Assignment/Internet Research in General Physics

a. Torque, Equilibrium, and Gravitational Field

b. Mechanical waves, Sound, Doppler Effect
c. Specific gravity, Buoyancy, Archimedes’ Principle
d. Thermodynamics, Thermal expansion, Heat Capacity

Prepared by:
Submitted to:

Name: _____________ Mr. Danilo L. Aureada

Faculty/Adviser
Subject: __General Physics 1__

Day: _TTH_; Time: _10:00am-12:00nn_

Date of Submission: __Oct. 17, 2017__

a. Torque, Equilibrium, and Gravitational Field

i. Torque
The ability of a force to cause rotation or
twisting around an axle or pivot point is
called torque. It consists of a linear force
applied perpendicular to the radius of the
object being turned (torque arm/lever arm).
In equation form, it is often written as on the
right:

ii. Some preliminary concepts for understanding torque

Motion in which an entire object moves is called
translation. It is also called slipping motion. This is the
motion that happens with net or constant force.

Motion in which an object spins is called rotation.

It is also called spinning motion. This is the motion that
happens with net or constant torque.

An object can both rotate and translate.

In this case, the object is said to be in rolling motion. This
is the motion that happens with net or constant torque and
force.

iii. Translational Motion vs Angular Motion

Angular motion is just slightly different from the kind of motion we’ve learned so far
(i.e. translational/linear motion). Torque is just force’s equivalent in angular
motion.
 iv. How is torque created?
Torque is created when the line of action of a force does
not pass through the centre of rotation.

The line of action is an imaginary line that follows the

direction of a force and passes through its point of
application.

v. Factors affecting torque

The factors that affect torque include:
• Point of application of force
A force applied parallel to or at the center of gravity
will not produce torque, no matter how massive it
is.
• Distance between the line of action and the axis
of rotation
The further the line of action is from the
axis(center) of rotation, more torque is produced.
• Size/magnitude of the force
At constant radius, more force means more torque.

vi. Variables of Torque

vii. Deriving the torque equation

Deriving an equation for the torque, 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹⟂ , in
terms of r, F, and 𝜃:
Force is applied at angle 𝜃
Perpendicular component is the opposite side
 𝒐 𝑭⟂
sin 𝜽 = =
𝒉 𝑭
𝑭⟂ = 𝑭 sin 𝜽 𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭⟂

𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭 sin 𝜽

viii. Finding the direction of a torque

A torque’s direction depends on the direction of rotation.

If
Then

Direction of rotation = clockwise

Torque = points inwards and is negative

Direction of rotation = counterclockwise

Torque = points outwards and is positive

ix. Drawing the direction of a torque

This sounds difficult to draw in only two

dimensions, but there’s a standard convention that
helps.
The symbol for a vector going into the paper is
⊗ (like the head-on view of a screw) and for one
coming out of the paper is ⊙, (like the view of
the screw point).

x. Right-hand rule

If you can’t imagine which way a screw would move if

a torque was applied, then do a ‘thumbs up’ with
your right hand. If you curl your fingers in the
direction that the object’s turning in, then your thumb
points in the direction of the torque vector.
xi. Types of Torque
A static torque is one which does not produce an angular acceleration. Someone
pushing on a closed door is applying a static torque to the door because the door is
not rotating about its hinges, despite the force applied. Someone pedalling a bicycle
at constant speed is also applying a static torque because they are not accelerating.

The drive shaft in a racing car accelerating from the start line is carrying a dynamic
torque because it must be producing an angular acceleration of the wheels given
that the car is accelerating along the track.

xii. Problem solving using 𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭 sin⁡𝜽

A 15cm wrench is used to screw in a bolt. If 30 N of force is applied to it at a 35°
angle, how much torque is applied?
Given:
r = 15cm = 0.15 m Formula: 𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭 sin⁡𝜽
F = 30 N Note:
𝜽 = 35 °
If we were to factor in the direction, which is
Action = “screw in” clockwise because the action is to “screw
Solution: in”, then the torque would be -2.6 Nm.
𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭 sin⁡𝜽 But if it is just the amount or magnitude of
𝝉 = (0.15m)(30N)sin⁡35° torque we are talking about, it is just 2.6 Nm.
= 2.6 Nm

xiii. Problem solving using 𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭⟂ = rF_⟂ and involving multiple forces
A boy of mass 45 kg and his dog of mass 25 kg stand on a diving board. If the boy
stands 2.0 meters from the pivot of the board, and the dog stands 1.2 meters from
the pivot, what is the net torque on the board?
Given: Find:
𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑦 = 45𝑘𝑔 𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑦 = 2𝑚 𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑦 𝜏𝑏𝑜𝑦
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑔 = 25𝑘𝑔 𝑟𝑑𝑜𝑔 = 1.2𝑚 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑔 𝜏𝑑𝑜𝑔

Solution: 𝜏𝑏𝑜𝑦 = 𝑟 𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑦

𝜏𝑏𝑜𝑦 = 2𝑚(441𝑁) = 882𝑁𝑚 Note again that the
𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑦 = 𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑦 𝑔
𝜏𝑑𝑜𝑔 = 𝑟𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑔 torque would be
9.8𝑚 negative if direction
𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑦 = 45𝑘𝑔 ( 2 ) = 441𝑁
𝑠 𝜏𝑑𝑜𝑔 = 1.2𝑚(245𝑁) = 294𝑁𝑚 of rotation is taken
into account (which
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏𝑏𝑜𝑦 + 𝜏𝑑𝑜𝑔 is downwards or
𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑔 = 𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑔 𝑔
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 882𝑁𝑚 + 245𝑁𝑚 clockwise in this
9.8𝑚 case).
𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑔 = 25𝑘𝑔 ( 2 ) = 245𝑁 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 1176𝑁𝑚
𝑠
xiv. Torque in summary
 aka moment of force
 a measure of tendency of a force to
cause an object to turn or rotate
 not the same thing as force.
 a vector quantity wherein its magnitude is
rF⟂
In physics, the Greek letter τ
 positive (+) if direction of rotation is (pronounced ‘tau’) is used to represent a
counterclockwise, negative (-) if clockwise torque. When you have a fulcrum, torque
 counterpart of force in rotational dynamics is defined as the displacement from the
fulcrum a force is applied at times the
 SI Unit: Newton meters (Nm) component of the force perpendicular to
the lever.
xv. Equilibrium
Equilibrium is
another word for balance.
It is when the forces/torques acting on an
object cancel each other out.

xvi. Forms of Equilibrium

Translational equilibrium – is the specific case of equilibrium when the net
force equals zero. In this case, the object is either not translating (moving linearly)
or is translating at a constant rate. An example of this form of equilibrium is a box
sliding across a frictionless floor with some velocity. If there is no force pushing it
forward, and there is no frictional force slowing it down, then it has an acceleration of
0, and is in translational equilibrium.
Rotational equilibrium – is the case when the net torque is zero. In this
case, the object is either not rotating or is rotating at a constant rate. A disc that‘s
rotating on a frictionless axis is in rotational equilibrium if there is no torque acting on
it to accelerate it.
Static equilibrium – is the case when an object is in both translational and
rotational equilibrium, typically at rest. For example, a building has no linear or
angular acceleration, so it is in static equilibrium.

xvii. Conditions of Equilibrium

 First condition of equilibrium:

 The vector sum of all the external forces that act on the body must be zero.
 Second condition of equilibrium:
The vector sum of all external torques that act on the body, measured about any
possible point, must also be zero.

The first and second conditions apply for both static and general equilibrium (where
momentum is constant). For an object to be in static equilibrium, it must satisfy a
third condition.

 Third condition of equilibrium:

The linear momentum of the body must be zero.

xviii. Problem solving with rotational equilibrium

We want to balance a 5 kg mass against
Find:
a 10 kg mass on a fulcrum. The 10 kg mass 𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝜏𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝜏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
is placed 20 cm to the right of a fulcrum. Solution:
How far from the fulcrum must the 5 kg mass 9.8𝑚
𝐹𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 5𝑘𝑔( ) = 49𝑁
𝑠2
be placed in order to balance the system? 9.8𝑚
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 10𝑘𝑔( 2 ) = 98𝑁
𝑠
𝜏𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝑟𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 (49𝑁)
𝜏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = (0.2𝑚)(98𝑁) = 19.6𝑁𝑚
In order to achieve rotational equilibrium,
net torque must be zero.
𝜏𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 + (−𝜏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ) = 0
Given: 𝜏𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝜏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑟𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 (49𝑁) = (0.2𝑚)(98𝑁)
𝑚𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 5𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 10𝑘𝑔
𝑟𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = [(0.2𝑚)(98𝑁)]/(49𝑁)
𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 20𝑐𝑚 = 0.2𝑚
𝑟𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 0.4𝑚

xix. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Where the gravitational constant Gravitational force is an attractive force between

−𝟏𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 two particles
𝐆 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐍 ∙ 𝐦 /𝐤𝐠 6.67×10^-11N∙m ^2/kg^2that gets weaker with distance.

Weight is the earth‘s gravitational force on you.

xx. Gravitational field

The space surrounding a material body in which gravitational force of attraction can
be experienced is called its gravitational field.
Gravitational field is expressed by the following
equation:
𝐺𝑚
𝑔=
𝑟2
where
G = universal gravitational constant
m = mass of object
r = radius of object
• To find the gravitational field caused by more than one object, you would
calculate both gravitational fields and add them as vectors.
• The gravitational field can be measured by placing an object with a small mass,
m, in the gravitational field and measuring the force, F, on it.
• The gravitational field can be calculated using 𝑔 = 𝐹/𝑚.= F/m.
• avitational field is measured in 𝑁/𝑘𝑔, which is also equal to 𝑚/𝑠 2 .

xxi. Gravitational field of the Earth

 On Earth’s surface, the strength of the gravitational field is 9.80 N/kg, and its
direction is toward Earth’s center. The field can be represented by a vector of
length g pointing toward the center of the object producing the field.
 The strength of Earth’s gravitational field varies inversely with the square of
the distance from the center of Earth.
 Earth’s gravitational field depends on Earth’s mass, but not on the mass of
the object experiencing it.
 You can picture the gravitational field of Earth as a
collection of vectors surrounding Earth and pointing
toward it, as shown in the figure.

xxii. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

1. The Law of Orbits states that:

 All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus.
2. The Law of Areas states that:
  A line that connects a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in the
plane of the planet’s orbit in equal time intervals; that is, the rate 𝑑𝐴/𝑑𝑡 at
which it sweeps out area A is constant.
 Planets move faster when they are closer to the Sun and slower when
they are farther away from the Sun.
3. The Law of Periods states that:
 The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the
semimajor axis of its orbit.
 The square of the ratio of the periods of any two planets revolving about
the Sun is equal to the cube of the ratio of their average distances from
the Sun
b. Mechanical waves, Sound, Doppler Effect

i. Commonly used terms in waves

 Frequency – is the number of complete waves (or oscillations) that occur over a
given time period. It is usually measured in cycles per second. The term Hertz
(Hz, named for physicist Heinrich Hertz) also defines the cycles; a frequency of
100 cycles per second is stated as 100 Hertz. A kilohertz (kHz) is 1,000 cycles
per second; a megahertz (mHz) is 1 million cycles per second.
 Wave crest – is the highest point of a wave.
 Wave trough – is the lowest point of a wave.
 Period – is the time it takes for one complete wave oscillation to occur. If 10
wave crests pass a point in 1 second, the period would be 0.1 second.
 Wavelength – is the distance from any point on a wave on an identical point on
the next wave. The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength.
 Amplitude – is the maximum displacement of any part of the wave from its
balanced (or equilibrium) condition. It is also the height of the crests and troughs
of a wave: The taller the crests or troughs, the higher the amplitude; the shorter
the crests and troughs, the lower the amplitude. Amplitude does not affect wave
velocity. The energy transmitted by the wave is proportional to the amplitude
squared.

ii. Mechanical waves

A mechanical wave is a disturbance that travels through some material or substance
called the medium for the wave. As the wave travels through the medium, the particles
that make up the medium undergo displacements of various kinds, depending on the
nature of the wave.
Figure 15.1 shows three varieties of mechanical waves. In Fig. 15.1a the medium is a
string or rope under tension. If we give the left end a small upward shake or wiggle, the
wiggle travels along the length of the string. Successive sections of string go through
the same motion that we gave to the end, but at successively later times. Because the
displacements of the medium are perpendicular or transverse to the direction of travel of
the wave along the medium, this is called a transverse wave.
In Fig. 15.1b the medium is a liquid or gas in a tube with a rigid wall at the right end and
a movable piston at the left end. If we give the piston a single back-and-forth motion,
displacement and pressure fluctuations travel down the length of the medium. This time
the motions of the particles of the medium are back and forth along the same direction
that the wave travels. We call this a longitudinal wave.
In Fig. 15.1c the medium is a liquid in a channel, such as water in an irrigation ditch or
canal. When we move the flat board at the left end forward and back once, a wave
disturbance travels down the length of the channel. In this case the displacements of
the water have both longitudinal and transverse components.
Each of these systems has an equilibrium state. For the stretched string it is the state in
which the system is at rest, stretched out along a straight line. For the fluid in a tube it is
a state in which the fluid is at rest with uniform pressure. And for the liquid in a trough it
is a smooth, level water surface. In each case the wave motion is a disturbance from
the equilibrium state that travels from one region of the medium to another. And in each
case there are forces that tend to restore the system to its equilibrium position when it is
displaced, just as the force of gravity tends to pull a pendulum toward its straight-down
equilibrium position when it is displaced.

These examples have three things in common. First, in each case the disturbance
travels or propagates with a definite speed through the medium. This speed is called the
speed of propagation, or simply the wave speed. Its value is determined in each case
 by the mechanical properties of the medium.
We will use the symbol for wave speed. (The
wave speed is not the same as the speed with
which particles move when they are disturbed
by the wave.) Second, the medium itself does
not travel through space; its individual particles
undergo back-and-forth or up-and-down
motions around their equilibrium positions. The overall pattern of the wave disturbance
is what travels. Third, to set any of these systems into motion, we have to put in energy
by doing mechanical work on the system. The wave motion transports this energy from
one region of the medium to another. Waves transport energy, but not matter, from one
region to another (Fig. 15.2).

iii. More on longitudinal waves

A longitudinal wave is one in which the particles vibrate parallel to the direction in which
the wave is travelling. Some types of longitudinal waves are:

• sound waves
• ultrasound waves
• slinky spring waves
• P-type earthquake waves.

It is easy to demonstrate longitudinal waves by holding a slinky spring at one end and
moving your hand backwards and forwards parallel to the axis of the stretched spring.
Compressions are places where the coils (or particles) bunch together. Rarefactions
are places where the coils (or particles) are furthest apart. All longitudinal waves are
made up of compressions and rarefactions. In the case of sound waves, the particles
are the molecules of the material through which the sound is travelling. These
molecules bunch together and separate just as they do in a longitudinal wave on a
slinky spring.

iv. More on transverse waves

A transverse wave is one in which the vibrations are at 90° to the direction in which the
wave is travelling. Most waves in nature are transverse – some examples are:
• water waves (Figure 8.2)

• slinky spring waves (Figure 8.3)

• waves on strings and ropes

• electromagnetic waves.

A transverse wave pulse can be created by shaking one end of a slinky. The pulse
moves along the slinky, but the final position of the slinky is exactly the same as it was
at the beginning (Figure 8.3). None of the material of the slinky has moved permanently.
But the wave pulse has carried energy from one point to another. Figure 8.2 represents
water waves. You can see that water waves are transverse. A cork floating on the
surface of some water bobs up and down as the waves pass. The vertical vibration of
the cork is perpendicular to the horizontal motion of the wave. Energy is transferred in
the direction in which the wave is travelling.

v. Wave equation

Imagine a wave with wavelength λ (metres) and frequency λ (hertz). From the definition
of frequency, ƒ waves pass a fixed point in 1 second. Each wave has a length λ, so, the
total distance travelled every second is ƒ × λ. The distance travelled in a second is the
speed. So:

This is an important equation that you should

memorise and learn how to use. Note that
the units used in the wave equation must be
consistent, as shown in Table 8.1.
vi. Plane wave fronts

We can learn much about the behaviour of waves using a ripple tank, as shown in
Figure 8.8. A motor makes a straight dipper vibrate up and down continuously. This
produces straight water waves, also called plane waves. By shining a light from above
the tank, we can see bright and dark patches on the screen below. These patches show
the wave crests and troughs. The direction of movement of the water waves is always at
right angles to the wave fronts.

Water waves move quite quickly, and it can sometimes be hard to see what is
happening. Looking through a rotating stroboscope can make the waves appear to
stand still. Suppose the stroboscope had 12 slits and rotated twice every second. The
tank could be seen 24 times a second. If the waves had a frequency of 24 Hz, every
1
𝑡ℎ of a second each wave would have moved forward by exactly one wavelength.
24

This would mean that when viewed through the stroboscope, the wave pattern would
appear to be stationary.
vii. Reflection

Figure 8.9 shows some plane waves approaching a straight metal barrier. The barrier is
big enough to prevent waves going ‘over the top’. The incident waves are reflected from
the barrier.

Note that:

• the angle of incidence always equals

the angle of reflection

• the wavelengths of incident and

reflected waves are equal

• the frequency of the incident waves is

the same as that of the reflected waves

• there is continuity of incident waves

and reflected waves at the barrier.

The behaviour of water waves at a boundary is very similar to that of light at a mirror.
However, water waves can be observed easily because they have a wavelength of
many centimetres. Light waves have a wavelength typically around half a millionth of a
metre, so their wave behaviour is more difficult to demonstrate.

viii. Refraction

In Figure 8.10, water waves are travelling from deep water to shallow water. A region of
shallow water in a ripple tank can be made by immersing a rectangular glass block. The
block displaces the water so that the water directly
above it is shallow while the surrounding water is
deeper.

Waves travel more slowly in shallow water than

they do in deep water. This change of speed is
called refraction. Since the same number of
waves leave the deep water as enter the shallow
water every second, the frequencies in the deep
and shallow regions must be the same. This
means that the waves in shallow water must have
a shorter wavelength than those in deep water.

When water waves enter the shallow region obliquely (at an angle), they not only slow
down, but also change direction, as shown in Figure 8.11
 . Note that:

• The angle of incidence in deep water is

always bigger than the angle of refraction in
shallow water.

• The wavelength and speed of waves in

deep water are greater than those waves in
shallow water.

• The frequencies of waves in both deep

and shallow water are the same.

• There is continuity of incident and refracted

waves at the boundary.

ix. Wave Interference

When two of the same type of waves meet in the same place, they undergo a
phenomenon known as interference. Consider two mechanical waves occupying the
same place, plotted in the following figure.

The displacement of each wave sums at each position, resulting in a new wave.
Interference is commonly referred to as being one of two types. Constructive
interference occurs when the displacement of the two waves is in the same direction
(either up or down), resulting in a displacement greater than either of the two waves.
Destructive interference occurs when the displacement of one wave is in the opposite
direction of the other, resulting in a displacement that is less than that of either wave at
that point. A few locations of constructive and destructive interference of the above
example are indicated in the following figure.
As you have seen, the energy carried by a wave depends upon the amplitude of the
wave. This means that the power does, as well. We will look at a new quantity later,
known as the intensity of a wave, which depends upon the power carried by the wave.
Because interference between two waves results in a new wave of differing amplitude, it
affects the energy, power, and therefore intensity of the wave.

x. Origin and transmission of sound

Sources of sound all have some part that vibrates. A guitar has strings (Figure 33.1), a
drum has a stretched skin and the human voice has vocal cords. The sound travels
through the air to our ears and we hear it. That the air is necessary may be shown by
pumping the air out of a glass jar containing a ringing electric bell; the sound disappears
though the striker can still be seen hitting the gong. Evidently sound cannot travel in a
vacuum as light can. Other materials, including solids and liquids, transmit sound.

Figure 33.1 A guitar string vibrating. The sound waves produced

are amplified when they pass through the circular hole into the
guitar’s sound box.

Sound also gives interference and diffraction effects. Because of this and its other
properties, we believe it is a form of energy (as the damage from supersonic booms
shows) which travels as a progressive wave, but of a type called longitudinal.

xi. Sound waves

Sound waves move through air, water, or solids as a series of compressions and
rarefactions. For example, a loudspeaker rapidly vibrates forward and backward in
response to the electrical signals it receives. When it moves forward it compresses the
air; when it moves backward it expands the air. These alternating compressions and
expansions travel through the air to the eardrum. The eardrum translates the varying
pressures of the sound waves into signals that are interpreted by the brain as sounds.

xii. Reflection and echoes

Sound waves are reflected well from hard, flat surfaces such as walls or cliffs and obey
the same laws of reflection as light. The reflected sound forms an echo. If the reflecting
surface is nearer than 15 m from the source of sound, the echo joins up with the original
sound which then seems to be prolonged. This is called reverberation. Some is
desirable in a concert hall to stop it sounding ‘dead’, but too much causes ‘confusion’.
Modern concert halls are designed for the optimal amount of reverberation. Seats and
some wall surfaces are covered with sound-absorbing material.

xiii. Speed of sound

The speed of sound depends on the material through which it is passing. It is greater in
solids than in liquids or gases because the molecules in a solid are closer together than
in a liquid or a gas. Some values are given in the table below.

Material Air (0 °C) Water Concrete Steel

Speed/m/s 330 1400 5000 6000
In air the speed increases with temperature and at high altitudes, where the
temperature is lower, it is less than at sea level. Changes of atmospheric pressure do
not affect it. An estimate of the speed of sound can be made directly if you stand about
100 metres from a high wall or building and clap your hands. Echoes are produced.
When the clapping rate is such that each clap coincides with the echo of the previous
one, the sound has travelled to the wall and back in the time between two claps, i.e. one
interval. By timing 30 intervals with a stopwatch, the time t for one interval can be found.
Also, knowing the distance d to the wall, a rough value is obtained from

2𝑑
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = eed of sound in air= 2d/t
𝑡

The speed of sound in air can be found directly by measuring the time t taken for a
sound to travel past two microphones separated by a distance 𝑑:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑑

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = 𝑡 eed of sound in air=distance
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

travelled by the sound/time taken=d/t

xiv. Limits of audibility

Humans hear only sounds with frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. These are
the limits of audibility; the upper limit decreases with age.

xv. Commonly used terms in sound

 Amplitude – is the distance between the height of a crest and the depth of a
trough of a sound wave
  Decibel (dB) – is a unit of measurement of sound intensity. The faintest sound is
0 decibel; a sound of about 130 decibels produces pain in humans. The
measurements are not linear but are logarithmic, meaning that the sound of 11
decibels has a sound wave with an amplitude 10 times as large as that for a
sound of 10 decibels, although an increase of 1 decibel is heard by the human
ear as approximately doubling the volume.
 Intensity – is the rate of energy transfer per unit area of a wave front or the
loudness of a sound. The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound.
 Pitch – is the frequency, or number of cycles per second, of a sound. The ear
interprets this as the highness or lowness of the sound.
 Resonance – is a phenomenon that occurs when two objects naturally vibrate at
the same frequency; the sound produced by one object causes the other to
vibrate. For example, if two tuning forks tuned to the same frequency are held
close together and one is struck, the other will begin to vibrate. Solid objects or
columns of air tuned to vibrate at certain frequencies form the basis of most
musical instruments. Acoustic resonances are also found in the human body, in
which the structures of the head and throat give the voice its tone. Resonance
can also produce problems. For example, wind can cause vibrations to build up
in a steel bridge. As parts of it begin to resonate, it produces a mechanical
resonance that can eventually rupture the structural integrity of the bridge.
 Beats – arise when two waves having slightly different frequencies and
comparable amplitudes, are superposed.

xvi. Doppler effect

A change in sound wave frequency results

when the source and the observer are in
relative motion. For example, when an
ambulance approaches a stationary observer
with its siren blasting, the sound waves
compress as the vehicle comes closer, and
the pitch of the siren rises; as the ambulance
passes, the waves begin to spread out, and
the pitch of the siren lowers. This change in
pitch due to movement of the sound source
relative to the observer is called the Doppler
effect, named after Austrian physicist
Christian Doppler.
The Doppler effect is applicable to all types of waves, including water, sound, and ight
waves. The Doppler effect is used in astronomy to determine whether a stellar object is
moving toward or away from the earth. Redshift (a shift in color of light to red) indicates
that the light source is moving away; a blue shift means the light source is
approaching. The amount of red or blue shift reveals the velocity of the light source.
Radar systems use the Doppler effect to measure the speed of an aircraft, the
movement of clouds, and the speed of a car on the freeway.
c. Specific gravity, Buoyancy, Archimedes’ Principle

i. Fluid mechanics

Fluid mechanics includes the study of fluid dynamics, fluids in motion or objects
moving through a fluid medium, and fluid statics, stationary fluids or objects stationary
within a fluid. Fluids are the states of matter that will flow and include liquids and gases.
These states of matter have no definite shape and take on the shape of their containers.

ii. Properties of Fluids

Liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape. Gases, due to their intermolecular
separations, have an indefinite shape and indefinite volume, as they can be
compressed.

Unlike solids, gases are not capable of resisting shearing force. Liquids can resist
shearing forces to some degree, depending on viscosity.

Fluids can exert forces on objects immersed in them (buoyant force and hydrostatic
pressure), moving through them (drag), or by flowing past objects (opposing force).

iii. Density

An important property of any material is its

density, defined as its mass per unit volume.
A homogeneous material such as ice or iron
has the same density throughout. We use (the
Greek letter rho) for density. If a mass m of
homogeneous material has volume V, the
density is

𝑚
𝜌= (𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝑉

Two objects made of the same material have

the same density even though they may have
different masses and different volumes. That’s
because the ratio of mass to volume is the same for both objects (Fig. 12.1).
iv. Specific gravity

Specific gravity of a substance is the name given to the ratio of the density of the
substance to the density of water. It is also the ratio of the mass of an object to the
mass of an equal volume of water, as well as the ratio of the weight of the object to the
weight of an equal volume of water. It is a pure number without units. “Specific gravity”
is a poor term, since it has nothing to do with gravity; “relative density” would have been
better.

v. Buoyancy

Buoyancy is a familiar phenomenon: A body immersed in water seems to weigh less

than when it is in air. When the body is less dense than the fluid, it floats. The human
body usually floats in water, and a helium-filled balloon floats in air.

When an object is immersed either partly or entirely in a fluid, it experiences two vertical
forces: gravitational weight and buoyant force (directly opposite the force of weight).
Whatever fluid the object displaces has a weight equal to the apparent loss of weight of
the object (buoyant force) due to the effect of the fluid (Archimedes’ Principle). This is
expressed as

FBUOY = Vρg

Where 𝐅𝐁𝐔𝐎𝐘 is the buoyant force, 𝐕 is the volume of fluid displaced by the immersed
object, 𝛒 is the fluid density and 𝐠 is the acceleration of gravity at that location. If the
buoyant force is greater than the object’s weight, the object will rise. If the buoyant force
is less than the object’s weight, the object will sink.

vi. Archimedes’ Principle

To prove this principle, we consider an arbitrary element of fluid at rest. In Fig. 12.11a
the irregular outline is the surface boundary of this element of fluid. The arrows
represent the forces exerted on the boundary surface by the surrounding fluid.

The entire fluid is in equilibrium, so the sum of all the y-components of force on this
element of fluid is zero. Hence the sum of the y-components of the surface forces must
be an upward force equal in magnitude to the weight 𝑚𝑔 f the fluid inside the surface.
Also, the sum of the torques on the element of fluid must be zero, so the line of action of
the resultant y-component of surface force must pass through the center of gravity of
this element of fluid. Now we remove the fluid inside the surface and replace it with a
solid body having exactly the same shape (Fig. 12.11b). The pressure at every point is
exactly the same as before. So the total upward force exerted on the body by the fluid is
also the same, again equal in magnitude to the weight mg of the fluid displaced to make
way for the body. We call this upward force the buoyant force on the solid body. The
line of action of the buoyant force again passes through the center of gravity of the
displaced fluid (which doesn’t necessarily coincide with the center of gravity of the
body). When a balloon floats in equilibrium in air, its weight (including the gas inside it)
must be the same as the weight of the air displaced by the balloon. A fish’s flesh is
denser than water, yet a fish can float while submerged because it has a gas-filled
cavity within its body. This makes the fish’s average density the same as water’s, so its
net weight is the same as the weight of the water it displaces. A body whose average

density is less than that of a liquid can float partially submerged at the free upper
surface of the liquid. The greater the density of the liquid, the less of the body is
submerged. When you swim in seawater density your body floats higher than in fresh
water.
d. Thermodynamics, Thermal expansion, Heat Capacity

i. Heat and Temperature

Perceived heat is the kinetic energy of molecules. For example, when a fuel is burned,
chemical energy is released, as combustion sets the molecules of gas into more
vigorous motion. When an iron bar is heated, the moving molecules in the flame bump
into the molecules in the bar, setting them in motion and making the bar “hot.” If you
touch the bar, its moving molecules cause the molecules in your skin to move,
activating nerves that send a signal to your brain. The signals are interpreted as heat,
while the breakdown they cause in the chemical structure of your skin proteins causes a
burn.
 Heat – is a measure of the total kinetic energy of all the molecules in a system. A
common measure of heat is calorie, defined as the amount of energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°𝐶C This should not be confused
with the “calorie” used to measure the energy content in food, in which 1 calorie
of food contains enough energy to generate 1,000 calories of heat.
 Temperature – is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of
a system. There are many different temperature scales. Most are based on the
temperatures at which water boils and freezes.

ii. Common Temperature Scales

1. Celsius (formerly called centigrade) temperatures are measured on a scale in which

the melting point of ice is designated at 0℃ and the boiling point of water as
100℃0℃Between the boiling and freezing points, the scale is divided into 100 parts. It is
named after Anders Celsius.

5
𝑇𝐶 = (𝑇 − 32°)
9 𝐹

2. Fahrenheit temperatures are measured on a scale where water boils at 212℉2℉nd

freezes at 32℉. The Fahrenheit scale was developed by Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit.

9
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇 + 32°
5 𝐶

3. Kelvin temperatures are sometimes called absolute temperature. A Kelvin is

equivalent to a Celsius degree, but the scale is adjusted so that zero represents
absolute zero, the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases. On this scale,
water freezes at about 273 K and boils at about 373 K. The scale is named after the
19th century British scientist Lord Kelvin (born William Thomson)
 𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15

iii. Absolute Zero

Absolute zero is the theoretical temperature where all molecular motion stops, or
approximately−459.67℉(−273.16℃)59.67. This temperature has never been reached in
the laboratory. It is thought that it can never be reached because the methods of
measuring such temperatures change the temperature of the system; in addition, even if
molecular motion ceases, the atomic particles still vibrate, thus changing the
temperature. However, scientists have achieved temperatures within a millionth of a
degree of absolute zero.

iv. Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics studies the dynamics of heat, or the flow, production, and conversion
of heat energy into work. It arose from the study of steam engines, cannons, and other
“heat engines” that convert heat into mechanical work. The results of that work had far-
reaching implications in other branches of science and even in philosophy.

v. Four Laws of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that:

 No heat flows between any two bodies that are at the same temperature. (simple
definition)
 If C is initially in thermal equilibrium with both A and B, then A and B are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
 Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if and only if they have the same
temperature.
 Every body has a property called temperature. (informal definition)

This comparatively newest law was formulated after the first law had been well
established.

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that:

 When heat is converted to work, the process is never totally efficient. (simple
definition)
  The energy used in doing work will be equal to the amount of work done, plus the
heat lost in the process.
 The internal energy 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 of a system tends to increase if energy is added as heat
𝑄 and tends to decrease if energy is lost as work 𝑊 done by the system.

This law was independently discovered by three or four people around the same
time, although James Joule was probably first.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that:

 Heat will always flow “downhill,”i.e., from an object having a higher temperature
to one having a lower temperature. Work must be done in order to transfer heat
from a lower to higher temperature.
 If two systems are in thermal contact, net thermal energy transfers
spontaneously by heat from the hotter system to the colder system. (Clausius
statement)
 If a process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the system increases for
irreversible processes and remains constant for reversible processes. It never
decreases.
 No heat engine operating in a cycle can absorb energy from a reservoir and use
it entirely for the performance of an equal amount of work. (Kelvin-Planck
statement)

This law was discovered by Rudolf J. E. Clausius (1850), although many others
came close to proposing the law as early as 1824.

The Third Law of Thermodynamics states that:

 A temperature of absolute zero—believed to be the lowest possible temperature

in the universe—is the point at which all molecular motion ceases.

This law was discovered by Lord Kelvin in 1851.

vi. Entropy
Since heat always flows “downhill, within a closed system everything will eventually
reach the same temperature. For example, a warm mug of tea set on a cold table will
pass heat to the table. Once the mug and table are the same temperature, no more
work can be extracted from the mug. The molecules of the system (mug and table) are
more disordered than initially and cannot be made more orderly without an injection of
energy from the outside.
In mathematical and physical terms, a system in which everything is at the same
temperature is considered “orderly”, and higher temperatures introduce “disorder.” The
term entropy is a quantitative measure of the relative disorder of a system. When work
is done, the total entropy of the system increases. This principle applies to all kinds of
energy. Some scientists believe that the energy in the universe will eventually be
distributed evenly and irrevocably, creating a condition of universal entropy—or the
“heat death” of the universe.

vii. Thermal expansion

Most materials expand when

their temperatures increase.
Rising temperatures make the
liquid expand in a liquid-in-tube
thermometer (Fig. 17.1a) and
bend bimetallic strips (Fig.
17.3b). The decks of bridges
need special joints and supports
to allow for expansion. A
completely filled and tightly
capped bottle of water cracks when it is heated, but you can loosen a metal jar lid by
running hot water over it. These are all examples of thermal expansion.

viii. Specific Heat Capacity

Specific Heat, or Specific Heat Capacity, c, is the degree to which a substance can
absorb or emit heat as its temperature changes. It is different for different materials and
is related to the density and atomic and molecular arrangement of absubstance. The
specific heat of water is 1 calorie /gram C°.

ix. Latent Heat

Latent Heat, L, is the thermal energy that is stored as the potential energy of bonds that
exist between particles in solids and liquids. Heat is absorbed by a substance in
changing from a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas. The heat is then hidden or latent in
the internal energy of the molecules. This latent heat then is released when the
substance cools and changes state from a gas to a liquid or from a liquid to a solid.
Books used as references:

 CCEA GCSE Physics (3rd ed.) by White, R. & McCauley, F.

 The NY Public Library Science Desk Reference
 NCERT Physics 2
 Cambridge IGCSE Physics (3rd ed.) by Duncan T. & Kennett, H.
 High School Physics Unlocked by Laurence, D.H.
 CliffsAP Physics B & C by Centorino, J.R.
 Fundamentals of Physics Extended (10th ed.) by Walker, J.
 Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics (13th ed.) by Young & Freedman
 Head First Physics by Lang, H.
 College Physics by Serway, R.A. & Vuille, C.