RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM

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 Respiratory System Functions & Structures
 Fuctions:
 Exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood- inhale
O2 and exhale CO2
 Homeostatic regulation of body pH- the amounts of CO2 in the
blood affect the pH
 Protection from inhaled pathogens and irritating substances-
preventive mechanisms against pathogens that could cause harm
 Vocalization- voice production is possible when one exhales
 Structures or zones
 Conducting system (zone)- components of the respiratory tract that
are involved with the flow of air and not the exchange
 Respiratory zones- site where gas exchange occurs
 Alveoli- site for quick two-way transfer of substances between the
blood and the lung tissue
 Bones and muscle of thorax- (muscular pump) use to increase or
decrease pressure. Includes the diaphram, internal/external intercostal,
abdominals, ect.
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 Respiratory System
Pulmonary circulation:
Right ventricle 
pulmonary trunk 
lungs  pulmonary
veins  left atrium

Ventilation
External
Respiration
Circulation
Internal Respiration
Cellular Respiration
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 Conditioning
Functions performed by the
respiratory epithelium found
in the nasal cavity and
trachea:
 Warming air to body
temperature
 Adding water vapor
 Filtering out foreign
material

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 Respiratory System

There are three

sections to the
pharynx.
The upper
respiratory tract is
purely a conduction
zone. Lower
respiratory tract
includes conduction
and respiratory
zones
Lungs are
surrounded by
serous membranes
called pleura
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Detailed Anatomy of Upper Respiratory Tract

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 The Plural Membranes
The relationship between the pleural sac and the lung

Pleural fluid reduces friction

and protects the lungs
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 Muscles Used for Ventilation

Some muscles
are only used
during forceful
expiration or
inspiration

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Movement of the Diaphragm

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 Movement of the Rib Cage during Inspiration
 Rib
movement
increases or
decreases the
width of the
rib cage.

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 Branching of Airways

Branching of
airways changes
in ways similar to
how it occurs in
blood vessels. In
the lungs airway
diameter is also
mediated by
smooth muscle

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Branching of the Airways

As branching becomes more numerous the wall thins

out. Alveoli design allows for increased surface area.
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 Alveolar Structure

Type I cells
make up the
walls of the
alveoli
Type II cells
release
surfactant to
prevent
alveolar
collapse

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Alveoli & Capillary Walls

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Principles of Bulk Flow
THESE ARE FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE FLOW OF AIR- NOTICE HOW
THEY ARE THE SAME AS THOSE THAT AFFECT THE FLOW OF
BLOOD

 Flow from regions of higher to lower pressure

 Boyle’s Law P1V1=P2V2
 Decreasing volume increases collision & decreases pressure

 Muscular pump creates pressure gradients

 Muscular contractions increase or decrease the size of the
thoracic cavity, changing the pressure so air moves in or out
 Resistance to flow
 Diameter of the bronchiole tubes changes size to increase or
decrease resistance.
 Bronchoconstriction increases resistance and reduces flow
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 Spirometer

This apparatus measure the air going into or out

of the lungs. It does not measure the TOTAL air
volume moving in the lungs because, like the
heart, they are never completely empty.
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Air Flow
 Flow  P/R = air flows due to pressure gradient and
decreased with increased resistance
 Alveolar pressure or intrapleural pressure can be
measured = the amount of air that moves in/out can
be used to infer pressure
 Single respiratory cycle consists of inspiration
followed by expiration= remember- there is quiet
and forced breathing

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 Lungs Volumes and Capacities

RV= residual volume ERV=air forcefully exhaled Vt= amount

the is normally exhaled& inhaled IRV= additional air above Vt
VC=maximum amount of air that can move in/out
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 Pressure Changes during Quiet Breathing

Notice the intrapleural

pressure drops more than
alveolar and it is not exactly
aligned with alveolar
changes
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 Pressure in the Pleural Cavity

The pull on the walls creates a pressure lower than

atmospheric- allowing air to move in and keep the lung from
collapsing. Pneumothorax results in collapsed lung that can
not function normally
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Compliance and Elastance
 Compliance: ability to stretch
 High compliance- not a helpful condition in lungs
 Stretches easily- but has low recoil thus its hard to
exhale
 Low compliance
 Requires more force- more work is needed to
stretch a stiff lung
 Restrictive lung diseases- pathology decreasing
compliance
 Fibrotic lung diseases and inadequate
surfactant production- inelastic scar tissue and
alveolar walls that stick together
 Elastance: returning to its resting volume when
stretching force is released
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 Surface Tenstion and Surfactant
Surface tension is created by the
thin fluid layer between
alveolar cells and the air
Mixture containing proteins and
phospholipids that reduces
surface tension.
 Increased surface tension
would cause the alveolar walls
to stick to each other
 Newborn respiratory distress
syndrome
 Premature babies may have
inadequate surfactant
concentrations making
difficult for them to breathe
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Ventilation ****
Total pulmonary ventilation and alveolar ventilation
Total pulmonary ventilation = ventilation rate  tidal
volume Dead space filled with fresh air

150
The first exhaled
air comes out of
mL
the dead space.
Only 350 mL leaves
1 the alveoli.
2700 mL

Atmospheric 1 End of inspiration

air

2 Exhale 500 mL
Dead space
2 (tidal volume).
is filled with 150
fresh air. 150 mL
Respiratory 3 At the end of
Only 350 expiration, the
350 mL cycle in 2200 mL
dead space is
of fresh air 150 an adult
filled with
reaches 2200 mL “stale” air from
alveoli. alveoli.
Dead space filled
4 with stale air
The first 150 mL 4 Inhale 500 mL
of air into the 150 of fresh air
alveoli is stale mL (tidal volume).
air from the
dead space. KEY
2200 mL 3
PO2 = 160 mm Hg
PO2 ~
~ 100 mm Hg

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Ventilation

Dead space filled with fresh air

The first exhaled
150 air comes out of
mL
the dead space.
Only 350 mL leaves
1 the alveoli.
2700 mL
1 End of inspiration

2 Exhale 500 mL
2 (tidal volume).
150
mL
Respiratory
cycle in 2200 mL
an adult

KEY
PO2 = 160 mm Hg
PO2 ~
~ 100 mm Hg

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Ventilation

Dead space filled with fresh air

The first exhaled
150 air comes out of
mL
the dead space.
Only 350 mL leaves
1 the alveoli.
2700 mL
1 End of inspiration

2 Exhale 500 mL
2 (tidal volume).
150
mL
Respiratory 3 At the end of
expiration, the
cycle in 2200 mL
dead space is
an adult
filled with
“stale” air from
Dead space filled alveoli.
with stale air

150
mL

KEY
2200 mL 3
PO2 = 160 mm Hg
PO2 ~
~ 100 mm Hg

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 17-14, steps 1–3
Ventilation

Dead space filled with fresh air

The first exhaled
150 air comes out of
mL
the dead space.
Only 350 mL leaves
1 the alveoli.
2700 mL

Atmospheric 1 End of inspiration

air

2 Exhale 500 mL
Dead space
2 (tidal volume).
is filled with 150
fresh air. 150 mL
Respiratory 3 At the end of
Only 350 expiration, the
350 mL cycle in 2200 mL
dead space is
of fresh air 150 an adult
filled with
reaches 2200 mL “stale” air from
alveoli. alveoli.
Dead space filled
4 with stale air
The first 150 mL 4 Inhale 500 mL
of air into the 150 of fresh air
alveoli is stale mL (tidal volume).
air from the
dead space. KEY
2200 mL 3
PO2 = 160 mm Hg
PO2 ~~ 100 mm Hg

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 17-14, steps 1–4
Ventilation

Dead space filled with fresh air

The first exhaled
150 air comes out of
mL
the dead space.
Only 350 mL leaves
1 the alveoli.
2700 mL

Atmospheric 1 End of inspiration

air

2 Exhale 500 mL
Dead space
2 (tidal volume).
is filled with 150
fresh air. 150 mL
Respiratory 3 At the end of
Only 350 expiration, the
350 mL cycle in 2200 mL
dead space is
of fresh air 150 an adult
filled with
reaches 2200 mL “stale” air from
alveoli. alveoli.
Dead space filled
4 with stale air
The first 150 mL 4 Inhale 500 mL
of air into the 150 of fresh air
alveoli is stale mL (tidal volume).
air from the
dead space. KEY
2200 mL 3
PO2 = 160 mm Hg
PO2 ~~ 100 mm Hg

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 17-14, steps 1–5
Ventilation
Alveolar ventilation =
ventilation rate  (tidal volume – dead space volume)

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Ventilation

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Ventilation
Effects of changing alveolar ventilation on PO2 and PCO2
in the alveoli

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V/Q ratio
 Ratio alveolar ventilation and pulmonary blood flow
 Achieve ideal exchange O2 and CO2
 Normal 0.8 (PaO2 100 mmHg and PaCO2 40
mmHg)
 Apex : Higher (blood flow and ventilation lower,
PaO2 highest, PaCO2 lower)
 Base : Lower (blood flow and ventilation highest,
PaO2 lowest, PaCO2 higher)
 Changes : airway obstruction, pulmonary embolism

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 Ventilation

Notice that the sytemic arterioles and

bronchioles react the same and opposite
to the pulmonary arterioles.
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Ventilation
 Auscultation = diagnostic technique- listening to
breath sounds to resulting from different types of fluid
accumulations or membrane changes
 Obstructive lung diseases- cause narrowing of the
bronchioles reducing the amount of air flow
 Asthma- caused by allergies leading to inflammation
or edema
 Emphysema- reduction in alveolar surface area,
decreased tissue elasticity, mucous build-up
 Chronic bronchitis- also called COPD- inflammation
of the bronchioles due to infection

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Causes of Low Alveolar PO2
 Inspired air has abnormally low oxygen content
 Altitude
 Alveolar ventilation is inadequate
 Decreased lung compliance
 Increased airway resistance
 Overdose of drugs
 Pathological changes
 Decrease in amount of alveolar surface area
 Increase in thickness of alveolar membrane
 Increase in diffusion distance between alveoli and
blood
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Alveolar Ventilation
Pathological conditions that reduce alveolar ventilation
and gas exchange
-only high altitude reduces oxygen amounts in air
-most disorders are due to decreased lung compliance,
increased resistance, or slow ventilation (CNS affected)

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Alveolar Ventilation
Diffusion rate is proportional to surface area- here the
walls are broken down, the lung now has high-
compliance, low-elasticity

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Healthy Lung Emphysema

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Alveolar Ventilation
Diffusion rate is inversely proportional to
membrane thickness- thickened by scar
tissue

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Alveolar Ventilation
Diffusion rate is inversely proportional to
distance

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 Alveolar Ventilation
Decreased ventilation brings in low oxygen
and thus the blood will have less oxygen
dissolved in it

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HIPOXEMIA

 A-a gradient = PAO2- PaO2

 Normal : < 10 mmHg
 Normal : High altitude, hypoventilation
 Increased : Diffusion defect and V/Q defect

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REFERENCE
 Costanzo, LS. 2010. Physiology. 4th ed. Elsevier.
Philadelphia
 Ganong. 2010. Review of Medical Physiology. 23rd
ed. The McGraw Hill Companies.
 Guyton AC & Hall JE. 2011. Guyton and Hall
Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th ed. Elsevier.
Philadelphia.
 Martini F, Nath J & Bartholomew. 2012.
Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology 9th ed.
Pearson Benjamin Cummings. San Fransisco.
 Silverthorn, DU. 2010. Human Physiology. 5th
edition. Benjamin Cumming-Pearson Publisher.
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings