Assignment/Internet Research in General Physics

a. Different definitions of Physics

b. Major importance of Physics
c. Various importances of Physics to Men and Society
d. Branches of Physics
e. Units
f. Physical Quantities
g. Measurement

Prepared by:
Submitted to:
Name: __________
Mr. Danilo L. Aureada
Subject: __General Physics 1__ Faculty/Adviser

Day: _TTH_; Time: _10:00am-12:00nn_

Date of Submission: __June 27, 2017__

a. Different definitions of Physics

 “Physics is a basic discipline in the category of Natural Sciences, which also

includes other disciplines like Chemistry and Biology. The word Physics
comes from a Greek word meaning nature. Its Sanskrit equivalent is Bhautiki
that is used to refer to the study of the physical world. A precise definition of
this discipline is neither possible nor necessary. We can broadly describe
physics as a study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation in
different natural phenomena.”
~ National Council of Educational Research and Training

 “Using the language of mathematics to construct models and theories,

physics attempts to explain and predict interactions between matter and
energy. In physics, the search for the nature of these relationships takes us
from the submicroscopic structure of the atom to the supermacroscopic
structure of the universe. All endeavours in physics, however, have one thing
in common; they all aim to formulate fundamental truths about the nature of
the universe.”
~ McGraw-Hill Ryerson

 “Physics refers to the physical properties, phenomena, and laws of

something.”
~ English Wordnet

b. Major importance of Physics

One of the major importances of physics is that you can learn how the [complex]
world around you works (while sating your natural curiosity in the process). And
so, you can easily answer questions that occur to us in our daily lives like:
 How can I see?
 Why am I hot?
 What’s the air I breathe made up of?
 What are those stars all about? Or are they planets? Why do they seem to
move?
 What’s the nature of this speck of dust?
 Are there hidden worlds I can’t see?
 What’s light?
 Why do blankets make me warm?
 What’s the nature of matter?
 What happens if I touch that high-tension line? (You know the answer to
that one; as you can see, a little knowledge of physics can be a lifesaver.)
~ Holzner

c. Various importances of Physics to Men and Society

Physics - the study of matter, energy and their interactions - is an international

enterprise, which plays a key role in the future progress of humankind. The
support of physics education and research in all countries is important
because:
 1. Physics is an exciting intellectual adventure that inspires young people and
expands the frontiers of our knowledge about Nature.
2. Physics generates fundamental knowledge needed for the future technological
advances that will continue to drive the economic engines of the world.
3. Physics contributes to the technological infrastructure and provides trained
personnel needed to take advantage of scientific advances and discoveries.
4. Physics is an important element in the education of chemists, engineers and
computer scientists, as well as practitioners of the other physical and biomedical
sciences.
5. Physics extends and enhances our understanding of other disciplines, such as
the earth, agricultural, chemical, biological, and environmental sciences, plus
astrophysics and cosmology - subjects of substantial importance to all peoples of
the world.
6. Physics improves our quality of life by providing the basic understanding
necessary for developing new instrumentation and techniques for medical
applications, such as computer tomography, magnetic resonance imaging,
positron emission tomography, ultrasonic imaging, and laser surgery. In
summary, for all these reasons, physics is an essential part of the educational
system and of an advanced society. We therefore urge all governments to seek
advice from physicists and other scientists on matters of science policy, and to
be supportive of the science of Physics. This support can take many forms such
as:
 National programs to improve physics teaching at all levels of the educational
system.
 Building and maintaining strong departments in universities (and other
academic institutions) with opportunities for grants to support research.
 Scholarships and fellowships for both undergraduate and graduate students
studying physics.
 Adequate funding for national laboratories and the formation of new ones as
appropriate.
 Funding and facilitating international activities and collaborations.
~ IUPAP, 1999

d. Branches of Physics

// Classical Physics //
A branch of physics, which is mainly concerned with the laws of motion and
gravitation of Sir Isaac Newton and James Clark Maxwell’s Kinetic theory and
thermodynamics, is called classical physics. Classical physics is mainly
concerned with matter and energy. In classical physics energy and matter are
considered as separate entities. Acoustics, Optics, Classical mechanics and
electromagnetics are the traditional branches of classical physics. Moreover, any
theory of physics, which is considered null and void in the modern physics,
automatically falls under the realm of classical physics.

// Modern Physics //
Modern physics is the branch of physics, which is mainly concerned with the
theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein and Max Plank were
the pioneers of modern of physics. They were the first scientists who laid down
the foundations of modern physics by introducing the theory of relativity and
quantum mechanics respectively. In modern physics energy and matter are not
considered as separate entities; rather they are considered as different forms of
each other.

// Nuclear Physics //
Nuclear physics is the branch of physics which deals with constituents, structure,
behavior and interactions of atomic nuclei. Encarta dictionary defines the nuclear
physics as “the branch of physics in which the structure, forces, and behaviour of
the atomic nucleus are studied.” In the modern age, nuclear physics has got a
very wide scope. It is used in power generation, nuclear weapons, medicines etc.

// Atomic Physics //
Atomic physics is the branch of physics which deals with the composition of atom
apart from nucleus. It is mainly concerned with the arrangement and behaviour of
electrons in the shells around the nucleus.

// Geophysics //
Geophysics is the branch of physics which deals with the study of earth. It is
mainly concerned with the shape, structure and composition of earth. It also
studies the gravitational force, magnetic fields, earthquakes, magmas, eruption of
volcanoes etc.

// Biophysics //
Encarta Encyclopedia defines biophysics as “Biophysics, interdisciplinary study
of biological phenomena and problems, using the principles and techniques of
physics.” Biophysics studies only the biological problems and structure of
molecules in living organism in light of the techniques derived from physics. One
of the best achievements of biophysics is the structure of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
Acid).

// Mechanics //
Mechanics is the branch of physics which deals with the motion of material
objects under the influence of forces. Mechanics has been divided into two main
branches: Classical mechanics and Quantum mechanics. Classical mechanics
deals with the laws of motion of physical objects and the forces that cause the
motion, while quantum mechanics is the branch of physics which deals with the
behaviour of smallest particles i.e., electrons, neutrons and protons. According to
Encarta dictionary, “Quantum mechanics is the study evolved in an effort to
explain the behaviour of atoms and subatomic particles, which do not obey the
laws of classical Newtonian mechanics.”

// Acoustics //
The word acoustics has been derived from a Greek word akouen, meaning to
hear. Hence, we can define acoustics as a branch of physics, which studies how
sound is produced, transmitted, received and controlled, is called acoustics. It
also deals with the effects of sounds in various mediums i.e., gases, liquids and
solids.

// Optics //
 Optics is the branch of physics, which deals with the propagation, behaviour and
properties of light. Encarta Encyclopedia defines Optics as “a branch of physical
science dealing with the propagation and behavior of light. In a general sense,
light is that part of the electromagnetic spectrum that extends from X rays to
microwaves and includes the radiant energy that produces the sensation of
vision.”

// Thermodynamics //
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics, which deals with the study of heat and
its relation with energy and work. According to National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, USA, “Thermodynamics is the study of effects of work, heat and
energy on a system. Thermodynamics is only concerned with large scale
observations.”

// Astrophysics //
The word astrophysics is a combination of two words astro which means star,
while the word phisis means nature. Thus, astrophysics can be defined as a
branch of astronomy which is concerned with the study of universe i.e., stars,
galaxies and planets using the laws of physics.

~ Owlcation

e. Units

// Fundamental and Derived Units.//

Normally each physical quantity requires a unit or standard for its specification so
it appears that there must be as many units as there are physical quantities.
However, it is not so. It has been found that if in mechanics we choose arbitrarily
units of any three physical quantities we can express the units of all other
physical quantities in mechanics in terms of these. Arbitrarily the physical
quantities mass, length and time are chosen for this purpose. So any unit of
mass, length and time in mechanics is called a fundamental, absolute or base
unit. Other units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are called
derived units. For example light year or km are fundamental units as they are
units of length while s–1, m2 or kg/m are derived units as these are derived from
units of time, mass and length respectively.

// System of units //: A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived for all
kinds of physical quantities is called system of units. The common systems are
given below –

(1) CGS system: The system is also called Gaussian system of units. In it length,
mass and time have been chosen as the fundamental quantities and
corresponding fundamental units are centimeter (cm), gram (g) and second (s)
respectively.

(2) MKS system: The system is also called Giorgi system. In this system also
length, mass and time have been taken as fundamental quantities, and the
corresponding fundamental units are meter, kilogram and second.
(3) FPS system: In this system foot, pound and second are used respectively for
measurements of length, mass and time. In this system force is a derived
quantity with unit poundal.

(4) S.I. system: It is known as International system of units, and is in fact

extended system of units applied to whole physics. There are seven fundamental
quantities in this system. These quantities and their units are the following –

 meter (m)
It is the unit of length. The distance travelled by light in vacuum in
1/299,792,458 second is called 1 m.

 kilogram (kg)
The mass of a cylinder made of platinum-iridium alloy kept at International
Bureau of Weights and Measures is defined as 1 kg.

 second (s)
Cesium-133 atom emits electromagnetic radiation of several wavelengths. A
particular radiation is selected which corresponds to the transition between
the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of Cs-133. Each radiation has a
time period of repetition of certain characteristics. The time duration in
9,192,631,770 time periods of the selected transition is defined as 1 s.

 ampere (A)
Suppose two long straight wires with negligible cross-section are placed
parallel to each other in vacuum at a separation of 1 m and electric currents
are established in the two in same direction. The wires attract each other. If
equal currents are maintained in the two wires so that the force between them
is 2 x 10-7 Newton per meter of the wires, the current in any of the wires is
called 1 A. Here, Newton is the SI unit of force.

 Kelvin (K)
The fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of triple point of
water is called 1 K.

 mole (mol)
The amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities
(molecules or atoms if the substance is monatomic) as there are number of
atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12 is called a mole. This number (number of
atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12) is called Avogadro constant and its best
value available is 6.022045 x 1023 with an uncertainty of about 0.000031 x
1023.

 candela (cd)
The SI unit of luminous intensity is 1 cd which is the luminous intensity of a
blackbody of surface area 1/600,000 m2 placed at the temperature of freezing
platinum and at a pressure of 101,325 N/m2, in the direction perpendicular to
its surface.

~ Verma & Kshetrapal

f. Physical Quantities

// Physical quantity //

A quantity which can be measured and by which various physical happenings

can be explained and expressed in form of laws is called a physical quantity. For
example length, mass, time, force etc. On the other hand various happenings in
life e.g., happiness, sorrow etc. are not physical quantities because these cannot
be measured. Measurement is necessary to determine magnitude of a physical
quantity, to compare two similar physical quantities and to prove physical laws or
equations. A physical quantity is represented completely by its magnitude and
unit. For example, 10 meter means a length which is ten times the unit of length
1 kg. Here 10 represents the numerical value of the given quantity and meter
represents the unit of quantity under consideration. Thus in expressing a physical
quantity we choose a unit and then find that how many times that unit is
contained in the given physical quantity,
i.e. Physical quantity (Q) = Magnitude × Unit = n × u
Where n represents the numerical value and u represents the unit. Thus while
expressing definite amount of physical quantity, it is clear that as the unit(u)
changes, the magnitude(n) will also change but product ‘nu’ will remain same.
i.e. nu = constant, or n1u1 = n2u2 constant ; n 1/u
i.e. magnitude of a physical quantity and units are inversely proportional to each
other, the larger the unit, smaller will be the magnitude.

// Types of Physical Quantity //

(1) Ratio (numerical value only): When a physical quantity is a ratio of two similar
quantities, it has no unit.
e.g.
Relative density = Density of object/Density of water at 4oC
Refractive index = Velocity of light in air/Velocity of light in medium
Strain = Change in dimension/Original dimension
Note : Angle is exceptional physical quantity, which though is a ratio of two
similar physical quantities (angle = arc / radius) but still requires a unit (degrees
or radians) to specify it along with its numerical value.

(2) Scalar (Magnitude only): These quantities do not have any direction
e.g. Length, time, work, energy etc.
The magnitude of a physical quantity can be negative. In that case negative sign
indicates that the numerical value of the quantity under consideration is negative.
It does not specify the direction. Scalar quantities can be added or subtracted
with the help of following ordinary laws of addition or subtraction.

(3) Vector (magnitude and direction):

e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
Vector physical quantities have both magnitude and direction and can be added
or subtracted according to vector laws of addition. These laws are different from
laws of ordinary addition.
Note: There are certain physical quantities which behave neither as scalar nor as
vector. For example, moment of inertia is not a vector as by changing the sense
of rotation its value is not changed. It is also not a scalar as it has different values
in different directions (i.e. about different axes). Such physical quantities are
called Tensors.

// Fundamental and Derived Quantities //

(1) Fundamental quantities : Out of large number of physical quantities which

exist in nature, there are only few quantities which are independent of all other
quantities and do not require the help of any other physical quantity for their
definition, therefore these are called absolute quantities. These quantities are
also called fundamental or base quantities, as all other quantities are based upon
and can be expressed in terms of these quantities.
(2) Derived quantities : All other physical quantities can be derived by suitable
multiplication or division of different powers of fundamental quantities. These are
therefore called derived quantities. If length is defined as a fundamental quantity
then area and volume are derived from length and are expressed in term of
length with power 2 and 3 over the term of length.
Note: In mechanics Length, Mass and Time are arbitrarily chosen as
fundamental quantities. However this set of fundamental quantities is not a
unique choice. In fact any three quantities in mechanics can be termed as
fundamental as all other quantities in mechanics can be expressed in terms of
these.
e.g. if speed and time are taken as fundamental quantities, length will become a
derived quantity because then length will be expressed as Speed x Time, and if
force and acceleration are taken as fundamental quantities, then mass will be
defined as Force / acceleration and will be termed as a derived quantity.

// Dimensions of a Physical Quantity //

When a derived quantity is expressed in terms of fundamental quantities, it is

written as a product of different powers of the fundamental quantities. The
powers to which fundamental quantities must be raised in order to express the
given physical quantity are called its dimensions.
To make it clearer, consider the physical quantity force
Force = mass × acceleration = (mass × velocity)/(time) = mass × length × (time)–2
.... (i)
Thus, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and -2 in time.
Here the physical quantity that is expressed in terms of the base quantities is
enclosed in square brackets to indicate that the equation is among the
dimensions and not among the magnitudes.
Thus equation (i) can be written as [force] = [MLT–2].
Such an expression for a physical quantity in terms of the fundamental quantities
is called the dimensional equation. If we consider only the R.H.S. of the equation,
the expression is termed as dimensional formula.
Thus, dimensional formula for force is, [MLT– 2].

~ Kshetrapal
g. Measurement

// Significant Figures //

Significant figures in the measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of
digits in which we have confidence. Larger the number of significant figures
obtained in a measurement, greater is the accuracy of the measurement. The
reverse is also true.
The following rules are observed in counting the number of significant figures in a
given measured quantity.
(1) All non-zero digits are significant.
Example : 42.3 has three significant figures.
243.4 has four significant figures.
24.123 has five significant figures.
(2) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears between to non-zero digits.
Example : 5.03 has three significant figures.
5.604 has four significant figures.
4.004 has four significant figures.
(3) Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are never
significant.
Example : 0.543 has three significant figures.
0.045 has two significant figures.
0.006 has one significant figures.
(4) Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number are significant.
Example : 4.330 has four significant figures.
433.00 has five significant figures.
343.000 has six significant figures.
(5) In exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number of significant
figures.
Example : 1.32 x 10–2 has three significant figures.
1.32 x 104 has three significant figures.

// Errors (Uncertainty) of Measurement //

 Systematic errors
The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either
positive or negative. Some of the sources of systematic errors are:
(a) Instrumental errors that arise from the errors due to imperfect design or
calibration of the measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument, etc. For
example, the temperature graduations of a thermometer may be inadequately
calibrated (it may read 104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP whereas it
should read 100 °C); in a vernier caliper the zero mark of vernier scale may
not coincide with the zero mark of the main scale, or simply an ordinary metre
scale may be worn off at one end.
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure To determine the
temperature of a human body, a thermometer placed under the armpit will
always give a temperature lower than the actual value of the body
temperature. Other external conditions (such as changes in temperature,
humidity, wind velocity, etc.) during the experiment may systematically affect
the measurement.
 (c) Personal errors that arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper
setting of the apparatus or individual’s carelessness in taking observations
without observing proper precautions, etc. For example, if you, by habit,
always hold your head a bit too far to the right while reading the position of a
needle on the scale, you will introduce an error due to parallax. Systematic
errors can be minimised by improving experimental techniques, selecting
better instruments and removing personal bias as far as possible. For a given
set-up, these errors may be estimated to a certain extent and the necessary
corrections may be applied to the readings.

 Random errors
The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are
random with respect to sign and size. These can arise due to random and
unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions (e.g. unpredictable
fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations of
experimental set-ups, etc.), personal (unbiased) errors by the observer taking
readings, etc. For example, when the same person repeats the same
observation, it is very likely that he may get different readings every time.

 Least count error

The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is
called its least count. All the readings or measured values are good only up to
this value. The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of
the instrument. For example, a vernier caliper has the least count as 0.01 cm;
a spherometer may have a least count of 0.001 cm. Least count error belongs
to the category of random errors but within a limited size; it occurs with both
systematic and random errors. If we use a metre scale for measurement of
length, it may have graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing or interval.
Using instruments of higher precision, improving experimental techniques,
etc., we can reduce the least count error. Repeating the observations several
times and taking the arithmetic mean of all the observations, the mean value
would be very close to the true value of the measured quantity.

~ National Council of Educational Research and Training