 years that
the earth is headed for the sixth largest extinction of animals and plants.
This would be the pralaya waiting to happen.
UNDERSTANDING OF SCIENCE OF THE EARTH
Interior of Earth
The scholarly maharshis and rishis were profound thinkers as well as keen
observers of natural phenomena and processes. Through meditation,
reflection and logical deduction, they came to understand how the nature
functions and evolves. They had fairly good perception of, for example,
the nature of the interior of the earth. The Rigved (1, 22, 16, 10, 1, 6)
describes the earth consisting of seven layers and God Vishnu (the nature)
imparting dynamism to them and that the interior is in a fiery hot state.
On the basis of variation in gravity, magnetism, refection-refraction of
seismic waves and the composition of rock types, modern scientists
visualize the earth to be a spherical body made up of seven concentric
shells—the very hot solid inner core, the molten outer core, the mantle,
the transition zone, the upper mantle and the discontinuous oceanic and
continental crusts. In the upper mantle, large-sized convection currents
are ever active since the beginning and creating dynamic condition.
Natural Gases, Minerals, Metals and Metallurgy
The scholars of Vedic time were aware of an inflammable natural gas

oozing out and burning on the surface. The gas was known as Pureeshya
(Yajurved, 11.16, 11.28, 11.29). There is no doubt that Pureeshya is what
we now call methane that comes out of the earth and burns as flames
such as at Jwaladevi in Himachal Pradesh, and (in the past) at Sui in the
Kirthar Range in Pakistan. What is significant is the mention of the burning

gas in the sea board. Recent investigations have revealed existence not
only of large reserves of gas in the offshore belt off Andhra coast but also
at the depth of 60 m quite large deposits of the gas hydrates and gas-
charged sediments in the inner shelf of the western coast, and in the
offshore belt of the Krishna-Godavari delta, and off the Chilka Lake in
the eastern coast.
The Puran people made use of iron, copper, bronze, gold, silver, tin,
iron, lead, zinc and a variety of precious and semiprecious stones. This
means that they had fairly good knowledge of mineral exploration, mining
and metallurgy. The big list of precious-semiprecious stones and of the
metallic armours and weapons given in the Agni Puran (Chapter 246 and
278) demonstrate that there were, indeed, keen geologists among the
people of the Puran times.
EVOLUTION AND PROGRESSION OF LIFE
According to the Kurma Puran (Chapter 4), God in the form of Brahma
splashed up water of the ocean with the cups of his hands. A bubble-like
egg made up of 24 elements appeared. It was lifeless (achetan). The scientists
of our time have shown that life at the beginning was in the form of
inanimate molecules, and the bacterial microbes were the early
manifestation of life which built layered mounds called stromatolites. The
prokaryote cyanobacteria formed organic matt in the sea 3.8 billion years
ago in Karnataka. Life evolved from one-celled prokaryote bacterial microbe
to multi-celled organisms.
The Shiva Puran (Chapter 15) avers that in an attempt to evolve srishti
(life), God in his form as Vishnu entered the egg and made it chetan
(animate). The first to evolve was a vriksha (plant), then came tiryaksrota
comprising animals and birds, and lastly appeared Urdhsrota walking
upright on two feet, such as primates and humans. The Matsya Puran
states that when Brahma realized that amaithuni srishti (asexual
reproduction) is not leading to evolution as expected, he introduced
maithuni srishti (the sexual reproduction). The palaeontologists and
biologists of our time know that asexual reproduction later gave way to
sexual reproduction.
The simple organic body that had grown to complex forms in the sea
took to the land. The Vishnu Purdn (Chapter 37-39 and 44-45) states:
"Then appeared in chronological order Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise),
Vardh (a mammal boar), Naraismha (an anthropoid ape) and Vdman (a
dwarf human Homo erectus) encapsiculated by the various avatars.”
According to palaeontological evidence, the fossil record shows that the
milestones of the progression of life tally very well with the sequence of
the avatars.
It was during the Chaturyug, comprising the Krit, Treta, Dwdpar, and
Kali yugs, that the humans developed both in the anthropological and
sociological aspects. The Chaturyug, spanning a time period of 12,000 years,
is what the geologists call the Holocene Epoch, beginning 11,000 years
ago and continuing to date.
ENGINEERING OF BRIDGE BUILDING
The Valmiki Rdmdyan (Yuddh Kand, Chapter 22) describes the building of
a bridge across the sea to Lanka. The engineer was Neel, belonging to the
Vanar tribal group. Satellite imagery and high-tech bathymetric surveys
together with borehole data show existence underwater of a chain of coral
islands. Oceanographic studies by scientists demonstrate that the sea level
stood 80 m below the present level 12,000 years ago, and that since 10,000
yr B.P., it has been rising at the rate of 20 m per thousand years. At this
rate of sea level rise, the water must have stood much less than 10 m
below the present level around 5500 years ago. This implies that when
Engineer Neel and his Vanar people built the bridge, very large number of
coral islands must have stood above the sea water, so that it would not
have been difficult to construct a bridge.
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Index
Adivasis (aborigines) 112 Ashram 100,121,145

Aerodynamics 197,198,199 Bithoor 148
Afghanistan (Harivarsh) 30,40 Chitrakut 147
Agastya Ashram 46,121,146,159 Dvait 148
Agastya Parvat 89 Gokama 160
Agastya Rishi 12,46,159 Naimisharanya 127, 146
Agni (burning methane gas) 56,57 Panchavati 65,100,101,146
Agricultural practices 120 Ashwinikumars 108
Airavati (Ravi) River 40,44,45, 52, 54, Asur (ethnic group) 107,108,117,119
57, 76, 78,106 Aushadh (herb) 184
Alaknanda (of Meruland) 40,42,57,84, Authors
106 ofthePwran 6
(of Kedarkhand) 84,85 of the Valmiki Ramayan 7,148
Amarkantak Jyotirling 69,131,140 of the Mahdbharat 6,148
Amaithuni srishti (asexual reproduction) Austric speaking tribals 118
188 Avatar
Antargiri Himalaya (Himadri) 55 Matsya 188,189
Annapurna Parvat 84 Kurina 188,190
Apsara (professional group) 109 Varah 189,190
Arya 107,115,118, 211 Narasimha 188, 190
Aryavart 45 Vaman 188,190
Arbud Parvat (Abu) 70,71 Kalki 180
Archaeological evidence 110,115 Ayodhya Puri 153
Ayomukh Parvat (Kudremukh in Dakshinganga Rivers 83, 93

Sahyadri) 35 Dandakaranya 64, 67, 68,100
Danav (ethnic group) 107,108,109
Badarinath 113 Devata or Dev (ethnic group) 107,108,
Badarikshetra 132 109, 118, 119
Badarikashram 77, 82,133,138,139 Development of life 185-88
Bahirgiri Himalaya (Lesser Himalaya) Triyaksrota 187
54, 55 Urdhsrota 187
Bet-Dwarka Puri 58,151,197 Arvdksrota 187
Beshkent Culture 110 Dhanushkoti (Mainak) Island 141
Bhdgwat Geeta 144 Dhaumya Rishi 148
Bhadra (Syr Darya) River 41, 42, 106, Dholavira 58,155,157
110 Drishadwati Rivar 78, 82,123
Bhadrashwavarsh (=Sinkiang) 37, 38, Dudhganga River (in Karnataka) 83
39,40,42,45, 49, 55,105,106, 111 Dvaitvan 79
Bhagirathi River (Ganga) 84 Dwarka (Puri) 58, 147, 150, 151, 165,
Bharatvarsh (Bharatvarsh/India) 3, 4, 166, 167, 168, 196
39, 40, 55, 66,112,113,120,140
Bheemeshwar Jyotirling 131,136 Earth's interior 182
Bheemrathi (Bhlma) River 49,52,75,76, Earthquakes 159,162,163,164,165,167,
93, 136 ’ 168
Bindusarovar (Rakshastal) 84 Engineer Neel (of Vanar group) 194
Black Polished Ware Culture 154 Ethnic groups 107,117
Brahmaputra (Hladini-Pavani/ Evolution of life 185-86
Extinction of life (mass extinction) 178,
Tsangpo) River 40,52, 89,174
179
Brahma (Shree Brahma) 107, 108, 119,
127, 142, 144, 181, 183, 186, 187,
Flora and Fauna 95
188
of Outer Himalaya 96-99
Brahmagiri Parvat 93,136
of Indo-Gangetic Plains 99-100
Brahmavart 43,50,139
of Dandakarayna 100-101
Bridge building (engineering) 194
of Malaya Giri 102-103
Buried forest 161
of Lanka 103
of Northern Sahyadri 103-104
Chakshu or Suchakshu (Amu Darya)
River 41, 42, 84,110
Ganga River 40,45,49,52,73,75,76,78,
Chaturyug (=Holocene Epoch) 191
82, 83, 84, 116,117, 170
Chitrakut Ashram 147
Gandaki (Gandak) River 45, 49, 53, 76,
Chitral (=Alaknanda) River 40, 57,106
84, 88, 147
Climate Change, Climate Extremes 174-
Gandhamadan Giri
77, 179
(Little Pamir-Karakoram Range) 37,
Copper mining 154 38, 40, 48, 52, 55,106,124
Coral island chain (Ram Setu) 194 Gandharvs (a profession group) 109
Index 237
Gas, natural gas (methane) (Pureeshya) Holocene Epoch (=Chaturyug) 176,180

57, 193 Homo erectus namadicus 112
of Sui (Kirthar Range) 57
Genetic markers, gene mapping 113, Ilavritvarsh (Tajikistan) 31, 36, 38, 39,
114, 115, 125 40, 42, 45, 49, 55, 105, 106, 107,
Ghagghar-Hakra-Nara River 78,80,81, 110, 127
117, 123, 172,173 Indra 108
Ghusmeshwar Jyotirling 131,136 Indraprasth 84, 153, 166
Gilgit (=Alaknanda) River 40,57,106
Ginganga (in Sri Lanka) 83 Jambudweep (continent of Asia) 12,32,
Gimar Parvat (Somnath Jyotirling) 59, 38, 105, 106
134 Jyotirling 129
Godavari River 49, 52, 75, 76, 92, 93, Amarkantak 131,140
136, 147 Bheemeshwar 131,136
Gokama Ashram 161 Ghushmeshwar 131, 136
Gomantak Parvat (Kalsubai) 52,59,103 Kailas 131
Gulf of Kachchh 82 Kedamath 131,132.
Gulf of Khambhat 58,78,168 Mallikarjun 131, 140
Gupteshwar Caves 66 Nagesh 131, 136
Gurla Mandhata Parvat 84,85,86 Rameshwar 131, 140
Somnath 131,134, 135
Harappa Civilization 110,115,117,122, Trayambakeshwar 131,136
123, 155, 175 Vaidyanath 131, 137
Harappa towns 155,156 Vishwanath 131, 137
Harivarsh (SW Afghanistan) 37,38,39,
42, 105,106 Kailas Parvat 40, 45, 49, 52, 54, 55, 78,
Hastinapur 84,153,163,164,166,169 83, 84, 86, 88,132
Havan 115 Kailas Jyotirling 131,132
Hemkut Giri (Ladakh-Kailas Range) 40, Kailas-Ladakh Range (Hemkut) 40,48,
48,54,55,106,132 54, 55,106,132
Himalaya Giri, Himvant, Himvan 33, Kamyakvan 79
40, 52, 53, 55 Kamrup 49,173
Geological subdivision of Himalaya Kangra Valley 127
15, 40, 55,106 Kapila (Banjar) River 9, 67,91
Himadri (Antargiri Himalaya) 54,55 Kashi Puri 137
Himshring Parvat (Namcha Barwa) 52, Kashmir 40,127,160
89, 173 Kaushiki (Kosi) River 40,45,52, 76, 84
Hiranyashring Giri (Kunlun Range) 40, Kaveri River (in South India) 52,75, 76
52 Kaveri (Sukta) River, in M.P. 92,93,137,
Hiranyavarsh (Uzbekistan) 37, 38, 39, 147
42,105, 106 Kazakhstan (Kuruvarsh) 39,40
Hladini (Tsangpo-Brahmaputra) River Kedamath 132,133
45, 83, 84,132 Kedamath Jyotirling 131,132
238 ,
Kedarkhand 45,46,49,125,133 Mahendra Giri 68, 79

Ketumalavarsh (Turkmenistan) 37, 38, Mahi River 58,94
39, 40, 42,105,106,110, 111 Maithuni srishti (sexual reproduction)
Khasas (ethnic subgroup) 126 185
Kimpurushvarsh (Batistan) 48 Mainak Parvat (in Tibet) 52,55
Kirats/Kinnars 48, 115, 121, 124, 125, Mainak (Dhanushkoti) Island 195
142 Makran Coast 40, 57,160,161
Kishkindha Parvat 60 Malaya Giri (Annaimalai-Cardamom
Krishna (Shree Krishna) 75, 76,93,144, Hills) 35, 36, 52, 62, 63, 64, 75,
149, 150, 167, 176, 196 102, 198
Krishna Dvaipayan 'Vyas' Rishi 6,148 Malyawan Giri (Sulaiman-Kirthar
Krishna River 49,52,93 Range) 40, 52, 55,56, 57
Ksheersagar 108 Mallikarjun Jyotirling 131,137
Kshipra River 75, 76,137,154 Mandakini River 132,133,134
Kraunch Giri (Tethys Himalaya) 54,55, Manaskhand 45, 46
86 Mansarovar-Bindusarovar Lakes 45,
Kuber 108,109 83, 84, 85,86
Kubha (Kabul) River 40, 44,45, 56, 57, Manu Rishi 146
76, 106, 147 Maryada Parvat 52
Kulparvat 52 Mass migration (exodus) 113,114,123
Kurujangal 45,49,50,153 Mass extinction 177,178,179
Kuruvarsh (Kazakhstan) 37,38, 39,40, Matheran Hills 59,162
42, 43,105,106, 111 Mathura (Puri) 78, 122, 149, 166, 170,
Kurukshetra 79,139,152,166 197
Kyrgyzstan (Hiranyavarsh) 39,40 Matsya Avatar 188,189
Meruland (Central Asia) 38, 105, 106,
Lanka 39, 49, 63, 64 111, 112, 118, 144
Lankapuri 147 Meru Parvat (Pamir Massif) 33, 36, 38,
Lankan flora 103 39, 40,105,106,126
Lauhitya (Brahmaputra) River 52, 76, Metals 45,83,84,85,86
89, 132, 173 Mining and metallurgy 121,193
Lipi Parvat (Lipulekh) 85 Mohenjodaro 157
Lohit River 89 Mountains of India 15
Lokpdls 108
Lothal 58,155,157 Nagesh Jyotirling 131,136
Nags (ethnic subgroup) 126,127
Mahdbharat (the epic) 148 Naimisharanya Ashram 127,146
Mahabharat War 164,165,171 Nalini (Tsangpo-Brahmaputra) River
Mahakal Jyotirling 131,137 83, 84, 132
Mahanadi River 49, 52, 63, 69, 89,147 Nanga Parvat 84
Mahasweliganga River (in Sri Lanka) 83 Narmada River 45,49,52,58,69,73,75,
Mahendra Parvat 62,64,75,76,89,196, 76, 90, 91, 92,137
199 Narsimha Avatar 188,189,190
Index 239
Nishadh Giri (Hindukush) 38, 40, 52, Ram Setu (Adam's Bridge) 141,163
56, 57,132 Rameshwaram Jyotirling 131,140
Ramyakvarsh (Uzbekistan) 38, 39, 40,
Ochre-Coloured (Red) Ware Culture 153 42, 105, 106
Omkareshwar Jyotirling 131,137 Ratna 193
Rann (Irina ) 44, 58
Pamir massif (Meru Parvat) 40,106 Reclamation of land from the sea 196
Painted Grey Ware Culture 153,169 Rigved 181
Panchavati Ashram 65,67,92,100,101, Rishi and Maharshis 12, 121, 147
146, 147 Rishyamuk Parvat (Mount Tulasi) 52,
Paraglider 198,199 64, 66, 67
Parashuram Rishi 162 Riksh/Rikshwan Giri
Pariyatra Giri (Western Vindhya and (Mailan-Hazaribagh Hills) 52, 67,
SW Aravali) 40,52,70,75,91,106 68, 69, 70, 75
Fatal Lok 71, 72 Rivers of India 15
Patalbhuvaneshwar Cave 47, 72
Pavani River 83,84,132,147 Sabari River 67
Pavagadh (=Nagesh Jyotirling) 131 Sabhramati (Sabarmati) River 45,52,58,
Payoshni (Heran) River 69,90,91 75, 76, 147
Penganga River 52, 67,93 Sahya Giri (Sahyaclri) 52, 59, 62, 63, 75
Pilgrimage, objectives 129,130 Sanjeevani (Mrit Sanjeevani) (plant) 103
Prabhaskshetra/Prabhaskhand 44, 45, Saptasaindhav 44, 45, 77, 116,120,193
58,155,161,167,168 Saraswati River 40, 45,73,75, 76,77,78,
Prajdpati (=Rashtrapati) 108,109 84, 117, 122, 123, 132, 147, 148,
Prasarvan Giri (NaUamalai-Velikonda 172, 173
Ranges) 52,60,61 Saryu (Ghaghara) River 45, 49, 54, 85,
Pralaya, concept of 177,180 147
Prayag (Allahabad) 137 Saumnas Parvat (Mount Japro) 35, 70,
Puran 75
authors 6 Sea-level Rise 195,196
contents 4,5,6 Sea-farers 121
focal themes 3,4 Shdp (Shrap) & Shapmukti 110
meaning 1 Shalgram/Shaligram 88,89
time of composing 10 Shatadru (Satluj) River 45, 78, 84, 147,
Puranland 39, 43,105,113 173
Purs (cities) 145 Shell industry 197
Pureeshya (Natural or methane gas) 192 Shiva (Shree Shiva) 43, 125, 127, 128,
Pushpak Viman 198,199 142, 143, 144, 185, 186, 188
Shyama (Kali) River 40,47, 76, 84, 85
Rajsuyayagya 9 Shuktiman Gin (Ramgarh Hills) 52,69,
Raivat Parvat (Barda Hills) 56, 58,135, 75
152, 168 Sindhu (Indus) River 40, 45, 57, 76, 77,
Rakshas (a professional group) 109 84,94,106,116,117,123,132,147
Ram (Shree Ram) 143,144 Sinkiang (sBhadrashwavarsh) 39, 40
Sinking of sea coast 161,166 Udayachal Giri (Maikal Hills) 52, 69,
Siwalik Range (Upgiri Himalaya) 54,55 90, 91, 140
Somnath 58,168 Udaygiri (Naga Hills) 70,137
Somnath Jyotirling 131,134,135 Ujjayini (Ujjain) 153
Somras 107 Upgiri Himalaya (Siwalik Range) 54,55
Srishti 185,186,187,188 Uplift of hills 159,170
Stone-Age settlements 116
Suchakshu (Amu Darya) River 40, 41, Vaidurya Parvat (Rajpipla Hill, Satpura)
42, 84,106,110 52, 70, 71, 91
Sumeru Massif 84 Vaidyanath Jyotirling 131,137
Sur (ethnic group) 107,108,117-23 Valmiki Rishi 7,148
Suvamamukhari (^Suvamarekha) River Valmiki Ashram 148
45, 90 Vdlmiki Rdmdyan 7
Svoarg and Swargdrohan 110 Vaman Avatar 188,189,190
Szvayambhu Ling 58,125,128, 130, 131, Vanar (a tribal group) 65,93,102
142 Varah Avatar 188,189,190
Varah Parvat (Bhanrer Hills) 69,90,91
Tajikistan (Ilavritvarsh) 39,40 Varun 108
Takshshila (Taxila) 127,154 Vindhya Giri/Vindhyachal 52, 70, 75,
Tamrapami River 75, 76 160
Tamasa (Tons) River 45,78,82,84,171, Vishnu (Shree Vishnu) 107, 108, 119,
172 127,142, 144, 186, 188
Tectonic movements 151,158,162 Vishwanath Jyotirling 131,137
Teerths 129,130 Vyas (Krishna Dvaipayan Vyas) 6
Thar Desert 81 Vyas Ashram 138,148
Tejoling 135,169 Vyasvan 79
Times of composing
The Purdns 10 Wainganga River (in SW M.P.) 45, 52,
The Vdlmiki Rdmdyan 10 67, 69, 93
The Mahabharat 10
Town planning 196 Yadavs
Trayambakeshwar Jyotirling 93, 131, of Mathura 149,154
136 of Dwarka 136,152
Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) River 84,173, Yagyakund-Swastik 110,115,121
174 Yaksh (a professional clan) 109
Tsunamis 162,163 Yam 108
Tulasi Parvat (Rishyamuk) 67 Yamuna River 40, 45, 49, 52, 73, 75, 76,
Tulsi 84,88 78, 79, 82, 84, 116, 117, 147, 170,
Tungabhadra River 75, 76,93 171, 172
Turkmenistan (Ketumalavarsh) 39,40, Yavan 115
106 Yavadweep (Java) 36
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Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics of India in Puranas & Epics

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Geography, Peoples and Geodynamics

of India in Puranas and Epics

2012 pp. xxxii+244

Aryan Books International

ISBN: 978-81-7305-422-8 (HB)

© K.S. Valdiya, 2012

Printed in India at Mudrak, Delhi-110091

known to us, but it is surpassed by the Puranas in antiquity of contents.

As a well-informed geo-scientist of the 21st century, Prof. Valdiya is

Some of the inferences drawn and conclusions arrived at in this study

Prof. Shivaji Singh

Being careful of the strong possibility of idioms in the Puramc narratives,

behind this practice seems to be to persuade the people to know peoples

March 30, 2011 K.S. Valdiya

1. Purans: The Ancient History 1

The Saraswati River 77

6. Mora and Fauna of Bharatvarsh 95

Natural Gases, Minerals, Metals and Metallurgy 192

2.1. Various geomorphical provinces or domains of the Indian

the yoni. The mount is made up of sandstones and conglomerates

of the bifurcated River Narmada. The river flows in a rift valley of

9.5. (A) Photographs of the remains of the dockyards (upper) and of

The historical accounts coupled with descriptions of geography and

The historical accounts in the Purans, embellished with poetic and

(geodynamic) events that took place. However, the reconstruction of

Teerthatan, pilgrimage, is emphasized as an absolutely essential karma

Not only spiritual-religious but also mundane matters are discussed

temples, making of shikhars of temples and caning of statues and

(xi) Mineralogy or ratna vigyan, related to gold, silver and precious

AUTHORS OF THE PURANS AND EPICS

(Bhavishya Puran, Brahma Parv, 216)

write a bhdshya (treatise) on Valmiki's Ramayan. The Vdlmiki Ramayan

^WI<v?Wu: 'JTM ipj: II 20 II

Krishna Dvaipayan must have organised his magnum opus in

VALMIKI RAmAYAN: THE EPIC:

One of the special features of the Valmiki Rdmayan is the detailed

MAHABHARAT: THE EPIC

He based the accounts of geography and history on the works of Valmiki,

It is believed that this great work evolved in three stages—the Jaya

punishment, and diplomacy. It spells out the norms and protocols to be

TIME OF COMPOSING PURANIC VERSES

[t is significant that the Puranic accounts on the Yadav supremo Krishna

In Puranic literature and religious invocations, India is described as a part

Fig. 2.1. Various geomorphical provinces or domains of the Indian subcontinent.

In the geographical confines of India (Bharat), liigh mountains cover

NORTHERN MOUNTAIN GIRDLE

Majestically high mountains form the northwestern, northern and

% North western Himalaya

Gandak ^v 6 Yamun5' the Ga"g5, the Kali, the Kamali, the

S' Tr d Na"f PaAat <8126 m)' Nunkun (7135 m> Kedarnath

The triangle-shaped Peninsular India extends 2200 km from north to south

1569-m Mahabaleshwar peaks) in Maharashtra are made up of 60-65

The Peninsular India is fringed by a narrow coastal plain of more than

QUATERNARY TECTONIC EVENTS: LANDFORM CHANGES

The continental expanse of India experienced many events of crustal

PROCESSES LEADING TO LANDFORM CHANGES

The tectonic movements are episodic, occurring at longer or shorter

Formation and Effacement of Lakes

The sudden rupturing of ground causes earthquakes. The earthquakes

Shifting of River Courses

Disappearance of Rivers, March of Deserts

Most spectacular was the shifting—rather deflection—of the course of

Rise and Fall of Sea Level along Coasts