Pollution

An overview

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Contents
Articles
Overview 1
Pollution 1
Pollutant 11

Types of pollution 14
Air pollution 14
Light pollution 27
Marine pollution 44
Noise pollution 56
Radioactive contamination 60
Soil contamination 63
Ship pollution 66
Thermal pollution 70
Visual pollution 72
Water pollution 73
Waste 83

Pollution control 88
Environmental management 88
Regulation and monitoring of pollution 90
Pollution prevention 94
Waste management 95
Waste minimisation 102

International treaties 106

Montreal Protocol 106
Kyoto Protocol 112
CLRTAP 127
OSPAR Convention 128
Stockholm Convention 130

References
Article Sources and Contributors 134
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 139
Article Licenses
License 142
 1

Overview

Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural
environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the
ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms.[1] Pollution can
take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or
light. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or
energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are
considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is
often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. The
Blacksmith Institute issues annually a list of the world's worst polluted
places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees are located in Air pollution from World War II weapon

Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru, Russia, Ukraine, and Zambia.[2] production in Alabama

Ancient cultures
Air pollution has always been with us. According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, "soot found on ceilings of
prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high levels of pollution that was associated with inadequate
ventilation of open fires."[3] The forging of metals appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air
pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution associated
with Greek, Roman and Chinese metal production.[4]

Official acknowledgement
The earliest known writings concerned with pollution were written between the 9th and 13th centuries by Persian
scientists such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and al-Masihi or were Arabic
medical treatises written by physicians such as al-Kindi (Alkindus), Qusta ibn Luqa (Costa ben Luca), Ibn Al-Jazzar,
al-Tamimi, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their
works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air contamination, water contamination, soil
contamination, solid waste mishandling, and environmental assessments of certain localities.[5]
King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had
become a problem.[6] [7] But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired
because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to be a problem
in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog
of 1952. This same city also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink
on the Thames of 1858, which led to construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward.
It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. The emergence of
great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air
pollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human
waste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Other
cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution was
Pollution 2

created under the Department of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles
and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.[8]

Modern awareness
Pollution became a popular issue after World War II, due to radioactive fallout from atomic warfare and testing.
Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London, killed at least 4000 people.[9] This prompted some of
the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956.
Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when
Congress passed the Noise Control Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act and the National Environmental
Policy Act.
Bad bouts of local pollution helped increase consciousness. PCB dumping in the Hudson River resulted in a ban by
the EPA on consumption of its fish in 1974. Long-term dioxin contamination at Love Canal starting in 1947 became
a national news story in 1978 and led to the Superfund legislation of 1980. Legal proceedings in the 1990s helped
bring to light Chromium-6 releases in California--the champions of whose victims became famous. The pollution of
industrial land gave rise to the name brownfield, a term now common in city planning. DDT was banned in most of
the developed world after the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring.
The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can remain lethally radioactive for
hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay, named by the Worldwatch Institute as the "most polluted spot" on
earth, served as a disposal site for the Soviet Union thoroughout the 1950s and 1960s. Second place may go to the
area of Chelyabinsk U.S.S.R. (see reference below) as the "Most polluted place on the planet".
Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, sometimes near inhabited areas, especially in the earlier
stages of their development. The toll on the worst-affected populations and the growth since then in understanding
about the critical threat to human health posed by radioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication associated
with nuclear power. Though extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for disaster suggested by
incidents such as those at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl pose a lingering specter of public mistrust. One legacy of
nuclear testing before most forms were banned has been significantly raised levels of background radiation.
International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast of Brittany in 1978 and the
Bhopal disaster in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of such events and the scale on which efforts to address
them needed to engage. The borderless nature of atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted in the implication of
pollution on a planetary level with the issue of global warming. Most recently the term persistent organic pollutant
(POP) has come to describe a group of chemicals such as PBDEs and PFCs among others. Though their effects
remain somewhat less well understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have been detected in various
ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity such as the Arctic, demonstrating diffusion and
bioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period of widespread use.
Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over time have given rise to
environmentalism and the environmental movement, which generally seek to limit human impact on the
environment.
Pollution 3

Forms of pollution
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the
particular pollutants relevant to each of them:
• Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the
atmosphere. Common gaseous air pollutants include carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles.
Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides
and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine
dust is characterized by their micrometre size PM10 to PM2.5.

• Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and

astronomical interference.
• Littering
• Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft
noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar.
• Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill
or underground leakage. Among the most significant soil
contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE,[10] The Lachine Canal in Montreal Canada, is polluted.

herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

• Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear power
generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the
environment.)
• Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of
water as coolant in a power plant.
• Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarred
landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash or municipal solid waste.
• Water pollution, by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface runoff into river drainage
systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid spills, wastewater discharges, eutrophication and littering.

Pollutants
A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant: its
chemical nature, the concentration and the persistence.

Sources and causes

Air pollution comes from both natural and man made sources. Though globally man made pollutants from
combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution
equation.[11]
Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution.[12] [13] [14] China, United States, Russia,
Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include
chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries,[15] petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity,
incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories,
plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which
include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides[16]
Pollution 4

About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year.[17] The United States alone produces
about 250 million metric tons.[18] Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population, but produce roughly
25% of the world’s CO2,[19] and generate approximately 30% of world’s waste.[20] [21] In 2007, China has overtaken
the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO2.[22]
In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing the work of
2,500 scientists from more than 130 countries, said that humans have been the primary cause of global warming
since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a
major climate report concluded. But in order to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil
needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC).[23]
Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium,
cadmium--found in rechargeable batteries, and lead--found in lead paint, aviation fuel and still in some countries,
gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of press reports culminating in a book called Fateful
Harvest unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the
contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical
substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse
accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to
little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins,
commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD.[24]
Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often involve water
contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or automobiles. Larger scale and
environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved. Some sources of pollution,
such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when
accidents occur.
In the case of noise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle, producing about ninety percent of all
unwanted noise worldwide.

Effects

Human health
Pollution 5

Adverse air quality can kill many

organisms including humans. Ozone
pollution can cause respiratory disease,
cardiovascular disease, throat
inflammation, chest pain, and
congestion. Water pollution causes
approximately 14,000 deaths per day,
mostly due to contamination of
drinking water by untreated sewage in
developing countries. An estimated
700 million Indians have no access to a
proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children
die of diarrhoeal sickness every
day.[28] Nearly 500 million Chinese
lack access to safe drinking water.[29] Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution.
[25]
656,000 people die prematurely each [26] [27]

year in China because of air pollution.

In India, air pollution is believed to cause 527,700 fatalities a year.[30] Studies have estimated that the number of
people killed annually in the US could be over 50,000.[31]

Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and
sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older
people are majorly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are under
additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause
neurological problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well as birth defects.

Environment
Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of effects of this:
• Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass through trophic levels,
becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.
• Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans as CO2
becomes dissolved.
• The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in many ways.
• Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plants can contribute debris and
biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical compositions of an environment, often reducing native
species competitiveness.
• Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change the species composition of
ecosystems.
• Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out photosynthesis and leads to the
production of tropospheric ozone which damages plants.
• Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in the food web.
• Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of soil.
Pollution 6

Environmental health information

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)[32] at the United States National Library
of Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access to
resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations. This web site includes links to
databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible
for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET®)[33] an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health
databases that are available free of charge on the web.
TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET. TOXMAP uses maps of the United
States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics
Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs.

Regulation and monitoring

To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation
to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution.

Pollution control
Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It means the control of emissions and effluents into
air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from consumption, heating, agriculture, mining,
manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the
environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than
pollution control.

Practices
• recycling

Pollution control devices

• Dust collection systems
• Baghouses
• Cyclones
• Electrostatic precipitators
• Scrubbers
• Baffle spray scrubber
• Cyclonic spray scrubber
• Ejector venturi scrubber
• Mechanically aided scrubber
• Spray tower
• Wet scrubber
• Sewage treatment
• Activated sludge biotreaters
• API oil-water separators[15] [34]
• Biofilters
• Dissolved air flotation (DAF)
• Powdered activated carbon treatment
• Sedimentation (water treatment)
• Vapor recovery systems
Pollution 7

Perspectives
The earliest precursor of pollution generated by life forms would have been a natural function of their existence. The
attendant consequences on viability and population levels fell within the sphere of natural selection. These would
have included the demise of a population locally or ultimately, species extinction. Processes that were untenable
would have resulted in a new balance brought about by changes and adaptations. At the extremes, for any form of
life, consideration of pollution is superseded by that of survival.
For humankind, the factor of technology is a distinguishing and critical consideration, both as an enabler and an
additional source of byproducts. Short of survival, human concerns include the range from quality of life to health
hazards. Since science holds experimental demonstration to be definitive, modern treatment of toxicity or
environmental harm involves defining a level at which an effect is observable. Common examples of fields where
practical measurement is crucial include automobile emissions control, industrial exposure (e.g. Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) PELs), toxicology (e.g. LD50), and medicine (e.g. medication and radiation
doses).
"The solution to pollution is dilution", is a dictum which summarizes a traditional approach to pollution management
whereby sufficiently diluted pollution is not harmful.[35] [36] It is well-suited to some other modern, locally scoped
applications such as laboratory safety procedure and hazardous material release emergency management. But it
assumes that the dilutant is in virtually unlimited supply for the application or that resulting dilutions are acceptable
in all cases.
Such simple treatment for environmental pollution on a wider scale might have had greater merit in earlier centuries
when physical survival was often the highest imperative, human population and densities were lower, technologies
were simpler and their byproducts more benign. But these are often no longer the case. Furthermore, advances have
enabled measurement of concentrations not possible before. The use of statistical methods in evaluating outcomes
has given currency to the principle of probable harm in cases where assessment is warranted but resorting to
deterministic models is impractical or unfeasible. In addition, consideration of the environment beyond direct impact
on human beings has gained prominence.
Yet in the absence of a superseding principle, this older approach predominates practices throughout the world. It is
the basis by which to gauge concentrations of effluent for legal release, exceeding which penalties are assessed or
restrictions applied. The regressive cases are those where a controlled level of release is too high or, if enforceable, is
neglected. Migration from pollution dilution to elimination in many cases is confronted by challenging economical
and technological barriers.
Pollution 8

Greenhouse gases and global warming

Carbon dioxide, while vital for
photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to as
pollution, because raised levels of the gas in
the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's
climate. Disruption of the environment can
also highlight the connection between areas
of pollution that would normally be
classified separately, such as those of water
and air. Recent studies have investigated the
potential for long-term rising levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight
but critical increases in the acidity of ocean
waters, and the possible effects of this on
marine ecosystems. Historical and projected CO2 emissions by country.
[37] [38]
Source: Energy Information Administration.

See also
• Environmental health
• Hazardous Substances Data Bank

Air pollution Soil contamination Water pollution Other

• Air dispersion modeling • Environmental soil science • Cruise ship pollution • Contamination control
• Arden Pope • List of solid waste treatment • Marine debris • Earth Day
• Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases - technologies • Marine pollution • Externality
links to freely available data. • List of waste management • Ship pollution • Genetic pollution
• Climate change companies • Stormwater • Global warming
• Emission standard • List of waste management • Wastewater • Heat pollution
• Greenhouse gas topics • Wastewater quality • List of environmental
indicators issues
• Noise health effects

References
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pdf)
[3] Spengler, John D. and Sexton, Ken (1983) "Indoor Air Pollution: A Public Health Perspective" Science (New Series) 221(4605 ): pp. 9-17,
page 9
[4] Hong, Sungmin et al. (1996) "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice"
Science (New Series) 272(5259): pp. 246-249, page 248
[5] L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", Environment and History 8 (4), pp.
475-488.
[6] David Urbinato (Summer 1994). "London's Historic "Pea-Soupers"" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ history/ topics/ perspect/ london. htm). United
States Environmental Protection Agency. . Retrieved 2006-08-02.
[7] "Deadly Smog" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ now/ science/ smog. html). PBS. 2003-01-17. . Retrieved 2006-08-02.
[8] James R. Fleming; Bethany R. Knorr of Colby College. "History of the Clean Air Act" (http:/ / www. ametsoc. org/ sloan/ cleanair/ ).
American Meteorological Society. . Retrieved 2006-02-14.
[9] 1952: London fog clears after days of chaos (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ onthisday/ hi/ dates/ stories/ december/ 9/ newsid_4506000/ 4506390.
stm) (BBC News)
Pollution 9

[10] Concerns about MTBE (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ mtbe/ water. htm#concerns) from U.S. EPA website
[11] Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1972
[12] Environmental Performance Report 2001 (http:/ / www. tc. gc. ca/ programs/ environment/ ems/ epr2001/ awareness. htm) (Transport,
Canada website page)
[13] State of the Environment, Issue: Air Quality (http:/ / www. environment. gov. au/ soe/ 2006/ publications/ drs/ atmosphere/ issue/ 188/
index. html) (Australian Government website page)
[14] Pollution and Society (http:/ / www. umich. edu/ ~gs265/ society/ pollution. htm) Marisa Buchanan and Carl Horwitz, University of
Michigan
[15] Beychok, Milton R. (1967). Aqueous Wastes from Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants (1st ed.). John Wiley & Sons. LCCN 67019834.
[16] Silent Spring, R Carlson, 1962
[17] " Pollution (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761570933_2/ Pollution. html)". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.
[18] " Chapter 23 – Solid, Toxic, and Hazardous Waste (http:/ / zoology. muohio. edu/ oris/ cunn06/ cs6_23. htm)"
[19] " Revolutionary CO2 maps zoom in on greenhouse gas sources (http:/ / news. uns. purdue. edu/ x/ 2008a/ 080407GurneyVulcan. html)".
Purdue University. April 7, 2008.
[20] "Waste Watcher" (http:/ / www. oregon. gov/ DAS/ FAC/ docs/ ww092001. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[21] Alarm sounds on US population boom (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ nation/ washington/ articles/ 2006/ 08/ 31/
alarm_sounds_on_us_population_boom/ ). August 31, 2006. The Boston Globe.
[22] " China overtakes US as world's biggest CO2 emitter (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2007/ jun/ 19/ china. usnews)".
Guardian.co.uk. June 19, 2007.
[23] "Global Warming Can Be Stopped, World Climate Experts Say" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2007/ 05/
070504-global-warming. html). News.nationalgeographic.com. . Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[24] Beychok, Milton R. (January 1987). "A data base for dioxin and furan emissions from refuse incinerators". Atmospheric Environment 21 (1):
29–36. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(87)90267-8.
[25] World Resources Institute: August 2008 Monthly Update: Air Pollution's Causes, Consequences and Solutions (http:/ / earthtrends. wri. org/
updates/ node/ 325) Submitted by Matt Kallman on Wed, 2008-08-20 18:22. Retrieved on April 17, 2009
[26] waterhealthconnection.org (http:/ / www. waterhealthconnection. org/ chapter3. asp) Overview of Waterborne Disease Trends] By Patricia
L. Meinhardt, MD, MPH, MA, Author. Retrieved on April 16, 2009
[27] Pennsylvania State University > Potential Health Effects of Pesticides. (http:/ / pubs. cas. psu. edu/ FreePubs/ pdfs/ uo198. pdf) by Eric S.
Lorenz. 2007.
[28] "A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is India’s biggest handicap" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ specialreports/
displaystory. cfm?story_id=12749787). The Economist. 11 December 2008. .
[29] " As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 08/ 26/ world/ asia/ 26china. html)". The New
York Times. August 26, 2007.
[30] Chinese Air Pollution Deadliest in World, Report Says (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2007/ 07/ 070709-china-pollution.
html). National Geographic News. July 9, 2007.
[31] David, Michael, and Caroline. "Air Pollution - Effects" (http:/ / library. thinkquest. org/ 26026/ Environmental_Problems/
air_pollution_-_effects. html). Library.thinkquest.org. . Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[32] "SIS.nlm.nih.gov" (http:/ / sis. nlm. nih. gov/ enviro. html). SIS.nlm.nih.gov. 2010-08-12. . Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[33] "Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov" (http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ ). Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov. . Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[34] American Petroleum Institute (API) (February 1990). Management of Water Discharges: Design and Operations of Oil-Water Separators
(1st ed.). American Petroleum Institute.
[35] Gershon Cohen Ph.D.. "The 'Solution' to Pollution Is Still 'Dilution'" (http:/ / www. earthisland. org/ eijournal/ new_articles.
cfm?articleID=299& journalID=49). Earth Island Institute. . Retrieved 2006-02-14.
[36] "What is required" (http:/ / www. cleanocean. org/ index_general. asp?menuid=240. 010). Clean Ocean Foundation. 2001. . Retrieved
2006-02-14.
[37] World Carbon Dioxide Emissions (ftp:/ / ftp. eia. doe. gov/ pub/ oiaf/ 1605/ cdrom/ pdf/ ggrpt/ 057304. pdf) (Table 1, Report
DOE/EIA-0573, 2004, Energy Information Administration)
[38] Carbon dioxide emissions chart (http:/ / rainforests. mongabay. com/ 09-carbon_emissions. htm) (graph on Mongabay website page based
on Energy Information Administration's tabulated data)
Pollution 10

External links
• OEHHA proposition 65 list (http://www.oehha.ca.gov/prop65/prop65_list/Newlist.html)
• OSHA limits for air contaminants (http://www.osha-slc.gov/SLTC/pel/index.html)
• National Toxicology Program (http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/) - from USA National Institutes of Health.
Reports and studies on how pollutants affect people
• TOXNET (http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/) - NIH databases and reports on toxicology
• TOXMAP (http://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/) - Geographic Information System (GIS) that uses maps of the United
States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Toxics
Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs
• EPA.gov (http://www.epa.gov/superfund/) - manages Superfund sites and the pollutants in them (CERCLA).
Map the EPA Superfund (http://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/toxmap/main/index.jsp/)
• Toxic Release Inventory (http://www.epa.gov/tri/) - tracks how much waste USA companies release into the
water and air. Gives permits for releasing specific quantities of these pollutants each year. Map EPA's Toxic
Release Inventory (http://toxmap.nlm.nih.gov/toxmap/main/index.jsp)
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/index.html) - Top 20
pollutants, how they affect people, what USA industries use them and the products in which they are found
• Toxicology Tutorials from the National Library of Medicine (http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro/toxtutor.
html#toxtutor) - resources to review human toxicology.
• Pollution Information from (http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=12049), Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution
• World's Worst Polluted Places 2007 (http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/ten.php), according to the
Blacksmith Institute
• The World's Most Polluted Places (http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/
0,28804,1661031_1661028_1661020,00.html) at Time.com (a division of Time Magazine)
• Chelyabinsk: The Most Contaminated Spot on the Planet (http://www.logtv.com/films/chelyabinsk/index.
htm) Documentary Film by Slawomir Grünberg (1996)
• Kids' Lower IQ Scores Linked To Prenatal Pollution (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/20/
kids-lower-iq-scores-link_1_n_240541.html) by Lindsey Tanner, The Huffington Post, July 20, 2009
• Nieman Reports | Tracking Toxics When the Data Are Polluted (http://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reportsitem.
aspx?id=100933)
Pollutant 11

Pollutant
A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil, and is
the cause of pollution.
Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature,
its concentration and its persistence.[1] Some pollutants are
biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the
long term. However the degradation products of some pollutants are
themselves polluting such as the products DDE and DDD produced
from degradation of DDT
Surface runoff, also called nonpoint source
pollution, from a farm field in Iowa, United
Types of pollutants States during a rain storm. Topsoil as well as
farm fertilizers and other potential pollutants run
off unprotected farm fields when heavy rains
Stock pollutants occur.

Pollutants that the environment has little or no absorptive capacity are

called stock pollutants[2] (e.g. persistent synthetic chemicals, non-biodegradable plastics, and heavy metals). Stock
pollutants accumulate in the environment over time. The damage they cause increases as more pollutant is emitted,
and persists as the pollutant accumulates. Stock pollutants can create a burden for future generations by passing on
damage that persists well after the benefits received from incurring that damage have been forgotten.[2]

Fund pollutants
Fund pollutants are those for which the environment has some absorptive capacity. Fund pollutants do not cause
damage to the environment unless the emission rate exceeds the receiving environment's absorptive capacity (e.g.
carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants and oceans).[2] Fund pollutants are not destroyed, but rather converted
into less harmful substances, or diluted/dispersed to non-harmful concentrations.[2]

Notable pollutants
Notable pollutants include the following groups:
• Heavy metals
• Persistent organic pollutants
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
• Volatile organic compounds
• Environmental xenobiotics
Pollutant 12

Zones of influence
Pollutants can also be defined by their zones of influence, both horizontally and vertically.[2]

Horizontal zone
The horizontal zone refers to the area that is damaged by a pollutant. Local pollutants cause damage near the
emission source. Regional pollutants cause damage further from the emission source.[2]

Vertical zone
The vertical zone is referred to whether the damage is ground-level or atmospheric. Surface pollutants cause damage
by concentrations of the pollutant accumulating near the Earth's surface Global pollutants cause damage by
concentrations in the atmosphere

Regulation

International
Pollutants can cross international borders and therefore international regulations are needed for their control. The
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which entered into force in 2004, is an international legally
binding agreement for the control of persistent organic pollutants. Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR)
are systems to collect and disseminate information on environmental releases and transfers of toxic chemicals from
industrial and other facilities.

European Union
The European Pollutant Emission Register is a type of PRTR providing access to information on the annual
emissions of industrial facilities in the Member States of the European Union, as well as Norway.

United States
Clean Air Act standards. Under the Clean Air Act, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are
standards developed for outdoor air quality. The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants are
emission standards that are set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which are not covered by the
NAAQS.
Clean Water Act standards. Under the Clean Water Act, EPA promulgated national standards for municipal
sewage treatment plants, also called publicly owned treatment works, in the Secondary Treatment Regulation.[3]
National standards for industrial dischargers are called Effluent guidelines (for existing sources) and New Source
Performance Standards, and currently cover over 50 industrial categories.[4] In addition, the Act requires states to
publish water quality standards for individual water bodies to provide additional protection where the national
standards are insufficient.
RCRA standards. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulates the management, transport and
disposal of municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and underground storage tanks.[5]
Pollutant 13

See also
• Conventional pollutant - U.S. Clean Water Act
• List of environmental issues
• Pollutant Standards Index

References
[1] Miller, G Tyler (1995). Environmental science: working with the Earth (5th ed.). California: ITP. ISBN 0-534-21588-2.
[2] Tietenberg, T. (2006). Economics of Pollution Control, Chapter 15 in Environmental and Natural Resource Economics, 7th Edition, Pearson,
Boston.
[3] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC. "Secondary Treatment Regulation." (http:/ / www. access. gpo. gov/ nara/
cfr/ waisidx_07/ 40cfr133_07. html) Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR Part 133.
[4] EPA. "Effluent Limitation Guidelines: Industrial Regulations." (http:/ / epa. gov/ guide/ industry. html) Accessed 2010-07-15.
[5] U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. P.L. 94-580, 42 U.S.C.  § 6901 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 42/ 6901. html) et
seq. October 21, 1976. Amended by the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, P.L. 98-616, November 8, 1984.
 14

Types of pollution

Air pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or
biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other
living organisms, or damages the natural environment into the
atmosphere.
The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is
essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion
due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human
health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the Air pollution from World War II production
world's worst pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute
World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1]

Smog over Santiago, Chile

Pollutants
An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air
that can cause harm to humans and the environment.
Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid
droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or
man-made.[2]
Pollutants can be classified as either primary or
secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are
substances directly emitted from a process, such as
ash from a volcanic eruption, the

Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this
power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur
dioxide.
Air pollution 15

carbon monoxide gas from a motor

vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide
released from factories.
Secondary pollutants are not emitted
directly. Rather, they form in the air
when primary pollutants react or
interact. An important example of a
secondary pollutant is ground level
ozone — one of the many secondary
pollutants that make up photochemical
smog.

Note that some pollutants may be both

primary and secondary: that is, they are
both emitted directly and formed from
Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2)
other primary pollutants.
particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ozone
About 4 percent of deaths in the United concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides
States can be attributed to air pollution,
according to the Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of Public Health.
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:
• Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by
volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their
combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2,
forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the
use of these fuels as power sources.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen
as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the
formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp,
biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
• Carbon monoxide - is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete
combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas vital to living organisms. It is
a natural gas in the atmosphere.
• Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided
into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient
greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant
greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere,
although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene,
toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure.
1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses.
• Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny
particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources
of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes,
dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of
fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of
aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account
for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air
Air pollution 16

are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[3] altered lung function and lung cancer.
• Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary disease.[4] [5]
• Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use.
• Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is
normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the
nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either
directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use,
ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
• Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
• Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural processes such as the
radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary pollutants include:
• Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a
kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large
amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not
usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by
sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
• Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere (it is
also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer).
Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the
atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely
the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
Minor air pollutants include:
• A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act
and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
• A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through
chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the
environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food
chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.

Sources
Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or
factors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants in the
atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories
which are:
Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning
different kinds of fuel
• "Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants,
manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas
as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices
Air pollution 17

• "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft

and the effect of sound etc.
• Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and
forestry management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a
technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie
restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of
both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool Controlled burning of a field outside of
for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring
planting
desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.

• Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents
• Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly flammable and
may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed
space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement
• Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry
Natural sources
• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.
• Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring,
radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas
from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the
second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
• Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

Emission factors
Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to
the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as
the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant
(e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per megagram of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions
from various sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of
acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for
a multitude of industrial sources.[6] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other countries have
published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.[7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

Indoor air quality (IAQ)

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon
(Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials
including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is
introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and
fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.[12] Indoor pollution fatalities
may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.
Air pollution 18

Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of
charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps are
built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits
tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.
Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic
environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic
inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to
asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and
are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed
in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According
to the World Health Organisation (WHO) [13], these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma
(generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure
to asbestos).
Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander,
people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture
produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and
generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and
houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation
allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects
The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to air
pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution.[14] "Epidemiological studies suggest
that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air
pollution. . ."[15] A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia
related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.[16] Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution
than to automobile accidents. Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from air pollution annually.
Causes of deaths include aggravated asthma, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies. The US
EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer
premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and
8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the United States.
The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.[17] Leaked industrial vapors
from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 2,000 people outright
and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000 others, some 6,000 of whom would later die from their injuries. The
United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over
London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months. An accidental leak of
anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have
been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths. The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States
of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were
injured.[18]
The health effects caused by air pollutants may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation
of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor
or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air
quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual
reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the
individual's health status and genetics.
Air pollution 19

A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San
Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years
earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature
deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than
2,000 per year.[19]
Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human
experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular
dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[20] [21] This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between the
previously described association between particulate matter air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and
mortality.

Effects on cystic fibrosis

A study from 1999 to 2000 by the University of Washington showed that patients near and around particulate matter
air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and decrease in lung function.[22] Patients were
examined before the study for amounts of specific pollutants like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia
cenocepacia as well as their socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located in the United
States in close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency. During the time of the study 117 deaths were
associated with air pollution. Many patients in the study lived in or near large metropolitan areas in order to be close
to medical help. These same patients had higher level of pollutants found in their system because of more emissions
in larger cities. As cystic fibrosis patients already suffer from decreased lung function, everyday pollutants such as
smoke, emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper use of indoor heating devices could further
compromise lung function.[23]

Effects on COPD
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) include diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and some
forms of asthma.[24]
A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477
residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronic
bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying
towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea),
reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences
were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concluded
that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[25]
It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards become
more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung
function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[26]

Effects on children
Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children living within them to
develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well as a low initial birth rate. Protective
measures to ensure the youths' health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use
compressed natural gas to help eliminate the “pea-soup” smog.[27] Research by the World Health Organization shows
there is the greatest concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic world power and
high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. The
Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in areas that did not
meet at least one of the “criteria pollutants” laid out in the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards.[28] Those
Air pollution 20

pollutants included: ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Because
children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air
pollution.

Health effects in relatively "clean" areas

Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be substantial and costly. This is
because effects can occur at very low levels and a large number of people can potentially breathe in such pollutants.
A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a 1% improvement in ambient
PM2.5 and ozone concentrations will produce a $29 million in annual savings in the region in 2010.[29] This finding
is based on health valuation of lethal (mortality) and sub-lethal (morbidity) effects.

Reduction efforts
There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to reduce air pollution.
At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most
developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for
the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment.
Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have
permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment,
and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency
(such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion
to electric vehicles).

Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They can
either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
• Particulate control
• Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
• Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate
collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced
electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the
flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from
the air stream.
• Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a
filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which
utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
• Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of
devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted
gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it
through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
• Scrubbers
• Baffle spray scrubber
• Cyclonic spray scrubber
• Ejector venturi scrubber
• Mechanically aided scrubber
• Spray tower
Air pollution 21

• Wet scrubber
• NOx control
• Low NOx burners
• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
• Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
• NOx scrubbers
• Exhaust gas recirculation
• Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
• VOC abatement
• Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon
• Flares
• Thermal oxidizers
• Catalytic oxidizers
• Biofilters
• Absorption (scrubbing)
• Cryogenic condensers
• Vapor recovery systems
• Acid Gas/SO2 control
• Wet scrubbers
• Dry scrubbers
• Flue gas desulfurization
• Mercury control
• Sorbent Injection Technology
• Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
• K-Fuel
• Dioxin and furan control
• Miscellaneous associated equipment
• Source capturing systems
• Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Legal regulations
In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class
of standards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality
Standards) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specific
pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are
intended to result in attainment of these target levels. The second class
(such as the North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a
scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the
public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not
distinguish between different pollutants.
Smog in Cairo
Air pollution 22

Cities
Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries
where environmental regulations are relatively lax or nonexistent. However, even populated areas in developed
countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution.

Carbon dioxide emissions

[30]
Most Polluted World Cities by PM

Particulate City
matter,
μg/m³ (2004)

169 Cairo, Egypt

150 Delhi, India

128 Kolkata, India (Calcutta)

125 Tianjin, China

123 Chongqing, China

109 Kanpur, India

109 Lucknow, India

104 Jakarta, Indonesia

101 Shenyang, China

Total CO2 emissions

Countries with the highest CO2 emissions

Country Percentage of global total

Carbon dioxide emissions
per
year (106 Tons) (2006)

 China 6,103 21.5%

 United States 5,752 20.2%

 Russia 1,564 5.5%

 India 1,510 5.3%

 Japan 1293 4.6%

 Germany 805 2.8%

 United Kingdom 568 2.0%

 Canada 544 1.9%

 South Korea 475 1.7%

 Italy 474 1.7%

Per capita CO2 emissions[31]

Air pollution 23

Countries with the highest per capita CO2 emissions

Country Carbon dioxide emissions per

year
(Tons per person) (2006)

 Qatar 56.2

 United Arab Emirates 32.8

 Kuwait 31.2

 Bahrain 28.8

 Trinidad and Tobago 25.3

 Luxembourg 24.5

 Netherlands Antilles 22.8

 Aruba 22.3

 United States 19

 Australia 18.1

Atmospheric dispersion
The basic technology for analyzing air pollution is through the use of a variety of mathematical models for
predicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal methodologies are:
• Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources.
• Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway air dispersion modeling
• Area source dispersion, used for forest fires or duststorms
• Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smog
The point source problem is the best
understood, since it involves simpler
mathematics and has been studied for a
long period of time, dating back to
about the year 1900. It uses a Gaussian
dispersion model for buoyant pollution
plumes to forecast the air pollution
isopleths, with consideration given to
wind velocity, stack height, emission
rate and stability class (a measure of
atmospheric turbulence).[32] [33] This
model has been extensively validated
and calibrated with experimental data
for all sorts of atmospheric conditions.

The roadway air dispersion model was

developed starting in the late 1950s Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollution dispersion plume as used in many
and early 1960s in response to atmospheric dispersion models

requirements of the National

Environmental Policy Act and the U.S. Department of Transportation (then known as the Federal Highway
Administration) to understand impacts of proposed new highways upon air quality, especially in urban areas. Several
research groups were active in this model development, among which were: the Environmental Research and
Air pollution 24

Technology (ERT) group in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. group in Sunnyvale, California and the
California Air Resources Board group in Sacramento, California. The research of the ESL group received a boost
with a contract award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency to validate a line source model using
sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. This program was successful in validating the line source model developed by
ESL inc. Some of the earliest uses of the model were in court cases involving highway air pollution, the Arlington,
Virginia portion of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening project through East Brunswick, New
Jersey.
Area source models were developed in 1971 through 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but addressed a smaller
fraction of total air pollution emissions, so that their use and need was not as widespread as the line source model,
which enjoyed hundreds of different applications as early as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical models were
developed primarily in the 1960s and 1970s, but their use was more specialized and for regional needs, such as
understanding smog formation in Los Angeles, California.

Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants

The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon whereby greenhouse gases create a condition in the upper atmosphere
causing a trapping of heat and leading to increased surface and lower tropospheric temperatures. Carbon dioxide
from combustion of fossil fuels is the major problem. Other greenhouse gases include methane, hydrofluorocarbons,
perfluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and ozone.
This effect has been understood by scientists for about a century, and technological advancements during this period
have helped increase the breadth and depth of data relating to the phenomenon. Currently, scientists are studying the
role of changes in composition of greenhouse gases from natural and anthropogenic sources for the effect on climate
change.
A number of studies have also investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to
cause increases in the acidity of ocean waters and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.

See also
• Acid rain • Flue gas desulfurization
• Air Hygiene Foundation • Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion
• Air pollutant concentrations • Global Atmosphere Watch
• Air Quality Index • Global dimming
• Air stagnation • Global warming
• AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors • Greenhouse effect
• ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution • Health Effects Institute (HEI)
• Asian brown cloud • Indicator value
• Atmospheric chemistry • International Agency for Research on Cancer
• Atmospheric dispersion modeling • Kyoto Protocol
• Beehive burner • Light water reactor sustainability
• Best Available Control Technology • List of natural disasters by death toll#Smog
• Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion modeling • Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate
• Building biology • NASA Clean Air Study
• List of atmospheric dispersion models • Particulate
• Critical load • Polluter pays principle
• Emission standard • Smog and Haze
• Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database (eGRID) • Stench
• Environmental agreement • Tire fire
Air pollution 25

References
[1] "Reports" (http:/ / www. worstpolluted. org/ ). WorstPolluted.org. . Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[2] "EPA: Air Pollutants" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ebtpages/ airairpollutants. html). Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. . Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[3] Evidence growing of air pollution’s link to heart disease, death (http:/ / www. newsroom. heart. org/ index. php?s=43& item=1029) //
American Heart Association. May 10, 2010
[4] "Newly detected air pollutant mimics damaging effects of cigarette smoke" (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ pdf138201201. pdf) (PDF). .
Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[5] "Infant Inhalation Of Ultrafine Air Pollution Linked To Adult Lung Disease" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 07/
090722123751. htm). Sciencedaily.com. 2009-07-23. . Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[6] "AP 42, Volume I" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ttn/ chief/ ap42/ index. html). Epa.gov. . Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[7] "United Kingdom's emission factor database" (http:/ / www. naei. org. uk/ emissions/ index. php). Naei.org.uk. . Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[8] European Environment Agency's 2005 Emission Inventory Guidebook (http:/ / reports. eea. eu. int/ EMEPCORINAIR4/ en)
[9] "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (reference manual)" (http:/ / www. ipcc-nggip. iges. or. jp/ public/
gl/ invs6. htm). Ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp. . Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[10] Australian National Pollutant Inventory Emissions Estimation Technique Manuals (http:/ / www. npi. gov. au/ handbooks/
approved_handbooks/ sector-manuals. html)
[11] Canadian GHG Inventory Methodologies (http:/ / www. ec. gc. ca/ pdb/ ghg/ guidance/ calcu_pro_e. cfm)
[12] "Duflo, E., Greenstone, M., and Hanna, R. (2008) “Indoor air pollution, health and economic well-being”. ''S.A.P.I.EN.S.'' '''1''' (1)" (http:/ /
sapiens. revues. org/ index130. html). Sapiens.revues.org. . Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[13] http:/ / www. euro. who. int/ document/ aiq/ 6_2_asbestos. pdf
[14] "Estimated deaths & DALYs attributable to selected environmental risk factors, by WHO Member State, 2002" (http:/ / www. who. int/
entity/ quantifying_ehimpacts/ countryprofilesebd. xls). . Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[15] "Newly detected air pollutant mimics damaging effects of cigarette smoke" (http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/ pub_releases/ 2008-08/
acs-nda072308. php). www.eurekalert.org. . Retrieved 2008-08-17.
[16] "Study links traffic pollution to thousands of deaths" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ society/ 2008/ apr/ 15/ health). The Guardian (London,
UK: Guardian Media Group). 2008-04-15. . Retrieved 2008-04-15.
[17] Simi Chakrabarti. "20th anniversary of world's worst industrial disaster" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ worldtoday/ content/ 2004/ s1257352.
htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. .
[18] Davis, Devra (2002). When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution. Basic Books.
ISBN 0-465-01521-2.
[19] (http:/ / www. sacbee. com/ 378/ story/ 1393268. html) , http:/ / www. latimes. com/ features/ health/
la-me-pollute13-2008nov13,0,5432723. story , http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2008/ 11/ 13/ MNQP143CPV. DTL
[20] Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man† Andrew J. Lucking1*, Magnus Lundback2, Nicholas L. Mills1, Dana
Faratian1, Stefan L. Barath2, Jamshid Pourazar2, Flemming R. Cassee3, Kenneth Donaldson1, Nicholas A. Boon1, Juan J. Badimon4,
Thomas Sandstrom2, Anders Blomberg2, and David E. Newby1
[21] Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans after Diesel Exhaust Inhalation Ha°kan To¨rnqvist1*, Nicholas L. Mills2*, Manuel
Gonzalez3, Mark R. Miller2, Simon D. Robinson2, Ian L. Megson4, William MacNee5, Ken Donaldson5, Stefan So¨derberg3, David E.
Newby2, Thomas Sandstro¨m1, and Anders Blomberg1
[22] Christopher H. Goss, Stacey A. Newsom, Jonathan S. Schildcrout, Lianne Sheppard and Joel D. Kaufman (2004). "Effect of Ambient Air
Pollution on Pulmonary Exacerbations and Lung Function in Cystic Fibrosis". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
169 (7): 816–821. doi:10.1164/rccm.200306-779OC. PMID 14718248.
[23] Michael Kymisis, Konstantinos Hadjistavrou (2008). "Short-Term Effects Of Air Pollution Levels On Pulmonary Function Of Young
Adults" (http:/ / www. ispub. com/ ostia/ index. php?xmlFilePath=journals/ ijpm/ vol9n2/ pollution. xml). The Internet Journal of Pulmonary
Medicine 9 (2). .
[24] Zoidis, John D. (1999). "The Impact of Air Pollution on COPD" (http:/ / www. rtmagazine. com/ issues/ articles/ 1999-10_06. asp). RT: for
Decision Makers in Respiratory Care. .
[25] Holland WW, Reid DD. The urban factor in chronic bronchitis. Lancet. 1965;I:445-448.
[26] J. Sunyer (2001). "Urban air pollution and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease: a review" (http:/ / erj. ersjournals. com/ cgi/ content/
abstract/ 17/ 5/ 1024). European Respiratory Journal 17 (5): 1024–1033. doi:10.1183/09031936.01.17510240. PMID 11488305. .
[27] "Polluted Cities: The Air Children Breathe" (http:/ / www. who. int/ ceh/ publications/ en/ 11airpollution. pdf) (PDF). World Health
Organization. .
[28] Committee on Environmental Health (2004). "Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards to Children". Pediatrics 114 (6): 1699–1707.
doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2166. PMID 15574638.
[29] "2005 BC Lung Association report on the valuation of health impacts from air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley airshed" (http:/ / www. bc.
lung. ca/ pdf/ health_and_air_quality_2005. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-08-29.
[30] "World Bank Statistics" (http:/ / siteresources. worldbank. org/ DATASTATISTICS/ Resources/ table3_13. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved
2010-08-29.
Air pollution 26

[31] International Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Carbon Intensity (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ emeu/ international/ carbondioxide. html) Energy
Information Administration
[32] Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press.
ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
[33] Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2. www.air-dispersion.com
(http:/ / www. air-dispersion. com/ )

External links
Air quality science and general information
• International Conference on Urban Air Quality (http://www.urbanairquality.org/).
• UNEP Urban Issues (http://www.unep.org/urban_environment/)
• European Commission > Environment > Policies > Air >Air Quality (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/
index.htm).
• UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (http://www.unep.org/pcfv/)
Air quality modelling
• Stuff in the Air (http://www.stuffintheair.com/airqualitymodeling.html) Standard air quality modelling
procedure for industrial sources.
• Wiki on Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling (http://atmosphericdispersion.wikia.com/). Addresses the
international community of atmospheric dispersion modellers — primarily researchers, but also users of models.
Its purpose is to pool experiences gained by dispersion modellers during their work.
• Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas (http://www.air-dispersion.com/formulas.html) One of
six technical articles devoted to air quality and air pollution dispersion modeling.
Effects on human health
• World Health Organization Fact Sheet on Air quality and health (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/
fs313/en/)
• Air Pollution Triggers Blood Clots (http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/44436/story.
htm)
• American Lung Association of New England on air quality (http://www.ownyourair.org/).
Light pollution 27

Light pollution
Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous
pollution, is excessive or obtrusive artificial light.
The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) defines light pollution
as:
Any adverse effect of artificial light including sky glow, glare,
light trespass, light clutter, decreased visibility at night, and
energy waste.[1]
Such an approach confuses the cause and its result, however. Pollution
is the adding-of/added light itself, in analogy to added sound, CO2 etc. This time exposure photo of New York City at
night shows skyglow, one form of light pollution.
Adverse consequences are multiple, some of them may be not known
yet. Real definitions are to be, therefore, like:
Alteration of natural light levels in the outdoor environment
owing to artificial light sources.[2]
Light pollution is the alteration of light levels in the outdoor
environment (from those present naturally) due to man-made
sources of light. Indoor light pollution is such alteration of light
levels in the indoor environment due to sources of light, which
compromises human health.[3]
Light pollution is the introduction by humans, directly or
indirectly, of artificial light into the environment.[4]
The first two of the above three scientific definitions describe the state
of the environment, the third one (and newest) the process of polluting
by light.
In spite of the scientific approach, The U.S. National Park Service,
whose Night Sky Team determined that almost every park that it
surveyed has noticeable light pollution,[5] defines the term still as: A comparison of the view of the night sky from a
small rural town (top) and a metropolitan area
Principally, the illumination of the night sky caused by artificial (bottom). Light pollution vastly reduces the
light sources, decreasing the visibility of stars and other natural visibility of stars.

sky phenomena. Also includes other incidental or obtrusive

aspects of outdoor lighting such as glare, trespass into areas not needing lighting, use in areas where or at
times when lighting is not needed, and disturbance of the natural nighttime landscape.[5]
Light pollution obscures the stars in the night sky for city dwellers, interferes with astronomical observatories, and,
like any other form of pollution, disrupts ecosystems and has adverse health effects. Light pollution can be divided
into two main types: (1) annoying light that intrudes on an otherwise natural or low-light setting and (2) excessive
light (generally indoors) that leads to discomfort and adverse health effects. Since the early 1980s, a global dark-sky
movement has emerged, with concerned people campaigning to reduce the amount of light pollution.
Light pollution is a side effect of industrial civilization. Its sources include building exterior and interior lighting,
advertising, commercial properties, offices, factories, streetlights, and illuminated sporting venues. It is most severe
in highly industrialized, densely populated areas of North America, Europe, and Japan and in major cities in the
Middle East and North Africa like Tehran and Cairo, but even relatively small amounts of light can be noticed and
create problems. Like other forms of pollution (such as air, water, and noise pollution) light pollution causes damage
Light pollution 28

to the environment.

Impact on energy usage

Energy conservation advocates contend that light pollution must be addressed by changing the habits of society, so
that lighting is used more efficiently, with less waste and less creation of unwanted or unneeded illumination.
Several industry groups also recognize light pollution as an important issue. For example, the Institution of Lighting
Engineers in the United Kingdom provides its members information about light pollution, the problems it causes,
and how to reduce its impact.[6]
Since not everyone is irritated by the same lighting sources, it is common for one person's light "pollution" to be
light that is desirable for another. One example of this is found in advertising, when an advertiser wishes for
particular lights to be bright and visible, even though others find them annoying. Other types of light pollution are
more certain. For instance, light that accidentally crosses a property boundary and annoys a neighbor is generally
wasted and pollutive light.
Disputes are still common when deciding appropriate action, and differences in opinion over what light is considered
reasonable, and who should be responsible, mean that negotiation must sometimes take place between parties. Where
objective measurement is desired, light levels can be quantified by field measurement or mathematical modeling,
with results typically displayed as an isophote map or light contour map. Authorities have also taken a variety of
measures for dealing with light pollution, depending on the interests, beliefs and understandings of the society
involved. Measures range from doing nothing at all, to implementing strict laws and regulations about how lights
may be installed and used.

Types
Light pollution is a broad term that refers to multiple problems, all of
which are caused by inefficient, unappealing, or (arguably)
unnecessary use of artificial light. Specific categories of light pollution
include light trespass, over-illumination, glare, light clutter, and
skyglow. A single offending light source often falls into more than one
of these categories.

Light trespass
Light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters one's property, for
instance, by shining over a neighbor's fence. A common light trespass
problem occurs when a strong light enters the window of one's home
from the outside, causing problems such as sleep deprivation or the
blocking of an evening view.
A number of cities in the U.S. have developed standards for outdoor
lighting to protect the rights of their citizens against light trespass. To An example of a light pollution source, using a
broad spectrum metal halide lamp, pointing
assist them, the International Dark-Sky Association has developed a set
[7] upward in Uniqema Gouda, the Netherlands.
of model lighting ordinances. The Dark-Sky Association was started
to reduce the light going up into the sky which reduces visibility of
stars, see sky glow below. This is any light which is emitted more than 90 degrees above nadir. By limiting light at
this 90 degree mark they have also reduced the light output in the 80-90 degree range which creates most of the light
trespass issues. U.S. federal agencies may also enforce standards and process complaints within their areas of
Light pollution 29

jurisdiction. For instance, in the case of light trespass by white strobe lighting from communication towers in excess
of FAA minimum lighting requirements[8] the Federal Communications Commission maintains an Antenna Structure
Registration database[9] information which citizens may use to identify offending structures and provides a
mechanism for processing consumer inquiries and complaints.[10] The US Green Building Council (USGBC) has
also incorporated into their environmentally friendly building standard known as LEED, a credit for reducing the
amount of light trespass and sky glow.
Light trespass can be reduced by selecting light fixtures which limit the amount of light emitted more than 80
degrees above the nadir. The IESNA definitions include full cutoff (0%), cutoff (10%), and semi-cutoff (20%).
(These definitions also include limits on light emitted above 90 degrees to reduce sky glow.)

Over-illumination
Over-illumination is the excessive use of light. Specifically within the
United States, over-illumination is responsible for approximately two
million barrels of oil per day in energy wasted. This is based upon U.S.
consumption of equivalent of 50 million barrels per day ( m3/d) of
petroleum.[11] It is further noted in the same U.S. Department of
Energy source that over 30 percent of all energy is consumed by
commercial, industrial and residential sectors. Energy audits of
existing buildings demonstrate that the lighting component of
residential, commercial and industrial uses consumes about 20 to 40
An office building is illuminated by high pressure
percent of those land uses, variable with region and land use.
sodium (HPS) lamps shining upward, of which
(Residential use lighting consumes only 10 to 30 percent of the energy much light goes into the sky and neighboring
bill while commercial buildings major use is lighting.[12] ) Thus apartment blocks and causes light pollution, in
lighting energy accounts for about four or five million barrels of oil Nijmegen, the Netherlands.

(equivalent) per day. Again energy audit data demonstrates that about
30 to 60 percent of energy consumed in lighting is unneeded or
gratuitous.[13]

An alternative calculation starts with the fact that commercial building

lighting consumes in excess of 81.68 terawatts (1999 data) of
electricity,[14] according to the U.S. DOE. Thus commercial lighting
alone consumes about four to five million barrels per day (equivalent)
A satellite image of Earth at night.
of petroleum, in line with the alternate rationale above to estimate U.S.
lighting energy consumption.

Over-illumination stems from several factors:

• Not using timers, occupancy sensors or other controls to extinguish
lighting when not needed
• Improper design, especially of workplace spaces, by specifying
higher levels of light than needed for a given task
• Incorrect choice of fixtures or light bulbs, which do not direct light
into areas as needed A composite image of the Earth at night in
1994–95.
• Improper selection of hardware to utilize more energy than needed
to accomplish the lighting task
• Incomplete training of building managers and occupants to use lighting systems efficiently
• Inadequate lighting maintenance resulting in increased stray light and energy costs
Light pollution 30

• "Daylight lighting" can be required by citizens to reduce crime or by shop owners to attract customers, so
over-illumination can be a design choice, not a fault. In both cases target achievement is questionable.
• Substitution of old mercury lamps with more efficient sodium or metal halide lamps using the same electrical
power
• Indirect lighting techniques, such as lighting a vertical wall to bounce photons on the ground.
Most of these issues can be readily corrected with available, inexpensive technology, and with landlord/tenant
practices that create barriers to rapid correction of these matters. Most importantly public awareness would need to
improve for industrialized countries to realize the large payoff in reducing over-illumination.

Glare
Glare can be categorized into different types. One such classification is described in a book by Bob Mizon,
coordinator for the British Astronomical Association's Campaign for Dark Skies.[15] According to this classification:
• Blinding glare describes effects such as that caused by staring into the Sun. It is completely blinding and leaves
temporary or permanent vision deficiencies.
• Disability glare describes effects such as being blinded by oncoming car lights, or light scattering in fog or in the
eye, reducing contrast, as well as reflections from print and other dark areas that render them bright, with
significant reduction in sight capabilities.
• Discomfort glare does not typically cause a dangerous situation in itself, though it is annoying and irritating at
best. It can potentially cause fatigue if experienced over extended periods.
According to Mario Motta, president of the Massachusetts Medical Society, "... glare from bad lighting is a
public-health hazard—especially the older you become. Glare light scattering in the eye causes loss of contrast and
leads to unsafe driving conditions, much like the glare on a dirty windshield from low-angle sunlight or the high
beams from an oncoming car."[16] In essence bright and/or badly shielded lights around roads may partially blind
drivers or pedestrians and contribute to accidents.
The blinding effect is caused in large part by reduced contrast due to light scattering in the eye by excessive
brightness, or to reflection of light from dark areas in the field of vision, with luminance similar to the background
luminance. This kind of glare is a particular instance of disability glare, called veiling glare. (This is not the same as
loss of accommodation of night vision which is caused by the direct effect of the light itself on the eye.)

Light clutter
Light clutter refers to excessive groupings of lights. Groupings of
lights may generate confusion, distract from obstacles (including those
that they may be intended to illuminate), and potentially cause
accidents. Clutter is particularly noticeable on roads where the street
lights are badly designed, or where brightly lit advertising surrounds
the roadways. Depending on the motives of the person or organization
who installed the lights, their placement and design may even be
intended to distract drivers, and can contribute to accidents.
Clutter may also present a hazard in the aviation environment if Las Vegas displays excessive groupings of
aviation safety lighting must compete for pilot attention with colorful lights. This is a classic example of light
clutter.
non-relevant lighting.[17] For instance, runway lighting may be
confused with an array of suburban commercial lighting and aircraft
collision avoidance lights may be confused with ground lights.
Light pollution 31

Skyglow
Skyglow refers to the "glow" effect that can be seen over populated
areas. It is the combination of all light reflected from what it has
illuminated escaping up into the sky and from all of the badly directed
light in that area that also escapes into the sky, being scattered
(redirected) by the atmosphere back toward the ground. This scattering
is very strongly related to the wavelength of the light when the air is
very clear (with very little aerosols). Rayleigh scattering dominates in
such clear air, making the sky appear blue in the daytime. When there
is significant aerosol (typical of most modern polluted conditions), the Mexico City at night, with a brightly illuminated
sky.
scattered light has less dependence on wavelength, making a whiter
daytime sky. Because of this Rayleigh effect, and because of the eye's
increased sensitivity to white or blue-rich light sources when adapted to very low light levels (see Purkinje effect),
white or blue-rich light contributes significantly more to sky-glow than an equal amount of yellow light. Sky glow is
of particular irritation to astronomers, because it reduces contrast in the night sky to the extent where it may even
become impossible to see any but the brightest stars.

The Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, originally published in Sky & Telescope magazine,[18] [19] is sometimes used (by groups
like the U.S. National Park Service[20] ) to quantify skyglow and general sky clarity. The nine-class scale rates the
darkness of the night sky and the visibility of its phenomena, such as the gegenschein and the zodiacal light (easily
masked by skyglow), providing a detailed description of each level on the scale (with Class 1 being the best).
Light is particularly problematic for amateur astronomers, whose ability to observe the night sky from their property
is likely to be inhibited by any stray light from nearby. Most major optical astronomical observatories are surrounded
by zones of strictly enforced restrictions on light emissions.
"Direct" skyglow can be reduced by selecting lighting fixtures which limit the amount of light emitted more than 90
degrees above the nadir. The IESNA definitions include full cutoff (0%), cutoff (2.5%), and semi-cutoff (5%).
"Indirect" skyglow produced by reflections from vertical and horizontal surfaces is harder to manage; the only
effective method for preventing it is by minimizing over-illumination.

Measurement and global effects

Measuring the effect of sky glow on a global scale is a complex
procedure. The natural atmosphere is not completely dark, even in the
absence of terrestrial sources of light and illumination from the Moon.
This is caused by two main sources: airglow and scattered light.
At high altitudes, primarily above the mesosphere, there is enough UV
radiation from the sun of very short wavelength that ionization occurs.
When these ions collide with electrically neutral particles they
recombine and emit photons in the process, causing airglow. The
degree of ionization is sufficiently large to allow a constant emission of
radiation even during the night when the upper atmosphere is in the
Earth's shadow. Lower in the atmosphere all of the solar photons with
energies above the ionization potential of N2 and O2 have already been False colors show various intensities of radiation,
absorbed by the higher layers and thus no appreciable ionization both direct and indirect, from artificial light
sources that reach space
occurs.
Light pollution 32

Apart from emitting light, the sky also scatters incoming light, primarily from distant stars and the Milky Way, but
also the zodiacal light, sunlight that is reflected and backscattered from interplanetary dust particles.
The amount of airglow and zodiacal light is quite variable (depending, amongst other things on sunspot activity and
the Solar cycle) but given optimal conditions the darkest possible sky has a brightness of about 22 magnitude/square
arcsecond. If a full moon is present, the sky brightness increases to 18 magnitude/sq. arcsecond, 40 times brighter
than the darkest sky. In densely populated areas a sky brightness of 17 magnitude/sq. arcsecond is not uncommon, or
as much as 100 times brighter than is natural.
To precisely measure how bright the sky gets, night time satellite imagery of the earth is used as raw input for the
number and intensity of light sources. These are put into a physical model[21] of scattering due to air molecules and
aerosoles to calculate cumulative sky brightness. Maps that show the enhanced sky brightness have been prepared
for the entire world.[22]
Inspection of the area surrounding Madrid reveals that the effects of light pollution caused by a single large
conglomeration can be felt up to 100 km (62 mi) away from the center. Global effects of light pollution are also
made obvious. The entire area consisting of southern England, Netherlands, Belgium, west Germany, and northern
France have a sky brightness of at least 2 to 4 times above normal (see above right). The only place in continental
Europe where the sky can attain its natural darkness is in northern Scandinavia.
In North America the situation is comparable. From the east coast to west Texas up to the Canadian border there is
very significant global light pollution.

Consequences

Energy waste
Lighting is responsible for one-fourth of all electricity consumption
worldwide,[23] and case studies have shown that several forms of
over-illumination constitute energy wastage, including non-beneficial
upward direction of night-time lighting. In 2007, Terna, the company
responsible for managing electricity flow in Italy, reported a saving of
645.2 million kWh in electricity consumption during the daylight
saving period from April to October. It attributes this saving to the
delayed need for artificial lighting during the evenings.[24]

In Australia, Christmas lights in Dublin, California.

public lighting is the single largest source of local
government's greenhouse gas emissions, typically accounting for 30 to 50% of their emissions. There
are 1.94 million public lights—one for every 10 Australians—that annually cost A$210 million, use
1,035 GWh of electricity and are responsible for 1.15 million tonnes of CO2 emissions. Current public
lighting in Australia, particularly for minor roads and streets, uses large amounts of energy and financial
resources, while often failing to provide high quality lighting. There are many ways to improve lighting
quality while reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions as well as lowering costs.[25]

Effects on animal and human health and psychology

Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body suggests that a variety of adverse health effects
may be caused by light pollution or excessive light exposure, and some lighting design textbooks[26] use human
health as an explicit criterion for proper interior lighting. Health effects of over-illumination or improper spectral
composition of light may include: increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medically defined stress, decrease
in sexual function and increase in anxiety.[27] [28] [29] [30] Likewise, animal models have been studied demonstrating
Light pollution 33

unavoidable light to produce adverse effect on mood and anxiety.[31] For those who need to be awake at night, light
at night also has an acute effect on alertness and mood.[32]
Common levels of fluorescent lighting in offices are sufficient to elevate blood pressure by about eight points.
Specifically within the USA, there is evidence that levels of light in most office environments lead to increased stress
as well as increased worker errors.[33] [34]
Several published studies also suggest a link between exposure to light at night and risk of breast cancer, due to
suppression of the normal nocturnal production of melatonin.[35] [36] In 1978 Cohen et al. proposed that reduced
production of the hormone melatonin might increase the risk of breast cancer and citing "environmental lighting" as
a possible causal factor.[37] Researchers at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and National Institute of
Environmental Health Sciences have also concluded a study that suggests that artificial light during the night can be
a factor for breast cancer.[38]
In 2007, "shift work that involves circadian disruption" was listed as a probable carcinogen by the World Health
Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer. (IARC Press release No. 180).[39] Multiple studies have
documented a correlation between night shift work and the increased incidence of breast cancer.[40] [41] [42] [43] [44]
A good review of current knowledge of the health consequences of exposure to artificial light at night and an
explanation of the causal mechanisms has been published in the Journal of Pineal Research in 2007.[45]
A more recent discussion (2009), written by Professor Steven Lockley, Harvard Medical School, can be found in the
CfDS handbook "Blinded by the Light?".[46] Chapter 4, "Human health implications of light pollution" states that "...
light intrusion, even if dim, is likely to have measurable effects on sleep disruption and melatonin suppression. Even
if these effects are relatively small from night to night, continuous chronic circadian, sleep and hormonal disruption
may have longer-term health risks". The New York Academy of Sciences hosted a meeting in 2009 on Circadian
Disruption and Cancer.[47] Forty Danish female shift workers in 2009 were awarded compensation for breast cancer
"caused" by shift work made possible by light at night - the most common cause of light pollution.
In June 2009, the American Medical Association developed a policy in support of control of light pollution. News
about the decision emphasized glare as a public health hazard leading to unsafe driving conditions. Especially in the
elderly, glare produces loss of contrast, obscuring night vision.[16]

Disruption of ecosystems
Light pollution poses a serious threat to wildlife, having negative impacts on plant and animal physiology. Light
pollution can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change predator-prey relations, and cause
physiological harm.[48] The rhythm of life is orchestrated by the natural diurnal patterns of light and dark, so
disruption to these patterns impacts the ecological dynamics.[49]
Studies suggest that light pollution around lakes prevents zooplankton, such as Daphnia, from eating surface algae,
helping cause algal blooms that can kill off the lakes' plants and lower water quality.[50] Light pollution may also
affect ecosystems in other ways. For example, lepidopterists and entomologists have documented that nighttime light
may interfere with the ability of moths and other nocturnal insects to navigate.[51] Night-blooming flowers that
depend on moths for pollination may be affected by night lighting, as there is no replacement pollinator that would
not be affected by the artificial light. This can lead to species decline of plants that are unable to reproduce, and
change an area's longterm ecology.
A 2009 study[52] also suggests deleterious impacts on animals and ecosystems because of perturbation of polarized
light or artificial polarisation of light (even during the day, because direction of natural polarization of sun light and
its reflexion is a source of information for a lot of animals). This form of pollution is named polarized light pollution
(PLP). Unnatural polarized light sources can trigger maladaptive behaviors in polarization-sensitive taxa and alter
ecological interactions.[52]
Light pollution 34

Lights on tall structures can disorient migrating birds. Estimates by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the number
of birds killed after being attracted to tall towers range from 4 to 5 million per year to an order of magnitude
higher.[53] The Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) works with building owners in Toronto, Canada and other
cities to reduce mortality of birds by turning out lights during migration periods.
Similar disorientation has also been noted for bird species migrating close to offshore production and drilling
facilities. Studies carried out by Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij b.v. (NAM) and Shell have led to development
and trial of new lighting technologies in the North Sea. In early 2007, the lights were installed on the Shell
production platform L15. The experiment proved a great success since the number of birds circling the platform
declined by 50 to 90%.[54]
Sea turtle hatchlings emerging from nests on beaches are another casualty of light pollution. It is a common
misconception that hatchling sea turtles are attracted to the moon. Rather, they find the ocean by moving away from
the dark silhouette of dunes and their vegetation, a behavior with which artificial lights interfere.[55] The breeding
activity and reproductive phenology of toads, however, are cued by moonlight.[56] Juvenile seabirds may also be
disoriented by lights as they leave their nests and fly out to sea.[57] Amphibians and reptiles are also affected by light
pollution. Introduced light sources during normally dark periods can disrupt levels of melatonin production.
Melatonin is a hormone that regulates photoperiodic physiology and behaviour. Some species of frogs and
salamanders utilize a light-dependent "compass" to orient their migratory behaviour to breeding sites. Introduced
light can also cause developmental irregularities, such as retinal damage, reduced sperm production, and genetic
mutation.[48] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62]
In September 2009, the 9th European Dark-Sky Symposium in Armagh, Northern Ireland had a session on the
environmental effects of light at night (LAN). It dealt with bats, turtles, the "hidden" harms of LAN, and many other
topics.[63] The environmental effects of LAN were mentioned as early as 1897, in a Los Angeles Times article—the
text of which can be obtained from Dr. Travis Longcore of the Urban Wildlands Trust, California. The following is
an excerpt from that article, called "Electricity and English songbirds":
An English journal has become alarmed at the relation of electricity to songbirds, which it maintains is closer
than that of cats and fodder crops. How many of us, it asks, foresee that electricity may extirpate the
songbird?...With the exception of the finches, all the English songbirds may be said to be insectivorous, and
their diet consists chiefly of vast numbers of very small insects which they collect from the grass and herbs
before the dew is dry. As the electric light is finding its way for street illumination into the country parts of
England, these poor winged atoms are slain by thousands at each light every warm summer evening....The fear
is expressed, that when England is lighted from one end to the other with electricity the song birds will die out
from the failure of their food supply.[64]

Effect on astronomy
Light pollution 35

Skyglow reduces the contrast between stars and galaxies in the sky and
the sky itself, making it more difficult to detect fainter objects. This is
one factor that has caused newer telescopes to be built in increasingly
remote areas. Some astronomers use narrow-band "nebula filters"
which only allow specific wavelengths of light commonly seen in
nebulae, or broad-band "light pollution filters" which are designed to
reduce (but not eliminate) the effects of light pollution by filtering out
spectral lines commonly emitted by sodium- and mercury-vapor lamps,
thus enhancing contrast and improving the view of dim objects such as
The constellation Orion, imaged at left from dark
galaxies and nebulae. Unfortunately this affects color perception, so skies, and at right from within the Provo/Orem,
these filters cannot be used to visually estimate variable star brightness, Utah metropolitan area.
and no filter can match the effectiveness of a dark sky for visual or
photographic purposes. Due to low surface brightness, the visibility of diffuse sky objects such as nebulae and
galaxies is affected by light pollution more than are stars. A simple method for estimating the darkness of a location
is to look for the Milky Way.

Light trespass can impact observations when stray light enters the tube of the telescope from off-axis, and is reflected
from surfaces other than the telescope's mirrors (if any) so that it eventually reaches the eyepiece, causing a glow
across the field of view since it has not been focused. The usual measures to reduce this glare, if reducing the light
directly (e.g., by changing one's location or having the light turned off) is not an option, include flocking the
telescope tube and accessories to reduce reflection, and putting a light shield (also usable as a dew shield) on the
telescope to reduce light entering from angles other than those near the target. In one Italian regional lighting code
this effect of stray light is defined as "optical pollution", due to the fact that there is a direct path from the light
source to the "optic" - the observer's eye or telescope.

Reduction
Reducing light pollution implies many things, such as reducing sky
glow, reducing glare, reducing light trespass, and reducing clutter. The
method for best reducing light pollution, therefore, depends on exactly
what the problem is in any given instance. Possible solutions include:
• Utilizing light sources of minimum intensity necessary to
accomplish the light's purpose.
• Turning lights off using a timer or occupancy sensor or manually
when not needed.
• Improving lighting fixtures, so that they direct their light more
accurately towards where it is needed, and with less side effects.
• Adjusting the type of lights used, so that the light waves emitted are
those that are less likely to cause severe light pollution problems.
• Evaluating existing lighting plans, and re-designing some or all of
the plans depending on whether existing light is actually needed.

This kind of LED droplight could reduce

unnecessary light pollution in building interiors
Light pollution 36

Improving lighting fixtures

The use of full cutoff lighting fixtures, as much as possible, is
advocated by most campaigners for the reduction of light pollution. It
is also commonly recommended that lights be spaced appropriately for
maximum efficiency, and that lamps within the fixtures not be
overpowered.
Full cutoff fixtures have been available since the 1959 with the
introduction of General Electric's M100 fixture.[65]
A full cutoff fixture, when correctly installed, reduces the chance for
light to escape above the plane of the horizontal. Light released above A flat-lens cobra luminaire, which is a full-cutoff
the horizontal may sometimes be lighting an intended target, but often fixture, may be effective in reducing light
serves no purpose. When it enters into the atmosphere, light pollution. It ensures that light is only directed
below the horizontal, which means less light is
contributes to sky glow. Some governments and organizations are now
wasted through directing it outwards and
considering, or have already implemented, full cutoff fixtures in street upwards.
lamps and stadium lighting.
The use of full cutoff fixtures may help to reduce sky glow by
preventing light from escaping unnecessarily. Full cutoff typically
reduces the visibility of the lamp and reflector within a luminaire, so
the effects of glare may also be reduced. Campaigners also commonly
argue that full cutoff fixtures are more efficient than other fixtures,
since light that would otherwise have escaped into the atmosphere may
instead be directed towards the ground. However, full cutoff fixtures
may also trap more light in the fixture than other types of luminaires,
corresponding to lower luminaire efficiency.
The use of full cutoff fixtures may allow for lower wattage lamps to be This drop-lens cobra luminaire allows light to
used in the fixtures, producing the same or sometimes a better effect, escape sideways and upwards, where it may
cause problems.
due to being more carefully controlled. In every lighting system, some
sky glow also results from light reflected from the ground. This
reflection can be reduced, however, by being careful to use only the lowest wattage necessary for the lamp, and
setting spacing between lights appropriately.[66]

A common criticism of full cutoff lighting fixtures is that they are sometimes not as aesthetically pleasing to look at.
This is most likely because historically there has not been a large market specifically for full cutoff fixtures, and
because people typically like to see the source of illumination. Due to the specificity with their direction of light, full
cutoff fixtures sometimes also require expertise to install for maximum effect.
The effectiveness of using full cutoff roadway lights to combat light pollution has also been called into question.
According to design investigations, luminaires with full cutoff distributions (as opposed to cutoff or semi cutoff,
compared here [67] ) have to be closer together to meet the same light level, uniformity and glare requirements
specified by the IESNA.[68] [69] [70] [71] These simulations optimized the height and spacing of the lights while
constraining the overall design to meet the IESNA requirements, and then compared total uplight and energy
consumption of different luminaire designs and powers. Cutoff designs performed better than full cutoff designs, and
semi-cutoff performed better than either cutoff or full cutoff. This indicates that, in roadway installations,
over-illumination or poor uniformity produced by full cutoff fixtures may be more detrimental than direct uplight
created by fewer cutoff or semi-cutoff fixtures. Therefore, the overall performance of existing systems could be
improved more by reducing the number of luminaires than by switching to full cutoff designs.
Light pollution 37

However, using the definition of "light pollution" from some Italian

regional bills (i.e., "every irradiance of artificial light outside
competence areas and particularly upward the sky") only full cutoff
design prevents light pollution.The Italian Lombardy region, where
only full cutoff design is allowed (Lombardy act no. 17/2000,
promoted by Cielobuio-coordination for the protection of the night
sky), in 2007 had the lowest per capita energy consumption for public
lighting in Italy: this information can be verified using data released by
Terna [72] company. The same legislation also imposes a minimum
The majority of Italian regions require "zero
distance between street lamps of about four times their height, so full
upward light", which usually implies use of
cut off street lamps are the best solution to reduce both light pollution overall full cut-off lamps for new luminaries, but
and electrical power usage. violations are common.

Adjusting types of light sources

Several different types of light sources exist, each having different properties that affect their appropriateness for
certain tasks, particularly efficiency and spectral power distribution. It is often the case that inappropriate light
sources have been selected for a task, either due to ignorance or because more sophisticated light sources were
unavailable at the time of installation. Therefore, badly chosen light sources often contribute unnecessarily to light
pollution and energy waste. By re-assessing and changing the light sources used, it is often possible to reduce energy
use and pollutive effects while simultaneously greatly improving efficiency and visibility.
Some types of light sources are listed in order of energy efficiency in the table below.

Type of light source Color Luminous

effectiveness
(in lumens per watt)

Low Pressure Sodium (LPS/SOX) yellow/amber 80–200

High Pressure Sodium (HPS/SON) pink/amber-white 90–130

Metal Halide bluish-white/white 60–120

Mercury-Vapour blue-greenish white 13–48

Incandescent yellow/white 8–25

Many astronomers request that nearby communities use low pressure sodium lights as much as possible, because the
principal wavelength emitted is comparably easy to work around or in rare cases filter out.[73] The low cost of
operating sodium lights is another feature. In 1980, for example, San Jose, California, replaced all street lamps with
low pressure sodium lamps, whose light is easier for nearby Lick Observatory to filter out. Similar programs are now
in place in Arizona and Hawaii.
Disadvantages of low pressure sodium lighting are that fixtures must usually be larger than competing fixtures, and
that color cannot be distinguished, due to its emitting principally a single wavelength of light (see security lighting).
Due to the substantial size of the lamp, particularly in higher wattages such as 135 W and 180 W, control of light
emissions from low pressure sodium luminaires is more difficult. For applications requiring more precise direction
of light (such as narrow roadways) the native lamp efficacy advantage of this lamp type is decreased and may be
entirely lost compared to high pressure sodium lamps. Allegations that this also leads to higher amounts of light
pollution from luminaires running these lamps arise principally because of older luminaires with poor shielding, still
widely in use in the UK and in some other locations. Modern low-pressure sodium fixtures with better optics and full
shielding, and the decreased skyglow impacts of yellow light preserve the luminous efficacy advantage of
Light pollution 38

low-pressure sodium and result in most cases is less energy consumption and less visible light pollution.
Unfortunately, due to continued lack of accurate information,[74] many lighting professionals continue to disparage
low-pressure sodium, contributing to its decreased acceptance and specification in lighting standards and therefore
its use. Another disadvantage of low-pressure sodium lamps is that some people find the characteristic yellow light
very displeasing aesthetically.
Because of the scatter of light by the atmosphere, different sources produce dramatically different amounts of
skyglow from the same amount of light sent into the atmosphere.

Re-designing lighting plans

In some cases, evaluation of existing plans has determined that more efficient lighting plans are possible. For
instance, light pollution can be reduced by turning off unneeded outdoor lights, and only lighting stadiums when
there are people inside. Timers are especially valuable for this purpose. One of the world's first coordinated
legislative efforts to reduce the adverse effect of this pollution on the environment began in Flagstaff, Arizona, in the
U.S. Here, over three decades of ordinance development has taken place, with the full support of the population,[75]
often with government support,[76] with community advocates,[77] and with the help of major local observatories,[78]
including the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station. Each component helps to educate, protect and
enforce the imperatives to intelligently reduce detrimental light pollution.
One example of a lighting plan assessment can be seen in a report originally commissioned by the Office of the
Deputy Prime Minister in the United Kingdom, and now available through the Department for Communities and
Local Government.[79] The report details a plan to be implemented throughout the UK, for designing lighting
schemes in the countryside, with a particular focus on preserving the environment.
In another example, the city of Calgary has recently replaced most residential street lights with models that are
comparably energy efficient.[80] The motivation is primarily operation cost and environmental conservation. The
costs of installation are expected to be regained through energy savings within six to seven years.
The Swiss Agency for Energy Efficiency (SAFE) uses a concept that promises to be of great use in the diagnosis and
design of road lighting, "consommation électrique spécifique (CES)", which can be translated into English as
"specific electric power consumption (SEC)".[81] Thus, based on observed lighting levels in a wide range of Swiss
towns, SAFE has defined target values for electric power consumption per metre for roads of various categories.
Thus, SAFE currently recommends an SEC of 2 to 3 watts per meter for roads of less than 10 metre width (4 to 6
watts per metre for wider roads). Such a measure provides an easily applicable environmental protection constraint
on conventional "norms", which usually are based on the recommendations of lighting manufacturing interests, who
may not take into account environmental criteria. In view of ongoing progress in lighting technology, target SEC
values will need to be periodically revised downwards.
A newer method for predicting and measuring various aspects of light pollution was described in the journal
Lighting Research Technology (September 2008). Scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's Lighting Research
Center have developed a comprehensive method called Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP), which allows
users to quantify, and thus optimize, the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to
minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property. OSP can be used by lighting engineers
immediately, particularly for the investigation of glow and trespass (glare analyses are more complex to perform and
current commercial software does not readily allow them), and can help users compare several lighting design
alternatives for the same site.[82]
In the effort to reduce light pollution, researchers have developed a “Unified System of Photometry,” which is a way
to measure how much or what kind of street lighting is needed. The Unified System of Photometry allows light
fixtures to be designed to reduce energy use while maintaining or improving perceptions of visibility, safety, and
security.[83] There was a need to create a new system of light measurement at night because the biological way in
which the eye’s rods and cones process light is different in nighttime conditions versus daytime conditions. Using
Light pollution 39

this new system of photometry, results from recent studies have indicated that replacing traditional, yellowish,
high-pressure sodium (HPS) lights with “cool” white light sources, such as induction, fluorescent, ceramic metal
halide, or LEDs can actually reduce the amount of electric power used for lighting while maintaining or improving
visibility in nighttime conditions.[84]
The International Commission on Illumination, also known as the CIE from its French title, le Commission
Internationale de l'Eclairage, will soon be releasing its own form of unified photometry for outdoor lighting.

See also
• Bortle Dark-Sky Scale
• Dark-sky preserve
• Earth Hour
• History of street lighting in the United States
• International Dark-Sky Association
• Lighting
• List of environmental health hazards
• National Dark-Sky Week
• Over-illumination
• Scotobiology
• Tribute in Light
• Polarized light pollution

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[51] Kenneth D. Frank (1988). "Impact of outdoor lighting on moths" (http:/ / www. darksky. org/ infoshts/ is109. html). Journal of the
Lepidopterists' Society (International Dark-Sky Association) 42: 63–93. .
[52] Horváth, Gábor; Gábor Horváth, György Kriska, Péter Malik, Bruce Robertson (2009). "Polarized light pollution: a new kind of ecological
photopollution". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment (Accès Online) 7:6 (2009/08): 317–325. doi:10.1890/080129.
[53] D. Malakoff (2001). "Faulty towers". Audubon 103 (5): 78–83.
[54] "Welkom op de site van de Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij BV" (http:/ / www. nam. nl/ home/ Framework?siteId=nam-nl). Nam.nl.
2009-03-26. . Retrieved 2010-09-04.
[55] M. Salmon (2003). "Artificial night lighting and sea turtles" (http:/ / www. seaturtle. org/ PDF/ Salmon_2003_Biologist. pdf). Biologist 50:
163–168. .
[56] Rachel A. Granta, Elizabeth A. Chadwick, and Tim Halliday (2009). "The lunar cycle: a cue for amphibian reproductive phenology?".
Animal Behaviour 78: 349–357. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.05.007.
[57] RodrÍguez, Airam; RodrÍguez, Beneharo (2009). "Attraction of petrels to artificial lights in the Canary Islands: effects of the moon phase
and age class". Ibis 151: 299. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2009.00925.x.
[58] Rowan, William (1938). "LIGHT AND SEASONAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS". Biological Reviews 13: 374.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1938.tb00523.x.
[59] L. Scheling (2006). "Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting". Natural Areas Journal 27 (3): 281–282.
[60] Catherine Rich and Travis Longcore (2006). Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-128-7.
[61] Woltz, H; Gibbs, J; Ducey, P (2008). "Road crossing structures for amphibians and reptiles: Informing design through behavioral analysis".
Biological Conservation 141: 2745. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.08.010.
[62] Barrett, K; Guyer, C (2008). "Differential responses of amphibians and reptiles in riparian and stream habitats to land use disturbances in
western Georgia, USA". Biological Conservation 141: 2290. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.019.
[63] Video (http:/ / www. ustream. tv/ recorded/ 2181927)
[64] "Electricity and English songbirds". Los Angeles Times. 14 September 1897.
[65] Bakich, M.E. (February 2009). "Can we win the war against light pollution.". Astronomy Magazine: 57. ISSN 0091-6358.
[66] NYSERDA How-to Guide to Effective Energy-Efficient Street Lighting for Planners and Engineers. (http:/ / www. rpi. edu/ dept/ lrc/
nystreet/ ) NYSERDA-Planners (October 2002). New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.
[67] "www.jimslights.com" (http:/ / www. eskimo. com/ ~jrterry/ optics. html). Eskimo.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-04.
[68] D. Keith, “Roadway Lighting Design for the Optimization of UPD, STV and Uplight”, Journal of the IES, v29n2
[69] D. Keith, “Unit Power Density Evaluation of Roadway Lighting Systems”, Journal of the IES, v31n2
[70] D. Keith, “Evaluating Lighting System Components Through Comparison of Roadway UPD Values”, Journal of the IES, v32n1
[71] D. Keith, “Correlations of Roadway UUD Values to UPD, Uplight and Classification”, Journal of the IES, v32n1
[72] http:/ / www. terna. it
[73] C.B. Luginbuhl, in "Preserving the Astronomical Sky," IAU Symposium No. 196, eds. R. J. Cohen and W. T. Sullivan, III, pp. 81-86, 2001
(2001). Why Astronomy Needs Low-Pressure Sodium Lighting. PASP, San Francisco, USA.
[74] For example, see section 4.10 What Types of Lamps Are Used in Outdoor Lighting? in the IDA (http:/ / www. darksky. org) Outdoor
Lighting Code Handbook (http:/ / data. nextrionet. com/ site/ idsa/ Lighting Code Handbook. pdf)
[75] Flagstaff Dark Skies Coalition (http:/ / www. flagstaffdarkskies. org)
[76] Coconino County Lighting and General Codes (http:/ / www. coconino. az. gov/ comdev. aspx?id=144& terms=lighting)
[77] Arizona IDA presentation on Lighting issues (PowerPoint) (http:/ / docs. darksky. org/ AGM/ 2009/ Luginbuhl. ppt)
[78] Lowell Observatory (http:/ / www. lowell. edu/ )
[79] "Towards good practice" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080108232309/ http:/ / www. communities. gov. uk/ publications/
planningandbuilding/ lighting). Lighting in the countryside. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. communities. gov. uk/ publications/
planningandbuilding/ lighting) on January 8, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-01-16. Department for Communities and Local Government, United
Kingdom.
[80] The City of Calgary: Envirosmart Streetlight Retrofit Program (http:/ / www. calgary. ca/ portal/ server. pt/ gateway/
PTARGS_0_0_780_237_0_43/ http;/ content. calgary. ca/ CCA/ City+ Hall/ Business+ Units/ Roads/ Streetlights/ EnviroSmart+ Streetlight+
Retrofit/ EnviroSmart+ Streetlight+ Retrofit. htm)
[81] "S.A.F.E > Actualité" (http:/ / www. efficace. ch/ f/ IndexAktuell. html). Efficace.ch. . Retrieved 2010-09-04.
[82] Lighting Research Center Develops Framework for Assessing Light Pollution (http:/ / newswise. com/ articles/ view/ 544092/ ) Newswise,
Retrieved on September 8, 2008.
[83] Rea, M., J.D. Bullough, J.P. Freyssinier, and A. Bierman. 2004. A proposed Unified System of Photometry. Lighting Research and
Technology 36(2): 85-111. (http:/ / www. lrc. rpi. edu/ resourceLibrary. asp?id=13785)
[84] Rea, M.; Yuan, Z.; Bierman, A. (2009). "The unified system of photometry applied to remote airfield lighting". Lighting Research and
Technology 41: 51. doi:10.1177/1477153508095735.
Light pollution 42

External links

Related organizations
• International Dark-Sky Association (http://www.darksky.org/)
• Links and Web Resources (http://darksky.org/links/links.html)
• Austria: Verein Kuffner Sternwarte (http://kuffner-sternwarte.at/) ( How many stars? (http://sternhell.at/))
• NPS Night Sky Team of Air Resources Division. "Explore Air: Natural Lightscapes" (http://www.nature.nps.
gov/air/lightscapes/index.cfm). Explore Nature. National Park Service.
• Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's Lighting Research Center (http://www.lrc.rpi.edu)
• Campaign for Dark Skies (http://www.dark-skies.org) (UK)
• New England Light Pollution Advisory Group (http://nelpag.harvee.org)
• SELENE (http://selene-ny.org/) (New York)
• Citizens for Responsible Lighting (http://www.crlaction.org) (based on a distributed discussion group)
• Virginia Outdoor Lighting Taskforce (http://www.volt.org)
• Italian site of Cielobuio-coordination for the protection of the night sky (http://www.cielobuio.org)
• Spanish Cel Fosc (http://www.celfosc.org/indice.html)
• Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) (http://www.flap.org) (Toronto)
• Starlight: a common heritage. (http://www.starlight2007.net/)
• Sydney Outdoor Lighting Improvement Society (http://www.solis.org.au)
• Adelaide Dark Sky Group (http://groups.google.com.au/group/adelaide-darksky?hl=en) (Adelaide South
Australia)

Research about light pollution

• Need-Less (http://www.need-less.org.uk/) – interactive simulations that demonstrate the effects of light
pollution
• "Lighting and Astronomy: Light Pollution" (http://www.darkskiesawareness.org/files/PTarticle_Lighting&
Astronomy.pdf)
• article "What is Light Pollution" (http://www.savethenight.eu/What is.html)
• technical slide show "Lamp Spectrum and Light Pollution: The Other Side of Light Pollution" (http://www.
cormusa.org/uploads/Lamp_Spectrum_and_Light_Pollution.pdf)
• MAG Dark Skies Outdoor Lighting Codes and Issues (http://www.mag.maricopa.gov/pdf/cms.resource/
DSSG_2009-04-07_Outdoor-Lighting-Lighting-Codes35271.pdf)
• Link to the MAG Lighting Code handbook (http://www.mag.maricopa.gov/detail.cms?item=9926)
• Mail Tribune Article "Seeing Stars: The fight against light pollution" (http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.
dll/article?AID=/20080208/LIFE/802080321)
• European Light pollution - technical articles (http://www.lightpollution.it/cinzano/en/index.html)
• U.S. National Parks technical article "Modeling Light Pollution from Population Data" (http://www.
georgewright.org/184albers.pdf)
• Dark Skies Coalition (http://www.flagstaffdarkskies.org/)
• Northern Arizona Lighting Ordinances with technical lighting Guides "Section 17.0: Purpose and Intent" (http://
www.coconino.az.gov/uploadedFiles/Community_Development/Section17.pdf)
• The Challenge article "Is Light Pollution Killing Our Birds" (http://www.lightpollution.org.uk/)
• The Discover article relating light pollution to insects, birds, and breast cancer (http://www.discover.com/
issues/jul-03/features/featlights/) (requires paid registration)
• Ecology of the night symposium (http://www.muskokaheritage.org/ecology-night/index.asp) (2003
conference)
Light pollution 43

• "Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting" (http://www.urbanwildlands.org/conference.html)

(2002 conference, by the Urban Wildlands Group)
• Light pollution and the protection of the night environment (http://www.inquinamentoluminoso.it/istil/venice/
index.html), UNESCO, IDA Regional Meeting, 360 pages,(2002) English — Italian. Proceedings are available as
a downloadable PDF.
• Sherbrooke College Light pollution research activities (http://cegepsherbrooke.qc.ca/~aubema/index.php/
Prof/Recherches)
• Examples of the good, bad and ugly lighting (http://www.fraserf.id.au/astronomy/martin-lewicki/lpgallry.
htm)
• "Blinded by the Light?", CfDS 2009, Various authors discussing the "hidden" environmental harm, the human
health harm, the money waste, lighting failing to prevent crime and even astronomy. (http://www.britastro.org/
dark-skies/handbook.html)
• Outdoor Lighting: Visual Efficacy – Recommendations on how to design energy-efficient outdoor lighting while
reducing light pollution. (http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/solidstate/assist/pdf/AR-VisualEfficacy-Jan2009.
pdf) Alliance for Solid State Lighting. Volume 6, Issue 2: Outdoor Lighting: Visual Efficacy

Collections of links related to light pollution

• Light Pollution (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Environment/Light_Pollution/) at the Open Directory
Project
• Dark Skies Awareness (http://www.darkskiesawareness.org/) – An IYA2009 Cornerstone Project
• BAA CfDS Discussion Forum (http://cfds.proboards58.com/index.cgi)
• Dark Sky Importance gallery (http://www.twanight.org/newTWAN/gallery.asp?Gallery=Dark Skies
Importance&page=1) at The World at Night (http://www.twanight.org/) (TWAN)
• Owen, David (August 20, 2007). "The Dark Side" (http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/08/20/
070820fa_fact_owen?currentPage=all). The New Yorker. Condé Nast Publications.
• Klinkenborg, Verlyn (November 2008). "Our Vanishing Night" (http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/11/
light-pollution/klinkenborg-text.html). National Geographic. National Geographic Society.
• Dobrzynski, Judith H. (March 3, 2009). "Reclaiming the Night Sky" (http://www.judithdobrzynski.com/4677/
reclaiming-the-night-sky). The New Republic.
• "Light Pollution" (http://www.assa.org.au/lightpollution). Adelaide, South Australia: Astronomical Society of
South Australia.
• Good, Bad, and Ugly Outdoor Lighting (http://www.fraserf.id.au/astronomy/martin-lewicki/lpgallry.htm)
and update (http://sites.google.com/site/skywalkdownunder/home/adelaide-light-pollution) in Adelaide,
South Australia
• Turn Out the Lights! (http://harcourtscience.com/newsbreak/night_sky.html)
• The Alliance for Lighting Information (http://www.resodance.com/ali/home.html) (ALI) contains information
about light, lighting, and related topics.
• Sample Lighting Ordinance (http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Lighting_ordinance)
Marine pollution 44

Marine pollution
Marine pollution occurs when harmful effects, or
potentially harmful effects, can result from the entry into
the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural
and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive
organisms. Most sources of marine pollution are land
based. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources
such as agricultural runoff and wind blown debris.

Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles

which are then taken up by plankton and benthos
animals, most of which are either deposit or filter
feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward
within ocean food chains. Many particles combine
chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen,
causing estuaries to become anoxic.

When pesticides are incorporated into the marine

ecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marine
food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can
cause mutations, as well as diseases, which can be
harmful to humans as well as the entire food web.
Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food
webs. These can cause a change to tissue matter,
biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress
While marine pollution can be obvious, as with the marine debris
growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a shown above, it is often the pollutants that cannot be seen that
high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, cause most harm.
marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and
appear later in meat and dairy products.

History
Although marine pollution has a long
history, significant international laws
to counter it were enacted in the
twentieth century. Marine pollution
was a concern during several United
Nations Conferences on the Law of the
Sea beginning in the 1950s. Most
scientists believed that the oceans were
so vast that they had unlimited ability
to dilute, and thus render harmless,
Parties to the MARPOL 73/78 convention on marine pollution
pollution.. In the late 1950s and early
1960s, there were several controversies

about dumping radioactive waste off the coasts of the United States by companies licensed by the Atomic Energy
Commission, into the Irish Sea from the British reprocessing facility at Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea
Marine pollution 45

by the French Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique. After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example, Jacques
Cousteau became a worldwide figure in the campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made further
international headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey Canyon, and after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil
spill off the coast of California. Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972 United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. That year also saw the signing of the Convention on the
Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention.
The London Convention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and gray lists for substances to be
banned (black) or regulated by national authorities (gray). Cyanide and high-level radioactive waste, for example,
were put on the black list. The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to
regulate waste discharged as liquids from pipelines.[1]

Pathways of pollution
There are many different ways to categorize, and examine the inputs of
pollution into our marine ecosystems. Patin (n.d.) notes that generally
there are three main types of inputs of pollution into the ocean: direct
discharge of waste into the oceans, runoff into the waters due to rain,
and pollutants that are released from the atmosphere.
One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. The
evaporation of water from oceans exceeds precipitation. The balance is
restored by rain over the continents entering rivers and then being
returned to the sea. The Hudson in New York State and the Raritan in
Septic river.
New Jersey, which empty at the northern and southern ends of Staten
Island, are a source of mercury contamination of zooplankton
(copepods) in the open ocean. The highest concentration in the filter-feeding copepods is not at the mouths of these
rivers but 70 miles south, nearer Atlantic City, because water flows close to the coast. It takes a few days before
toxins are taken up by the planktonGerlach.

Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when there is a
single, identifiable, and localized source of the pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrial
waste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint source pollution
occurs when the pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agricultural
runoff and wind blown debris are prime examples.

Direct discharge
Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from urban sewerage and
industrial waste discharges, sometimes in the form of hazardous and
toxic wastes.
Inland mining for copper, gold. etc., is another source of marine
pollution. Most of the pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers
flowing to the sea. However, some minerals discharged in the course of
the mining can cause problems, such as copper, a common industrial
pollutant, which can interfere with the life history and development of
coral polyps.[2] Mining has a poor environmental track record. For
Acid mine drainage in the Rio Tinto River.
example, according to the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over
40% of watersheds in the western continental US.[3] Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.
Marine pollution 46

Land runoff
Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the construction of roads, buildings, ports,
channels, and harbours, can carry soil and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This
nutrient-rich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas, known as algal blooms, which
have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen.
Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75
percent of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and
driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land.[4]

Ship pollution
Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills can
have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the components in crude oil, are very
difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine
environment.[5]
Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports,
waterways and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally
discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation
prohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that container ships lose
over 10,000 containers at sea each year (usually during storms).[6]
Ships also create noise pollution that disturbs natural wildlife, and
water from ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other invasive
species.[7]

Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of

unwanted exotic marine life. The invasive freshwater zebra mussels,
A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side.
native to the Black, Caspian and Azov seas, were probably transported
to the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.[8]
Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be
attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that spread so it now
inhabits estuaries in many parts of the world. It was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to
the Black Sea in a ship’s ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was
wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. “The anchovy catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in
1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in
1993.”[7] Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen
dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem.

Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new genetic
material, alter underwater seascapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. Invasive species are
responsible for about $138 billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in the US alone.[9]
Marine pollution 47

Atmospheric pollution
Another pathway of pollution occurs through the atmosphere. Wind
blown dust and debris, including plastic bags, are blown seaward from
landfills and other areas. Dust from the Sahara moving around the
southern periphery of the subtropical ridge moves into the Caribbean
and Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds and moves
northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be attributed
to a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts across
Korea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands.[11]
Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in
Graph linking atmospheric dust to various coral
Africa. There is a large variability in dust transport to the Caribbean deaths across the Caribbean Sea and Florida
[10]
[12]
and Florida from year to year; however, the flux is greater during
positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation.[13] The USGS links dust events to a decline in the health of coral
reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[14]

Climate change is raising ocean temperatures[15] and raising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These rising
levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the oceans.[16] This, in turn, is altering aquatic ecosystems and modifying fish
distributions,[17] with impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on
them. Healthy ocean ecosystems are also important for the mitigation of climate change.[18]

Deep sea mining

Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on the ocean floor. Ocean mining sites
are usually around large areas of polymetallic nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at about 1,400 -
3,700 meters below the ocean’s surface.[19] The vents create sulfide deposits, which contain precious metals such as
silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc.[20] [21] The deposits are mined using either hydraulic pumps or
bucket systems that take ore to the surface to be processed. As with all mining operations, deep sea mining raises
questions about environmental damages to the surrounding areas
Because deep sea mining is a relatively new field, the complete consequences of full scale mining operations are
unknown. However, experts are certain that removal of parts of the sea floor will result in disturbances to the benthic
layer, increased toxicity of the water column and sediment plumes from tailings.[22] Removing parts of the sea floor
disturbs the habitat of benthic organisms, possibly, depending on the type of mining and location, causing permanent
disturbances.[19] Aside from direct impact of mining the area, leakage, spills and corrosion would alter the mining
area’s chemical makeup.
Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest impact. Plumes are caused when
the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating
in the water. Two types of plumes occur: near bottom plumes and surface plumes.[19] Near bottom plumes occur
when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The floating particles increase the turbidity, or
cloudiness, of the water, clogging filter-feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms.[23] Surface plumes cause a
more serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water currents the plumes could spread over vast
areas.[19] [24] The plumes could impact zooplankton and light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the
area.[19] [24]
Marine pollution 48

Acidification
The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere. Because the levels of atmospheric carbon
dioxide are increasing, the oceans are becoming more acidic.[26] [27]
The potential consequences of ocean acidification are not fully
understood, but there are concerns that structures made of calcium
carbonate may become vulnerable to dissolution, affecting corals and
the ability of shellfish to form shells.[28]

Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the global

Island with fringing reef in the Maldives. Coral carbon cycle and have removed about 25% of the carbon dioxide
[25]
reefs are dying around the world. emitted by human activities between 2000 and 2007 and about half the
anthropogenic CO2 released since the start of the industrial revolution.
Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification means that the capacity of the ocean carbon sink will gradually
get weaker,[29] giving rise to global concerns expressed in the Monaco[30] and Manado[31] Declarations.

A report from NOAA scientists published in the journal Science in May 2008 found that large amounts of relatively
acidified water are upwelling to within four miles of the Pacific continental shelf area of North America. This area is
a critical zone where most local marine life lives or is born. While the paper dealt only with areas from Vancouver to
northern California, other continental shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects.[32]
A related issue is the methane clathrate reservoirs found under sediments on the ocean floors. These trap large
amounts of the greenhouse gas methane, which ocean warming has the potential to release. In 2004 the global
inventory of ocean methane clathrates was estimated to occupy between one and five million cubic kilometres.[33] If
all these clathrates were to be spread uniformly across the ocean floor, this would translate to a thickness between
three and fourteen metres.[34] This estimate corresponds to 500-2500 gigatonnes carbon (Gt C), and can be compared
with the 5000 Gt C estimated for all other fossil fuel reserves.[33] [35]

Eutrophication
Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically
compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can
result in an increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive
plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen
and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal
populations.

The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the
many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from
livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in the Polluted lagoon.
water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[36]
Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derived nutrients are concentrated where runoff enters the
marine environment in a confined channel. The World Resources Institute has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones
around the world, concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, and
East Asia, particularly in Japan.[37] In the ocean, there are frequent red
Marine pollution 49

tide algae blooms[38] that kill fish and marine mammals and cause
respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the
blooms reach close to shore.
In addition to land runoff, atmospheric anthropogenic fixed nitrogen
can enter the open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this could
account for around one third of the ocean’s external (non-recycled)
nitrogen supply and up to three per cent of the annual new marine
biological production.[39] It has been suggested that accumulating Effect of eutrophication on marine benthic life
reactive nitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious
as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[40]

Plastic debris
Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is
suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic - a
component that has been rapidly accumulating since the end of World
War II.[41] The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as high as one
hundred million metric tons.[42]
Discarded plastic bags, six pack rings and other forms of plastic waste
which finish up in the ocean present dangers to wildlife and
fisheries.[43] Aquatic life can be threatened through entanglement,
A mute swan builds a nest using plastic garbage.
suffocation, and ingestion.[44] [45] [46] Fishing nets, usually made of
plastic, can be left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost
nets, these entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures,
restricting movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and, in those that need to return to the surface to
breathe, suffocation.[47]

Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as

it often looks similar to their natural prey.[48] Plastic debris, when
bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently
lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of
food and causing death through starvation or infection.[49] [50]
Plastics accumulate because they don't biodegrade in the way many
other substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun,
but they do so properly only under dry conditions, and water inhibits Remains of an albatross containing ingested
this process.[51] In marine environments, photodegraded plastic flotsam
disintegrates into ever smaller pieces while remaining polymers, even
down to the molecular level. When floating plastic particles photodegrade down to zooplankton sizes, jellyfish
attempt to consume them, and in this way the plastic enters the ocean food chain. [52] [53] Many of these long-lasting
pieces end up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals,[54] including sea turtles, and black-footed albatross.[55]
Marine pollution 50

Plastic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of ocean gyres. In

particular, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch has a very high level of
plastic particulate suspended in the upper water column. In samples
taken in 1999, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton (the
dominant animal life in the area) by a factor of six.[41] [56] Midway
Atoll, in common with all the Hawaiian Islands, receives substantial
amounts of debris from the garbage patch. Ninety percent plastic, this
debris accumulates on the beaches of Midway where it becomes a
hazard to the bird population of the island. Midway Atoll is home to
Marine debris on Kamilo Beach, Hawaii, washed
two-thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan
up from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Albatross.[57] Nearly all of these albatross have plastic in their
digestive system[58] and one-third of their chicks die.[59]

Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can leach out into their surroundings when exposed to
water. Waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plastic debris,[42] thus making
plastic far more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land.[41] Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to
bioaccumulate in fatty tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain and putting pressure on apex predators. Some plastic
additives are known to disrupt the endocrine system when consumed, others can suppress the immune system or
decrease reproductive rates.[56] Floating debris can also absorb persistent organic pollutants from seawater, including
PCBs, DDT and PAHs.[60] Aside from toxic effects,[61] when ingested some of these are mistaken by the animal
brain for estradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.[55]

Toxins
Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not disintegrate rapidly in the marine
environment. Examples of persistent toxins are PCBs, DDT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols and radioactive
waste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or poisonous at
low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic and cadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in the
tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate in
benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of the last century.
Specific examples
• Chinese and Russian industrial pollution such as phenols and heavy metals in the Amur River have devastated
fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.[62]
• Wabamun Lake in Alberta, Canada, once the best whitefish lake in the area, now has unacceptable levels of heavy
metals in its sediment and fish.
• Acute and chronic pollution events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though the
intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure.[63] [64]
[65] [66] [67]

• Due to their high position in the food chain and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet,
mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, in March 2004 the United
States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers and children limit their
intake of tuna and other types of predatory fish.[68]
• Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating heavy metals or toxins in their tissues.
For example, mitten crabs have a remarkable ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, including
polluted waters.[69] The farming and harvesting of such species needs careful management if they are to be used
as a food.[70] [71]
Marine pollution 51

• Surface runoff of pesticides can alter the gender of fish species genetically, transforming male into female fish.[72]
• Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills - such as the Prestige oil spill on the Galician coast - or
from other natural or anthropogenic sources.[73]
• In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia syndicate, was accused of sinking at least 30 ships loaded with toxic
waste, much of it radioactive. This has led to widespread investigations into radioactive waste disposal rackets.[74]
• Since the end of World War II, various nations, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United
States, and Germany, have disposed of chemical weapons in the Baltic Sea, raising concerns of environmental
contamination.[75] [76]

Noise pollution
Marine life can be susceptible to noise or sound pollution from sources such as passing ships, oil exploration seismic
surveys, and naval low-frequency active sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and over larger distances in the sea than
in the atmosphere. Marine animals, such as cetaceans, often have weak eyesight, and live in a world largely defined
by acoustic information. This applies also to many deeper sea fish, who live in a world of darkness.[77] Between
1950 and 1975, ambient noise in the ocean increased by about ten decibels (that is a ten-fold increase).[78]
Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard vocal response.[79] Whale songs are
longer when submarine-detectors are on.[80] If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voice can be masked by
anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling.
When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other specie voices, causing the whole ecosystem to
eventually speak louder.[81]
According to the oceanographer Sylvia Earle, "Undersea noise pollution is like the death of a thousand cuts. Each
sound in itself may not be a matter of critical concern, but taken all together, the noise from shipping, seismic
surveys, and military activity is creating a totally different environment than existed even 50 years ago. That high
level of noise is bound to have a hard, sweeping impact on life in the sea."[82]

Adaptation and mitigation

Much anthropogenic pollution ends up in the ocean. Bjorn Jennssen
(2003) notes in his article, “Anthropogenic pollution may reduce
biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems, resulting in
reduction and depletion of human marine food resources” (p. A198).
There are two ways the overall level of this pollution can be mitigated:
either the human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce the
ecological footprint left behind by the average human. If the second
way is not adopted, then the first way may be imposed as world
Aerosol can polluting a beach.
ecosystems falter.

The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and political will, together with a
shift in awareness so more people respect the environment and are less disposed to abuse it. At an operational level,
regulations, and international government participation is needed. It is often very difficult to regulate marine
pollution because pollution spreads over international barriers, thus making regulations hard to create as well as
enforce.
Perhaps the most important strategy for reducing marine pollution is education. Most are unaware of the sources, and
harmful effects of marine pollution, and therefore little is done to address the situation. In order to inform the
population of all the facts, in depth research must be done to provide the full scale of the situation. Then this
information must be made public.
Marine pollution 52

As expressed in Daoji and Dag’s research,[83] one of the reasons why environmental concern is lacking among the
Chinese is because the public awareness is low and therefore should be targeted. Likewise, regulation, based upon
such in-depth research should be employed. In California, such regulations have already been put in place to protect
Californian coastal waters from agricultural runoff. This includes the California Water Code, as well as several
voluntary programs. Similarly, in India, several tactics have been employed that help reduce marine pollution,
however, they do not significantly target the problem. In Chennai city, India, sewage has been dumped further into
open waters. Due to the mass of waste being deposited, open-ocean is best for diluting, and dispersing pollutants,
thus making them less harmful to marine ecosystems.

See also
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

Notes
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[5] Panetta, LE (Chair) (2003) America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD] Pew Oceans Commission.
[6] Janice Podsada (19 June 2001). "Lost Sea Cargo: Beach Bounty or Junk?" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2001/ 06/
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[7] Meinesz, A. (2003) Deep Sea Invasion: The Impact of Invasive Species (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ algae/ impact. html) PBS:
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[8] Aquatic invasive species. A Guide to Least-Wanted Aquatic Organisms of the Pacific Northwest. 2001. University of Washington. (http:/ /
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[9] Pimentel, D.; R. Zuniga and D., Morrison (2005). "Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in
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Marine pollution 53

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References
• Ahn, YH; Hong, GH; Neelamani, S; Philip, L and Shanmugam, P (2006) Assessment of Levels of coastal marine
pollution of Chennai city, southern India. Water Resource Management, 21(7), 1187-1206.
• Daoji, L and Dag, D (2004) Ocean pollution from land-based sources: East China sea. AMBIO – A Journal of
the Human Environment, 33(1/2), 107-113.
• Dowrd, BM; Press, D and Los Huertos, M (2008) Agricultural non-point sources: water pollution policy: The
case of California’s central coast. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 128(3), 151-161.
• Laws, Edward A (2000) Aquatic Pollution (http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=11LI7XyEIsAC&pg=PA4&
lpg=PA4&dq=As+the+trophic+level+increases,+the+biomass+decreases.&source=web&
ots=eZO8XKFQor&sig=IgNErx13uVipkhaa34G4F9kUObY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&
ct=result#PPA30,M1) John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 9780471348757
• Sheavly, SB and Register, KM (2007) Marine debris and plastics: Environmental concerns, sources, impacts and
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• Slater, D (2007) Affluence and effluents. Sierra 92(6), 27
• UNEP (2007) Land-based Pollution in the South China Sea (http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/
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Publication No 10.

External links
• Coastal Pollution Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute (http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=12049),
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
• Mercury pollution (http://web.archive.org/web/20001021140316/www.ecoscope.com/mercury.htm)
• How Oil Spill Absorbent Products Work (http://www.censol.co.uk/censol - oil absorbents - testing.html)
• Facts about Marine Mercury Pollution from Oceana.org (http://www.oceana.org/north-america/what-we-do/
stop-seafood-contamination)
• Science News / Marine Pollution Spawns 'wonky Babies' (http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/
38922/title/Marine_pollution_spawns_wonky_babies)
• Plastics at SEA: North Atlantic Expedition (http://plastics.sea.edu)
Noise pollution 56

Noise pollution
Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human,
animal or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance
of human or animal life. The word noise comes from the Latin word
nauseas, meaning seasickness.
The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly construction
and transportation systems, including motor vehicle noise, aircraft
noise and rail noise.[1] [2] Poor urban planning may give rise to noise
pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can
result in noise pollution in the residential area. A Boeing 747-400 passes close to houses shortly
before landing at London Heathrow Airport
Indoor and outdoor noise pollution sources include car alarms,
emergency service sirens, mechanical equipment, fireworks,
compressed air horns, groundskeeping equipment, barking dogs, appliances, lighting hum, audio entertainment
systems, electric megaphones, and loud people.

Effects

Human health
Noise health effects are both health and behavioral in nature. The unwanted sound is called noise. This unwanted
sound can damage physiological and psychological health. Noise pollution can cause annoyance and aggression,
hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects.[3] [4] [5] [6]
Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the leading causes to health problems, whereas tinnitus can lead to
forgetfulness, severe depression and at times panic attacks.[4] [7]
Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older males exposed to significant occupational
noise demonstrate significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their non-exposed peers, though differences in
hearing sensitivity decrease with time and the two groups are indistinguishable by age 79.[8] A comparison of
Maaban tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S.
population showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to hearing
loss.[3]
High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high levels during a single
eight hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten points and an increase in stress[3] and
vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure noted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary
artery disease.
Noise pollution is also a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers found that in urban areas
households are willing to pay approximately four Euros per decibel per year for noise reduction.[9]
Noise pollution 57

Environment
Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by causing stress, increasing risk of death by changing the delicate
balance in predator/prey detection and avoidance, and by interfering with their use of sounds in communication
especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent
loss of hearing.[10]
An impact of noise on animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that noisy areas may cause, which in the case of
endangered species may be part of the path to extinction. Noise pollution has caused the death of certain species of
whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar.[11]
Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called Lombard vocal response.[12] Scientists and
researchers have conducted experiments that show whales' song length is longer when submarine-detectors are
on.[13] If creatures do not "speak" loud enough, their voice will be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard
voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking
louder, it will mask other species' voice, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.
European Robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with high levels of noise
pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can propagate
through the environment more clearly.[14] The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of
nocturnal singing than night-time Light pollution, to which the phenomenon is often attributed.
Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This could alter a population's
evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities and thus lead to
profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.[15]

Impact in the United Kingdom

Figures compiled by Rockwool, the mineral wool insulation manufacturer, based on responses from local authorities
to a Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request reveal in the period April 2008 – 2009 UK councils received 315,838
complaints about noise pollution from private residences. This resulted in environmental health officers across the
UK serving 8,069 noise abatement notices, or citations under the terms of the Anti-Social Behaviour (Scotland) Act.
In the last 12 months, 524 confiscations of equipment have been authorised involving the removal of powerful
speakers, stereos and televisions. Westminster City Council has received more complaints per head of population
than any other district in the UK with 9,814 grievances about noise, which equates to 42.32 complaints per thousand
residents. Eight of the top 10 councils ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in London.[16]

Mitigation and control of noise

Technology to mitigate or remove noise can be applied as follows:
There are a variety of strategies for mitigating roadway noise
including: use of noise barriers, limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration
of roadway surface texture, limitation of heavy vehicles, use of traffic
controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and acceleration,
and tire design. An important factor in applying these strategies is a
computer model for roadway noise, that is capable of addressing local
topography, meteorology, traffic operations and hypothetical
mitigation. Costs of building-in mitigation can be modest, provided
The sound tube in Melbourne, Australia, designed
these solutions are sought in the planning stage of a roadway project. to reduce roadway noise without distracting from
the area's aesthetics.
Noise pollution 58

Aircraft noise can be reduced to some extent by design of quieter jet engines, which was pursued vigorously in the
1970s and 1980s. This strategy has brought limited but noticeable reduction of urban sound levels. Reconsideration
of operations, such as altering flight paths and time of day runway use, has demonstrated benefits for residential
populations near airports. FAA sponsored residential retrofit (insulation) programs initiated in the 1970s has also
enjoyed success in reducing interior residential noise in thousands of residences across the United States.
Exposure of workers to Industrial noise has been addressed since the 1930s. Changes include redesign of industrial
equipment, shock mounting assemblies and physical barriers in the workplace.
Noise Free America, a national anti-noise pollution organization, regularly lobbies for the enforcement of noise
ordinances at all levels of government.[17]

Legal status
Governments up until the 1970s viewed noise as a "nuisance" rather than an environmental problem. In the United
States there are federal standards for highway and aircraft noise; states and local governments typically have very
specific statutes on building codes, urban planning and roadway development. In Canada and the EU there are few
national, provincial, or state laws that protect against noise.
Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities and indeed do not even exist in some cities. An
ordinance may contain a general prohibition against making noise that is a nuisance, or it may set out specific
guidelines for the level of noise allowable at certain times of the day and for certain activities.
Dr. Paul Herman wrote the first comprehensive noise codes in 1975 for Portland, Oregon with funding from the EPA
(Environmental Protection Agency) and HUD (Housing and Urban Development). The Portland Noise Code became
the basis for most other ordinances for major U.S. and Canadian metropolitan regions.[18]
Most city ordinances prohibit sound above a threshold intensity from trespassing over property line at night,
typically between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m., and during the day restricts it to a higher sound level; however, enforcement is
uneven. Many municipalities do not follow up on complaints. Even where a municipality has an enforcement office,
it may only be willing to issue warnings, since taking offenders to court is expensive.
The notable exception to this rule is the City of Portland Oregon which has instituted an aggressive protection for its
citizens with fines reaching as high at $5000 per infraction, with the ability to cite a responsible noise violator
multiple times in a single day.
Many conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation between the emitter and the receiver. Escalation
procedures vary by country, and may include action in conjunction with local authorities, in particular the police.
Noise pollution often persists because only five to ten percent of people affected by noise will lodge a formal
complaint. Many people are not aware of their legal right to quiet and do not know how to register a complaint.

See also
• Awaaz Foundation
• Acoustic ecology
• Light pollution
• List of environmental health hazards
• Lombard effect
• Marine mammals and sonar
• Noise (acoustic)
• Noise Free America
• Soundscape
• The Hum
• Tranquility
Noise pollution 59

References
[1] Senate Public Works Committee, Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972, S. Rep. No. 1160, 92nd Cong. 2nd session
[2] C. Michael Hogan and Gary L. Latshaw, The relationship between highway planning and urision specialty conference, May 21-23, 1973,
Chicago, Illinois. by American Society of Civil Engineers. Urban Transportation Division (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/ wcpa/
top3mset/ 2930880)
[3] S. Rosen and P. Olin, Hearing Loss and Coronary Heart Disease, Archives of Otolaryngology, 82:236 (1965)
[4] J.M. Field, Effect of personal and situational variables upon noise annoyance in residential areas, Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America, 93: 2753-2763 (1993)
[5] "Noise Pollution" (http:/ / www. euro. who. int/ Noise). World Health Organisation. .
[6] "Road noise link to blood pressure" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ health/ 8247217. stm). BBC News. 2009-09-10. . Retrieved 2010-05-20.
[7] Karl D. Kryter, The Effects of Noise on Man , Academic Press (1985)
[8] Rosenhall U, Pedersen K, Svanborg A (1990). "Presbycusis and noise-induced hearing loss". Ear Hear 11 (4): 257–63.
doi:10.1097/00003446-199008000-00002. PMID 2210099.
[9] Jesús Barreiro, Mercedes Sánchez, Montserrat Viladrich-Grau (2005), "How much are people willing to pay for silence? A contingent
valuation study", Applied Economics, 37 (11)
[10] Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment (http:/ / www. onr. navy. mil/ sci_tech/ 34/ 341/ docs/ proceed. pdf)
[11] [[Bahamas Marine Mammal Stranding Event (http:/ / www. nmfs. noaa. gov/ pr/ pdfs/ acoustics/ bahamas_stranding. pdf)] of 15–16 March
2000]
[12] www.dosits.org/glossary/pop/lvr.htm
[13] Variation in [[humpback whale (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2003ASAJ. . 113. 3411F)] (Megaptera novaeangliae) song length in
relation to low-frequency sound broadcasts]
[14] Fuller RA, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2007). "Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins." (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih.
gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=2390663). Biology Letters 3 (4): 368–70. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0134. PMID 17456449.
PMC 2390663.
[15] Milius, S. (2007). High Volume, Low Fidelity: Birds are less faithful as sounds blare, Science News vol. 172, p. 116. ( references (http:/ /
www. sciencenews. org/ articles/ 20070825/ fob3ref. asp))
[16] "London is home to the noisiest neighbours" (http:/ / www. thisislondon. co. uk/ standard/ article-23714071-details/ London+ is+ home+ to+
the+ noisiest+ neighbours/ article. do). London Evening Standard. .
[17] http:/ / www. noisefree. org
[18] City of Portland, Oregon. Auditor's Office. Chapter 18.02 Title Noise Control (http:/ / www. portlandonline. com/ auditor/ index.
cfm?c=28705). Retrieved on April 20, 2009.

External links
• Noise pollution (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Environment/Noise_Pollution//) at the Open
Directory Project
• World Health Organization - Guidelines for Community Noise (http://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/
Comnoise-1.pdf)
• Clive Thompson on How Man-Made Noise May Be Altering Earths Ecology (http://www.wired.com/science/
planetearth/magazine/16-06/st_thompson) {sic}
• EEA draws the first map of Europe's noise exposure - All press releases — EEA (http://www.eea.europa.eu/
pressroom/newsreleases/eea-draws-the-first-map-of-europe2019s-noise-exposure)
Radioactive contamination 60

Radioactive contamination
Radioactive contamination, also
called radiological contamination, is
radioactive substances on surfaces, or
within solids, liquids or gases
(including the human body), where
their presence is unintended or
undesirable, or the process giving rise
to their presence in such places[1] .

Also used less formally to refer

to a quantity, namely the activity
on a surface (or on a unit area of
a surface). The radiation warning symbol (trefoil).

Contamination does not include

residual radioactive material
remaining at a site after the
completion of decommissioning.
The term radioactive
contamination may have a
connotation that is not intended.
The term radioactive
contamination refers only to the
presence of radioactivity, and
gives no indication of the
magnitude of the hazard
involved.

The amount of radioactive material

released in an accident is called the
Periodic table with elements colored according to the half-life of their most stable isotope.
source term.
     Stable elements;      Radioactive elements with very long-lived isotopes.
Their half-live of over four million years confers them very small, if not
negligible radioactivities;      Radioactive elements that may present low health
Sources of contamination hazards. Their most stable isotopes have half-lives between 800 and 34.000
Radioactive contamination is typically years. Because of this, they usually have some commercial applications;
     Radioactive elements that are known to pose high safety risks. Their most
the result of a spill or accident during
stable isotopes have half-lifes between one day and 103 years. Their
the production or use of radionuclides radioactivities confers them little potential for commercial uses;      Highly
(radioisotopes), an unstable nucleus radioactive elements. Their most stable isotopes have half-lifes between one
which has excessive energy. day and several minutes. They pose severe health risks. Few of them receive
uses outside basic research;      Extremely radioactive elements. Very little is
Contamination may occur from
known about these elements due to their extreme instability and radioactivity.
radioactive gases, liquids or particles.
For example, if a radionuclide used in
nuclear medicine is accidentally spilled, the material could be spread by people as they walk around. Radioactive
contamination may also be an inevitable result of certain processes, such as the release of radioactive xenon in

nuclear fuel reprocessing. In cases that radioactive material cannot be contained, it may be diluted to safe
concentrations. Nuclear fallout is the distribution of radioactive contamination by a nuclear explosion. For a
Radioactive contamination 61

discussion of environmental contamination by alpha emitters please see actinides in the environment. Containment is
what differentiates radioactive material from radioactive contamination. Therefore, radioactive material in sealed and
designated containers is not properly referred to as contamination, although the units of measurement might be the
same.

Radiation monitoring
The radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons
related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the
results. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of environmental radiation monitoring
programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA
Safety Standards Series No. RS–G-1.8 [2] and in IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 64 [3] .

Measurement
Radioactive contamination may exist on surfaces or in volumes of material or air. In a nuclear power plant, detection
and measurement of radioactivity and contamination is often the job of a Certified Health Physicist.

Surface contamination
Surface contamination is usually expressed in units of radioactivity per unit of area. For SI, this is becquerels per
square meter (or Bq/m²). Other units such as picoCuries per 100 cm² or disintegrations per minute per square
centimeter (1 dpm/cm² = 166 2/3 Bq/m²) may be used. Surface contamination may either be fixed or removable. In
the case of fixed contamination, the radioactive material cannot by definition be spread, but it is still measurable.

Hazards
In practice there is no such thing as zero radioactivity. Not only is the entire world constantly bombarded by cosmic
rays, but every living creature on earth contains significant quantities of carbon-14 and most (including humans)
contain significant quantities of potassium-40. These tiny levels of radiation are not any more harmful than sunlight,
but just as excessive quantities of sunlight can be dangerous, so too can excessive levels of radiation.

Low level contamination

The hazards to people and the environment from radioactive contamination depend on the nature of the radioactive
contaminant, the level of contamination, and the extent of the spread of contamination. Low levels of radioactive
contamination pose little risk, but can still be detected by radiation instrumentation. In the case of low-level
contamination by isotopes with a short half-life, the best course of action may be to simply allow the material to
naturally decay. Longer-lived isotopes should be cleaned up and properly disposed of, because even a very low level
of radiation can be life-threatening when in long exposure to it.

High level contamination

High levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People can be exposed to
potentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the spread of contamination following an
accident (or a deliberate initiation) involving large quantities of radioactive material. The biological effects of
external exposure to radioactive contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source not
involving radioactive materials, such as x-ray machines, and are dependent on the absorbed dose.
Radioactive contamination 62

Biological effects
See also: Radiation poisoning
The biological effects of internally deposited radionuclides depend greatly on the activity and the biodistribution and
removal rates of the radionuclide, which in turn depends on its chemical form. The biological effects may also
depend on the chemical toxicity of the deposited material, independent of its radioactivity. Some radionuclides may
be generally distributed throughout the body and rapidly removed, as is the case with tritiated water. Some
radionuclides may target specific organs and have much lower removal rates. For instance, the thyroid gland takes up
a large percentage of any iodine that enters the body. If large quantities of radioactive iodine are inhaled or ingested,
the thyroid may be impaired or destroyed, while other tissues are affected to a lesser extent. Radioactive iodine is a
common fission product; it was a major component of the radiation released from the Chernobyl disaster, leading to
nine fatal cases of pediatric thyroid cancer and hypothyroidism. On the other hand, radioactive iodine is used in the
diagnosis and treatment of many diseases of the thyroid precisely because of the thyroid's selective uptake of iodine.

Means of contamination
Radioactive contamination can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or injection. For this reason,
it is important to use personal protective equipment when working with radioactive materials. Radioactive
contamination may also be ingested as the result of eating contaminated plants and animals or drinking contaminated
water or milk from exposed animals. Following a major contamination incident, all potential pathways of internal
exposure should be considered.

References
[1] International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (http:/ /
www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/ Pub1290_web. pdf). Vienna: IAEA. ISBN 92–0–100707–8. .
[2] International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). Environmental and Source Monitoring for Purposes of Radiation Protection, IAEA Safety
Standards Series No. RS–G-1.8 (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/ Pub1216_web. pdf). Vienna: IAEA. .
[3] International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports
Series No. 64. (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ mtcd/ publications/ PubDetails. asp?pubId=8242). Vienna: IAEA. pp. 234.
ISBN 978-92-0-112409-8. .

See also
• Background radiation
• Chernobyl disaster
• Criticality accident
• Exotic pollution
• Ionizing Radiation (includes physicists' units of radiation exposure)
• Nuclear and radiation accidents
• Nuclear debate (disambiguation)
• Nuclear power
• Radiation biology
• Radiation exposure (disambiguation)
• Radiation poisoning
• Radioactive waste
• Radiophobia
• Relative Biological Effectiveness
• Rongelap Atoll
Soil contamination 63

Soil contamination
Soil contamination (soil pollution) is caused by
the presence of xenobiotic (human-made)
chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil
environment. This type of contamination
typically arises from the rupture of underground
storage tanks, application of pesticides,
percolation of contaminated surface water to
subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching
of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of
industrial wastes to the soil. The most common
chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons,
solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals.
This occurrence of this phenomenon is
correlated with the degree of industrialization Excavation showing soil contamination at a disused gasworks.
and intensities of chemical usage.

The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated
soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the
soil[1] . Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks,
requiring extensive amounts of geology, hydrology, chemistry and computer modeling skills.
It is in North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land is most well known, with many of
countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem; this however
may well be just the tip of the iceberg with developing countries very likely to be the next generation of new soil
contamination cases.
The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price from the
land in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection Administration believes it to be a threat to the
environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a scientific sampling,150 million mi
(100,000 square kilometers) of China’s cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to
irrigate a further 32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometers) and another 2 million mi (1,300 square kilometers)
covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of China’s cultivatable land, and is
mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals
every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan (US$2.57 billion).[2] .

Causes
This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks, application of pesticides,
percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from
landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum
hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated
with the degree of industrialization and intensities of chemical usage.
Treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a fertilizer to the land. As it
is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy
metals than other soil.[3]
Soil contamination 64

There is also controversy surrounding the contamination of fertilizers with heavy metals; a series of newspaper
articles in the Seattle Times made the issue a "national focus" in the United States, and culminated in a book called
Fateful Harvest.[4]

Health effects
Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil or via inhalation of soil
contaminants which have vaporized; potentially greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contamination into
groundwater aquifers used for human consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far removed from any apparent
source of above ground contamination.
Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type, pathway of
attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chronic exposure to chromium, lead and other metals, petroleum,
solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can cause congenital disorders, or can
cause other chronic health conditions. Industrial or man-made concentrations of naturally-occurring substances, such
as nitrate and ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also been identified as
health hazards in soil and groundwater.[5]
Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher incidence of
leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage, some irreversible.
PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbamates can induce a chain of responses
leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression
of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue,
eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil
contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in groundwater
contaminated through soil. [6]

Ecosystem effects
Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems[7] . There are
radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low
concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic
microorganisms and arthropods resident in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of
the primary food chain, which in turn have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the
chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien chemicals,
which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Many of these effects are
now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening
of egg shells, increased chick mortality and potential extinction of species.
Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants typically alter plant
metabolism, most commonly to reduce crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the
languishing crops cannot shield the Earth's soil mantle from erosion phenomena. Some of these chemical
contaminants have long half-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil
contaminants.
Soil contamination 65

Cleanup options
Cleanup or remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize
field measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models for
analyzing transport[8] and fate of soil chemicals. There are several principal
strategies for remediation:
• Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways
for human or sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to
dredging of bay muds containing toxins.
• Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating
air pollution) Microbes can be used in soil cleanup
• Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface
temperatures sufficiently high to volatize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapour extraction.
Technologies include ISTD, electrical resistance heating (ERH), and ET-DSPtm.
• Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Techniques used in bioremediation
include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil biota with commercially available microflora.
• Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system, with subsequent stripping of the
contaminants from the extract.
• Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place).
• Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals

See also
• Land degradation
• Land pollution
• List of waste management companies
• List of waste management topics
• List of solid waste treatment technologies
• Pesticide drift
• Pollution
• Contamination control
• Water contamination
• Water pollution
• Groundwater
• Solidification / Stabilization (S/S) with Cement

References
[1] Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Human Health Evaluation Manual, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. 20450
[2] Facing up to “invisible pollution” (http:/ / www. chinadialogue. net/ article/ show/ single/ en/ 724-Facing-up-to-invisible-pollution-)
[3] Snyder C (2005). "The dirty work of promoting "recycling" of America's sewage sludge". Int J Occup Environ Health 11 (4): 415–27.
PMID 16350476. Free full-text (http:/ / www. ijoeh. com/ index. php/ ijoeh/ article/ view/ 278) (registration required)
[4] Davenport et al. (2005). Environmental impacts of potato nutrient management (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ r08705265l26j0n6/
). American Journal of Potato Research.
[5] http:/ / yosemite. epa. gov/ water/ owrcCatalog. nsf/ 065ca07e299b464685256ce50075c11a/
383316fae0e9065285256cfd0048e1d2!OpenDocument
[6] Article on soil contamination in China (http:/ / www. heltheffects. com. net/ article/ show/ single/ en/ 724-Facing-up-to-invisible-pollution-)
[7] Michael Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw and Harry Seidman Computer modelng of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented
watersheds, prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc., Sunnyvale,
California (1973)
Soil contamination 66

[8] S.K. Gupta, C.T. Kincaid, P.R. Mayer, C.A. Newbill and C.R. Cole, ‘’A multidimensional finite element code for the analysis of coupled
fluid, energy and solute transport’‘, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory PNL-2939, EPA contract 68-03-3116 (1982)

External links
• Portal for soil and water management in Europe (http://www.eugris.info) Independent information gateway
originally funded by the European Commission for topics related to soil and water, including contaminated land,
soil and water management.
• Sound blaster cleans contaminated soil (http://www.newscientisttech.com/article.ns?id=dn10008&
feedId=online-news_rss20) - High powered ultrasound can clean up soil tainted with organic toxins like PCBs or
DDT
• Article on soil contamination in China (http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/
724-Facing-up-to-invisible-pollution-)
• Arsenic in groundwater (http://www.hydrology.nl/iahpublications/70-arsenic-in-groundwater.html) Book on
arsenic in groundwater by IAH's Netherlands Chapter and the Netherlands Hydrological Society

Ship pollution
Ship pollution is the pollution of air and water by shipping. It is a
problem that has been accelerating as trade has become increasingly
globalized, posing an increasing threat to the world’s oceans and
waterways as globalization continues. It is expected that, “…shipping
traffic to and from the USA is projected to double by 2020."[1] Because
of increased traffic in ocean ports, pollution from ships also directly
affects coastal areas. The pollution produced affects biodiversity,
climate, food, and human health.

Sources and causes

Ships pollute the waterways and oceans in many ways. For instance,
spills from oil and chemical tankers, and the ejection of sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide, and black carbon into the atmosphere
from exhaust fumes. Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers
can pollute ports, waterways and oceans. Ships create noise pollution A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side
that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from ballast tanks can spread
harmful algae and other invasive species. In many instances vessels due to a variety of reasons intentionally
discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions.

This section describes how ships pollute the ocean; for the Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention
for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships of 1973, sometimes abbreviated as Ship Pollution, refer to MARPOL
73/78.
Ship pollution 67

Ballast water
When a larger vessel, such as a container ship or an oil tanker unloads cargo, seawater is pumped into compartments
in the hull. Similarly, when a larger vessel is being loaded it discharges seawater from these compartments. The sea
water is meant to help stabilize and balance a ship. Ballast discharges from ships are responsible for tar balls in the
open oceans and seas, and can cause problems navigating tanker routes. Nevertheless, the discharge of ballast water
only accounts for a small percentage of oil pollution in the marine environment.[2]
Ships are also responsible for transporting harmful organisms in their ballast water. Meinesz[3] believes that one of
the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless
jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that inhabits estuaries from the United States to the Valdés
peninsula in Argentina along the Atlantic coast, has caused notable damage in the Black Sea. It was first introduced
in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ship’s ballast water. The population of the
jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. “The anchovy
catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993;
horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993.”[3] Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton,
including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the
ecosystem. Recently the jellyfish have been discovered in the Caspian Sea. Invasive species can take over once
occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new genetic material, alter landscapes and jeopardize
the ability of native species to obtain food. “On land and in the sea, invasive species are responsible for about 137
billion dollars in lost revenue and management costs in the U.S. each year”.[2]
In addition to introducing non native species into new environments, ballast and bilge discharge from ships can
spread human pathogens and other harmful diseases and toxins potentially causing health issues for humans and
marine life alike.[4] Discharges into coastal waters along with other sources of marine pollution have the potential to
be toxic to marine plants, animals, and microorganisms causing alterations such as changes in growth, disruption of
hormone cycles, birth defects, suppression of the immune system, and disorders resulting in cancer, tumors, and
genetic abnormalities or even death.[2] They may also have the opposite effect upon some marine life stimulating
growth and providing a source of food. Sources of seafood can become contaminated and unhealthy for
consumption. Not surprisingly, cholera outbreaks have been attributed to ship operations. “Current research indicates
that the bacterium responsible for causing cholera, Vibrio cholerae can spread through attachment to marine
organisms in ship ballast water.”[4] Shellfish and drinking water can then be contaminated when the ship discharges
its ballast water.

Exhaust emissions
Exhaust emissions from ships are considered to be a significant source of air pollution, with 18-30% of all nitrogen
oxide and 9% of sulphur oxide pollution.[5] The 15 biggest ships emit about as much sulphur oxide pollution as all
cars combined.[5] "By 2010, up to 40% of air pollution over land could come from ships."[6] Sulfur in the air creates
acid rain which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled the sulfur is known to cause respiratory problems and
even increase the risk of a heart attack.[6] According to Irene Blooming, a spokeswoman for the European
environmental coalition Seas at Risk, the fuel used in oil tankers and container ships is high in sulfur and cheaper to
buy compared to the fuel used for domestic land use. "A ship lets out around 50 times more sulfur than a lorry per
metric tonne of cargo carried."[6] Cities in the U.S. like Long Beach, Los Angeles, Houston, Galveston, and
Pittsburgh see some of the heaviest shipping traffic in the nation and have left local officials desperately trying to
clean up the air.[1] Increasing trade between the U.S. and China is helping to increase the number of vessels
navigating the Pacific and exacerbating many of the environmental problems. To maintain the level of growth China
is currently experiencing, large amounts of grain are being shipped to China by the boat load. The number of
voyages are expected to continue increasing.[7]
3.5% to 4% of all climate change emissions are caused by shipping.[5]
Ship pollution 68

Oil spills
Most commonly associated with ship pollution are oil spills. While less frequent than the pollution that occurs from
daily operations, oil spills have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), the components in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment
and marine environment.[2] Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems,
susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles. One of the more widely known spills was the Exxon
Valdez incident in Alaska. The ship ran aground and dumped a massive amount of oil into the ocean in March 1989.
Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense
numbers of fish were killed.[2]

Cruise ships
Along with global trade the tourism industry has also seen growth in recent years. The cruise ship industry has seen 8
percent annual growth and continues to increase demand.[2] With some cruise ships holding upwards of 5000 people,
passengers and crew combined, these ships are likened to floating cities.[1] “In one week, a typical cruise ship
generates 210,000 gallons of black water (sewage), 1,000,000 gallons of gray water (shower, sink, dishwashing
water), 37,000 gallons of oily bilge water, more than eight tons of solid waste, millions of gallons of ballast water
containing potential invasive species, and toxic wastes from dry cleaning and photo processing laboratories.”[2] This
is also compounded with fuel emissions to have detrimental effects on the environment. From 1993 to 1998, cruise
ships were involved in 104 confirmed cases of illegal discharge of oil, garbage, and hazardous wastes.[8] One of the
worst reported cases was by Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. Over several years, while in U.S. waters, they had been
routinely and deliberately dumping waste oil, photo processing, dry cleaning, and print shop chemicals into coastal
waters. Their ships were even fitted with concealed piping that would bypass pollution treatment equipment.

Regulation
Some of the major international efforts in the form of treaties are the Marine Pollution Treaty, Honolulu, which deals
with regulating marine pollution from ships, and the UN Convention on Law of the Sea, which deals with marine
species and pollution.[9] While plenty of local and international regulations have been introduced throughout
maritime history, much of the current regulations are considered inadequate. “In general, the treaties tend to
emphasize the technical features of safety and pollution control measures without going to the root causes of
sub-standard shipping, the absence of incentives for compliance and the lack of enforceability of measures.”[10]
Cruise ships for example are exempt from regulation under the Clean Water Act of 1972 (CWA) point source
permitting system that requires compliance with U.S. federal standards through technological requirements.[2] In the
Caribbean, many ports lack proper waste disposal facilities, and many ships dump their waste at sea.[11]

See also
Ship pollution 69

• Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships • Marine fuel management

• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) • National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan
in the US
• Classification society • North Pacific Gyre
• Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and • Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (in the US)
Other Matter
• International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) • Particle (ecology)
• Stormwater
• Timeline of environmental events

References
[1] Watson, T. (2004, August 30). Ship pollution clouds USA's skies. USA Today. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from http:/ / www. usatoday.
com/ news/ nation/ 2004-08-30-ship-pollution_x. htm
[2] Panetta, L. E. (Chair) (2003). America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD] Pew Oceans Commission.
[3] Meinesz, A. (2003). Deep Sea Invasion. The Impact of Invasive Species. PBS: NOVA. Retrieved November 26, 2006, from http:/ / www. pbs.
org/ wgbh/ nova/ algae/ impact. html
[4] National Research Council, Committee on the Ocean's Role in Human Health, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on Geosciences,
Environment, and Resources. (1999). From monsoons to microbes: understanding the ocean's role in human health. Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press
[5] Vidal, John (2009-04-09). "Health risks of shipping pollution have been 'underestimated'" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2009/
apr/ 09/ shipping-pollution). Guardian. . Retrieved 2009-07-03.
[6] Harrabin, R. (2003, June 25). EU faces ship clean-up call. BBC News. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/
europe/ 3019686. stm
[7] Schmidt, C., & Olicker, J. (2004, April 20). World in the Balance: China Revs Up [Transcript]. PBS: NOVA. Retrieved November 26, 2006,
from http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ transcripts/ 3109_worldbal. html
[8] Gerdes, L. I. (Eds.). (2004). Endangered oceans. San Diego, California: Greenhaven Press.
[9] Steger, M. B. (2003). Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press Inc. New York
[10] Khee-Jin Tan, A. (2006). Vessel-source marine pollution: the law and politics of international regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
[11] United Nations Environment Programme in collaboration with GEF, the University of Kalmar, and the Municipality of Kalmar, Sweden, &
the Governments of Sweden, Finland and Norway. (2006). Challenges to international waters: regional assessments in a global perspective
[Electronic Version]. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved January 5, 2010, from http:/ / www. unep. org/
dewa/ giwa/ publications/ finalreport/

External links
• Help Stop Cruise Ship Pollution (http://www.oceana.org/north-america/what-we-do/
stop-cruise-ship-pollution/)
• Report Illegal Pollution from Ships (http://reportpollution.com/)
• USCG Proceedings Magazine/Ship Pollution and Environmental Crimes (http://homeport.uscg.mil/cgi-bin/st/
portal/uscg_docs/MyCG/Editorial/20070509/ENVIRO CRIMES 2005.
pdf?id=8cce849b124ee641cca4efab1e6fdc321bad0ac7)
Thermal pollution 70

Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process
that changes ambient water temperature.
A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant
by power plants and industrial manufacturers. When water used as a
coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature,
the change in temperature (a) decreases oxygen supply, and (b) affects
ecosystem composition. Urban runoff--stormwater discharged to
surface waters from roads and parking lots--can also be a source of
elevated water temperatures.

When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other
causes, fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature
range can be killed by the abrupt rise in water temperature known as
'thermal shock'.

Potrero Generating Station discharges heated

[1]
Ecological effects — warm water water into San Francisco Bay.

Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen

(DO) in water. The decrease in levels of DO can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and copepods.
Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in these
organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not changed. An increased
metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an advantage over
organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result one has the problem of compromising food chains
of the old and new environments. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result.

It is known that temperature changes of even one to two degrees Celsius can cause significant changes in organism
metabolism and other adverse cellular biology effects. Principal adverse changes can include rendering cell walls
less permeable to necessary osmosis, coagulation of cell proteins, and alteration of enzyme metabolism. These
cellular level effects can adversely affect mortality and reproduction.
Primary producers are affected by warm water because higher water temperature increases plant growth rates,
resulting in a shorter lifespan and species overpopulation. This can cause an algae bloom which reduces oxygen
levels.
A large increase in temperature can lead to the denaturing of life-supporting enzymes by breaking down hydrogen-
and disulphide bonds within the quaternary structure of the enzymes. Decreased enzyme activity in aquatic
organisms can cause problems such as the inability to break down lipids, which leads to malnutrition.
In limited cases, warm water has little deleterious effect and may even lead to improved function of the receiving
aquatic ecosystem. This phenomenon is seen especially in seasonal waters and is known as thermal enrichment. An
extreme case is derived from the aggregational habits of the manatee, which often uses power plant discharge sites
during winter. Projections suggest that manatee populations would decline upon the removal of these discharges.
Thermal pollution 71

Ecological effects — cold water

Releases of unnaturally cold water from reservoirs can dramatically change the fish and macroinvertebrate fauna of
rivers, and reduce river productivity. In Australia, where many rivers have warmer temperature regimes, native fish
species have been eliminated, and macroinvertebrate fauna have been drastically altered.

Control of thermal pollution

Industrial wastewater
In the United States, thermal pollution from industrial sources is
generated mostly by power plants, petroleum refineries, pulp and paper
mills, chemical plants, steel mills and smelters.[2] [3] Heated water from
these sources may be controlled with:
• cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by
evaporation, convection, and radiation
• cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through
evaporation and/or heat transfer Cooling tower at Gustav Knepper Power Station,
• cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic Dortmund, Germany
and/or industrial heating purposes.[4]
Some facilities use once-through cooling (OTC) systems which do not reduce temperature as effectively as the
above systems. For example, the Potrero Generating Station in San Francisco, which uses OTC, discharges water to
San Francisco Bay approximately 10°C (20°F) above the ambient bay temperature.[5]
Urban runoff
During warm weather, urban runoff can have significant thermal impacts on small streams, as stormwater passes
over hot parking lots, roads and sidewalks. Stormwater management facilities that absorb runoff or direct it into
groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins, can reduce these thermal effects. Retention basins
tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a
receiving stream.[6] ...

See also
• Water cooling
• Water pollution
• Water quality

References
[1] Selna, Robert (2009). "Power plant has no plans to stop killing fish." (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2009/ 01/ 01/
BAAS151F1U. DTL& tsp=1) San Francisco Chronicle, January 2, 2009.
[2] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, D.C. "Cooling Water Intake Structures - Basic Information." (http:/ / www. epa.
gov/ waterscience/ 316b/ basic. htm) June 2, 2008.
[3] EPA. "Technical Development Document for the Final Section 316(b) Phase III Rule." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ waterscience/ 316b/ phase3/
ph3docs/ tdd-final-part1-200606. pdf) June 2006. Chapter 2.
[4] EPA (1997) Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Industry (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ compliance/ resources/ publications/
assistance/ sectors/ notebooks/ fossil. html). (Report). Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 24
[5] California Environmental Protection Agency. San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board. "Waste Discharge Requirements for
Mirant Potrero, LLC, Potrero Power Plant." (http:/ / www. swrcb. ca. gov/ sanfranciscobay/ board_info/ agendas/ 2006/ may/ mirantfinalorder.
pdf) Order No. R2-2006-0032; NPDES Permit No. CA0005657. May 10, 2006.
[6] EPA. "Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices." (http:/ / epa. gov/ guide/ stormwater/ ) August 1999.
Document No. EPA-821-R-99-012. p. 5-58.
Thermal pollution 72

• Michael Hogan, Leda C. Patmore and Harry Seidman, Statistical Prediction of Dynamic Thermal Equilibrium
Temperatures using Standard Meteorological Data Bases, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of
Research and Development EPA-660/2-73-003, August, 1973
• E.L. Thackston and F.L. Parker, Effect of Geographical Location on Cooling Pond Requirements Vanderbilt
University, for Water Quality Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Project no. 16130 FDQ, March
1971
• Edinger, J.E.; Geyer, J.C (1965). Heat Exchange in the Environment. Edison Electric Institute, New York City,
N.Y..
• Edward A. Laws, Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text, John Wiley and Sons (2000) ISBN 0-471-34875-9

Visual pollution
Visual pollution is the term given to unattractive and man-made visual elements of a vista, a landscape, or any other
thing that a person does not feel comfortable to look at. Visual pollution is an aesthetic issue, referring to the impacts
of pollution that impair one's ability to enjoy a vista or view. The term is used broadly to cover visibility, limits on
the ability to view distant objects, as well as the more subjective issue of visual clutter. In other words, pollution is
the contamination of the environment as a result of human activities. The term pollution refers primarily to the
fouling of air, water, and land by wastes (see air pollution; water pollution; solid waste). In recent years it has come
to signify a wider range of disruptions to environmental quality. Thus litter, billboards, and auto junkyards are said to
constitute visual pollution; noise excessive enough to cause psychological or physical damage is considered noise
pollution; and waste heat that alters local climate or affects fish populations in rivers is designated thermal pollution.
It´s other reference is to "marketing advertisements".

See also
• Clutter
• Eyesore
• Light pollution
• Noise pollution

References

External links
• The study for visual pollution in Albuquerque (http://www.cabq.gov/aes/s5vp.html)
• Visual pollution by out-of-home advertising (http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.
cfm?story_id=9963268)
• BioMed Central|Full Text| (http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/200)
Water pollution 73

Water pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of
water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and
groundwater).
Water pollution affects plants and organisms
living in these bodies of water; and, in
almost all cases the effect is damaging not
only to individual species and populations,
but also to the natural biological
communities.

Water pollution occurs when pollutants are

discharged directly or indirectly into water
bodies without adequate treatment to
remove harmful compounds.

Raw sewage and industrial waste flows across international borders New River
passes from Mexicali to Calexicoşliyo, California.

Introduction
Water pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been
suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and
diseases,[1] [2] and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000
people daily.[2] An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a
proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every
day.[3] Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water
pollution,[4] and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking
water.[5] In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in
developing countries, industrialized countries continue to struggle with
Millions depend on the polluted Ganges river.
pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water
quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47
percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bay and estuarine square miles were classified as
polluted.[6]

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not
support a human use, like serving as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its
constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and
earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water.
Water pollution 74

Water pollution categories

Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are
interrelated.[7] Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.

Point source pollution

Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway
through a discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of
sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment
plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water Act
(CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes.[8]
The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include
municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such
as from construction sites.[9]

Point source pollution - Shipyard - Rio de

Non–point source pollution Janeiro.

Non–point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that

does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of
contaminants gathered from a large area. The leaching out of nitrogen compounds from agricultural land which has
been fertilized is a typical example. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a
forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution.
Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes
included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems
and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. However where such water is not
channeled and drains directly to ground it is a non-point source.

Groundwater pollution
Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes
referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution.[7] By its very
nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water
bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical or
radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point source or
non-point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the
plume, a plume front, can be part of a Hydrological transport model or Groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater
contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the
contaminants.
Water pollution 75

Causes of water pollution

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and
physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and
substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration
is often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant.
Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as
man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks
light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.[10]
Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal
hosts.[11] Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity,
temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an
ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of
eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions
in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

Pathogens
Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial
indicator of water pollution, although not an actual cause
of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes found in
surface waters which have caused human health problems
include:
• Burkholderia pseudomallei
• Cryptosporidium parvum
• Giardia lamblia
• Salmonella
• Novovirus and other viruses
• Parasitic worms (helminths).[12] [13] A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow.

High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately

treated sewage discharges.[14] This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment
(more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have
leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also
have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms.[15]
Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.
Water pollution 76

Chemical and other contaminants

Contaminants may include organic and inorganic
substances.
Organic water pollutants include:
• Detergents
• Disinfection by-products found in chemically
disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform
• Food processing waste, which can include
oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease
• Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of
organohalides and other chemical compounds
Muddy river polluted by sediment. Photo courtesy of United
• Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, States Geological Survey.
diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor
oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater runoff[16]
• Tree and bush debris from logging operations
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage. Chlorinated solvents,
which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix
well with water and are denser.
• Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products
Inorganic water pollutants include:
• Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)
• Ammonia from food processing waste
• Chemical waste as industrial by-products
• Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates--which are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture,
as well as commercial and residential use[16]
• Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)[16] [17] and acid mine drainage
• Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites
Macroscopic pollution—large visible items polluting the water—may be termed "floatables" in an urban stormwater
context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items as:
• Trash (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, and that are washed by rainfall into
storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters
• Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets
• Shipwrecks, large derelict ships
Water pollution 77

Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body
of water caused by human influence. A common cause of thermal
pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial
manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decreases oxygen levels
(which can kill fish) and affects ecosystem composition, such as
invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate
temperature in surface waters.

Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water
from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Transport and chemical reactions of water

pollutants
Potrero Generating Station discharges heated
[18]
Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. water into San Francisco Bay.
In some areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles
from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the
DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems.
Indicator filter feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight,
for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south,
since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the
coast due to coriolis force. Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up oxygen
and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills
have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat
smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy
metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as biomagnification, which is
occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation.

A polluted river draining an
abandoned copper mine on
Anglesey
Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The North Pacific
Gyre for example has collected the so-called "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" that is
now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Many of these long-lasting pieces
wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction
of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.
Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especially over
long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such
chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in
industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and
tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in
liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals). Both of
these chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial
decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including
dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great
distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple
filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity:
Water pollution 78

however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through
cracks and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by
the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography.
There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. An
example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column,
hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants.

Measurement of water pollution

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad
categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological.
Most involve collection of samples, followed by
specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be
conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature.
Government agencies and research organizations have
published standardized, validated analytical test methods
to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate
testing events.[19]

Sampling
Environmental Scientists preparing water autosamplers.
Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be
done by several methods, depending on the accuracy
needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most
commonly in association with rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying
contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of
water at either time or discharge intervals.

Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface water body. Depending
on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the
water body, or they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity.

Physical testing
Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentration like total suspended solids (TSS) and
turbidity.

Chemical testing
Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published test methods are
available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including
copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides.
Water pollution 79

Biological testing
Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic
ecosystem.
For microbial testing of drinking water, see Bacteriological water analysis.

Control of water pollution

Domestic sewage
Domestic sewage is 99.9% pure water, the other 0.1% are pollutants.
While found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a
large scale.[20] In urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by
centralized sewage treatment plants. In the U.S., most of these plants
are operated by local government agencies, frequently referred to as
publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Municipal treatment plants
are designed to control conventional pollutants: BOD and suspended
solids. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment
Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant serving
or better) can remove 90 percent or more of these pollutants. Some
Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity.
plants have additional sub-systems to treat nutrients and pathogens.
Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants found
in industrial wastewater.[21]

Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to
reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:
• utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the system, and
reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[22]
• repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[15]
• increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very expensive option).
A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which treats
the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil. Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby
privately owned treatment system (e.g. in a rural community).

Industrial wastewater
Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can
be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater
with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and
grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic
compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia,
need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install
a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send
Dissolved air flotation system for treating
the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries
industrial wastewater.
generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own
complete on-site treatment systems.
Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants,
through a process called pollution prevention.
Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:
Water pollution 80

• cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation
• cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer
• cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes.[23]

Agricultural wastewater
Nonpoint source controls
Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural
pollution in the United States.[10] Farmers may utilize erosion controls to
reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques
include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial
crops and installing riparian buffers.[24] [25] :pp. 4-95–4-96

Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as

commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial
wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop
residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition.[25] :p. 2-9
Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce
excess application of nutrients.[24] [25] :pp. 4-37–4-38

To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management

Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa
(IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain
control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water
quality.[26]
Point source wastewater treatment
Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory
farms, are called concentrated animal feeding operations or confined
animal feeding operations in the U.S. and are being subject to
increasing government regulation.[27] [28] Animal slurries are usually
treated by containment in lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle
application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to
facilitate treatment of animal wastes, as are anaerobic lagoons. Some
Confined Animal Feeding Operation in the animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high
United States temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure
for soil improvement.

Construction site stormwater

Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:
• erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and
• sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.[29]
Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout
is prevented by use of:
• spill prevention and control plans, and
• specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and
structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms.[30] Silt fence installed on a construction site.
Water pollution 81

Urban runoff (stormwater)

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and
flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local
governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to
reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best
management practices (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on water
quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and
some perform both functions.[31]

Pollution prevention practices include low impact development

techniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling Retention basin for controlling urban runoff
(e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides).[32]
Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins
and similar devices.[33] [34]
Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by stormwater management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct
it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at
reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.[31] :p. 5-58

See also
• Aquatic toxicology
• Cultural eutrophication
• International standards for drinking water
• Marine debris
• Marine pollution
• Oil spills
• Paper pollution
• Peak water
• Trophic state index
• Watershed central
• Category: Water and the environment
• Interprovincial Cooperatives v. The Queen (Supreme Court of Canada)

References
[1] Pink, Daniel H. (April 19, 2006). "Investing in Tomorrow's Liquid Gold" (http:/ / finance. yahoo. com/ columnist/ article/ trenddesk/ 3748).
Yahoo. .
[2] West, Larry (March 26, 2006). "World Water Day: A Billion People Worldwide Lack Safe Drinking Water" (http:/ / environment. about.
com/ od/ environmentalevents/ a/ waterdayqa. htm). About. .
[3] "A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is India’s biggest handicap" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ specialreports/
displaystory. cfm?story_id=12749787). The Economist. 11 December 2008. .
[4] " China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ english/ doc/ 2005-06/ 07/
content_449451. htm)". Chinadaily.com.cn. 2005-06-07.
[5] " As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 08/ 26/ world/ asia/ 26china. html)". The New
York Times. August 26, 2007.
[6] United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC. "The National Water Quality Inventory: Report to Congress for the
2002 Reporting Cycle – A Profile." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ 305b/ 2002report/ factsheet2002305b. pdf) October 2007. Fact Sheet No. EPA
841-F-07-003.
[7] United States Geological Survey (USGS). Denver, CO. "Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource." (http:/ / pubs. water. usgs.
gov/ circ1139/ ) USGS Circular 1139. 1998.
[8] Clean Water Act, section 502(14), 33 U.S.C.  § 1362 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 33/ 1362. html) (14).
Water pollution 82

[9] CWA section 402(p), 33 U.S.C.  § 1342(p) (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 33/ 1342(p). html)
[10] EPA. "Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ owow/ nps/ Ag_Runoff_Fact_Sheet. pdf) Fact Sheet
No. EPA-841-F-05-001. March 2005.
[11] C. Michael Hogan (2010). "Water pollution." (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Water_pollution). Encyclopedia of Earth. Topic ed. Mark
McGinley; ed. in chief C. Cleveland. National Council on Science and the Environment, Washington, DC.
[12] USGS. Reston, VA. "A Primer on Water Quality." (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ fs-027-01/ ) FS-027-01. March 2001.
[13] Schueler, Thomas R. "Microbes and Urban Watersheds: Concentrations, Sources, & Pathways." (http:/ / www. cwp. org/ Resource_Library/
Center_Docs/ PWP/ ELC_PWP17. pdf) Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. (http:/ / www. cwp. org/ Store/ guidance. htm)
2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
[14] EPA. “Illness Related to Sewage in Water.” (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ npdes/ sso/ control/ diseases. htm) Accessed 2009-02-20.
[15] EPA. " Report to Congress: Impacts and Control of CSOs and SSOs." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ cso/ cpolicy_report2004. cfm) August
2004. Document No. EPA-833-R-04-001.
[16] G. Allen Burton, Jr., Robert Pitt (2001). Stormwater Effects Handbook: A Toolbox for Watershed Managers, Scientists, and Engineers
(http:/ / unix. eng. ua. edu/ ~rpitt/ Publications/ BooksandReports/ Stormwater Effects Handbook by Burton and Pitt book/ MainEDFS_Book.
html). New York: CRC/Lewis Publishers. ISBN 0-87371-924-7. . Chapter 2.
[17] Schueler, Thomas R. "Cars Are Leading Source of Metal Loads in California." (http:/ / www. cwp. org/ Resource_Library/ Center_Docs/
PWP/ ELC_PWP6. pdf) Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. (http:/ / www. cwp. org/ Store/ guidance. htm) 2000. Center for
Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
[18] Selna, Robert (2009). "Power plant has no plans to stop killing fish." (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2009/ 01/ 01/
BAAS151F1U. DTL& tsp=1) San Francisco Chronicle, January 2, 2009.
[19] For example, see Clescerl, Leonore S.(Editor), Greenberg, Arnold E.(Editor), Eaton, Andrew D. (Editor). Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater (20th ed.) American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. ISBN 0-87553-235-7. This
publication is also available on CD-ROM and online (http:/ / www. standardmethods. org/ ) by subscription.
[20] "Environmental works: types of sewage.Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. N.p., 2009. Web. 9 October 2009.
<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-72342>
[21] EPA (2004). "Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ npdes/ pubs/ primer. pdf) Document No. EPA
832-R-04-001.
[22] EPA. "Green Infrastructure Case Studies: Philadelphia." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ greeninfrastructure/ gicasestudies_specific.
cfm?case_id=62) December 9, 2008.
[23] EPA (1997) Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Industry (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ compliance/ resources/ publications/
assistance/ sectors/ notebooks/ fossil. html). (Report). Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 24
[24] U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Washington, DC. "National Conservation Practice Standards." (http:/ / www. nrcs.
usda. gov/ technical/ standards/ nhcp. html) National Handbook of Conservation Practices. Accessed 2009-03-28.
[25] EPA. "National Management Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Agriculture." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ owow/ nps/
agmm/ ) July 2003. Document No. EPA-841-B-03-004.
[26] EPA. "Integrated Pest Management Principles." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ opp00001/ factsheets/ ipm. htm) March 13, 2008.
[27] EPA. "Animal Feeding Operations." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ home. cfm?program_id=7) December 15, 2008.
[28] Iowa Department of Natural Resources. Des Moines, IA. "Animal Feeding Operations in Iowa." (http:/ / www. iowadnr. gov/ afo/ )
Accessed 2009-03-05.
[29] Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Nashville, TN. "Tennessee Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook." (http:/ /
www. state. tn. us/ environment/ wpc/ sed_ero_controlhandbook/ ) 2002.
[30] EPA (2006). "Construction Site Stormwater Runoff Control." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ stormwater/ menuofbmps/ index.
cfm?action=min_measure& min_measure_id=4) National Menu of Stormwater Best Management Practices.
[31] EPA (1999). "Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices." (http:/ / epa. gov/ guide/ stormwater/ )
Chapter 5. Document No. EPA-821-R-99-012.
[32] EPA. "Fact Sheet: Low Impact Development and Other Green Design Strategies." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ stormwater/ menuofbmps/
index. cfm?action=factsheet_results& view=specific& bmp=124) October 9, 2008.
[33] California Stormwater Quality Association. Menlo Park, CA. "Stormwater Best Management Practice (BMP) Handbooks." (http:/ / www.
cabmphandbooks. com) 2003.
[34] New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Trenton, NJ. "New Jersey Stormwater Best Management Practices Manual." (http:/ /
www. njstormwater. org/ bmp_manual2. htm) April 2004.
Water pollution 83

External links
Overview Information
• "Issues: Water" (http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/default.asp) - Guides, news and reports from Natural
Resources Defense Council (US nonprofit organization)
• "Troubled Waters" (http://www.pbs.org/strangedays/episodes/troubledwaters/) - Video from "Strange Days
on Planet Earth" by National Geographic & PBS
• Digital Water Education Library (http://www.csmate.colostate.edu/dwel/) - Teaching resources for
elementary & secondary education, from Colorado State University
Analytical Tools and Other Specialized Resources
• Water pollution advice for businesses on NetRegs.gov.uk (http://www.netregs.gov.uk/netregs/63294.aspx)
• Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law (http://www.ppl.nl/index.
php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82) - Peace Palace Library (Netherlands)
• EUGRIS (http://www.eugris.info) - Portal for Soil and Water Management in Europe
• Causal Analysis/Diagnosis Decision Information System (CADDIS) (http://cfpub.epa.gov/caddis/) - US EPA
guide for identifying pollution problems (stressor identification)

Waste
Waste (also known as rubbish, trash, refuse, garbage, or junk)
is unwanted or unusable materials. Litter is waste which has been
disposed of improperly, particularly waste which has been
carelessly disposed of in plain sight, as opposed to waste which
has been dumped to avoid paying for waste disposal fees.
In living organisms, waste is the unwanted substances or toxins
that are expelled from them. More commonly, waste refers to the
materials that are disposed of in a system of waste management.
Waste is directly linked to human development, both
technologically and socially. The compositions of different wastes
have varied over time and location, with industrial development
and innovation being directly linked to waste materials. Examples
of this include plastics and nuclear technology. Some components
of waste have economical value and can be recycled once
correctly recovered.

Waste is sometimes a subjective concept, because items that some A dumpster full of waste awaiting disposal
people discard may have value to others. It is widely recognized
that waste materials are a valuable resource, whilst there is debate as to how this value is best realized.
There are many waste types defined by modern systems of waste management, notably including:
• municipal solid waste (MSW)
• construction waste and demolition waste (C&D)
• institutional waste, commercial waste, and industrial waste (IC&I)
• medical waste (also known as clinical waste)
Waste 84

• hazardous waste, radioactive waste, and electronic waste

• biodegradable waste

Definitions
Being considered of no further use in relation to the original
purpose of a mechanism.

Transporting waste in Ouagadougou

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

According to the Basel Convention:
"Substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by
the provisions of national law" (Basel Convention).[1]
Produced by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD):
"Wastes are materials that are not prime products (that is products produced for the market) for which the generator
has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which
he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw
materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities.
Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded." <ref name="Vital Waste Graphics" /

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

"Waste refers to materials that are not prime products (that is, products produced for the market) for which the
generator has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of
which he/she wants to dispose." [2] .

European Union (EU)

Under the Waste Framework Directive (European
Directive 75/442/EC as amended), the European Union
defines waste as an object the holder discards, intends
to discard or is required to discard.
Once a substance or object has become waste, it
will remain waste until it has been fully
recovered and no longer poses a potential threat
to the environment or to human health.[3]
The UK's Environmental Protection Act 1990 indicated
waste includes any substance which constitutes a scrap
material, an effluent or other unwanted surplus arising
from the application of any process or any substance or
article which requires to be disposed of which has been Schematic illustration of the EU Legal definition of waste.
broken, worn out, contaminated or otherwise spoiled;

this is supplemented with anything which is discarded otherwise dealt with as if it were waste shall be presumed to
be waste unless the contrary is proved. This definition was amended by the Waste Management Licensing
Waste 85

Regulations 1994 defining waste as:

any substance or object which the producer or the person in possession of it, discards or intends or is required
to discard but with exception of anything excluded from the scope of the Waste Directive.[4]
The European Union has started a discussion that will end in an End-of-Waste directive which will clarify the
distinction between waste, which shall be treated for disposal, and raw materials that can be reused for the same or
other purposes.[5]

Scholars
• Proposed definitions by Pongrácz and Pohjola (2004)
1. Non-wanted things created, not intended, or not avoided, with no Purpose.
2. Things that were given a finite Purpose thus destined to become useless after fulfilling it.
3. Things with well-defined Purpose, but their Performance ceased being acceptable
4. Things with well-defined Purpose, and acceptable Performance, but their users failed to use them for the
intended Purpose. [6]
• Taiichi Ohno from Toyota Production System describes waste as "Any human activity that absorbs resources but
creates no value".

Reporting
There are many issues that surround reporting waste. It is most commonly measured by size or weight, and there is a
stark difference between the two. For example, organic waste is much heavier when it is wet, and plastic or glass
bottles can have different weights but be the same size.[7] On a global scale it is difficult to report waste because
countries have different definitions of waste and what falls into waste categories, as well as different ways of
reporting. Based on incomplete reports from its parties, the Basel Convention estimated 338 million tonnes of waste
was generated in 2001.[8] For the same year, OCED estimated 4 billion tonnes from its member countries.[9] Despite
these inconsistencies, waste reporting is still useful on a small and large scale to determine key causes and locations,
and to find ways of preventing, minimizing, recovering, treating, and disposing waste.

Costs

Environmental costs
Waste can attract rodents and insects which cause gastrointestinal parasites, yellow fever, worms, the plague and
other conditions for humans. Exposure to hazardous wastes, particularly when they are burned, can cause various
other diseases including cancers. Waste can contaminate surface water, groundwater, soil, and air which causes more
problems for humans, other species, and ecosystems.[10] Waste treatment and disposal produces significant green
house gas (GHG) emissions, notably methane, which are contributing significantly to global climate change.[8]

Social costs
Waste management is a significant environmental justice issue. Many of the environmental burdens cited above are
more often borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, women, and residents of developing nations.
NIMBY (not-in-my-back-yard) is a popular term used to describes the opposition of residents to a proposal for a new
development close to them.[11] However, the need for expansion and siting of waste treatment and disposal facilities
is increasing worldwide. There is now a growing market in the transboundary movement of waste, and although
most waste that flows between countries goes between developed nations, a significant amount of waste is moved
from developed to developing nations.[12]
Waste 86

Economic costs
The economic costs of managing waste are high, and are often paid for by municipal governments.[13] Money can
often be saved with more efficiently designed collection routes, modifying vehicles, and with public education.
Environmental policies such as pay as you throw can reduce the cost of management and reduce waste quantities.
Waste recovery (that is, recycling, reuse) can curve economic costs because it avoids extracting raw materials and
often cuts transportation costs.[14] The location of waste treatment and disposal facilities often has an impact on
property values due to noise, dust, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The informal waste sector consists
mostly of waste pickers who scavenge for metals, glass, plastic, textiles, and other materials and then trade them for
a profit. This sector can significantly alter or reduce waste in a particular system, but other negative economic effects
come with the disease, poverty, exploitation, and abuse of its workers.[15]

Education and awareness

Education and awareness in the area of waste and waste management is increasingly important from a global
perspective of resource management. The Talloires Declaration is a declaration for sustainability concerned about
the unprecedented scale and speed of environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural
resources. Local, regional, and global air pollution; accumulation and distribution of toxic wastes; destruction and
depletion of forests, soil, and water; depletion of the ozone layer and emission of "green house" gases threaten the
survival of humans and thousands of other living species, the integrity of the earth and its biodiversity, the security
of nations, and the heritage of future generations. Several universities have implemented the Talloires Declaration by
establishing environmental management and waste management programs, e.g. the waste management
universityproject. University and vocational education are promoted by various organizations, e.g. WAMITAB and
Chartered Institution of Wastes Management.

See also
• Environmental dumping
• Fly-tipping
• Life cycle assessment
• Litter
• Waste by country
• Waste collection
• Waste collection vehicle
• Waste converter
• Waste management

References
[1] Baker, Elaine et al. “Vital Waste Graphics.” United Nations Environment Program and Grid-Arendal, 2004. < http:/ / www. grida. no/
publications/ vg/ waste/ page/ 2853. aspx >.
[2] “Glossary of Statistical Terms.” 2003. OECD. 12 Oct 2009. < http:/ / stats. oecd. org/ glossary/ detail. asp?ID=2896 >. 6
[3] The Definition of Waste (http:/ / www. aggregain. org. uk/ waste_management_regulations/ background/ definition_of. html)
[4] Waste explained (http:/ / www. ciwm. co. uk/ pma/ 1384), CIWM
[5] JRC Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, February 2009
[6] Pongrácz E & Pohjola VJ. “Re-defining waste, the concept of ownership and the roles of waste management.” Resources Conservation &
Recycling. 40.2 (2004): 141-153.
[7] "Solid Waste Management." 2005. United Nations Environment Programme. Chapter III: Waste Quantities and Characteristics, 31-38.
<http://www.unep.or.jp/Ietc/Publications/spc/Solid_Waste_Management/index.asp>.
[8] “International Waste Activities.” 2003. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 12 Oct 2009. < http:/ / www. epa. gov/ osw/ hazard/
international/ index. htm >
Waste 87

[9] "Improving Recycling Markets." OECD Environment Program. Paris: OECD, 2006.
<http://www.oecd.org/document/14/0,3343,en_2649_34395_37757966_1_1_1_1,00.html>
[10] Diaz, L. et al. Solid Waste Management, Volume 2. UNEP/Earthprint, 2006.
[11] Wolsink, M. "Entanglement of interests and motives: Assumptions behind the NIMBY-theory on Facility Siting." Urban Studies 31.6
(1994): 851-866.
[12] Ray, A. "Waste management in developing Asia: Can trade and cooperation help?" The Journal of Environment & Development 17.1
(2008): 3-25.
[13] “Muck and brass: The waste business smells of money.” The Economist. 2009 02 28. pp. 10-12.
[14] Carlsson Reich, M. "Economic assessment of municipal waste management systems – case studies using a combination of life cycle
assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC)". Journal of Cleaner Production 13 (2005): 253-263.
[15] Wilson, D.C.; Velis, C.; Cheeseman, C. "Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries." Habitat
International 30 (2006): 797-808.

External links
• BBC - Waste (http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4643787)
• Waste-US US-EPA Waste Website (http://www.epa.gov/osw)
• Ministry of Environment Republic of Korea - Waste (http://eng.me.go.kr/docs/sub2/policy_view.
html?topmenu=C&cat=230&class=12)
• Cyprus Waste Dumping (http://dailytrash.fotopic.net/)
• United Nations Environment Program (http://www.unep.org)
• EU Waste Management (http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/print.cfm?file=/comm/research/
environment/newsanddoc/article_3186_en.htm)
• US Environmental Protection Agency (http://www.epa.gov)
• World Health Organization (http://www.who.int)
• OECD (http://www.oecd.org)
• WASTE advisors on urban environment and development (http://www.waste.nl)
bjn:Ratik
 88

Pollution control

Environmental management
Environmental management is not, as the phrase could suggest, the management of the environment as such, but
rather the management of interaction by the modern human societies with, and impact upon the environment. The
three main issues that affect managers are those involving politics (networking), programs (projects), and resources
(money, facilities, etc.). The need for environmental management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. A
more common philosophy and impetus behind environmental management is the concept of carrying capacity.
Simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. The
concept of carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusian theory.
Environmental management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake,
but rather the conservation of the environment for humankind's sake. This element of sustainable exploitation,
getting the most out of natural assets, is visible in the EU Water Framework Directive.
Environmental management involves the management of all components of the bio-physical environment, both
living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst all
living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as
the social, cultural and economic environment with the bio-physical environment.
As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An
'environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by
some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk
management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common
auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.
Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO 14001 standard and many extend it in
various ways:
• The Green Dragon Environmental Management Standard [1] is a five level EMS designed for smaller
organisations for whom ISO 14001 may be too onerous and for larger organisations who wish to implement ISO
14001 in a more manageable step-by-step approach
• BS 8555 is a phased standard that can help smaller companies move to ISO 14001 in six manageable steps
• The Natural Step focuses on basic sustainability criteria and helps focus engineering on reducing use of materials
or energy use that is unsustainable in the long term
• Natural Capitalism advises using accounting reform and a general biomimicry and industrial ecology approach to
do the same thing
• US Environmental Protection Agency has many further terms and standards that it defines as appropriate to
large-scale EMS.
• The UN and World Bank has encouraged adopting a "natural capital" measurement and management framework.
• The European Union Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems"
using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products into
consumables, service products or durables and unsaleables - toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases,
do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase,
better environmental management is achieved without "systems".
Environmental management 89

Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of "Integrated Management". It shares a wider approach and
stresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable to
all cases[2] .
"Today's businesses must comply with many Federal, State and local environmental laws, rules, and regulations. It's
vital to safeguard your company against compliance short-cuts. This approach leaves you vulnerable to violations of
the law, in addition to missing important environmental liabilities."[3]

Sustainability and environmental management

At the global scale and in the broadest sense sustainability and environmental management involves managing the
oceans, freshwater systems, land and atmosphere, according to sustainability principles.[4] [5]

Environmental management journals

• Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, ISSN 1618-954X
• Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, ISSN: 1535-3966 (electronic) 1535-3958
(paper), John Wiley & Sons
• Environmental Practice, ISSN: 1466-0474 (electronic) 1466-0466 (paper), Cambridge University Press
• Environmental Quality Management, ISSN: 1520-6483 (electronic) 1088-1913 (paper), John Wiley & Sons
• Journal of Environmental Economics and Management
• Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, ISSN: 1360-0559 (electronic) 0964-0568 (paper),
Routledge
• Journal of Environmental Management, ISSN: 0301-4797, Elsevier
• Environmental Values

See also
• Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
• Actor analysis
• Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management
• Cleaner production
• Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
• Department of Environmental Management
• Environmental impact assessment
• Environmental management system
• Environmental management scheme
• Environmental Quality Management
• Environmental Risk Management Authority
• Environmental science
• Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (IEEM)
• ISO 14000
• ISO 19011
• List of environmental studies topics
• Multipurpose reservoir
• Planetary boundaries
• Deepwater Horizon oil spill
Environmental management 90

References
[1] http:/ / www. greendragonems. com
[2] Billé, R. (2008) “Integrated Coastal Zone Management: four entrenched illusions”. S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (2) (http:/ / sapiens. revues. org/ index198.
html)
[3] Environmental Management Services (http:/ / www. calicheltd. com/ environmental-services-texas. aspx)
[4] "The Economics and Social Benefits of NOAA Ecosystems Data and Products Table of Contents Data Users" (http:/ / www. economics.
noaa. gov/ ?goal=ecosystems& file=users/ ). NOAA. . Retrieved 2009-10-13.
[5] Buchenrieder, G., und A.R. Göltenboth: Sustainable freshwater resource management in the Tropics: The myth of effective indicators, 25th
International Conference of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) on “Reshaping Agriculture’s Contributions to Society” in Durban, South Africa,
2003.

• Schaltegger, Stefan; Burritt, Roger; Petersen, Holger: An Introduction to Corporate Environmental Management.
Striving for Sustainability. Sheffield: Greenleaf, 2003 ISBN 1874719659

External links
• Economic Costs & Benefits of Environmental Management (http://www.economics.noaa.gov/
?goal=ecosystems&file=users/) NOAA Economics
• business.gov (http://business.gov/guides/environment/) - provides businesses with environmental management
tips, as well as tips for green business owners] (United States)
• Environmental Management Tutorial (http://www.umweltmanagement.me/) in German
• Low Hock Heng (2003). Globalisation, Business and Environmental Management: to Correct the Broken
Compass? (http://www.fppsm.utm.my/download/doc_download/
122-globalisation-business-and-environmental-management-to-correct-the-broken-compass.html). Jurnal
Kemanusiaan ISSN 1675-1930 (http://www.fppsm.utm.my/jurnal-kemanusiaan.html).

Regulation and monitoring of pollution

To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation
to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution.

Regulation and monitoring by region

International
Since pollution crosses political boundaries international treaties have been made through the United Nations and its
agencies to address international pollution issues.

Greenhouse gas emissions

The Kyoto Protocol[1] is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), an international treaty on global warming. It also reaffirms sections of the UNFCCC. Countries which
ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in
emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.[1] A total of 141 countries have ratified the
agreement. Notable exceptions include the United States and Australia, who have signed but not ratified the
agreement. The stated reason for the United States not ratifying is the exemption of large emitters of greenhouse
gases who are also developing countries, like China and India.[2]
An UN environmental conference held in Bali 3–14 December 2007 with the participation from 180 countries aims
to replace the Kyoto Protocol, which will end in 2012. During the first day of the conference USA, Saudi Arabia and
Canada were presented with the "Fossil-of-the-day-award", a symbolic bag of coal for their negative impact on the
Regulation and monitoring of pollution 91

global climate. The bags included the flags of the respective countries.[3]

Canada
In Canada the regulation of pollution and its effects are monitored by a number of organizations depending on the
nature of the pollution and its location. The three levels of government (Federal - Canada Wide; Provincial; and
Municipal) equally share in the responsibilities, and in the monitoring and correction of pollution.

China
China's rapid industrialization has substantially increased pollution. China has some relevant regulations: the 1979
Environmental Protection Law, which was largely modelled on U.S. legislation. But the environment continues to
deteriorate.[4] Twelve years after the law, only one Chinese city was making an effort to clean up its water
discharges.[5] This indicates that China is about 30 years behind the U.S. schedule of environmental regulation and
10 to 20 years behind Europe. In July 2007, it was reported that the World Bank reluctantly censored a report
revealing that 750,000 people in China die every year as a result of pollution-related diseases. China's State
Environment Protection Agency and the Health Ministry asked the World Bank to cut the calculations of premature
deaths from the report fearing the revelation would provoke "social unrest".[6]

Europe
The basic European rules are included in the Directive 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integrated
pollution prevention and control (IPCC) [7] and the National Emission Ceilings Directive.

United Kingdom
In the 1840s, the United Kingdom brought onto the statute books legislation to control water pollution. It was
extended to all rivers and coastal water by 1961. However, currently the clean up of historic contamination is
controlled under a specific statutory scheme found in Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (Part IIA),
as inserted by the Environment Act 1995, and other ‘rules’ found in regulations and statutory guidance. The Act
came into force in England in April 2000.
Within the current regulatory framework, Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) is a regime for controlling
pollution from certain industrial activities. The regime introduces the concept of Best Available Techniques ("BAT")
to environmental regulations. Operators must use the BAT to control pollution from their industrial activities to
prevent, and where that is not practicable, to reduce to acceptable levels, pollution to air, land and water from
industrial activities. The Best Available Techniques also aim to balance the cost to the operator against benefits to
the environment. The system of Pollution Prevention and Control is replacing that of Integrated Pollution Control
(IPC) (which was established by the Environmental Protection Act 1990) and is taking effect between 2000 and
2007. The Pollution Prevention and Control regime implements the European Directive (EC/96/61) on integrated
pollution prevention and control.
Regulation and monitoring of pollution 92

United States
The United States Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1963 to
legislate the reduction of smog and atmospheric pollution in general.
That legislation has subsequently been amended and extended in 1966,
1970, 1977 and 1990. Numerous state and local governments have
enacted similar legislation either implementing or filling in locally
important gaps in the national program. The national Clean Air Act
and similar state legislative acts have led to the widespread use of
atmospheric dispersion modeling[8] in order to analyze the air quality
impacts of proposed major actions. With the 1990 Clean Air Act, the
A polluted ditch along Interstate 25 between
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began a
Colorado Springs and Pueblo, Colorado.
controversial carbon trading system in which tradable rights to emit a
specified level of carbon are granted to polluters.

Enactment of the 1972 Clean Water Act required facilities to obtain permits for discharges to navigable waters and
establishment of national discharge standards for municipal sewage treatment plants and many industrial
categories.[9] It required use of best management practices for a wide range of other water discharges including
nonpoint source pollution. Amendments in 1977 required stricter regulation of toxic pollutants.[10] In 1987 Congress
added permit coverage for municipal and industrial stormwater discharges.[11]
Congress passed the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976, which created a regulatory
framework for both municipal solid waste and hazardous waste disposed on land.[12] RCRA requires that all
hazardous wastes be managed and tracked from generation of the waste, through transport and processing, to final
disposal, by means of a nationwide permit system. The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 mandated
regulation of underground storage tanks containing petroleum and hazardous chemicals, and the phasing out of land
disposal of hazardous waste.[13] The Federal Facilities Compliance Act, passed in 1992, clarified RCRA coverage of
federally-owned properties such as military bases. Illegal disposal of waste is punishable by fines of up to $25,000
per occurrence.[14]
Passage of the Noise Control Act in 1972 established mechanisms of setting emission standards for virtually every
source of noise including motor vehicles, aircraft, certain types of HVAC equipment and major appliances. It also
put local government on notice as to their responsibilities in land use planning to address noise mitigation. This noise
regulation framework comprised a broad data base detailing the extent of noise health effects. Congress ended
funding of the federal noise control program in 1981, which curtailed development of further national regulations.[15]
The state of California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) has maintained an
independent list of substances with product labeling requirements as part of Proposition 65 since 1986.
See also
• Timeline of major US environmental and occupational health regulation
• Superfund - Cleanup program for abandoned hazardous waste sites
• AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
Regulation and monitoring of pollution 93

See also
• List of environmental issues
• Dutch standards, environmental pollutant reference values

References
[1] Kyoto Protocol To The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ convkp/ kpeng. pdf)
[2] "President Bush Discusses Global Climate Change" (http:/ / georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov/ news/ releases/ 2001/ 06/ print/
20010611-2. html) (Transcription of speech). 2001-06-11. . Retrieved 2006-04-09.
[3] Fossil-of-the-Day Awards at UN Climate Change Negotiations (http:/ / www. fossil-of-the-day. org/ )
[4] Ma, Xiaoying and Ortalano, Leonard (2000). Environmental Regulation in China: institutions, enforcement and compliance. Rowman &
Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-9398-8.
[5] Sinkule, Barbara J. and Ortolana, Leonard (1995). Implementing Environmental Policy in China. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-94980-X.
[6] China covers up pollution deaths (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ world/ china-covers-up-pollution-deaths/ 2007/ 07/ 04/
1183351291152. html)
[7] http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ LexUriServ. do?uri=CELEX:32008L0001:EN:NOT
[8] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th Edition ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2.
www.air-dispersion.com (http:/ / www. air-dispersion. com)
[9] United States. Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972, (http:/ / www. glin. gov/ download. action?fulltextId=68260&
documentId=67980& glinID=67980) P.L. 92-500, 33 U.S.C.  § 1251 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 33/ 1251. html) et seq. October
18, 1972.
[10] U.S. Clean Water Act of 1977, P.L. 95-217, December 27, 1977.
[11] U.S. Water Quality Act of 1987, P.L. 100-4, February 4, 1987.
[12] U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. P.L. 94-580, 42 U.S.C.  § 6901 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 42/ 6901. html) et
seq. October 21, 1976.
[13] U.S. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, P.L. 98-616, November 8, 1984.
[14] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC (2008). "Introduction to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act."
(http:/ / www. epa. gov/ wastes/ inforesources/ pubs/ orientat/ rom1. pdf) Chapter I of RCRA Orientation Manual.
[15] EPA. "Noise Pollution." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ air/ noise. html) 2010-05-18.

External links
• Environment Agency (England and Wales) (http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk)
• Environmental Assessment Agency - Canada (http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/index_e.htm)
• Environmental Protection Agency - USA (http://www.epa.gov)
• Extoxnet newsletters (http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/newsletters/ghindex.html) - environmental pollution
news. Last update 1998.
Pollution prevention 94

Pollution prevention
Pollution prevention (P2) describes activities that reduce the amount of pollution generated by a process, whether it
is consumer consumption, driving, or industrial production. In contrast to most pollution control strategies, which
seek to manage a pollutant after it is formed and reduce its impact upon the environment, the pollution prevention
approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process, thereby reducing the amount of pollution generated at its
source. Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy, some professionals also use
the term pollution prevention to include recycling or reuse.
As an environmental management strategy, pollution prevention shares many attributes with cleaner production, a
term used more commonly outside the United States. Pollution prevention encompasses more specialized
sub-disciplines including green chemistry and green design (also known as environmentally conscious design).
The US Environmental Protection Agency has a number of P2 programs that can assist individuals and organizations
to implement P2[1] .

See also
• Source reduction
• Cleaner production
• Environmentalism
• Energy conservation
• Green chemistry
• Industrial Ecology
• Pollution control
• Recycling
• Waste management
• Extended producer responsibility
• Pay As You Throw
• Clean Water Act of 1972

References
[1] http:/ / www. epa. gov/ p2/ Environmental Protection Agency site

External links
• United States National Pollution Prevention Information Center (http://p2rx.org)
• United States Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center (http://p2ric.org/TopicHubs/toc.
cfm?hub=26&subsec=7&nav=7)
• NPPR Finds P2 Programs Effective (http://enviro.blr.com/display.cfm/id/71485/source/WKP/effort/6)
• P2Gems Pollution prevention directory (http://www.p2gems.org/)
• Southwest Network for Zero Waste (http://www.zerowastenetwork.org)
• Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center (P2RIC) (http://www.p2ric.org)
Waste management 95

Waste management
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling
or disposal, and monitoring of waste materials.[1] The term usually
relates to materials produced by human activity, and is generally
undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or
aesthetics. Waste management is also carried out to recover resources
from it. Waste management can involve solid, liquid, gaseous or
radioactive substances, with different methods and fields of expertise
for each.

Waste management practices differ for developed and developing

nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial
producers. Management for non-hazardous residential and institutional
waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local
government authorities, while management for non-hazardous
commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the A blue wheelie bin in Berkshire, England
generator.

Methods of disposal

Integrated waste management

Integrated waste management using LCA (life cycle analysis) attempts

to offer the most benign options for waste management. For mixed
MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) a number of broad studies have
indicated that waste administration, then source separation and
collection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fraction
Waste management in Kathmandu (Nepal)
and energy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic waste
fraction via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured path. Non-metallic
waste resources are not destroyed as with incineration, and can be reused/ recycled in a future resource depleted
society.

Plasma gasification
Plasma is a highly ionized or electrically charged gas. An example in nature is lightning, capable of producing
temperatures exceeding 12600 °F (6980 °C). A gasifier vessel utilizes proprietary plasma torches operating at
+10000 °F (5540 °C) (the surface temperature of the Sun) in order to create a gasification zone of up to 3000 °F
(1650 °C) to convert solid or liquid wastes into a syngas. When municipal solid waste is subjected to this intense
heat within the vessel, the waste’s molecular bonds break down into elemental components. The process results in
elemental destruction of waste and hazardous materials.[2]
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. generated 250 million tons of waste in 2008 alone,
and this number continues to rise. About 54% of this trash (135000000 short tons ( t)) ends up in landfills and is
consuming land at a rate of nearly 3500 acres (1400 ha) per year. In fact, landfilling is currently the number one
method of waste disposal in the US. Some states no longer have capacity at permitted landfills and export their waste
to other states. Plasma gasification offers states new opportunities for waste disposal, and more importantly for
renewable power generation in an environmentally sustainable manner.[3]
Waste management 96

Landfill

Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this

remains a common practice in most countries. Landfills were often
established in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrow
pits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic
and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials.
Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create a
number of adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter,
attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another Landfill operation in Hawaii.
common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane
and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odour
problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.

Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain

leachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is
normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to
prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also
have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas.
Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off
or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.

A landfill compaction vehicle in action.

Incineration

Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of waste

material. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment
systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators
convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a
large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous
waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain
hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste).
Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues
such as emission of gaseous pollutants.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more

scarce, as these facilities generally do not require as much area as
landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are
broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to
generate heat, steam and/or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is Spittelau incineration plant in Vienna.
not always perfect and there have been concerns about
micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very
persistent organics such as dioxins, furans, PAHs,... which may be created within the incinerator and afterwards in
the incinerator plume which may have serious environmental consequences in the area immediately around the
incinerator. On the other hand this method or the more benign anaerobic digestion produces heat that can be used as
energy.
Waste management 97

Recycling
The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries refers
to the widespread collection and reuse of everyday waste materials
such as empty beverage containers. These are collected and sorted into
common types so that the raw materials from which the items are made
can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be
collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and
collection vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste streams.

The most common consumer products recycled include aluminum

beverage cans, steel food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET bottles, Steel scrap, sorted and baled for recycling.
glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and
corrugated fiberboard boxes.
PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable, although these are not commonly
collected. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into
new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult,
due to the additional dismantling and separation required.

Sustainability
The management of waste is a key component in a business' ability to maintaining ISO14001 accreditations.
Companies are encouraged to improve their environmental efficiencies each year. One way to do this is by
improving a company’s waste management with a new recycling service. (such as recycling: glass, food waste, paper
and cardboard, plastic bottles etc.)

Biological reprocessing

Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food
scraps, and paper products, can be recycled using biological
composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter.
The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for
agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the
process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating
electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. The
intention of biological processing in waste management is to control
and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter.

There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and

technologies varying in complexity from simple home compost heaps,
to small town scale batch digesters, industrial-scale enclosed-vessel
digestion of mixed domestic waste (see Mechanical biological
treatment). Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as An active compost heap.

being aerobic or anaerobic methods, though hybrids of the two

methods also exist.

Anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of MSW Municipal Solid Waste has been found to be in a number of
LCA analysis studies[4] [5] to be more environmentally effective, than landfill, incineration or pyrolisis. The resulting
biogas (methane) though must be used for cogeneration (electricity and heat preferably on or close to the site of
production) and can be used with a little upgrading in gas combustion engines or turbines. With further upgrading to
synthetic natural gas it can be injected into the natural gas network or further refined to hydrogen for use in
Waste management 98

stationary cogeneration fuel cells. Its use in fuel cells eliminates the pollution from products of combustion (SOx,
NOx, pariculates, dioxin, furans, PAHs...).
An example of waste management through composting is the Green Bin Program in Toronto, Canada, where
household organic waste (such as kitchen scraps and plant cuttings) are collected in a dedicated container and then
composted.

Energy recovery

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by

using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing
them into another type of fuel. Recycling through thermal treatment
ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating, to
anaerobic digestion and the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel for
boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and
gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste Anaerobic digestion component of Lübeck
materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen mechanical biological treatment plant in
Germany, 2007
availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high
pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid,
liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chenmical products
(chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon.
Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas
(syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An
alternative to pyrolisis is high temperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermal
monophasic oxidation).

Avoidance and reduction methods

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as waste
reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying
new, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging
consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains from
cans, packaging, ...[6] and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example,
lightweighting of beverage cans [7]).

Waste handling and transport

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and
regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local
government authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Some
areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a
formal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systems
include:
• In Australia, curbside collection is the method of disposal of waste.
Every urban domestic household is provided with three bins: one for
A front-loading garbage truck in North America.
recyclables, another for general waste and another for garden
materials - this bin is provided by the municipality if requested.
Also, many households have compost bins; but this is not provided by the municipality. To encourage recycling,
municipalities provide large recycle bins, which are larger than general waste bins. Municipal, commercial and
Waste management 99

industrial, construction and demolition waste is dumped at landfills and some is recycled. Household waste is
segregated: recyclables sorted and made into new products, and general waste is dumped in landfill areas.
According to the ABS, the recycling rate is high and is 'increasing, with 99% of households reporting that they
had recycled or reused some of their waste within the past year (2003 survey), up from 85% in 1992'. This
suggests that Australians are in favour of reduced or no landfilling and the recycling of waste. Of the total waste
produced in 2002–03, '30% of municipal waste, 45% of commercial and industrial waste and 57% of construction
and demolition waste' was recycled. Energy is produced from waste as well: some landfill gas is captured for fuel
or electricity generation. Households and industries are not charged for the volume of waste they produce.
• In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system known
as Envac, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Other vacuum-based solutions
include the MetroTaifun single-line and ring-line systems.
• In Canadian urban centres curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects
waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their waste
by hauling it to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill.
• In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce.
Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. This
policy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate.
• In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio system, which takes trash directly from
collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and
hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging
recyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California,
Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an ArrowBio plant that has been
operational at the Hiriya landfill site since December 2003 serves the Tel Aviv area, and processes up to 150 tons
of garbage a day.[8]

Technologies
Traditionally the waste management industry has been slow to adopt new technologies such as RFID (Radio
Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be
collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.
• Technologies like RFID tags are now being used to collect data on presentation rates for curb-side pick-ups which
is useful when examining the usage of recycling bins or similar.
• Benefits of GPS tracking is particularly evident when considering the efficiency of ad hoc pick-ups (like skip bins
or dumpsters) where the collection is done on a consumer request basis.
• Integrated software packages are useful in aggregating this data for use in optimisation of operations for waste
collection operations.
• Rear vision cameras are commonly used for OH&S reasons and video recording devices are becoming more
widely used, particularly concerning residential services and contaminations of the waste stream.
Waste management 100

Waste management concepts

There are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions.
Some of the most general, widely used concepts include:
• Waste hierarchy - The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce,
reuse and recycle, which classify waste management strategies
according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The
waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste
minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract
the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the
minimum amount of waste.
Diagram of the waste hierarchy.
• Extended producer responsibility - Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) is a strategy designed to promote the integration of all costs associated with products
throughout their life cycle (including end-of-life disposal costs) into the market price of the product. Extended
producer responsibility is meant to impose accountability over the entire lifecycle of products and packaging
introduced to the market. This means that firms which manufacture, import and/or sell products are required to be
responsible for the products after their useful life as well as during manufacture.
• Polluter pays principle - the Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact
caused to the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste
generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the waste.

Education and awareness

Education and awareness in the area of waste and waste management is increasingly important from a global
perspective of resource management. The Talloires Declaration is a declaration for sustainability concerned about
the unprecedented scale and speed of environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural
resources. Local, regional, and global air pollution; accumulation and distribution of toxic wastes; destruction and
depletion of forests, soil, and water; depletion of the ozone layer and emission of "green house" gases threaten the
survival of humans and thousands of other living species, the integrity of the earth and its biodiversity, the security
of nations, and the heritage of future generations. Several universities have implemented the Talloires Declaration by
establishing environmental management and waste management programs, e.g. the waste management university
project. University and vocational education are promoted by various organizations, e.g. WAMITAB and Chartered
Institution of Wastes Management. Many supermarkets encourage customers to use their reverse vending machines
to deposit used purchased containers and receive a refund from the recycling fees. Brands that manufacture such
machines include Tomra and Envipco.
In 2010, CNBC aired the documentary Trash Inc: The Secret Life of Garbage about waste, what happens to it when
it's "thrown away", and its impact on the world.[9]
Waste management 101

See also
• List of waste disposal incidents
• List of waste management acronyms
• History of waste management
• Biomedical waste
• Food waste
• Recycling
• Rubberecycle
• Recycling and Waste Management Exhibition (in the UK)
• Environmental waste controls
• Industrial symbiosis
• ISSOWAMA

References
[1] "What is Waste Management?" (http:/ / www. wanless. com. au/ what_is_waste_management. html). 2009. .
[2] Alliance Federated Energy | What Is Plasma Gasification (http:/ / www. afeservices. com/ tech_what. php)
[3] Alliance Federated Energy | Why Plasma Gasification (http:/ / www. afeservices. com/ tech_why. php)
[4] Life Cycle Environmental Assessment of Municipal Solid Waste to Energy Technologies (http:/ / www. idosi. org/ gjer/ gjer3(3)09/ 4. pdf)
[5] Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Municipal Solid Waste Management in the State of Kuwait (http:/ / www. eurojournals. com/ ejsr_34_3_11.
pdf)
[6] Removing food remains to reduce waste (http:/ / www. recycling-guide. org. uk/ etiquette. html)
[7] http:/ / www. psc. edu/ science/ ALCOA/ ALCOA-light. html
[8] Sorting through garbage for gold (http:/ / www. israel21c. org/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article&
id=7402:sorting-through-garbage-for-gold& catid=58:environment& Itemid=101), retrieved 2009-11-24
[9] Television review: 'Trash Inc.' (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ entertainment/ news/ la-et-secret-garbage-20100929,0,2134032. story), Susan
Carpenter, Los Angeles Times, 29 September 2010

External links
• Waste = Food Documentary (http://video.google.nl/videoplay?docid=-3058533428492266222) - A
documentary on the Cradle to Cradle design concept of Michael Braungart and William McDonough.
• Envirowise UK Portal (http://www.envirowise.gov.uk)
• "American dumpster: Builders deep-six too much material" (http://www.readthehook.com/stories/2008/01/
31/ONARCH-0705.rtf.aspx)
• Analysis of existing methods for refuse processing (http://www.new-garbage.com/?id=10235#help2)
• Clean Pyrolysis an alternative approach from Intervate (http://www.intervate.co.uk/)
• What is Waste Management? (http://www.wanless.com.au/what_is_waste_management.html)
• Gasoline from Vinegar | MIT Technology Review (http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/23406/?a=f)
• Waste management recycling site (http://www.wastemanagementrecycling.net)
Waste minimisation 102

Waste minimisation
Waste minimisation is the process and the
policy of reducing the amount of waste
produced by a person or a society.
Waste minimisation involves efforts to
minimise resource and energy use during
manufacture. For the same commercial
output, usually the fewer materials are used,
the less waste is produced. Waste
minimisation usually requires knowledge of
the production process, cradle-to-grave
analysis (the tracking of materials from their Waste hierarchy
extraction to their return to earth) and
detailed knowledge of the composition of the waste.

The main sources of waste vary from country to country. In the UK, most waste comes from the construction and
demolition of buildings, followed by mining and quarrying, industry and commerce [1] . Household waste constitutes
a relatively small proportion of all waste. Reasons for the creation of waste sometimes include requirements in the
supply chain. For example, a company handling a product may insist that it should be packaged using particular
packing because it fits its packaging equipment.
In the waste hierarchy, the most effective approaches to managing waste are at the top. In contrast to waste
minimisation, waste management focuses on processing waste after it is created, concentrating on re-use, recycling,
and waste-to-energy conversion.

In industries
In industries, using more efficient manufacturing processes and better materials will generally reduce the production
of waste. The application of waste minimisation techniques has led to the development of innovative and
commercially successful replacement products. Waste minimisation has proven benefits to industry and the wider
environment.
Waste minimisation often requires investment, which is usually compensated by the savings. However, waste
reduction in one part of the production process may create waste production in another part.
There are government incentives for waste minimisation, which focus on the environmental benefits of adopting
waste minimisation strategies. In the UK, several pilot schemes such as The Catalyst Project and the Dee Waste
Minimisation Project, have shown the efficacy of such policies. Fourteen companies in Merseyside took part in the
Catalyst Project; the project generated overall savings of £9 million and landfill waste was reduced by 12,000 tonnes
per year.
The following is a list of waste minimisation processes:
Resource optimisation
Minimising the amount of waste produced by organisations or individuals goes hand-in-hand with optimising
their use of raw materials. For example, a dressmaker may arrange pattern pieces on a length of fabric in a
particular way to enable the garment to be cut out from the smallest area of fabric.
Reuse of scrap material
Scraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the beginning of the manufacturing line so that they do not
become a waste product. Many industries routinely do this; for example, paper mills return any damaged rolls
Waste minimisation 103

to the beginning of the production line, and in the manufacture of plastic items, off-cuts and scrap are
re-incorporated into new products.
Improved quality control and process monitoring
Steps can be taken to ensure that the number of reject batches is kept to a minimum. This is achieved by
increasing the frequency of inspection and the number of points of inspection. For example, installing
automated continuous monitoring equipment can help to identify production problems at an early stage.
Waste exchanges
This is where the waste product of one process becomes the raw material for a second process. Waste
exchanges represent another way of reducing waste disposal volumes for waste that cannot be eliminated.
Ship to point of use
This involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or components direct to the point where they are
assembled or used in the manufacturing process to minimise handling and the use of protective wrappings or
enclosures.

Product design
Waste minimisation and resource maximisation for manufactured products can most easily be done at the design
stage. Reducing the number of components used in a product or making the product easier to take apart can make it
easier to be repaired or recycled at the end of its useful life.
In some cases, it may be best not to minimise the volume of raw materials used to make a product, but instead reduce
the volume or toxicity of the waste created at the end of a product's life, or the environmental impact of the product's
use. (See section Durability).

Fitting the intended use

In this strategy, products and packages are optimally designed to meet their intended use. This applies especially to
packaging materials, which should only be as durable as necessary to serve their intended purpose. On the other
hand, it could be more wasteful if food, which has consumed resources and energy in its production, is damaged and
spoiled because of extreme measures to reduce the use of paper, metals, glass and plastics in its packaging.

Durability
Improving product durability, such as extending a vacuum cleaner's useful life to 15 years instead of 12, can reduce
waste and usually much improves resource optimisation.
But in some cases it has a negative environmental impact. If a product is too durable, its replacement with more
efficient technology is likely to be delayed. For example, a washing machine produced 10 years ago may use twice
as much water, detergent and energy as one produced today. Therefore, extending an older machine's useful life may
place a heavier burden on the environment than scrapping it, recycling its metal and buying a new model. Similarly,
older vehicles consume more fuel and produce more emissions than their modern counterparts.
Most proponents of waste minimisation consider that the way forward may be to view any manufactured product at
the end of its useful life as a resource for recycling and reuse rather than waste. Recycling a product is easier if it is
constructed of fewer materials. Car manufacturers have recently reduced the number of plastics used in their cars
from twenty or more to three or four, hence simplifying the recovery of plastics from scrapped cars. However,
exceptions (like having a combination of paper and plastic or plastic coating on glass) do exist, and might enable a
product to fulfill its role with the minimum of resources.
Making refillable glass bottles strong enough to withstand several journeys between the consumer and the bottling
plant requires making them thicker and so heavier, which increases the resources required to transport them. Since
transport has a large environmental impact, careful evaluation is required of the number of return journeys bottles
Waste minimisation 104

make. If a refillable bottle is thrown away after being refilled only several times, the resources wasted may be greater
than if the bottle had been designed for a single journey.
Many choices involve trade-offs of environmental impact, and often there is insufficient information to make
informed decisions.

In households
This section details some waste minimisation techniques for householders.
Appropriate amounts and sizes can be chosen when purchasing goods; buying large containers of paint for a small
decorating job or buying larger amounts of food than can be consumed create unnecessary waste. Also, if a pack or
can is to be thrown away, any remaining contents must be removed before the container can be recycled [2] .
Home composting, the practice of turning kitchen and garden waste into compost can be considered waste
minimisation.
The resources that households use can be reduced considerably by using electricity thoughtfully (e.g. turning off
lights and equipment when it is not needed) and by reducing the number of car journeys made. Individuals can
reduce the amount of waste they create by buying fewer products and by buying products which last longer.
Mending broken or worn items of clothing or equipment also contributes to minimising household waste. Individuals
can minimise their water usage, and walk or cycle to their destination rather than using their car to save fuel and cut
down emissions.
In a domestic situation, the potential for minimisation is often dictated by lifestyle. Some people may view it as
wasteful to purchase new products solely to follow fashion trends when the older products are still usable. Adults
working full-time have little free time, and so may have to purchase more convenient foods that require little
preparation, or prefer disposable nappies if there is a baby in the family.
It can be wasteful to drive several miles to deposit a few newspapers, empty cans, glass, or plastic bottles into
collection banks. The resources consumed, plus those needed to take the materials for reprocessing, could exceed the
resources saved by the householder discarding the items in the general refuse collection.
The amount of waste an individual produces is a small portion of all waste produced by society, and personal waste
reduction can only make a small impact on overall waste volumes. Yet, influence on policy can be exerted in other
areas. Increased consumer awareness of the impact and power of certain purchasing decisions allows industry and
individuals to change the total resource consumption. Consumers can influence manufacturers and distributors by
avoiding buying products that do not have eco-labelling, which is currently not mandatory, or choosing products that
minimise the use of packaging. In the UK, PullApart combines both environmental and consumer packaging
surveys, in a kerbside packaging recycling classification system to waste minimise. Where reuse schemes are
available, consumers can be proactive and use them.
Waste minimisation 105

References
[1] ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: Urban Environment (http:/ / www. official-documents. gov. uk/
document/ cm70/ 7009/ 7009. pdf) 2007
[2] Removing food remains to reduce waste (http:/ / www. recycling-guide. org. uk/ etiquette. html)

External links
• The Green Organisation's website, homepage. (http://www.thegreenorganisation.info/)

See also
• Cleaner production
• Eco-action
• source reduction
• Reuse
• Recycle
• Food waste
• Waste hierarchy
• Waste management
• Life Cycle Assessment
• European Week for Waste Reduction
• Miniwaste
 106

International treaties

Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone
Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of
the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the
ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances
believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was
opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into
force on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki,
May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990
(London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok),
1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). It is believed
that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is
expected to recover by 2050.[1] Due to its widespread adoption and
implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional
The largest Antarctic ozone hole recorded as of
international co-operation with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that September 2006
"perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date
has been the Montreal Protocol".[2] It has been ratified by 196 states.[3]

Terms and purposes

The treaty[4] is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been shown to play a role in
ozone depletion. All of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing
only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). For a table of ozone-depleting substances see: [5]
For each group,including group ST, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must
be phased out and eventually eliminated.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan

The stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states:dddc
: ...Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances, including ST, can significantly deplete and
otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the
environment, ... Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total
global emissions of substances that deplete it, with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of
developments in scientific knowledge ... Acknowledging that special provision, including ST is required to meet the
needs of developing countries...
shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including:
from 1991 to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex
A do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of those substances in
1986;
from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex
A does not exceed, annually, twenty-five percent of its calculated level of consumption and production in
Montreal Protocol 107

1986.
from 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of Annex
A does not exceed zero.
There is a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc)
and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the
less active HCFCs started only in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved in 2030.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)

Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom)
53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption and
production of HCFCs. They also agreed to start reducing its consumption and production in 2015. The time of
freezing and reducing HCFCs is then known as 2013/2015.
The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam
manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In term of Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have
ODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs ODP have less ODP, i.e. 0.01 – 0.5. Whereas in term of Global Warming Potential
(GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have less GWP, i.e. 76 – 2,270.
There are a few exceptions for "essential uses", where no acceptable substitutes have been found (for example, in the
metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and other respiratory problems[6] ) or Halon fire suppression
systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).
The substances in Group I of Annex A are:
• CFCl3 (CFC-11)
• CF2Cl2 (CFC-12)
• C2F3Cl3 (CFC-113)
• C2F4Cl2(CFC-114)
• C2F5Cl (CFC-115)
The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions on
the current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawn
from the worldwide expert communities. To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances in
understanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitled
Scientific assessment of ozone depletion.
Several reports have been published by various governmental and non-governmental organizations to present
alternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, like
in refrigerating, agriculture, energy production, and laboratory measurements[7] [8] [9]

History
In 1973 Chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, then at the University of California, Irvine, began
studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules were stable enough to
remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they would finally (after an
average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing a chlorine atom.
Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause the breakdown of large
amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy to contemporary work by
Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyze the destruction of
ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy, and Steven Wofsy
had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized that CFCs were a
potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for
Montreal Protocol 108

Chemistry for their work on this problem.

The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of the
ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead to
an in increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such as
damage to crops and to marine phytoplankton.
But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon
industries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction
tale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense". Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (and
inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about
Rowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.)
After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a hearing before the U.S. House
of Representatives in December 1974. As a result significant funding was made available to study various aspects of
the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a
report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis.[10] NAS continued to publish
assessments of related science for the next decade.
Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin shocked the scientific community
when they published results of a study showing an ozone "hole" in the journal Nature — showing a decline in polar
ozone far larger than anyone had anticipated.
That same year, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which
established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances.
But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (an
association representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain to
justify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "we believe that there is no immediate
crisis that demands unilateral regulation."

Multilateral Fund
The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol provides funds to help developing countries
to phase out the use of ozone-depleting substances.
The Multilateral Fund was the first financial mechanism to be created under an international treaty.[11] It embodies
the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 that countries have
a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons.
The Fund is managed by an executive committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and seven
Article 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to the
Meeting of the Parties on its operations.
Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies in
the form of eligible projects and activities.
The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US$ 2.1 billion over the period 1991
to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel,
pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices.
Montreal Protocol 109

Ratification
As of September 16, 2009, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue and the
supranational European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol[12] (see external link below), Timor-Leste
being the last country to ratify the agreement. Fewer countries have ratified each consecutive amendment. Only 154
countries have signed the Beijing Amendment.[13]
In the United States, the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (P.L. 101-549) contain provisions for implementing the
Montreal Protocol, as well as explicit, separate authority for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency‎ to regulate
ozone depleting chemicals.
Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher signed the protocol in 1987.
Letter from Ronald Reagan to the U.S. Senate:
"THE WHITE HOUSE Office of the Press Secretary For Immediate Release December 21, 1987
To the Senate of the United States:
I transmit herewith, for the advice and consent of the Senate to ratification, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, done at Montreal on September 16, 1987. The report of the Department of State is also
enclosed for the information of the Senate.
The Montreal Protocol provides for internationally coordinated control of ozone-depleting substances in order to
protect public health and the environment from potential adverse effects of depletion of stratospheric ozone. The
Protocol was negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Program, pursuant to the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which was ratified by the United States in August 1986.
In this historic agreement, the international community undertakes cooperative measures to protect a vital global
resource. The United States played a leading role in the negotiation of the Protocol. United States ratification is
necessary for entry into force and effective implementation of the Protocol. Early ratification by the United States
will encourage similar action by other nations whose participation is also essential.
I recommend that the Senate give early and favorable consideration to the Protocol and give its advice and consent to
ratification.
Ronald Reagan The White House December 21, 1987"
Source - http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/montreal/01.htm
Montreal Protocol 110

Impact
Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the
atmospheric concentrations of the most important
chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated
hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased.[14]
Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the
halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are
released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their
abundances are expected to begin to decline by about
2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased
drastically at least partly because for many uses CFCs
(e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) were
substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports
of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g.
by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed
nations, the overall level of compliance has been high.
In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been
called the most successful international environmental
agreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found the
ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same Ozone-depleting gas trends
[15]
thickness for the previous three years, however in
2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size.[16] The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of
the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the
atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery."[17]

Unfortunately, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, are now thought to
contribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000
times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete
phase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equally
powerful as greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate of
anthropogenic global warming, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that human
activity will change the climate.[18]
Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts.[19]
[20] [21]
Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.

See also
• Ozone depletion
• Kyoto Protocol
• Refrigerant
• R-134a
• Greenhouse Gases
• Vienna Conference (1985)
Montreal Protocol 111

References
[1] Speth, J. G. 2004. Red Sky at Morning: America and the Crisis of the Global Environment New Haven: Yale University Press, pp 95.
[2] The Ozone Hole-The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (http:/ / www. theozonehole. com/ montreal. htm)
[3] http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Ratification_status/
[4] The full terms are available from http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Publications/ MP_Handbook/ Section_1. 1_The_Montreal_Protocol/ .
[5] http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ozone/ ods. html
[6] Exemption Information - The Ozone Secretariat Web Site (http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Exemption_Information/ )
[7] Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http:/ / www. norden. org/ pub/ ebook/ 2003-516. pdf
[8] The Technical and Economic Feasibility of Replacing Methyl Bromide in Developing Countries. Friends of the Earth, Washington, 173 pp,
1996
[9] Guidance on the DOE Facility Phaseout of Ozone-Depleting Substances. 1995. http:/ / homer. ornl. gov/ nuclearsafety/ nsea/ oepa/ guidance/
ozone/ phaseout. pdf
[10] National Academy of Sciences (1976). Halocarbons, effects on stratospheric ozone (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=a2YrAAAAYAAJ& dq=Halocarbons:+ Effects+ on+ Stratospheric+ Ozone). Washington, DC. .
[11] http:/ / www. multilateralfund. org/ about_the_multilateral_fund. htm
[12] http:/ / europa. eu/ rapid/ pressReleasesAction. do?reference=IP/ 09/ 1328& format=HTML& aged=0& language=EN& guiLanguage=en
[13] http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Ratification_status/
[14] (http:/ / www. al. noaa. gov/ assessments/ 2002/ Q& As16. pdf)
[15] "Top Story - 2001 Antarctic Ozone Hole Similar in Size to Holes of Past Three Years, NOAA and NASA Report - October 16, 2001" (http:/
/ www. gsfc. nasa. gov/ topstory/ 20011016ozonelayer. html). www.gsfc.nasa.gov. . Retrieved 2010-09-16.
[16] "NOAA News Online (Story 2099)" (http:/ / www. noaanews. noaa. gov/ stories/ s2099. htm). www.noaanews.noaa.gov. . Retrieved
2010-09-16.
[17] Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006, http:/ / www. esrl. noaa. gov/ csd/ assessments/ 2006/ report. html
[18] "EIA - Emissions of the Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2005" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ oiaf/ 1605/ ggrpt/ other_gases. html).
www.eia.doe.gov. . Retrieved 2010-09-16.
[19] Mario Molina, Durwood Zaelke, K. Madhava Sarma, Stephen O. Andersen, Veerabhadran Ramanathan, and Donald Kaniaru. "Reducing
abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions" PNAS 2009 106
(49) 20616-20621; doi:10.1073/pnas.0902568106
[20] CS Norman, SJ DeCanio and L Fan. "The Montreal Protocol at 20: Ongoing opportunities for integration with climate protection." Global
Environmental Change Volume 18, Issue 2, May 2008, Pages 330-340; doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.03.003
[21] UNEP press release, 2008 http:/ / www. unep. org/ Documents. Multilingual/ Default. asp?DocumentID=593& ArticleID=6250& l=en&
t=long

 This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2003 edition" (http:/ /
www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2003/index.html). (referred to as Ozone Layer Protection)
• Benedick, Richard E. (1991). Ozone Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-65001-8 (Ambassador
Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Protocol.)
• Litfin, Karen T. (1994). Ozone Discourses. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08137-5
• http://www.multilateralfund.org/

External links
• (http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&id=504&chapter=27&lang=en) The Parties
involved
• The Montreal Protocol (http://ozone.unep.org/Publications/MP_Handbook/Section_1.
1_The_Montreal_Protocol/)
• The Montreal Protocol Who's Who (http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/montrealprotocolwhoswho/)
• THE CFC-OZONE PUZZLE:Environmental Science in the Global Arena (http://www.ncseonline.org/
NCSEconference/2000conference/Chafee/) by F.Sherwood Rowland and Mario J.Molina
• The evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion (http://www.ciesin.org/docs/003-006/
003-006.html) by P. M. Morrisette, Natural Resources Journal 29: 793–820 (1989).
• Has the Montreal Protocol been successful in reducing ozone-depleting gases in the atmosphere? (http://www.
al.noaa.gov/assessments/2002/Q&As16.pdf)(NOAA Aeronomy Lab)
Montreal Protocol 112

• Doomsday Déjà vu: Ozone Depletion's Lessons for Global Warming (http://www.cei.org/gencon/025,01184.
cfm) by Ben Lieberman (http://www.cei.org/dyn/view_expert.cfm?expert=6)
• Halon and the Ozone Layer (http://www.h3rcleanagents.com/support_faq_3.htm)
• http://www.scribd.com/doc/6292142/Brief-on-Hydro-Chlorofluorocarbons

Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to
the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at
fighting global warming. The
UNFCCC is an international
environmental treaty with the goal of
achieving "stabilization of greenhouse
gas concentrations in the atmosphere at
a level that would prevent dangerous
Participation in the Kyoto Protocol, as of June 2009, where dark green indicates the
anthropogenic interference with the countries that have signed and ratified the treaty, grey is not yet decided and red is no
climate system."[1] intention to ratify.

The Protocol was initially adopted on

11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and PATMAN entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of November 2009,
187 states have signed and ratified the protocol.[2]
Under the Protocol, 39 industrialized countries and the European Union(called "Annex I countries") commit
themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur
hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all
member countries give general commitments. Annex I countries agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas
emissions by 5.2% from the 1991 level. Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and
shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the
1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
The benchmark 1990 emission levels were accepted by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC (decision 2/CP.3)
were the values of "global warming potential" calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report.[3] These figures
are used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable CO2 equivalents (CO2-eq) when
computing overall sources and sinks.
The Protocol allows for several "flexible mechanisms", such as emissions trading, the clean development mechanism
(CDM) and joint implementation to allow Annex I countries to meet their GHG emission limitations by purchasing
GHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere, through financial exchanges, projects that reduce emissions in
non-Annex I countries, from other Annex I countries, or from annex I countries with excess allowances.
Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate
a person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all of
the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage its Kyoto obligations,
specifically the "CDM process" that determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the
CDM Executive Board.
Kyoto Protocol 113

Background
The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature
("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking (NRC, 2001,
p. 3,[4] 2008, p. 2).[5] Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue through the 21st century.
IPCC (2007) produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature might be.[6]
Projections spanned a range due to socio-economic uncertainties, e.g., over future greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
levels, and uncertainties with regard to physical science aspects, e.g., the climate sensitivity. For the time period
2090-2099, measured from global mean temperature in the period 1980-1999, the "likely" range (as assessed to have
a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on expert judgement) across the six SRES "marker" emissions
scenarios was projected as an increase in global mean temperature of 1.1 to 6.4 °C.
The scientific question of what constitutes a "safe" level of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations has been
asked (NRC, 2001, p. 4). This question cannot be answered directly since it requires value judgements of, for
example, what would be an acceptable risk to human welfare. In general, however, risks increase with both the rate
and magnitude of future climate change.

Ratification process
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. It was opened on 16 March 1998 for
signature by parties to UNFCCC.
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which
not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at
least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments
of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession."
The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002.[7] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause
was reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol. The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004
satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of
90 days.
As of November 2009, 187 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC) have ratified the agreement,
representing over 63.9% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries.[2] The most notable non-party to the
Protocol is the United States, which is a party to UNFCCC and was responsible for 36.1% of the 1990 emission
levels of Annex I countries. The Protocol can be signed and ratified only by parties to UNFCCC, (Article 24) and a
country can withdraw by giving 12 months notice. (Article 27)
Kyoto Protocol 114

Objectives
The objective is the "stabilization and reconstruction of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system."[1]
The objective of the Kyoto climate change conference
was to establish a legally binding international
agreement, whereby all the participating nations
commit themselves to tackling the issue of global
warming and greenhouse gas emissions. The target
agreed upon was an average reduction of 5.2% from
1990 levels by the year 2012. According to the treaty,
in 2012, Annex I countries must have fulfilled their
obligations of reduction of greenhouse gases emissions Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of greenhouse gases.

established for the first commitment period

(2008–2012) (see Annex B of the Protocol). The Protocol expires at the end of 2012.

The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

• Commitments. The heart of the Protocol lies in establishing commitments for the reduction of greenhouse gases
that are legally binding for Annex I countries, as well as general commitments for all member countries.
• Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I countries are required to prepare policies
and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to
increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the
clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more
greenhouse gas emissions at home.
• Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
• Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
• Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the
Protocol.

2012 emission targets and "flexible mechanisms"

39 of the 40 Annex I countries have ratified the Protocol. Of these 34 have committed themselves to a reduction of
greenhouse gases (GHG) produced by them to targets that are set in relation to their 1990 emission levels, in
accordance with Annex B of the Protocol. The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride, and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons. The six
GHG are translated into CO2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions. These reduction targets are in
addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
Under the Protocol, Annex I countries have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets, (formally
called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) - Article 4.1) that range from a joint
reduction of 8% for the European Union and others, to 7% for the United States (non-binding as the US is not a
signatory), 6% for Japan and 0% for Russia. The treaty permits emission increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for
Iceland.[8] Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping.
Annex I countries can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their
borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that
is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have
Kyoto Protocol 115

excess emissions credits.

38 of the 39 Annex I countries have agreed to cap their emissions in this way, two others are required to do so under
their conditions of accession into the EU, and one more (Belarus) is seeking to become an Annex I country.

Flexible mechanisms
The Protocol defines three "flexibility mechanisms" that can be used by Annex I countries in meeting their emission
reduction commitments (Bashmakov et al.., 2001, p. 402).[9] The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions
Trading (IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I
countries to "trade" their emissions (Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or "allowances" for short). For IET, the
economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of emission abatement differs among countries.
Trade could potentially allow the Annex I countries to meet their emission reduction commitments at a reduced cost.
This is because trade allows emissions to be abated first in countries where the costs of abatement are lowest, thus
increasing the efficiency of the Kyoto agreement.
The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms," in that they generate emission reductions from projects.
The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitative
restriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions (Toth et
al.., 2001, p. 660).[10] The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I
countries, while JI encourages production of emission reductions in Annex I countries.
The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex B countries in meeting
their emission reduction commitments. The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measured
against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission
reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs);
reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called "credits" because
they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions.

International Emissions Trading

The most advanced emissions trading system (ETS) is the one developed by the EU (Gupta et al.., 2007).[11]
Ellerman and Buchner (2008) (referenced in Grubb et al.., 2009, p. 11) suggested that during its first two years in
operation, the EU ETS turned an expected increase in emissions of 1-2 percent per year into a small absolute
decline.[12] Grubb et al.. (2009, p. 11) suggested that a reasonable estimate for the emissions cut achieved during its
first two years of operation was 50-100 MtCO2 per year, or 2.5-5 percent.

Clean Development Mechanism

Between 2001, which was the first year CDM projects could be registered, and 2012, the end of the Kyoto
commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) in
emission reductions.[13] Most of these reductions are through renewable energy, energy efficiency, and fuel
switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China
(52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the
potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).

Joint Implementation
The formal crediting period for JI was aligned with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not
start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20).[14] In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been officially
approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth that of the CDM.
Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughly equally between the
Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N2O emissions.
Kyoto Protocol 116

Details of the agreement

According to a press release from the United Nations Environment Program:
"After 10 days of tough negotiations, ministers and other high-level officials from 160 countries reached
agreement this morning on a legally binding Protocol under which industrialized countries will reduce their
collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2%.
The agreement aims to lower overall emissions from a group of six greenhouse gases by 2008–12, calculated
as an average over these five years. Cuts in the three most important gases – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) – will be measured against a base year of 1990. Cuts in three long-lived
industrial gases – hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) – can
be measured against either a 1990 or 1995 baseline."
National limitations range from 8% reductions for the European Union and others, to 7% for the US, 6% for Japan,
0% for Russia, and permitted increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland.[8]
The agreement supplements the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at
the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any limitations or enforcement mechanisms. All
parties to UNFCCC can sign or ratify the Kyoto Protocol, while non-parties to UNFCCC cannot. The Kyoto Protocol
was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. Most
provisions of the Kyoto Protocol apply to developed countries, listed in Annex I to UNFCCC.
National emission targets exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties can use land use, land use
change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets (Dessai, 2001, p. 3).[15] LULUCF activities are also called
"sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate (IPCC, 2007).[16] Particular criteria
apply to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
Forest management, cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCF
activities under the Protocol (Dessai, 2001, p. 9). Annex I Parties use of forestry management in meeting their targets
is capped.

Common but differentiated responsibility

UNFCCC adopts a principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities." The parties agreed that:
1. the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated in developed countries;
2. per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low;
3. the share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet social and development
needs.[17]

Emissions
Per-capita emissions are a country's total emissions divided by its population (Banuri et al.., 1996, p. 95).[18]
Per-capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing
countries (Grubb, 2003, p. 144).[19] This is one reason industrialized countries accepted responsibility for leading
climate change efforts in the Kyoto negotiations. In Kyoto, the countries that took on quantified commitments for the
first period (2008–12) corresponded roughly to those with per-capita emissions in 1990 of two tonnes of carbon or
higher. In 2005, the top-20 emitters comprised 80% of total GHG emissions (PBL, 2010. See also the notes in the
following section on the top-ten emitters in 2005).[20] Countries with a Kyoto target made up 20% of total GHG
emissions.
Another way of measuring GHG emissions is to measure the total emissions that have accumulated in the
atmosphere over time (IEA, 2007, p. 199).[21] Over a long time period, cumulative emissions provide an indication
of a country's total contribution to GHG concentrations in the atmosphere. Over the 1900-2005 period, the US was
the world's largest cumulative emitter of energy-related CO2 emissions, and accounted for 30% of total cumulative
Kyoto Protocol 117

emissions (IEA, 2007, p. 201). The second largest emitter was the EU, at 23%; the third largest was China, at 8%;
fourth was Japan, at 4%; fifth was India, at 2%. The rest of the world accounted for 33% of global, cumulative,
energy-related CO2 emissions.
Top-ten emitters
What follows is a ranking of the world's top ten emitters of GHGs for 2005 (MNP, 2007).[22] The first figure is the
country's or region's emissions as a percentage of the global total. The second figure is the country's/region's
per-capita emissions, in units of tons of GHG per-capita:
1. China1 – 17%, 5.8
2. United States3 – 16%, 24.1
3. European Union-273 – 11%, 10.6
4. Indonesia2 - 6%, 12.9
5. India – 5%, 2.1
6. Russia3 – 5%, 14.9
7. Brazil – 4%, 10.0
8. Japan3 – 3%, 10.6
9. Canada3 – 2%, 23.2
10. Mexico – 2%, 6.4
Notes
• These values are for the GHG emissions from fossil fuel use and cement production. Calculations are for carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and gases containing fluorine (the F-gases HFCs, PFCs and
SF6).
• These estimates are subject to large uncertainties regarding CO2 emissions from deforestation; and the per country
emissions of other GHGs (e.g., methane). There are also other large uncertainties which mean that small
differences between countries are not significant. CO2 emissions from the decay of remaining biomass after
biomass burning/deforestation are not included.
• 1 excluding underground fires.
• 2 including an estimate of 2000 million tonnes CO2 from peat fires and decomposition of peat soils after draining.
However, the uncertainty range is very large.
• 3 Industrialised countries: official country data reported to UNFCCC

Financial commitments
The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supply
technology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed in
UNFCCC.

Revisions
The protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties (COP). COP6 attempted
to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but was unable to reach an agreement due to disputes
between the European Union on the one hand (which favoured a tougher agreement) and the United States, Canada,
Japan and Australia on the other (which wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6bis) was held in Bonn where the required decisions were
adopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union) managed to get Japan
and Russia in as well by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks.
COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of the
protocol.
Kyoto Protocol 118

The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9
December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United Nations
Climate Change Conference.
The 3 December 2007, Australia ratified the protocol during the first day of the COP13 in Bali.
Of the signatories, 36 developed C.G. countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union)agreed to a 10%
emissions increase for Iceland; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations,[23] much larger
increases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below Kyoto Protocol#Increase
in greenhouse gas emission since 1990).[24] Reduction limitations expire in 2013.

Enforcement
If the enforcement branch determines that an annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, then
that country is required to make up the difference plus an additional 30%. In addition, that country will be suspended
from making transfers under an emissions trading program.[25]

Negotiations
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions (Grubb,
2003, p. 144).[19] The initial aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by the
year 2000. The failure of key industrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto
moved to binding commitments.
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 (a coalition of 77 developing nations within the
UN) was able to push for a mandate where it was recognized that (Liverman, 2008, p. 12):[26]
• developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere
• developing country emissions per-capita were still relatively low
• and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
This mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emission
reduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period. However, the large potential for growth in developing
country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense (Grubb, 2003, p. 145-146). In the final agreement, the Clean
Development Mechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing
countries do not bear the costs for limiting emissions. The general assumption was that developing countries would
face quantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet
their first round commitments.

Base year
The choice of the 1990 base year remains in Kyoto, as it does in the original Framework Convention. The desire to
move to historical emissions was rejected on the basis that good data was not available prior to 1990. The 1990 base
year also favoured several powerful interests including the UK, Germany and Russia (Liverman, 2008, p. 12).[26]
This is because the UK and Germany had high CO2 emissions in 1990.
In the UK following 1990, emissions had declined because of a switch from coal to gas ("dash for gas"), which has
lower emissions than coal. This was due to the UK's privatization of coal mining and its switch to natural gas
supported by North sea reserves. Germany benefitted from the 1990 base year because of its reunification between
West and East Germany. East Germany's emissions fell dramatically following the collapse of East German industry
after the fall of the Berlin Wall. Germany could therefore take credit for the resultant decline in emissions.
Japan promoted the idea of flexible baselines, and favoured a base year of 1995 for HFCs. Their HFC emissions had
grown in the early 1990s as a substitute for CFCs banned in the Montreal Protocol (Liverman, 2008, p. 13). Some of
the former Soviet satellites wanted a base year to reflect their highest emissions prior to their industrial collapse.
Kyoto Protocol 119

Emissions cuts
The G77 wanted strong uniform emission cuts across the developed world of 15% (Liverman, 2008, p. 13).[26]
Countries, such as the US, made suggestions to reduce their responsibility to reduce emissions. These suggestions
included:
• the inclusion of carbon sinks (e.g., by including forests, that absorb CO2 from the atmosphere).
• and having net current emissions as the basis for responsibility, i.e., ignoring historical emissions.
The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to follow the negotiations
of the first (Grubb, 2003, p. 148).[19] In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than
2005. Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in the
subsequent period.
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO2, CH4, and N2O – with other gases such as HFCs
regulated separately (Liverman, 2008, p. 13). The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment, whereby it could
make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, while others cut theirs.
The most vulnerable nations – the Association of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts by
developed nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent.
The final days of negotiation of the Protocol saw a clash between the EU and the US and Japan (Grubb, 2003,
p. 149). The EU aimed for flat-rate reductions in the range of 10-15% below 1990 levels, while the US and Japan
supported reductions of 0-5%. Countries that had supported differentiation had different ideas as to how it should be
calculated, and many different indicators were proposed: relating to GDP, energy intensity (energy use per unit of
economic output), etc. According to Grubb (2003, p. 149), the only common theme of these indicators was that each
proposal suited the interests of the country making the proposal.
The final commitments negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises (Liverman,
2008, p. 13-14). These include an 8% cut from the 1990 base year for the EU, 7% for the US, 6% for Canada and
Japan, no cut for Russia, and an 8% increase for Australia. This sums to an overall cut of 5.2% below 1990 levels.
Since Australia and the US did not ratify the treaty (although Australia has since done), the cut is reduced from 5.2%
to about 2%.
Considering the growth of some economies and the collapse of others since 1990, the range of implicit targets is
much greater (Aldy et al.., 2003, p. 7).[27] The US faced a cut of about 30% below "business-as-usual" (BAU)
emissions (i.e., predicted emissions should there be no attempt to limit emissions), while Russia and other economies
in transition faced targets that allowed substantial increases in their emissions above BAU. On the other hand, Grubb
(2003, p. 151) pointed out that the US, having per-capita emissions twice that of most other OECD countries, was
vulnerable to the suggestion that it had huge potential for making reductions. From this viewpoint, the US was
obliged to cut emissions back more than other countries.

Flexibility mechanisms
Negotiations over the flexibility mechanisms included in the Protocol proved controversial (Grubb, 2003, p. 153).[19]
Japan and some EU member states wanted to ensure that any emissions trading would be competitive and
transparent. Their intention was to prevent the US from using its political leverage to gain preferential access to the
likely surplus in Russian emission allowances. The EU was also anxious to prevent the US from avoiding domestic
action to reduce its emissions. Developing countries were concerned that the US would use flexibility to its own
advantage, over the interests of weaker countries.
Kyoto Protocol 120

Compliance
The protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penalties
for non-compliance."[28] According to Grubb (2003, p. 157), the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the
treaty are weak compared to domestic law.[19] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the
Marrakesh Accords. According to Grubb (2003), Japan made some unsuccessful efforts to "water-down" the
compliance package.

Government action and emissions

Annex I
In total, Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC (including the
US) managed a cut of 3.3% in GHG emissions between
1990 and 2004 (UNFCCC, 2007, p. 11).[29] In 2007,
projections indicated rising emissions of 4.2% between
1990 and 2010. This projection assumed that no further
mitigation action would be taken. The reduction in the
1990s was driven significantly by economic
restructuring in the economies-in-transition (EITs. See
the following section for the list of EITs). Emission
reductions in the EITs had little to do with climate
change policy (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24).[14] Some Carbon emissions from various global regions during the period
1800–2000 AD
reductions in Annex I emissions have occurred due to
policy measures, such as promoting energy efficiency
(UNFCCC, 2007, p. 11).

Progress towards targets

Progress toward the emission reduction commitments set in the Kyoto Protocol has been mixed. World Bank (2008,
p. 6) reported that there were significant differences in performance across individual countries:[30]
• For the Annex I non-Economies-in-Transition (non-EIT) Kyoto Protocol (KP) Parties, emissions in 2005 were
5% higher than 1990 levels (World Bank, 2008, p. 59). Their Kyoto target for 2008-2012 is for a 6% reduction in
emissions. The Annex I non-EITs KP Parties are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
• The Annex I Economies in Transition (EIT) KP Parties emissions in 2005 were 35% below 1990 levels. Their
Kyoto target is for a 2% reduction. The Annex I EIT KP Parties are Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic,
Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine.
• In 2005, the Annex I non-KP Parties emissions were 18% above their 1990 levels. The Annex I non-KP Parties
are Turkey and the United States.
• In total, the Annex I KP Parties emissions for 2005 were 14% below their 1990 levels. Their Kyoto target is for a
4% reduction.
KP Parties
According to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL, 2009), the industrialized countries with a
Kyoto target will, as a group, probably meet their emission limitation requirements.[31] Collectively, this was for a
4% reduction relative to 1990 levels. A linear extrapolation of the 2000-2005 emissions trend led to a projected
emission reduction in 2010 of almost 11%. Including the potential contribution of CDM projects, which may account
for emissions reductions of approximately 500 megatonnes CO2-eq per year, the reduction might be as large as 15%.
Kyoto Protocol 121

The expected reduction of 11% was attributed to the limited increase in emissions in OECD countries, but was
particularly due to the large reduction of about 40% until 1999 in the EITs. The reduction in emissions for the
smaller EITs aids the EU-27 in meeting their collective target. The EU expects that it will meet its collective target
of an 8% reduction for the EU-15. This reduction includes:
• CDM and JI projects, which are planned to contribute 2.5% towards the target;
• carbon storage in forests and soils (carbon sinks), which contribute another 0.9%.
Japan expects to meet its Kyoto target, which includes a 1.6% reduction from CDM projects and a 3.9% reduction
from carbon storage, contributing to a total reduction of 5.5%. In other OECD countries, emissions have increased.
In Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Switzerland, emissions have increased by 25% compared to the base year,
while in Norway, the increase was 9%. In the view of PBL (2009), these countries will only be able to meet their
targets by purchasing sufficient CDM credits or by buying emissions ("hot air") from EIT countries.
Non-KP Parties
Emissions in the US have increased 16% since 1990. According to PBL (2009), the US will not meet its original
Kyoto target of a 6% reduction in emissions.[31]

Non-Annex I
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties.[32] Most reporting
non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income (p. 4). Most
Parties included information on policies relating to sustainable development. Sustainable development priorities
mentioned by non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care (p. 6).
Many non-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include global
concerns such as climate change (p. 7).
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran, stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions could affect their
economies. The economies of these countries are highly dependent on income generated from the production,
processing, and export of fossil fuels.
Emissions
GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year
1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO2-eq. CO2 was the
largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (11%).
The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sector
was the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO2-eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122
non-Annex I Parties.
• The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.
• The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of
2.6 tonnes.
• The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of
4.6 tonnes.
• The "other" region includes Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Malta, Republic of Moldova, and the former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Their aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of
5.1 tonnes.
Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a small
difference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, total
aggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.
Trends
Kyoto Protocol 122

In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and
Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009).[31] For example, emissions in China have risen strongly
over the 1990-2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for
the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission
reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had a national policy
programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-fired power plants.

Views on the Protocol

Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments of
the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem.[33]
In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework
Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.
World Bank (2010, p. 233) commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global
emissions growth.[13] The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but by 2005, energy-related emissions had grown 24%.
World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to developing countries to
assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change.
Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14).[26] This
has particularly centred on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world to
climate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world.
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town," and possibly
because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions
(Aldy et al.., 2003, p. 9).[27] In 2001, sixteen national science academies[34] stated that ratification of the Protocol
represented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases."[35]
Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000,
p. 5).[36]
Many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified (Grubb, 2000, p. 31). The lack of
quantitative emission commitments for developing countries led the US and Australia (under Prime Minister John
Howard) to decide not to ratify the treaty (Stern 2007, p. 478).[37] Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin
Rudd, has since ratified the treaty. Despite ratification, Australia has thus far not implemented legislation to bring
itself into compliance.
In May 2010 the Hartwell Paper was published by the London School of Economics with funding from the Japan
Iron and Steel Federation, Tokyo, Japan and Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc., Tokyo, Japan .[38]
The authors argued that after what they regard as the failure of the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Summit, the Kyoto
Protocol crashed and they claimed that it "has failed to produce any discernable real world reductions in emissions
of greenhouse gases in fifteen years."[38] [39] They argued that this failure opened an opportunity to set climate policy
free from Kyoto and the paper advocates a controversial and piecemeal approach to decarbonization of the global
economy.[40] [41] [42]

Successor
In the non-binding 'Washington Declaration' agreed on 16 February 2007, Heads of governments from Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South
Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisage a global cap-and-trade
system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries, and hoped that this would be in
place by 2009.[43] [44]
Kyoto Protocol 123

On 7 June 2007, leaders at the 33rd G8 summit agreed that the G8 nations would "aim to at least halve global CO2
emissions by 2050". The details enabling this to be achieved would be negotiated by environment ministers within
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in a process that would also include the major
emerging economies.[45]
A round of climate change talks under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) (Vienna Climate Change Talks 2007) concluded in 31 August 2007 with agreement on key
elements for an effective international response to climate change.[46]
A key feature of the talks was a United Nations report that showed how efficient energy use could yield significant
cuts in emissions at low cost.
The talks were meant to set the stage for a major international meeting to be held in Nusa Dua, Bali, which started on
3 December 2007.[47]
The Conference was held in December 2008 in Poznań, Poland. One of the main topics on this meeting was the
discussion of a possible implementation of avoided deforestation also known as Reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) into the future Kyoto Protocol.[48]
After the lack of progress leading to a binding commitment or an extension of the Kyoto commitment period in
climate talks at COP 15 in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009, there are several further rounds of negotiation COP 16 in
Cancun, Mexico in 2010, South Africa in 2011 (COP 17), and in either Qatar or South Korea in 2012 (COP 18).
Because any treaty change will require the ratification of the text by various countries' legislatures before the end of
the commitment period Dec 31, 2012, it is likely that agreements in South Africa or South Korea/Qatar will be too
late to prevent a gap between the commitment periods.[49]

See also
• Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate
• Business action on climate change
• Carbon emission trading
• Carbon finance
• Environmental agreements
• Environmental tariff
• List of climate change initiatives
• Low-carbon economy
• Montreal Protocol
• Politics of global warming
• World People's Conference on Climate Change

References
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Kyoto Protocol 126

Further reading
• Depledge, J. (August 1999/August 2000). "Tracing the Origins of the Kyoto Protocol: An Article-by-Article
Textual History" (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/tp/tp0200.pdf). UNFCCC Technical paper. Retrieved
2009-05-20.
• Ekardt, F./von Hövel, A.: Distributive Justice, Competitiveness, and Transnational Climate Protection. In:
Carbon & Climate Law Review, Vol. 3., 2009, p. 102–114.
• Kogan, Lawrence A. (June 2002). "The U.S. Response to the Kyoto Protocol – A Realistic Alternative?" (http://
blogs.shu.edu/projects/diplomacy/archives/5_kogan.pdf). The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and
International Relations, Volume III, Number 2. Retrieved 2001-10-20.

Economics
• Weyant, J.P. (ed) (May 1999). "The Costs of the Kyoto Protocol: A Multi-Model Evaluation" (http://emf.
stanford.edu/publications/the_costs_of_the_kyoto_protocol_a_multimodel_evaluation/). Energy Journal
(Special issue). Retrieved 2009-08-08. From this issue:
• Manne, A.S. and R. Richels. The Kyoto Protocol: A Cost-Effective Strategy for Meeting Environmental
Objectives? (http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/38/53/1923159.pdf). Retrieved 2009-08-08.
• Nordhaus, W.D. and J.G. Boyer. Requiem for Kyoto: An Economic Analysis of the Kyoto Protocol (http://
www.econ.yale.edu/~nordhaus/homepage/Kyoto.pdf). Retrieved 2009-08-08.

External links
• Full text of the Kyoto Protocol (HTML version) (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html), (PDF
version) (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf) (Alternate HTML version) (http://kyoto.
internationalnetwork.com/)
• Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Law-Ref.org (http://law-ref.
org/KYOTO/index.html) – fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
• List of countries who have ratified, accepted, approved, or accessed the Kyoto Protocol (http://unfccc.int/files/
essential_background/kyoto_protocol/application/pdf/kpstats.pdf)
• The layman's guide to the Kyoto Protocol (http://mindprod.com/environment/kyoto.html)
• 2008 [[Cap and trade (http://lieberman.senate.gov/documents/amendment.pdf)] Bill in the U.S. Senate]
• The case against carbon trading by The Rising Tide Environmentalist Group (http://risingtide.org.uk/book/
print/101)
• Text of the Protocol (http://www.worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1997-kyotoprotocol.php) at the Center for
a World in Balance
CLRTAP 127

CLRTAP
The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLRTAP,
is intended to protect the human environment against air pollution and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution,
including long-range transboundary air pollution.
The convention opened for signature on 1979-11-13 and entered into force on 1983-03-16.
The current parties to the Convention are shown on the map.
The Convention, which now has 51
Parties, identifies the Executive
Secretary of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe
(UNECE) as its secretariat.
Since 1979 the Convention on
Map showing Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution signatories
Long-range Transboundary Air
(green) and ratifications (dark green) as of July 2007
Pollution has addressed some of the
major environmental problems of the
UNECE region through scientific collaboration and policy negotiation. The Convention has been extended by eight
protocols that identify specific measures to be taken by Parties to cut their emissions of air pollutants.
The aim of the Convention is that Parties shall endeavour to limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce and
prevent air pollution including long-range transboundary air pollution. Parties develop policies and strategies to
combat the discharge of air pollutants through exchanges of information, consultation, research and monitoring.
The Parties meet annually at sessions of the Executive Body to review ongoing work and plan future activities
including a workplan for the coming year. The three main subsidiary bodies - the Working Group on Effects, the
Steering Body to EMEP and the Working Group on Strategies and Review - as well as the Convention's
Implementation Committee, report to the Executive Body each year.
Currently, the Convention's priority activities include review and possible revision of its most recent protocols,
implementation of the Convention and its protocols across the entire UNECE region (with special focus on Eastern
Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia and South-East Europe) and sharing its knowledge and information with
other regions of the world.
Source: CIA World Factbook, as of 2003 edition

See also
• Critical load
• Environmental agreements
• Gothenburg (Multi-effect) Protocol

External links
• CLRTAP Homepage [1] at the UNECE website

References
[1] http:/ / www. unece. org/ env/ lrtap/
OSPAR Convention 128

OSPAR Convention
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-East Atlantic [1] or OSPAR Convention is the current legislative
instrument regulating international cooperation on environmental protection in the
North-East Atlantic. It combines and up-dates the 1972 Oslo Convention on
dumping waste at sea and the 1974 Paris Convention on land-based sources of
marine pollution. Work carried out under the convention is managed by the
OSPAR Commission, which is made up of representatives of the Governments of
the 15 signatory nations, and representatives of the European Commission,
The official logo of the OSPAR
representing the European Community.
Convention

History
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic was opened for signature at
the Ministerial Meeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions in Paris on September 22, 1992. The Convention has
been signed and ratified by all of the Contracting Parties to the original Oslo or Paris Conventions (Belgium,
Denmark, the European Community, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) and by Luxembourg and
Switzerland. The OSPAR Convention entered into force on March 25, 1998, and replaced the Oslo and Paris
Conventions, but decisions and other agreements adopted under those conventions remained applicable unless they
are terminated by new measures adopted under the OSPAR Convention.
The first Ministerial Meeting of the OSPAR
Commission at Sintra, Portugal, in 1998 adopted
Annex V to the Convention, extending the cooperation
of the signatory parties to cover "all human activities
that might adversely affect the marine environment of
the North East Atlantic". Nevertheless, programmes
and measures cannot be adopted under the Convention
on questions relating to fisheries management, which
are currently coordinated by European nations in the
north east Atlantic and North Sea by the International
Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). The
OSPAR convention now regulates European standards
on marine biodiversity, eutrophication, the release of
hazardous and radioactive substances into the seas, the
offshore oil and gas industry and baseline monitoring
of environmental conditions.

In 2000, the OSPAR Commission published a

comprehensive report on the quality of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. This was supported by
five smaller reports on the different parts of the OSPAR maritime area –the Arctic, the Greater North Sea, the Celtic
Seas, the Bay of Biscay/Golfe de Gascogne and Iberian waters, and the Wider Atlantic.
OSPAR Convention 129

See also
• Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft

External links
• http://www.ospar.org/

References
[1] http:/ / www. ospar. org/ html_documents/ ospar/ html/ OSPAR_Convention_e_updated_text_2007. pdf
Stockholm Convention 130

Stockholm Convention

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

The logo of the Stockholm Convention Secretariat

Type of United Nations treaty

treaty

Signed 23 May 2001

Location Stockholm, Sweden

Effective 17 May 2004

Condition Ninety days after the ratification by at least 50
signatory states

Signatories 152

Parties 169

Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations

Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish

     State parties to the Stockholm

Convention as of May 2009.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty that aims to
eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

History
In 1995, the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) called for global action to
be taken on POPs, which it defined as "chemical substances that persist in the environment, bio-accumulate through
the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment".
Following this, the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International Programme on
Chemical Safety (IPCS) prepared an assessment of the 12 worst offenders, known as the dirty dozen.
The negotiations for the Convention were completed on 23 May 2001 in Stockholm. The convention entered into
force on 17 May 2004 with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories. Co-signatories agree to outlaw
nine of the dirty dozen chemicals, limit the use of DDT to malaria control, and curtail inadvertent production of
Stockholm Convention 131

dioxins and furans.

Parties to the convention have agreed to a process by which persistent toxic compounds can be reviewed and added
to the convention, if they meet certain criteria for persistence and transboundary threat. The first set of new
chemicals to be added to the Convention were agreed at a conference in Geneva on 8 May 2009.
As of December 2008, there are 168 parties to the Convention.[1]

Listed substances
There were initially twelve distinct chemicals listed in three categories. Two chemicals, hexachlorobenzene and
polychlorinated biphenyls, were listed in both categories A and C.[2]

Annex Name CAS Exemptions

Number

A. Elimination Aldrin 309-00-2 Production none

Use as a local ectoparasiticide and insecticide

A. Elimination Chlordane 57-74-9 Production by registered parties

Use as a local ectoparasiticide, insecticide, termiticide (including
in buildings, dams and roads) and as an additive in plywood
adhesives

A. Elimination Dieldrin 60-57-1 Production none

Use in agricultural operations

A. Elimination Endrin 72-20-8 None

A. Elimination Heptachlor 76-44-8 Production none

Use as a termiticide (including in the structure of houses and
underground), for organic treatment and in underground cable
boxes

A. Elimination Hexachlorobenzene 118-74-1 Production by registered parties

Use as a chemical intermediate and a solvent for pesticides

A. Elimination Mirex 2385-85-5 Production by registered parties

Use as a termiticide

A. Elimination Toxaphene 8001-35-2 None

A. Elimination Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) various Production none

Use in accordance with part II of Annex A

B. Restriction DDT 50-29-3 Disease vector control in accordance with Part II of Annex B
Production and use as an intermediate in the production of
dicofol and other compounds

C. Unintentional Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins various

Production ("dioxins") and polychlorinated
dibenzofurans

C. Unintentional Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) various

Production

C. Unintentional Hexachlorobenzene 118-74-1

Production

Added by the Fourth Conference of Parties, May 2009

These modifications will come into force on 26 August 2010, except for countries that submit a notification
pursuant to the provisions of paragraph 3(b) of Article 22.[3]
Stockholm Convention 132

Annex Name CAS Exemptions

Number

A. Elimination α-Hexachlorocyclohexane 319-84-6 None

A. Elimination β-Hexachlorocyclohexane 319-85-7 None

A. Elimination Chlordecone 143-50-0 None

A. Elimination Hexabromobiphenyl 36355-01-8 None

A. Elimination Hexabromodiphenyl ether various Production none

and heptabromodiphenyl ether Use recycling and reuse of articles containing
these compounds

A. Elimination Lindane 58-89-9 Production none

Use Human health pharmaceutical for control of
head lice and scabies as second line treatment

A. Elimination & C. Pentachlorobenzene 608-93-5 None

Unintentional Production

A. Elimination Tetrabromodiphenyl ether various Production none

and pentabromodiphenyl ether Use recycling and reuse of articles containing
these compounds

B. Restriction Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), its salts and various Production for permitted uses
perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride (PFOSF) Use various uses specified in part III of
Annex B

Controversies
Although some critics have alleged that the treaty is responsible for the continuing death toll from malaria, in reality
the treaty specifically permits the public health use of DDT for the control of mosquitoes (the malaria vector).[4] [5]
[6]
From a developing country perspective, a lack of data and information about the sources, releases, and
environmental levels of POPs hampers negotiations on specific compounds, and indicates a strong need for
research.[7]

References
[1] http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Countries/ StatusofRatification/ tabid/ 252/ language/ en-US/ Default. aspx
[2] Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention. "Measures to reduce or eliminate POPs" (http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Portals/ 0/ docs/ publications/
sc_factsheet_001. pdf) (PDF). Geneva. . Retrieved 12 June 2009.
[3] Depostary notification (http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Portals/ 0/ download. aspx?d=UNEP-POPS-COP-NOTIF-DN-CN524-2009. English. pdf),
Secretary-General of the United Nations, 26 August 2009, , retrieved 2009-12-17.
[4] Curtis, C. F. (2002), "Should the use of DDT be revived for malaria vector control?", Biomedica 22 (4): 455–61, PMID 12596442.
[5] 10 Things You Need to Know about DDT Use under The Stockholm Convention (http:/ / www. who. int/ malaria/ docs/ 10thingsonDDT. pdf),
World Health Organization, 2005, .
[6] Bouwman, H. (2003), "POPs in southern Africa" (http:/ / 192. 129. 24. 144/ licensed_materials/ 0698/ bibs/ 3003o/ 3003o0297. htm),
Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 3O: Persistent Organic Pollutants, pp. 297–320, .
[7] Bouwman, H. (2004), "South Africa and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants", Sth. Afr. J. Sci. 100 (7/8): 323–28.
Stockholm Convention 133

External links
• Official site (http://www.pops.int/)
• Text of the Convention (http://chm.pops.int/Portals/0/Repository/convention_text/
UNEP-POPS-COP-CONVTEXT-FULL.English.PDF)
Article Sources and Contributors 134

Article Sources and Contributors

Pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395402959  Contributors: .snoopy., 168..., 16@r, 5 albert square, @pple, A little insignificant, ABF, AJR, APsci, Aarchiba,
Abeg92, Absroks, Acalamari, Acather96, AdamCarden, Addihockey10, AdjustShift, Adriaan, Adrian, Aeidein, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajor, Aksi great, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale
jrb, Aliensvortex, Alksub, Alloquep, AnakngAraw, Anand Karia, Anaraug, Anarchangel, Andrei Stroe, Andrewhiteisgay, Andrewrp, Andy M. Wang, Andy120290, AndySpeed, Andyjsmith,
Anenglishperson, Angela, Anitaisme, Anlace, Anna Lincoln, Anon169, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous editor, Antandrus, Antidemon, Anurag.yadav090, Aqwis, Arjun01, Arnack, Arpit123,
Arthena, Arturo zuniga, Asterion, AutoGeek, Avicennasis, Avoided, Awesomeness, Awotter, Aymatth2, AzureFury, Badgernet, Banes, Bargains001, Barthandelus, Basar, Battoe19, Bejnar,
Beland, Ben Ben, Bhadani, Bidgee, Big Brother 1984, Bigger digger, Bill37212, Black-Velvet, Blackangel25, BlankVerse, Blossom ananya, Bluezy, Bobby H. Heffley, Bobet, Bobo192,
Bogdangiusca, Bookofjude, BostonMA, Bowlhover, Brent bray, Brockle, Brugess36, Burgercat, Burzmali, C.Fred, C6541, CALR, CUSENZA Mario, Cactus.man, Cadmium, Caelarch, Caffeine,
Calmer Waters, Calor, Caltas, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, Canderson7, Caper13, Capricorn42, Casmith 789, Casper2k3, Cenarium, Cgingold, Chani072398,
CharlotteWebb, Chcknwnm, Cherry blossom tree, Cherrylips 15, Christian75, Christopher Parham, Chriswaterguy, Chuunen Baka, Cinnamon42, Citizen Premier, CleanUp2, Cleverclogs1234,
Closedmouth, Cmcnicoll, Codetiger, Coemgenus, ColetteHoch, Confession0791, Connormah, Controlfreak0, Conversion script, Corpx, Cosmos416, Courcelles, Cptmurdok, Curps,
Cwilliamsdog, D0li0, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DHeyward, DSRH, DVD R W, DVdm, DabMachine, Dadude3320, Daniel Collins, Daniel5127, Daron48813, Davewho2, Davewild, David
Kernow, David Shankbone, DavidRader, Davidzukovny, Dbiel, Dean1970, Deenoe, Deli nk, Deniz Feneri, Dephuna, DerHexer, Destructo111, Dfa881, Dhs, Diannaa, Dice4321, Dino,
Discospinster, Dj Capricorn, Dlary, DogNewTricks, Donarreiskoffer, Donkeynilasish, Doulos Christos, Download, Drmies, Drs4ever, Drstuey, Dungodung, Durova, ERcheck, Earth, EarthPerson,
Econrad, Ecw.technoid.dweeb, Ed Poor, Edgar181, EdoDodo, Edward, Edward321, Egmontaz, El C, ElectricEye, Elfino, Emiljosthomas, Emmettco, Enauspeaker, Epbr123, Epipelagic,
Eras-mus, EricWesBrown, EronMain, Esfandieasil, Estonofunciona, Euchiasmus, Everyking, Ex nihil, Excirial, Ezzex, FF2010, Fabricationary, Fagopyrum, Fang Aili, Fanghong, Fanra,
Fastilysock, Favonian, Fieldday-sunday, Finlay McWalter, Fizzred, Flewis, Flo98, Flyguy649, FlyingPenguins, Fratrep, Frecklefoot, Frosted14, Furrykef, Fæ, Gabriel Kielland, Gaius Cornelius,
Geoffspear, George The Dragon, George100, GeorgeStepanek, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Ginsengbomb, Glandrid, Glane23, Glen, Glenn, Gobbleswoggler, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Goldom,
Gopy333, GorillaWarfare, Grafen, Graham87, Granitethighs, Gtg179u, Guanaco, Gueneverey, Gunnville, Gurch, Gwernol, H Padleckas, Haakon, Hagedis, Haha2014, Haham hanuka, HalJor,
Happysailor, Harishreddya6991, Haukurth, Headbomb, Healthvalue, Heimstern, Helix84, Henrik, Heron, Hitrish, Hmrox, Hockey294, Holon67, Hoo man, Housecat Monkey, Hu12, Humus
sapiens, HybridBoy, Hydrogen Iodide, Hyperandy, IGlowInTheDark, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IJA, IRP, Ialsoagree, Ibbn, Iced Kola, Immunize, Imnotminkus, ImperfectlyInformed, Incantation,
Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Infrogmation, Intelligentsium, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, It Is Me Here, Ivang, Ixfd64, J Di, J.delanoy, JForget, JLMadrigal, JLaTondre, JNW, JRR Trollkien,
JTSchreiber, Ja 62, Jackmonk, Jagged 85, Jake1237, JamesAM, JamesBWatson, Jandrewc, Janedeer, Jeandré du Toit, Jeff3000, Jeffh822, Jesse0307, Jhon montes24, Jj137, Jklin, JodyB,
JoeSmack, Joel Russ, John, JohnJohn, Johnbrownsbody, JonatasM, Jons63, Jordansege, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jrockley, Jrtayloriv, Jusdafax, JustforI, Jwalte04, Katherine, Kctony, Ke5crz,
Keegan, Kennyer39, Kevin B12, Kf4bdy, Khukri, Kils, Kingpin13, Knucmo2, Kribbeh, Kster45, Kurieeto, L Kensington, LLDMart, LOL, LUCKY GAURAV, La goutte de pluie, Lakersdude09,
Lankiveil, Lbr123, LeaveSleaves, LeinaD natipaC, Leszek Jańczuk, Leuko, Levineps, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Lijnema, Linuxbeak, LizardJr8, Lmblackjack21, LokiV, Lost tourist, Lotje,
Luk, Luna Santin, MC MasterChef, MC10, MER-C, MJ94, MONGO, Mac, Mack782, Madhero88, Majorly, Makeemlighter, Malcolm Farmer, Manu bcn, MapleTree, Mardenpb1, Marek69,
MarkSutton, Markco1, MastCell, Master of Puppets, Matticus78, Mauro100, Maxí, Mbertsch, Mbeychok, McSly, Mechanical digger, MeekSaffron, Melissa1995, Mentality, Mentifisto, Mercury,
MichaelBillington, Midgrid, Miguool, Mikael Häggström, MikeCapone, Mikegrant, Mikemill, Mikeo, Minna Sora no Shita, Mintleaf, Minwu, Miranda, Mkbnett, Mkfwd, Modulatum, Modupe
adetifa, Molerat, MonoAV, Montelatici, Mookie25, Mordgier, Morven, Motownnw17, Mr. Quickling, Mr. XYZ, MrOllie, Mrs Trellis, Mwanner, Mwilso24, N5iln, NJA, Nagy, Nakon, Natalya,
NawlinWiki, Ndkl, Nehrams2020, NeilN, Neko-chan, Neonblak, Nerd 2, NewEnglandYankee, Newsroom hierarchies, Nibuod, Nick, Nicknw909, NigelR, Nikis7 denisse, Nilfanion, Nixeagle,
Nomoretalking1976, Nopetro, Ocolon, Od Mishehu, Ohnoitsjamie, Old Moonraker, Omicronpersei8, Onceler, Onkelschark, Opelio, Ori.livneh, Oschoonover, PKn, PM800, PRRfan, Pakaraki,
Paleorthid, Pan Dan, Pascal.Tesson, Paul August, Peaface25, Pekaje, Peruvianllama, PeterSymonds, Peterlewis, Pgk, Ph.D.Nikki, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phil153, Philip
Trueman, Philippe, Pill, Pinderpower, Pinethicket, Poccil, Poetic Decay, Pollinator, Pollutionfighter, Porqin, Prof.glue, Prolog, PuzzletChung, Pwelleman, Pyroflames0, Qaz2, Queen Rhana,
Quietust, Quintote, Qxz, RB972, RJaguar3, RaCha'ar, Rafael Archuleta, Rahul31singh31, RandomStringOfCharacters, Ratinator, Raul654, Raylena, Rdash, Reach Out to the Truth, Redthoreau,
Reguiieee, Remi0o, Rettetast, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, RichAromas, Richard001, Richard416282, Riotrocket8676, Rjwilmsi, Rljohnson37, Rob011, Robert Merkel, Roberta F., Rockstone35,
Rokbas, Ronhjones, Rory096, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Rrburke, Ryt, S.s23shipra, SCEhardt, SMG Bailey, SQGibbon, Sabarna, Sam Korn, Sam907, Samgarne, Samohyl Jan, Samsameerindia,
Samtheboy, SamuelTheGhost, Sangeethasuri, Sango123, SchfiftyThree, Schlüggell, Schrandit, Schzmo, Scientus, Sciurinæ, Seagull76, Seb az86556, Senthryl, Seraphimblade, Sf18echo, Sfoskett,
Shadowin, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shashank321, SheikYerBooty, Sheogorath, Sherif98, Shiftchange, Shoujun, Sidasta, Siddhant, Siliconov, SineWave, Sinn, Sjakkalle, Sjö, Skarebo, SkerHawx,
Skoolgeek101, Skysmith, SleepyHappyDoc, Slippery Mudhills, Smartse, SmilesALot, Snisfrealaaa, Snowolf, Socrates2008, Some jerk on the Internet, Sophie, SpLoT, SpNeo, Spliffy, SpuriousQ,
Srtxg, Ssbohio, Staples, Stars4change, Stemonitis, Stephenb, Stevenmitchell, Stevertigo, Strangerer, Stwalkerster, Suffusion of Yellow, SuperDude115, Superabhay, Superm401, Supermousedog,
SweetNeo85, Symane, Synchronism, TBadger, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tangotango, Tanthalas39, Tbhotch, Teedude10, Tekana, Template namespace initialisation script, Templationist,
Texas™, Thannad, The Cunctator, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Utahraptor, The Vindictive, The wub, Thelifeofbrian, Thennarasu, Theodopulus, Thiagoreis leon,
Thingg, Thue, Tide rolls, TigerShark, Tiptoety, Titoxd, Tnxman307, Tobby72, Tom harrison, Tombomp, Tommy2010, Toyotaboy95, Tpbradbury, TransUtopian, Traxs7, Trigger hippie77,
Triplejumper, Tristanb, Triwbe, Trusilver, TutterMouse, Tv316, Twoe gappes, UBeR, Ultramarine, Uncle Dick, Unknown1015, Unschool, User2004, Utcursch, Uyanga, V95micfa, VMS Mosaic,
Valaggar, Veinor, Velella, Versageek, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vickyvicky vijay, Vrenator, Vsmith, WJBscribe, Walden, Walkerma, Walton One, WatermelonPotion, Wavelength, Wayne Olajuwon,
Wayward, West.andrew.g, WhisperToMe, Whowantstobeamillionaire, Wiki alf, WikiRigaou, WikiSlasher, Wikipelli, Wikitanvir, Wimt, Wj32, Woohookitty, WorstWikipedistEver, Woseph,
Wperdue, WriterHound, XXXBILLYXXX, Y2H, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yk Yk Yk, Yourmother125912521, Z.E.R.O., Zbecerr, Zero Gravity, Zhou Yu, Zikrullah, Zinzie, Zippy, Zjhafeez, Zsinj, º¡º,
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Pollutant  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393300280  Contributors: 16@r, Adashiel, Alan Liefting, Alanadexter, AlphaEta, Arthur Rubin, Awotter, BRG, Bluerasberry,
Boxandwhiskar, CALR, Cacycle, Capt. James T. Kirk, Cdang, ChVA, Conversion script, Daniel Collins, Deglr6328, Derek Ross, Deville, Dhp1080, Edward, Fanghong, Fornaeffe, Giftlite, Hard
Raspy Sci, Headbomb, Ian Pitchford, IvanLanin, JForget, Jacopo Werther, Jboggs, K10wnsta, Knuckles, Mac, Magioladitis, Magnus Manske, Mbeychok, Moreau1, Pearle, Pinethicket, Polonium,
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Cambrasa, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canterbury Tail, Capricorn42, Carlosguitar, Carterdriggs, Caster23, Catmoongirl, Chato, Cheesus55, Chet1234567,
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Corpx, Courcelles, Covalent, Cst17, Ctbolt, D. Recorder, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DFS, DVD R W, DabMachine, Dacostaallenm, Daniel 1992, Daniel5127, DanielEng, DanielleHurley, Darkspots,
Dasani, Davidduck, Dawn Bard, Deathmoose12, Definetely coolash2007, Delldot, DennyColt, Dentren, Deor, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Dethme0w, Diannaa, Dicklyon, Digitalme, Diliff,
Dinnerbone, Dirkbb, Discospinster, Dj7amood, Dlary, Dodo bird, Doomer4life, DotComCairney, Download, Dpeters11, Dr. Blofeld, DrABomb, Drc79, DrumCarton, DualHelix, Duja, Dust
Filter, E9, ESkog, EVCM, EagleFan, EdTrist, Edalgarden, Eeekster, Elassint, Eleland, Eleven even, Elio96, Envirocorrector, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Erpbridge, Esanchez7587, Escape Orbit,
Eternal Pink, Evil saltine, Evolauxia, Ewlyahoocom, Excirial, Eye of the Mind, FF2010, Fabricationary, Falcanary, Faradayplank, Fatzo1, Finalius, Finn Bjørklid, Firetrap9254, Firien,
FisherQueen, Fl, Flammingo, FordPrefect42, Fordan, Freakofnurture, Fred Bauder, Fredbauder, Fredwerner, FreplySpang, Fsotrain09, GPohlhammer, Gabriel Kielland, Gail, Gamaliel, Gene
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GreatWhiteNortherner, Greatestrowerever, Grim23, Grsz11, Grundle2600, Guycalledryan, Gwernol, Gzkn, Gökhan, H Bruthzoo, HalfShadow, Happyidiot01, Hasslejp, Haza-w, Hdt83,
Headbomb, Heavilybroken16, Hello32020, Henryisamazingyeh, Hephaestos le Bancal, HisSpaceResearch, Hmrox, Hnoble32, Hotcrocodile, Hro, Hu, Hu Gadarn, Hu12, Husond, I eat pee pee,
I.M.S., II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IRP, Iain99, Ibagli, Icairns, IchWeigereMich, Idontthinkso, Iknowyourider, ImaginaryFriend, Immunize, Imroy, Instinct, Inter, Inwind, Ipso2, Ishtaath, Islander,
Isotope23, IwantCleanAir, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, J04n, JForget, JHMM13, JTSchreiber, JaGa, Jacek Kendysz, Jack Sprat69, Jackecko, Jamesontai, Jansch, Jay-wilson, Jayke93, Jdcooper, Jdrewitt,
Jebba, Jeff G., JetLover, Jiddisch, Jlau521, Jmlk17, Jobbybobby, John buddy, John254, JonHarder, Joncnunn, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joyous!, Jpgordon, Jtir, Juliancolton, Junglecat,
Justinlam1009, Jvr725, Jwissick, K95, KNHaw, KPH2293, Kaare, Karl2620, KatrinaBindi, Kbdank71, Kelisi, Kell, Ken Gallager, Ketsuekigata, Khukri, KieferFL, King Lopez, King of Hearts,
Kingpin13, Kiran Gopi, KirinX, Kms3f, KnowledgeOfSelf, Knowledgeum, Koyaanis Qatsi, KrakatoaKatie, Kubigula, Kukini, Kummi, Kungfuadam, KuroiShiroi, KurtRaschke, Kuru, Kyora473,
LOL, La Parka Your Car, Lacrimosus, Lamefreakin, Lan Yingjie, Lazylaces, Lcarscad, Lcarsdata, Ldurfee, LeaveSleaves, LedgendGamer, Les boys, Leslie Mateus, LibLord, Liface, Lightmouse,
Likelycandidate, Ling.Nut, Linnell, LizardJr8, Lockley, Lonestar662p3, Lopezdiaz, Lou1986, Lradrama, Lrdwhyt, Luk, Lupo, Lupoblanco, M00seo00o, MZMcBride, Mac, Macintosh User,
Madhero88, Malcolm Farmer, Mandarax, Mangostar, Marek69, Mark7-2, Markp1968, Martin451, MastCell, Master dingley, Mastermind Troll, Mastrchf91, Materialscientist, Matt Fitzpatrick,
Matt.T, Mauro100, Maurreen, Max rspct, Maximus Rex, Maxis ftw, Mbeychok, Mbz1, Meaghan, Megaman en m, Melaen, Mentifisto, MetsFan76, Mhby87, Mhking, Michael Hardy, Microtony,
Midgrid, Miggienator18, MightyWarrior, Miguel294, Mike Rosoft, Mike.lifeguard, Milkyface, Mimmee, Mindmatrix, Mister1nothing, Mitsuhirato, Mlpearc, Monterey Bay, Morenooso,
Moroboshi, Morte, Moskvax, Mr Adequate, Mr. XYZ, Mr.Z-man, MrBobla, MrPallarino, Mtaylor848, Mulad, Munckin, My name, Mygerardromance, Myncknm, MysteryDog, NHJG,
NHSavage, Nascar1996, Naserke, Natalie Erin, NawlinWiki, Nbennardo, Ncmvocalist, Nescio, Netalarm, New4325, NewEnglandYankee, Nick, Nivix, Noah Salzman, Nono64, Nopetro, Nsaa,
Article Sources and Contributors 135

NuclearWarfare, Nudecline, Nukeless, Nut-meg, Nuttycoconut, Ohnoitsjamie, Ojigiri, OllieFury, Omicronpersei8, Omulazimoglu, Onceler, Optigan13, Orange Suede Sofa, Oroso, Ottawa4ever,
Oxymoron83, PDH, PV=nRT, Pampas Cat, Paul August, Paxsimius, Pbroks13, Pburka, Peachey88, Pedicabo ego vos et irrumabo, Peri, Peter, Peter Karlsen, Peterlewis, Peterrhyslewis, Pflatau,
Phaedriel, Phantomsteve, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, PiaH, Piano non troppo, PierreAbbat, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Plasticup, Pmhunt, Poeloq, Pokemon222222, Politepunk, Pollutionfighter,
Poo13, Porqin, Pretzelpaws, Professor marginalia, Proofreader77, Pschwa, Pyroflames0, Quadell, Quintote, Qwfp, Qwghlm, Qxz, R'n'B, Rak-Tai, Random account 47, RandomP, Rd232, Reach
Out to the Truth, Recurring dreams, RedBLACKandBURN, Repliedthemockturtle, Rettetast, RexNL, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Richardelainechambers, Rickington, Rifleman 82, Rishb, Rje,
Rjwilmsi, Rl, Roastytoast, Robert Skyhawk, Roberta F., Rocksanddirt, Romanskolduns, Rory096, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Rtdrury, RxS, Ryan Postlethwaite, RyanCross, SCEhardt,
SHIMONSHA, SJP, SMC, SWAdair, Sam Hocevar, Sam Korn, Saperaud, Sarahmschutz, Sarregouset, Savant13, SchfiftyThree, SchuminWeb, Scientizzle, Scm83x, Sd31415, Securiger, Senor
sopa, Shadowjams, Shangrilaista, Shanoman, Shark0716, Shawn in Montreal, Shobhit102, Shoeofdeath, Shotwell, Siim, Silencedmajority, SimonD, SimonP, SiobhanHansa, Sir Nicholas de
Mimsy-Porpington, Siroxo, Site manager, Sjakkalle, Sjö, Slakr, Sljaxon, Slyguy, Smalljim, Smartse, Sniggity, Snoyes, Somenerd, Sopranosmob781, Soumik ghosh, South Bay, Spiffy sperry,
SpigotMap, Spitfire, Splat, SpuriousQ, SpyMagician, Starshadow, Staycool rushabh, Stemonitis, StephanieM, Stephenb, Stian, Sturm58, Susan Mason, SweetNeo85, Sylent, T24G, TBadger,
TDS, Taha amjad, Tangotango, Tanthalas39, Tcncv, TeaDrinker, Teamjenn, Techman224, TedE, Teh roflmaoer, Templationist, Tempodivalse, The Fifth Horseman, The Thing That Should Not
Be, The Vindictive, The wub, TheDJ, TheFeds, TheGerm, TheKMan, ThePointblank, TheRanger, Thedjatclubrock, Thegreatdr, Thejerm, Thenyarx, ThinkBlue, Tide rolls, Tiggerjay, Tim1357,
Tiptoety, Titoxd, TomTheHand, Tombomp, Tomchiukc, Tpbradbury, Travelbird, TreadingWater, Triona, Tslocum, Ttsuchiya0491, Twiggy 4 eva, Tyw7, Uber nemo, Ulric1313, Uncle Dick,
User2004, VSquared, Vary, Veesicle, Veinor, Versus22, Vicki Rosenzweig, VictorianMutant, Victory721, Virtual Cowboy, Vortexrealm, Vranak, Vsmith, W guice, WODUP, Walor,
WatermelonPotion, Wavelength, Wee11, West.andrew.g, Western Pines, Wifiless, Wiki alf, WikiLaurent, Wikityke, Will Beback, Wimt, Wknight94, Wnauta, Wolverine1121, Woohookitty,
WriterHound, Wsiegmund, Wtmitchell, XF641D9K, Xavexgoem, Xaxx, Xen 1986, Xeno, Xxxxxxxxxxxxl, Y23, Yamamoto Ichiro, YixilTesiphon, Yorkshire29, Zikiodotte, Zoicon5, Zsinj,
Zzuuzz, ΙωάννηςΚαραμήτρος, ‫لیقع فشاک‬, 2116 anonymous edits

Light pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393237353  Contributors: 041744, 2toise, 75th Trombone, A Stop at Willoughby, Accurizer, Adam850, Akamad, Alan
Liefting, Alansohn, Albester, Alnokta, Andersmusician, Andre Engels, Andycjp, Andyroo g, Anlace, Ann Stouter, Anthony Arrigo, Antonio Lopez, Arbiter117, Ardo191, Arthena,
AstroHurricane001, Axeman89, Baeksu, Bbpen, Beetstra, Berkut, Betacommand, Bevo, Bige1977, BillFlis, BitterMan, Bkell, Blathersby, Bletch, BlueEarth, Bob98133, Bobblewik, Bobo192,
BorisFromStockdale, Bryan Derksen, Bsherr, Btafreshi, C.Fred, Cactus.man, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canberra User, Casper2k3, Catgut, Cburnett,
CelticWonder, Chamal N, Chesnok, Chris Roy, ChrisCork, ChrisHodgesUK, Cieloscuro, Civil Engineer III, Cluginbuhl, Cocuyo, Coffee, Collegebookworm, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker,
Conversion script, Craigsjones, Cremepuff222, D. F. Schmidt, Daniel J. Leivick, Dantheman531, David G Brault, Dcoetzee, DeadEyeArrow, Deltapi, Denelson83, DerHexer, Difu Wu,
Discospinster, Dlrohrer2003, Download, Downstream, Dust Filter, Dusti, E Pluribus Anthony, Ed Cormany, Ed Poor, EdgeOfEpsilon, Eidako, El C, Emijrp, Enviroboy, Envirocorrector,
Equendil, Eregli bob, Esfandieasil, Esn, Eumolpo, Fastily, Felix Wiemann, Fireaxe888, Foobaz, Fotaun, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth Bruce, Gary King, GavinTing, Geniac, Gentgeen, Geremia,
GiancarloGotta, Giftlite, Gilliam, GngstrMNKY, Gobonobo, GrahamLP, Gralo, Grand Dizzy, Ground Zero, Hashar, Hdt83, Head, Headbomb, Henry Flower, Heron, Hertz1888, Hooriaj, Hop77,
Hordaland, Hottentot, Hurtetusda, Inkypaws, Into The Fray, Itsmine, Izogi, J.delanoy, JHMM13, JRR Trollkien, JWGreen, Jackp, Jayjg, Jeff G., Jenikhollan, Jimtaip, JoanneB, Joeblakesley,
JohnOwens, Johnny Au, Jonathan Kovaciny, Josh Parris, Karol Langner, Keegan, Kenneth Cooke, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kosebamse, Koyaanis Qatsi, Krushdiva, Ksenon, Ktr101, Kukini, Kwigell,
Lambiam, Lamiot, Leon7, Lexor, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Ligulem, LilHelpa, Litefantastic, Looxix, Loren.wilton, Lova Falk, MGTom, MMich, MSTCrow, Mangostar, Manu bcn,
Margin1522, Martarius, Marty 0750, Master of Puppets, Materialscientist, Mdd4696, Measure, Meelar, Megan 189, Metafax1, Mhansen, Michael Hardy, Middayexpress, Midgrid, Mifter, Mike s,
Millbrooky, Mimihitam, Mitsuhirato, Mormegil, Mozasaur, Mykll, N5iln, NJR ZA, Nagkamali sa trigo, NawlinWiki, Neutrality, Nick carson, Nihiltres, Nikai, NoEggsHere, Nsaa, Numbo3,
Omegatron, Onebravemonkey, Onorem, Open2universe, PCHS-NJROTC, Pagw, Party, Passionless, Patrick, Pats1, Pearle, Peregrine981, Pflatau, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, PhilipStobbart,
Photophiliac, Pigsonthewing, Pizza Puzzle, PleaseStand, Pollinator, PrestonH, Pwnage8, R Lee E, RG2, Rboatright, Reedy, Rei, Reinyday, RexNL, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Rintojiang,
Rjwilmsi, Rnt20, Robert Merkel, Rohnadams, S0uj1r0, SBarnes, ST47, Sabarna, Samuelcraft09, Sango123, Saperaud, ScOtTyZ, Schenzman, Scottk, Sean Whitton, Securiger, Seth Ilys, Sfan00
IMG, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shblight, Sherazade96, SimonP, Skatebiker, Skywalter2000, SmileToday, Snailwalker, Snaxorb, Solipsist, Songyw124, Sp3000, Srleffler, StaceyGrove, StarlightCBL,
Swaggerjacker, Tatpong, Templationist, Texture, That Guy, From That Show!, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheGreenMartian, ThePedanticPrick, Thompsma, Thorseth, Thw1309, Tigerlisa,
Tothebarricades.tk, TreasuryTag, Trilobitealive, Triona, Twinsday, Ulric1313, Uppland, Vegaswikian, Vicki Rosenzweig, VictorAnyakin, VictorianMutant, Voidxor, Voyevoda, Vsmith, Warren,
Washburnmav, Wavelength, Wayward, Windharp, Woohookitty, Worfasdgi, Wtmitchell, Wtshymanski, Xxxkhjaosxxx, Yankeguy, YorkBW, Yvan Dutil, Zerial48, Zodon, 533 anonymous edits

Marine pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396220003  Contributors: AKGhetto, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alchimista, Andonic, Anxietycello, Backslash
Forwardslash, BomBom, Brandon5485, CSWarren, Caiaffa, CambridgeBayWeather, Capricorn42, Censol, Cgingold, Cskok, Cubanonradar, DabMachine, Dasani, DeadEyeArrow, Dean1970,
Djrao25, Elemesh, Elfino, Epipelagic, Ex nihil, Fagopyrum, Falcon8765, Favonian, Flyguy649, Gene Nygaard, Gjs238, Headbomb, Hotcrocodile, Infrogmation, Inomyabcs, Jeff G., KGasso,
Kaszeta, Kevin Forsyth, Kils, Koba-chan, Lesliebre, LilHelpa, Luthiens submarine, Mahlum, Marinecreatures, Mazca, Miguel.mateo, Miquonranger03, Mkill, Monfornot, MrOllie, NJA, Nakon,
Niffweed17, Nsaa, Nukesea, Onceler, Pakaraki, Pakaran, Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Raywil, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rrburke, Sandstein, Seidenstud, Snowolf,
Squirepants101, Stephen, Templationist, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Themfromspace, Tommy2010, Trofobi, Usmanmumtazbutt, Valentin Zahrnt, Velella, Vsmith,
Wavelength, William M. Connolley, Willking1979, Woohookitty, 178 anonymous edits

Noise pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396672029  Contributors: -1g, 5 albert square, Aagneya, Abb615, Acather96, Adolphus79, Aeternus, Afluent Rider, Ahills60,
Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, All Is One, Amazon10x, Anakin101, Andrea105, Andycjp, Anechoic Man, Anetode, Angrymansr, Anlace, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard,
Anunay333, Aranherunar, Arpingstone, Asclepias, Atomic Monarch, AzaToth, Barticus88, BaseballDetective, Battyface, Beland, BernardBlackII, Binksternet, Biscuittin, BlueEarth, Brendan
Moody, Bunnyhugger, CALR, Caltas, Cambrasa, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canberra User, Canthusus, Capa49, Capricorn42, Ccoll, CharlotteWebb, ChillDeity, CjDMaX, Cjos, Cjwright79,
Claush66, Closedmouth, ConCompS, Connormah, Corvus cornix, Covalent, Coyote`, D. Recorder, D0762, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Daa89563, Dana boomer, Dark Serge, Dawn Bard, Dcooper,
Dekisugi, DerHexer, Dicklyon, Discospinster, DoubleBlue, Download, Drawat123, Drugsarefun123, Dumpweed777, Dysmorodrepanis, ERK, ESkog, Edward Z. Yang, ElectricEye, Empty
Buffer, Eno1, Epbr123, Epipelagic, EvilZak, Excirial, Fang Aili, Fangjian, Faradayplank, Fennec, Fiberglass Monkey, Fischer.sebastian, Flewis, Footballrocks, Fox816, Frap, Freakofnurture,
Frosted14, Fuzzy510, Fyyer, GCFreak2, Gabriel Kielland, Gaff, Gaius Cornelius, Ganesh.fc, Gawaxay, Ggrinnell, Ghaly, Giant89, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Gimpmask, Gurchzilla, Hadal, Harland1,
Headbomb, Hemanshu, Hephaestos, Heron, Hhielscher, Hooperbloob, Hu, Hyacinth, Ihope127, IncognitoErgoSum, Ipatrol, Iridescent, Irma71, Ithildraug, J.delanoy, Jamoche, Jaredroberts, Jason
Quinn, JasonMitch, JayJasper, JimVC3, JoanneB, John0099, Johnmc, Jojhutton, Jorge Stolfi, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jpers36, Juliancolton, Jwy, K2wiki, Karenjc, Kenguest, Kerotan, Kevin
B12, Kilbosh, Killjoy12, Kingpin13, Kinkyturnip, KnowledgeOfSelf, Konstable, Krajinaetc, Krakahead, KrakatoaKatie, Kwiki, L'Aquatique, LOL, LarryGilbert, Lear's Fool, Lesonyrra, Light
current, Lindosland, LittleHow, Lobo, Lordluxion, Lou.weird, Luna Santin, Lusitana, Lyrelle Everyne, MBisanz, MECU, MER-C, MFZoubeir, Maias, Makeemlighter, Malcolm Farmer,
Malcolmxl5, Mangostar, Manop, Marcopololu, Mausy5043, Max13102, McGeddon, McVities, Mdebets, Meekywiki, Meezaa., Melaen, Mentifisto, Mike Rosoft, MiloKral, Minimac,
Musica-magic 6, N5iln, Ndenison, Neutrality, Newsaholic, Nikai, Noiseactivist, Noisefighter, Nposs, O Govinda, Ocee, Omegatron, Onceler, Oxymoron83, PL290, PaperTruths, Paul Erik,
Pauljvanorden, Paxsimius, Pearle, Persian Poet Gal, Pewwer42, Pflatau, PhiLiP, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Plasticup, Pollypollypollywee, Poweroid, Pris0ner, PseudoSudo, Qwe,
Qxz, Raelx, RandomP, Rd232, Reconsider the static, Redanim, Reinyday, Rg998, Rhrad, Rich Farmbrough, Rintojiang, Rjwilmsi, Robert Bond, Roleplayer, Rolypolyman, Royalguard11,
Rrburke, Runt, Rupy, RyanGerbil10, Ryulong, S unsure36, SBKT, SCEhardt, SJP, Sachinvenga, Saga City, Sambob999999, Sandcherry, Scarlet Lioness, Scohoust, SebastianHelm, Semperf,
Shanes, Shantavira, Shiftchange, Sibi antony, SimonMayer, SkerHawx, Smappy, Smart youth, Snottywong, Solomaxwell, Srleffler, Stambouliote, Stemonitis, Stevebailey09, Stewartadcock,
Surv1v4l1st, Sw258, Sylent, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Techman224, Templationist, Teriyakimoto, Tevildo, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thunderbird2, Thunderboltz, Tibzycool, Tide
rolls, Tim Q. Wells, TimothyPilgrim, Timvasquez, Tivedshambo, Tommy2010, Travelbird, Trevor MacInnis, Triona, Tuchicita, TutterMouse, Twinsday, Typpo, UV254, Uncle Dick,
UncleBubba, UtherSRG, Vald, Valentinian, Vary, Versus22, Viriditas, Vslashg, Vsmith, Waveguy, Wavelength, Wgeorge737, Whispering, Wiki alf, Wikibofh, WikipedianMarlith, William
Pietri, Wordmoderators, WriterHound, Wyatt Riot, Xiaxei, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yamla, Z.E.R.O., Zachbe, Zikiodotte, Zodon, Zsinj, 784 anonymous edits

Radioactive contamination  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393329883  Contributors: Aarchiba, Aditya Gune, Alansohn, Altenmann, Anna Lincoln, AnthonyA7, Anville,
Becook, Bornintheguz, Bryan Derksen, Cadmium, Caknuck, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carbon-16, Charles Matthews, Coffee, Corruptcopper, DV8 2XL, Daggerstab, Deglr6328, Dennis
Brown, Dgies, Eric119, Fastfission, Floodamanny, Fredrik, Furrykef, Gene Nygaard, Getcrunk, Gregz08, Gwernol, Hall Monitor, Headbomb, Icairns, Ikester8, Imjustmatthew, Iridescent, Jacj,
JackSchitt, Jim Swenson, JohnI, Joseph Solis in Australia, KathyR@aol.com, Kieff, Kjkolb, Ksyrie, Layla27, Lethaniol, Ligar, Light current, Lightmouse, Little guru, Lomn, LovesMacs, Luna
Santin, Martins, MassimoAr, Matveims, Mr Adequate, Mulad, Nergaal, Nihiltres, Nsaa, Oldnoah, Oxymoron83, Phearson, PhilKnight, Pstudier, Qwyrxian, R. fiend, Reconsider the static, Reyk,
Rmhermen, Robofish, Rsabbatini, Rxnd, Sasquatch, Scottfisher, Serbianboy, Shaddack, Silverwizard, Simesa, Smartse, Sophus Bie, Stepa, Stephenchou0722, SueHay, Svgalbertian, Tareq84,
Templationist, TexMurphy, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thue, Tide rolls, Tobias Bergemann, Tubbyspencer, Uruiamme, Utcursch, Vlad21263, Vsmith, Warpflyght, Wavelength,
Willking1979, Ybbor, Zoicon5, ‫کشرز‬, 115 anonymous edits

Soil contamination  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394810960  Contributors: Af38, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alucard 16, Anlace, BeGenderNeutral, Bencherlite,
Betterusername, Biscuittin, Bobo192, Borgx, CUSENZA Mario, Cadmium, Celsea5, Circeus, ClamDip, Closedmouth, Cmcnicoll, Courcelles, Covalent, DRTllbrg, DancingMan, Darth Panda,
DeadEyeArrow, Denihilonihil, Deville, Dghosh12, Dochimochi, Doniago, Drmies, Dumelow, Dycedarg, Edgar181, Epbr123, Favonian, Fieldmarshal Miyagi, Fratrep, GregorB, Gtg204y,
Gwernol, Harshpatel5, Hbent, Headbomb, HiLo48, Hotchoco-heart, ImperfectlyInformed, Iridescent, J.delanoy, J04n, Jennavecia, Jwkpiano1, Kafziel, Kilonum, Knellotron, KudzuVine, Latka,
LeaveSleaves, Leptosome, Ligulem, Longhair, Look2See1, LovesMacs, MBTuser1, MacsBug, Magioladitis, Manishearth, MarkSutton, Martynas Patasius, MassimoAr, Mattgirling, Mdwyer,
Melweave, Michael Devore, MichaelS82, Milhaus, MisfitToys, Muuurk, Natsadler, Nia12877, Nihiltres, Noah Salzman, Nposs, Oil Treatment International, Oxymoron83, Paleorthid, Peter
Kaminski, Peter M Dodge, PhilKnight, Phoenix-wiki, Pinethicket, Pissant, Pixeltoo, Plumpurple, Pollinator, Poots.hearts, Rad-Man, Rawrimjaine, Remi0o, RexNL, Rjwilmsi, Rockfang, Roy
Bateman, Russman101, Sabregirl, Sam907, Sekolov, Shadowjams, Shiny green, Smartse, Smithbrenon, Smokizzy, Soliloquial, SomedumbSN, Steveozone, Tariqabjotu, Templationist, The High
Magus, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thingg, Tide rolls, Timrem, Tinkyourmagic, Tony Fox, Urjanhai, Velella, Vsmith, WLU, Warfreak, Xue hanyu, Yamamoto Ichiro, 294 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 136

Ship pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=380851583  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Alchimista, ArchonMagnus, Aroundaround, Biker Biker, Branlon, BryanFrazar,
CSWarren, CalumH93, Cgingold, Chuck Sirloin, CoJaBo, Damien o'connell, Davidstrauss, Dean1970, Docu, Dr. Blofeld, Element16, Emmettco, Epipelagic, Haus, Hbent, Headbomb, JHunterJ,
Jeandré du Toit, Jmiele3, KJS77, Kbjerring, Keith D, LizardJr8, MKoltnow, Mangostar, Matilda, Matthew Stannard, Meegs, Mel Etitis, Mkill, NCS2004, NJA, Nonox, Onceler, Otingocni, Phil
Phree, PrincessofLlyr, Rami radwan, Rearete, RedBLACKandBURN, Reportpol, Rjwilmsi, Robinstocks, Ryanrs, Saint Midge, SkyWalker, SpuriousQ, Stephen, Taejo, Templationist,
Tpbradbury, Tristanb, Uncle Dick, Velella, Vipinhari, Vsmith, W guice, Wavelength, Wipe, Woohookitty, 70 anonymous edits

Thermal pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395011159  Contributors: (jarbarf), Acalamari, AdjustShift, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Ajaxkroon, Alansohn,
Alchimista, Anlace, Arubadude, Ayanoa, BazookaJoe, Blainster, Bobo192, Burn, CTZMSC3, Cgingold, Clarince63, Clicketyclack, Codman, Coin945, Cometstyles, Cupivistine Noscere?,
DabMachine, Dadude3320, Danski14, Dfrg.msc, Discospinster, Drunken Pirate, Duncan.france, Element16, Ellen Fawstvil, Emerson7, EncycloPetey, Enviroboy, Epipelagic, Evil Monkey, Geni,
Gilliam, Glen, HEL, Headbomb, HistoryBA, HoodedMan, Hyperflux, Iridescent, J.delanoy, Jake Wartenberg, Javert, Jeffrey Mall, Jj137, Journalist, Juliancolton, Kanonkas, Kingpin13,
Leafyplant, Loren.wilton, Lrreiche, Mackseem, Madbehemoth, Madhero88, Magioladitis, Mandoliniment, Mausy5043, Meno25, MindstormsKid, Moreau1, Mothmolevna, Mátyás, Natsirtguy,
Nlu, P3Pp3r, Pearle, Peter Karlsen, Pichpich, Pollinator, Primacag, ProperManner, RandomStringOfCharacters, Rbanzai, Reinyday, Rnt20, Rocketere o1, Rodii, Rumbehant, Ruthushan,
Sbierwagen, ShelfSkewed, Skizzik, Slakr, Specs112, Spiffy sperry, Spitfire, Srleffler, Srpnor, Stwalkerster, Tawker, Templationist, Thewhitebeaner, Thunk, Tommy2010, Tv316, Utcursch,
Versus22, Vivio Testarossa, Waggers, Wikipelli, Yamaguchi先生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Zappa711, 336 anonymous edits

Visual pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396078505  Contributors: 10ten, Abmac, Amplitude101, Andycjp, Andyjsmith, Brazzouk, BreathingMeat, Bus stop,
Davidsmind, DeltaQuad, Dentren, Dmmaus, Dragomiloff, Ericoides, Ewlyahoocom, Firey man, Funandtrvl, Headbomb, Housecat Monkey, Jgov05, KConWiki, Ken Gallager, Kurieeto, Lady
Weaxzezz, Lemonaid, Marek69, Miguel Andrade, Mkamara23, Nilfanion, Oda Mari, Onore Baka Sama, Oxymoron83, Piano non troppo, RG72, Sabarna, Shanoman, Signalhead, Stefanbcn,
Stevenmitchell, Surv1v4l1st, Templationist, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tommy2010, Transity, Wavelength, WaysToEscape, Welsh, Wikipelli, 74 anonymous edits

Water pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396335271  Contributors: 2D, 7, 88dude, A Softer Answer, A. B., A8UDI, ABCD, ABF, Aaroncrick, Abba12, Abeg92,
Acroterion, Adamsapple4, Addihockey10, Ageekgal, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Akhileshvarma1996, Aksi great, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex Rio Brazil, Alex436, Alexgilbertstudios,
AlexiusHoratius, Alloquep, Allstarecho, Alpha Quadrant (alt), AlphaAqua, Altenmann, Amis2007, AmosWolfe, Anand Karia, Andonic, Anlace, Ann Stouter, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus,
ApolloBoy, Apothecia, Applegate12345, Applegatee, Aremith, Armagecotto, Asenine, Asimepd, Asmaulai244, Astral highway, AuburnPilot, Aude, Aukland, Avicennasis, Avillia,
B-RREEZZYY, B. Wolterding, BD2412, Basar, Bbazinet, Beetstra, Bender235, Bennybp, Benzpilot, Berimbau1, Berkay0652, Betterusername, Bigafolazi, Bigtimepeace, Bigwer, Bihco,
Bill37212, Binary TSO, Bioarchie1234, Biopresto, Blanchardb, Bluerasberry, Bluezy, Bobo192, BocoROTH, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonadea, Borgx, Bork, Brianb824, Brianga, BrokenSegue,
Bruce89, Brunton, Bryan Derksen, Bsece010, Bubulili, Burzmali, Butane Goddess, C.Fred, CDM2, CDN99, CLW, CUSENZA Mario, CUTKD, Cactus.man, Caknuck, Calliopejen1, Caltas,
Calvin 1998, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser, Canderson7, CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Captain-n00dle, CardinalDan, Catgut, Centrx,
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АлександрВв, 2265 anonymous edits

Waste  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396653079  Contributors: 16@r, 1q0p, 2D, 2T, 2over0, 6tate, A Softer Answer, ACM2, Abdulvahidv, Abhi240, Acather96,
Addihockey10, AgentLewis, Ahmeds47, Aitias, Akerans, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alksub, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, Altermike, Amerika, Amistry.mistry, AmyLouBird, Andor33, Andre
Engels, Andreasd, Andrewpmk, Andycjp, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus, Anthere, Anthoncf, Anthony Appleyard, Anxietycello, Aobaru, Aplomado, Aquilosion, Arctic Night, Arczy, Arielle03,
Arig97, Art LaPella, Atif.t2, Atmar, Avihu, Azikala, B01H4XXORZ, B1link82, BHC, Backslash Forwardslash, BarretBonden, Battyboi123, Beemer69, Beetstra, Beland, Bharbara,
BigFatBuddha, Blanchardb, Bluerasberry, Bobieguy, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Bootstoots, BorgQueen, Brandon888, Brian Sisco, Brianga, Buchanan-Hermit, Calmer Waters, Camille stevenson,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Captain Wikify, Careful Cowboy, Cctoide, Celarnor, Ceoil, Cgord, Chostovs, Circeus, Ckatz, ClaireSeaborn, Clairecannon97, Clarince63,
Closedmouth, Coffee, ColCol34, Color probe, Cometstyles, Confiteordeo, Corpx, Courcelles, CrazyLegsKC, Cxz111, Cyrius, DDima, DJBullfish, DMacks, DVD R W, Da monster under your
bed, Dancter, Dangerous Angel, Danielgrad, Danno uk, Davewho2, Daydreambeliever, Dbtbandit67, Dcutter, DeadEyeArrow, Deanb, Deb, Debresser, Decstuff, Deirdre, DeliriousYeti, Deor,
Dfrg.msc, Discospinster, Dittaeva, DivineAlpha, Dj Capricorn, DocWatson42, Dominic, Doodoobear1856, DragonofFire, Drummerwoman, Dubmill, Dusk shadow187, Dx2generation,
Dysepsion, ERK, ERcheck, Ecozonz, Edcolins, Elfguy, Elipongo, Elkman, Emily Jensen, Emilyisaac, Enhaltapa, Environmentalservicesassociation, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Epsoul, Espoo,
Everyking, Evice, FF2010, Falcon8765, Fallenfromthesky, Faradayplank, Fir0002, Fnlayson, Foobar, Func, Furrykef, Fyyer, Fæ, Garfield226, Gengiskanhg, George The Dragon, GeorgeLouis,
Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Giraffedata, Gjone936, Glane23, Gnipahellir, Gobonobo, Grafen, GrahamDo, Gromlakh, Grzegorz Wysocki, Guanaco, Guitarsora, Gurch, Gurko, Hadal, Happysailor,
Harriv, Hashar, Haveapk, Hayabusa future, Headbomb, Henry W. Schmitt, Heron, HisSpaceResearch, Hoziron, Husond, Hyperonion, I dream of horses, Iamunknown, Ianbecerro,
ImperfectlyInformed, Impy4ever, Inter, Iridescent, Iris92, IrisKawling, Isnow, It Is Me Here, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, JNW, JRR Trollkien, Jakemizzo, JamesBWatson, Jauerback, Jaxl, Jay
Gatsby, Jebus989, Jenny Wong, Jerzy, Jfwilkinson11, Joethedestroyer, John Lucas, John of Reading, John254, Jojhutton, Jojit fb, Josh Jorgensen, Joshua Scott, Jreconomy, Juha Raipola,
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Kuru, Lankiveil, LedgendGamer, LeeG, Leithp, Leuko, Lilcatdog, Linkspamremover, Lizardman154, Logical Cowboy, Lord Jarrod, Luna Santin, Ly, Lykaestria, MER-C, Mac, Macintosh User,
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Qawsedrftgyhujikol123454321, RJaguar3, RadioKirk, Radiocowboy, Rajkiandris, Ranveig, Recognizance, Reeco44, Rgoodermote, Rich Farmbrough, Rjd0060, Rjpeterson, Roberta F., Rocketere
o1, Roger657, Romanceor, Roodog2k, Ropable, Rotor DB, Rrburke, SBKT, SD5, Sam Hocevar, Scarian, Scarlet Lioness, SchnitzelMannGreek, Scientizzle, Sciurinæ, Scwlong, Seaphoto,
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Article Sources and Contributors 137

SpuriousQ, SquidSK, Startstop123, StaticGull, Stephenb, Stevewonder2, Stillnotelf, Suigintou, Sunderland06, Sunray, SvenAERTS, Symane, Syrthiss, T, Taco295, Tainter, Tanaats, Tanhy,
Tanvir Ahmmed, Teles, Template namespace initialisation script, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheRasIsBack, Thegwnerd, Theintwowords, Thelogicalside,
Theodoreroosevelt2005, Theonlysilentbob, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tim22494, Titoxd, Toddst1, TomGreen, Trevor Giles, Ttm0210, Twinsday, Tyw7, UberScienceNerd, VandalCruncher, Vcelloho,
Vegaswikian, Venyx, Versageek, Viriditas, Volkov, Vonsche, Vortexrealm, Vsmith, Wafulz, Wasteuni, Wavelength, Werdan7, Westcoasteagles09, Wetman, White Shadows, Whkoh, Wi-king,
WienerBucket, WikiSlasher, Wikidmage, Wikivek, Wimt, Wingstrong, Wood Thrush, Wtmitchell, XOkISSMEEExO, XavierHager, Xezbeth, Xiong Chiamiov, Xtreme racer, Yasmi73,
Yidisheryid, YixilTesiphon, Zanimum, ‫ב לאינד‬., ‫دمحأ‬.‫يدماغ‬.24, 705 anonymous edits

Environmental management  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=392759041  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Alanadexter, Alchimista, Alkazzi, Angela GP, Arthur Rubin,
Auccl799, Bonbayel, Brastein, Carollaruba, Cassbeth, Clemifornia, Courcelles, Dbfirs, Dj Capricorn, E Wing, Esanih, EurekaLott, Fanghong, Feralfeline, Gabriel Kielland, Hdynes, JHunterJ,
Joaquín Martínez Rosado, Johnfos, Jrecinto, Kadaniel, Kengbeng, Knutls, Kuru, MER-C, Magnetiks, Mahoff, Mdd, Meco, Mr Accountable, MrOllie, Mrg3105, Newell Post, Pearle, Polinizador,
Prof C, Quaeler, RJP, Richard001, Robbiee 88, Robtrob, Samulili, Segobi, Shiftchange, Slakr, Spiffy sperry, Txuspe, Vortexrealm, Vsmith, Wavelength, WereSpielChequers, Zheezhoul, 74
anonymous edits

Regulation and monitoring of pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=374286494  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Ground Zero, Headbomb, LilHelpa, Moreau1, Nopetro,
R'n'B

Pollution prevention  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=377739885  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Andrewpmk, Bobo192, Bovineone, C777, Cactus.man, Carax,
Clerks, Escape Orbit, Explicit, Fuzzywallaby, Headbomb, Hu Gadarn, Humbabba, Insaniac99, Kilo-Lima, MER-C, Moreau1, Mr3641, NeilN, NewEnglandYankee, Noah Salzman, Paste,
Reengler, Rockfang, Sahale, Sinned, SmartyBoots, Sunray, Troy 07, Tvinson, Walkerma, Wknight94, Woohookitty, Wtfily, 63 anonymous edits

Waste management  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396509946  Contributors: - ), -Majestic-, -Midorihana-, 7, A8UDI, Aaron Schulz, Abraham, B.S., Absolutecaliber,
Accuruss, AdamWalker, Aetb, Ahoerstemeier, Ajraddatz, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alchimista, Alex.muller, AllanWaller, Allmightyduck, Allstarecho, Amakuha, Andrij Kursetsky, Angela, Anna
Lincoln, Antandrus, Anthere, Anthony Appleyard, Arshak93, Arthurlo, Atripodi, Avalokiteshvara777, Baa, Bbpen, Beineix, BeverlyCrusher, Bharbara, Bill.matthews, Bit Lordy, BjörnF, Blah3,
Blathnaid, Bobo192, Bonadea, Bookandcoffee, BozMo, Bruce1ee, Bryan Derksen, CSumit, Camille stevenson, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Captainamerica90, Carchuleta,
Casper2k3, Catgut, Cgd8d, Challenge me, Chefallen, Chrisdab, Chumribbidychum, Chuunen Baka, Cmcnicoll, Correogsk, Courcelles, Creativninnovativ, Creidieki, DAJF, DARTH SIDIOUS 2,
DMahalko, Daedelus, Darkildor, Darkwind, Davelane, David from Downunder, Dbtbandit67, Deashunboi, Denis, Devilinhell, DiggyG, Discospinster, Dj Capricorn, Docu, Download, DrDeke,
Drstuey, ESkog, Eddie tejeda, Eeee, Eekerz, Egmontaz, Elite782, Enviro Services, Enviroboy, Environmentalservicesassociation, EoGuy, Euchiasmus, Evil Monkey, Excirial, Excite the Living,
FT2, Falcon8765, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Flewis, Fuzheado, G.A.S, GTZ-44-ecosan, Gail, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gingerlard, Giri pop, Gobstopperdesigns, Gogo Dodo, GrahamDo, GreatWhiteNortherner,
Grenavitar, Grim23, Grumpyyoungman01, Guanaco, Gurchzilla, Hadal, Hairy Dude, Hard Raspy Sci, Harry the Dirty Dog, Harsh.bill, Haveapk, Hawesinsky, Headbomb, Heimstern, Heracles31,
Hfcom, Hut 8.5, Ibsilliyas, Icairns, Immunize, Incinerator2.0, Infrogmation, Intershark, Iridescent, Iris lorain, J.delanoy, JForget, JLMadrigal, JRN Pigpen, JRR Trollkien, Jackelfive,
Jackloko1092, Jake Wartenberg, Jamiemgbell, Jayc, Jeremy12201986, Jjustinjj77, John Foley, JohnnyRush10, Joostvandeputte, Jorfer, Jp347, Jujutacular, Juliancolton, Justin W Smith, KGV,
Karakas-design, Katanada, Katoa, KellyCoinGuy, Kendal Ozzel, Kennyquator, Khalid hassani, Kingpin13, Kingturtle, Kjkolb, Knowledge Seeker, Knulclunk, Kodi.robertson, Krash,
Kungfuadam, LWV Roadrunner, La goutte de pluie, Landon1980, Lateg, Lawrence Waterhouse, LeaveSleaves, Lensi, Leoghanta2002, Linkspamremover, Longhair, Loren.wilton, Luna Santin,
MECU, MER-C, MJCdetroit, Malcolm123321, Marek69, MarshallKe, Martin451, Master William On Carlton, MasterOfHisOwnDomain, Materialscientist, Maxí, Mbeychok, Micahmn, Mifter,
Mike Dillon, Mikeo, Millere08, Mindmatrix, Mion, Mitchandkayla, MonoAV, MrOllie, Mrs Trellis, Mysekurity, NJA, NVPBIOCR, Narym, Nasnema, NawlinWiki, Nburden, NeilN, Neo139,
Nistra, Novacatz, ORDIFcommunication, Odie5533, Ohnoitsjamie, Old Moonraker, Oleg Alexandrov, Openstrings, Orian71, Oxymoron83, PMDrive1061, Pakaraki, Parutakupiu, Pearle, Pedant,
Peruvianllama, Petersam, Pgan002, Phanly, Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Phynicen, PianOmega47, Pinethicket, Pinhoeman, Pinkadelica, Pinky sl, Pmlineditor, Poopilot, Possum,
Postmortemjapan, Prachi ag, Proton44, QuantumEleven, Quintote, Raijinryu, RainbowOfLight, Ray Van De Walker, Red58bill, Regancy42, Remi0o, RexNL, Rgoodermote, Rhobite, RicDod,
Riccardo.fabris, Richard001, RichardF, Rlsheehan, Roberta F., Ronz, Ropable, Rrburke, Rtdrury, Ruralgirl, Rvogt0505, Ryan Roos, SCEhardt, SEWilco, SWAdair, Saberwyn, Sandahl,
Sanguinity, Schutz, Schzmo, Sdeshmukh7656, Sean Whitton, Seanplunkett, Secretlondon, Shanes, Sherool, Silvermarbles, SimonP, Sinus, Sjakkalle, Skraz, Somethingvacant, Sonett72, South
Bay, Spiffy sperry, SpuriousQ, Stannered, Student7, SunCreator, SupaStarGirl, Superzohar, Supposed, Susvolans, Svetovid, T Clems, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Template namespace
initialisation script, Thaagenson, The Thing That Should Not Be, The pen man, Thingg, Thisisjonathanchan, Thorpe, Tide rolls, TimBentley, Tinton5, Tom007, Tommy2010, Topbanana,
Tresiden, Troglodyto, Turq, Twirligig, Ulric1313, Uncle Dick, User27091, VCA, Valenciano, ValerioC, Varpsaari, VasilievVV, Vegaswikian, Velella, Verne Equinox, Vespristiano, Vilerage,
Vince, Viriditas, Vortexrealm, Vsb, Vsmith, W, Wanless.enviro, Wasteuni, Wavelength, WhereAmI, Wik, Willking1979, Winchelsea, Xezbeth, Xkcwlx, Xochipilli BE, Yidisheryid,
Zacktheman95, Zigger, Zotel, Zro, Zzuuzz, ‫تاكرب لامج‬, 799 anonymous edits

Waste minimisation  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395343285  Contributors: ACR+ pmn, Alan Liefting, Andrewpmk, AnthonyPA, Arichnad, Beland, Betterusername,
Bkell, Bob, Canjth, Chendy, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Diannaa, Drstuey, Ebyabe, ElliotThomas, Gzkn, Headbomb, Hectorthebat, ImperfectlyInformed, Intershark, JTURI, January2007, Jared
Preston, Jarry1250, Jimjamjak, Jorcoga, Kathleen.wright5, L Kensington, Letsplaydrums, LilHelpa, Mceder, Melchoir, MichaelBillington, Misterx2000, Mr3641, Mrs Trellis, Nimbulan,
Openstrings, Orphan Wiki, Outlook, Pgan002, Psml bhor, R'n'B, Radagast83, Razorflame, Rifleman 82, Rintrah, SCEhardt, Safemariner, Skaterdoode93, Stannered, Supposed, Tbmum, The
Strategist, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Trulystand700, Vortexrealm, Wavelength, Winhunter, Zharradan.angelfire, 44 anonymous edits

Montreal Protocol  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=395156984  Contributors: 2over0, Aboalbiss, Addshore, Agradman, Alansohn, Alexwcovington, Ali'i, Ali@gwc.org.uk,
Alinor, Anomalocaris, Anton Sri Probiyantono, Arthur Rubin, Astrofreak92, Az1568, Bbold, Bearcat, Beland, Bentaboo, Bento00, Bletch, Bobo192, Borgx, Bovineone, Bracodbk, Brian0918,
Bryan Derksen, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CapitalElll, Chadlupkes, Chromega, Cl br, Cmp don, Conversion script, CortalUX, Crazycomputers, Cst17, Danny, Dave6, David Kernow,
Deglr6328, Digital paintball, Docu, Dori, Duncharris, Eastlaw, Ed Poor, Ellywa, Error792, Fanra, Firsfron, Fitzhugh, Fyyer, Good Olfactory, Graham87, Grim23, Ground Zero, Gscshoyru, Guus
Hoekman, Heavyweight Gamer, Hede2000, Houshuang, Immunize, Information Ecologist, Iridescent, Jiang, Jonathunder, Jonel, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh the Nerd, Julesd, JustAGal,
Ketiltrout, Khitomer, Kinema, Kruusamägi, Light618, Littlenuccio, Mandarax, MangoChicken, Matthewmayer, Matty16894, Mb1000, Melicans, Mister.bryan.kelley, Montrealais, Montrealers,
NawlinWiki, Neutrality, Nils Simon, Nsaa, Nuno Tavares, Nuttycoconut, Oneac, Ovideon, OzTruth, Party, Paul A, Pinkunicorn, Pinky sl, Polonium, Poltair, QEDquid, RJFJR, Ramble4hours,
Rick Block, RockMFR, Rory096, Rparson, Rsduhamel, Ruscientist, SEWilco, SHIMONSHA, Sam Hocevar, Sbharris, Scalethinker, Schaddm, Scienceman123, Shimmin, SimonP, Slightsmile,
Spearhead, Stahnkethedonkey, Syndicate, Template namespace initialisation script, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheMindsEye, Theme97, Themightyquill, Tide rolls,
Time3000, TomTheHand, Travelbird, Tronno, UninvitedCompany, Uusitunnus, Wackywace, Warfreak, Wavelength, Wcfios, Wik, Will Beback, William M. Connolley, WookieInHeat,
Xaosflux, Xrchz, Yanksox, 295 anonymous edits

Kyoto Protocol  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397106516  Contributors: 0zymandias, 101090ABC, 159753, 1dragon, 2over0, A-giau, A. Parrot, A3r0, A8UDI, ABF, ADM,
AOL account, Aaronantrim, Abc518, Ablative, Academic Challenger, Acastanares, Acegikmo1, Acterbahnmeister, Acu8509, Adamatkin, Adambro, Adashiel, Adballer30, Addihockey10,
Adjoas, Admn404, AdnanSa, Aemurphy, Aerotheque, Aewheeless, Agentbla, Agentscott00, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Aknorals, Alaexis, Alai, Alan Liefting, Alan McBeth, Alansohn, Alasdair,
Aldeby, Aldie, Alex.muller, AlexL, AlexiusHoratius, Alexpidgeon, Alexxandros, Alinor, Allenc28, Alokprasad84, Alsandro, Altermike, AmericanCentury21, Ams80, Amwyll Rwden, Anand
Karia, Andareed, Andjam, Andre Engels, Andrewcalvin, Andrewpmk, Andy Marchbanks, Andyp114, Anewpester, Angela, Angst72, Aniras, Anlace, AnnaFrance, AnnuitSophia, Antandrus,
Antonio10neopia, Aperiodic, Apoivre, Arakunem, Arcenciel, Arekku, ArielGold, Armeria, Arthur Rubin, Asabbagh, Asbl, Ashlux, Ashwinr, Asplode, Assaadrazzouk, Asskikr1001, Aston09mv,
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BlackHades, Blah42, Blobby123456, Blow of Light, Bluezy, Bob Burton, BobG, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bobw15, Bogey97, Bongwarrior, Bookofjude, Borateen, Bosniak, Bouncingmolar,
BrOnXbOmBr21, Brainsphere, Brandon, Brendan Moody, Brian0918, Brookie, Brougham96, Brusegadi, Bryan Derksen, Bryancoe, Butros, CO2Neutral, CSumit, Cahk, Caltas, Camcom, Camw,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Capefeather, Captain Disdain, Carbonconsultant, Carbuncle, CardinalDan, Catgut, Catholic Met, Catskul, Caulde, Cdc, Centrx, Chaddesch, Chanakal,
Chapiown, CharlotteWebb, Chensiyuan, Chewy m, Chopchopwhitey, Chovain, Chris 73, Chris the speller, Chrishmt0423, Christopher Parham, Chuckiesdad, Chwyatt, Ciphers, Ckatz,
CleanGreen, Clt510, Cmbant, Cn3909, Cnwb, Cobus.w, Cold Light, Colin Kimbrell, ColinJF, Color probe, Cometstyles, Commandant101, Conversion script, Coreypieper, CorpDan, Correogsk,
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DMG413, DS1953, DVD R W, Dacium, Dalizandii, Dan Pangburn, Dan100, Daniel, DarkHorizon, Darkildor, Darkverse, Darth Mike, DaveDixon, David Schaich, DavidA, DavidJ710,
DavidMSA, Dbenbenn, Dead, DeadEyeArrow, Decrypt3, Deeksha einstien, Deepak, Deglr6328, Dejvid, Delirium, DelphinidaeZeta, DerHexer, Derek.cashman, Deucalionite, Devahn58,
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Dorkdork777, DoubleBlue, DougRWms, Dpaulat, Dr Enviro, Dr. B. R. Lang, Dr. JJ, DrPhweebleschnepter, Dragons flight, Dreadstar, Drewk, Drfreid, Drkdawg, Drumguy8800, Dubc0724,
Dukakis, Dusko, Dust Filter, Dycedarg, E Pluribus Anthony, E Wing, ECWAGuru, Earl Andrew, Earth, Ed Poor, EdJohnston, Edgar181, Edward, Edward gurry, Einzelheit, Eisnel, ElKevbo,
Elfguy, Elian, Ellmist, Eloquence, Emc2, Emilyisawsumeees, Emre D., Emsherm, Emturan, Ender3057, Enemenemu, Enescot, Enitime, Enjoisk8ingac, Enquire, Enuja, Enviroboy, Epbr123,
Ephebi, Epktsang, Equinox137, Eric kennedy, Ericminikel, Eskovitz, EsperantoStand, Estel, Eteq, Eternalsexy, Etip, Evan Robidoux, Everyking, Evil saltine, Ewawer, Ezeu, FERN EU, FF2010,
FWBOarticle, Fanghong, Favian44, Fedallah, Feedyourfeet, Feinoha, FeloniousMonk, Fic-in, Fitzhugh, Flcelloguy, Flewis, FocalPoint, Fonzy, Fosnez, Fox, Fpaudon, Fraxinus Croat,
Frecklefoot, Fredrik, Freeky89, Frip1000, Frogman333, Frymaster, Fudoreaper, Fvw, GD, GHe, Gabbe, Gael, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Galahaad, Gardevior, Gdo01, Gekritzl, General Wesc, Geni,
GenkiNeko, GerryWolff, Ghostalker, Giftlite, Giggy, Ginsengbomb, GirasoleDE, Gnuosphere, Gobonobo, Godardesque, Gogo Dodo, Good Olfactory, Goutham91, Graft, Graham87, Grahamec,
Gralo, Great Scott, Green Giant, GreenReaper, Greenman, GregorB, Grouf, Ground Zero, Grundle2600, Grunt, Gtadoc, Gtstricky, Guaka, Guettarda, Gugilymugily, Gunnar Larsson, Gurch,
Gurchzilla, Gwernol, Gyndanya, Gökhan, H.al-shawaf, Hadal, Hagedis, Haha169, HalfShadow, Haljackey, Hall Monitor, Hamiltonian, Hanzo2050, Harel, Harland1, Harryzilber, Hasan en,
Hayabusa future, Headbomb, Hectard, Hede2000, Helixblue, Helixweb, Helldjinn, Henry Flower, Hilosoph, HistoryBA, Hmains, Hmrox, Hor-he george, House1630, Hrvoje Simic,
Article Sources and Contributors 138

Hsuiahfsahfuihauif, Hu12, Hullo exclamation mark, Husond, Hut 8.5, HybridBoy, Hydrogen Iodide, IE, IMpbt, IRP, IWhisky, Ias2008, Icairns, IceKarma, IceUnshattered, Icseaturtles, Iddri,
Ideogram, Immunize, Indefatigable, Indosauros, Informed counsel, Inkjet360, Insanephantom, Int21h, Interscan, Iridescent, Irishguy, Iupolisci, Ixfd64, J Di, J. Matthew Bailey, J.delanoy, JForget,
JJIG, JLaTondre, JRR Trollkien, JYolkowski, JaGa, JackofOz, Jackson744, Jacob Birk, Jacob.vankley, Jadeoshi, Jaganath, Jahiegel, Jake Wartenberg, Jaked122, JamesMLane, Jameycob,
JamieS93, Jason Cherniak, Java13690, JavierMC, Jayanta Sen, Jaybird vt, Jc-S0CO, Jcc1, Jdt2858, Jeandré du Toit, Jeffbowman, Jehandz, Jellyandjam, JeremyA, JesseGarrett, Jezuit, Jfg284,
Jiang, Jimbo Wales, Jinwei1019, Jj137, Jjron, Jkmccrann, Jodie44, Jon Awbrey, JonGwynne, Jonathan Hall, Jones McAnthony, Jonpin, Joostvandeputte, Jordan Timmins, Jorfer, Jose77, Joseph
Solis in Australia, JosephKing, Josh Parris, JoshG, JoshuaZ, Jovianeye, Joyous!, Jp347, Jpeob, Jsklad, Jumbuck, Junes, Jw94, Jwc58, Jwissick, KVDP, Kaicarver, Kaisershatner, Kardrak,
Karlhendrikse, Kasaalan, Kbdank71, Kcordina, Ke4roh, Keilana, KeithB, KeithH, Keithh, Ken Arromdee, Kgashok, Kgrr, Killiondude, Kilrothi, KimDabelsteinPetersen, Kingandpharoh,
Kingpin13, KlausH, Klo, Knipper, KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, Kofiannansrevenge, Kokiri, Kornfan71, Kozuch, Kransky, Krich, Kshofu, Kungfuadam, Kunstsalon-wittenberg, Kurykh,
Kylstoman, L Kensington, LFaraone, Landon1980, Lathrop1885, LeadSongDog, Lebite, Legend, LeilaniLad, Lejman, Leki, Lemmey, Leondoneit, Levineps, Lexor, Liamscollen, Life of Riley,
Light current, Lightmouse, Ligulem, Likwidshoe, LilHelpa, LittleOldMe, Livedevilslivedevil, LizardJr8, Llort, Lonelydodger, Looxix, Lowellian, Lowerarchy, Lozeldafan, Ltfhenry,
Lucid-dream, Ludalutka, Lumidek, Luna Santin, Luohan, Lyght, MBlume, MDCore, MER-C, MLeamy, MONGO, MPF, MSTCrow, Mac, Maddie!, Madsdk, Magister Mathematicae, Maikeda,
Mailer diablo, Male1979, Malekhanif, Malkinann, Mansoor.siddiqi, Maple546, Marc A. Dubois, Marcg106, Marcika, Marco Krohn, Mariordo, Mark Zinthefer, Martin451, MartinHarper,
Martpol, Mary quite contrary, Master Jay, Master of Puppets, Matilda, Mattbr, Matthew Yeager, Maury Markowitz, Mav, MaxPont, Maxis ftw, McSly, Mda621, Me6620, Meelar, Mendaliv,
Merbabu, Mercy, MetsFan76, Michael Bednarek, Michael T. Richter, Michaelbusch, Miguel, Mike Rosoft, MikeCapone, Mikebar, Mikeblas, Mikenosilly, Million Moments, Mintguy,
Miquonranger03, Mira, Mirv, Missionary, Mjmcb1, Mks86, Mmxx, Mobius27, Moe Epsilon, Moehockey, Monobi, Montrealais, Mony, Moontripper, Morwen, Mousy, Movabletype, MoxRox,
Mozart2005, Mpj17, Mr.Z-man, Mralph72, Mrfebruary, Mulad, Mwgillenwater, Myleftbigtoe, Mysdaao, NCD09, NHSavage, NYCJosh, Nandesuka, Nasion, Nat, Nat000, Nateland, Nath1991,
Naught101, Neilc, NerfHerder, Neurolysis, Neuron, Neutrality, Nextmemory16, Nicholas Tan, Nicmila, Nigelj, Nightlight, Nihiltres, Nils Simon, NimbusWeb, Niohe, Niteowlneils, Nkayesmith,
No1lakersfan, Nono64, Nopetro, Nova77, Novastorm, Nsaa, Nschne1, Nufy8, Nukeless, OGGVOB, Odie5533, Ojjy27, Old Moonraker, Olorin28, Opelio, Orange Suede Sofa, Ordinary Person,
Oreo Priest, Ot, Outriggr, Ovvldc, Oxymoron83, PTSE, Pablo X, Pahool, Pak21, Palecitrus, Palica, Patstuart, Paul August, Paul Pogonyshev, Paul Weaver, Payneos, Pd THOR, Pebbens,
Pembertond, PeregrineAY, Peruvianllama, Peter, Peter Campbell, Peter Ellis, Pflatau, Pgk, Phakedacdc, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phil webster, Philip Trueman, Pierre.Savignac, PigFlu Oink,
Pillsbur, Pilotguy, Pinkadelica, Pinnecco, Pishogue, Plasma east, Plasticup, Polemarchus, Politicslvr, Polysophia, Ponder, Pop don, PoptartKing, Populus, Porterjoh, Postdlf, Postglock,
Premeditated Chaos, Prester John, Price to Pay, Promethean, Pschemp, PseudoSudo, Psy guy, Puceron89, Puglet, Puissant001, PuzzletChung, Pwd, Quibik, Qxz, RGTraynor, Radagast, Ralf
Schmelter, Random Passer-by, Rarelibra, Raven1977, Ravensfire, RayAYang, Rd232, Rds865, Rdsmith4, Reconsider the static, Reedy, Regancy42, Renata3, RevolverOcelotX, RexNL,
Rhinokitty, Ribbit, Rich Farmbrough, Rider kabuto, Ridinlow333, Rjtrick, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Robertvan1, Robgregory2302, Robin klein, Robomura, Robth, Robweiller, Rogpyvbc,
Roleplayer, Romanm, Rory096, RossPatterson, Rossenglish, Rotiro, Rrburke, Rrloomis1, Rtol, Rupertslander, Russellkanning, Ruy Pugliesi, SEWilco, SNIyer12, Sade, Saippuakauppias,
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Seba5618, Semper discens, Senseitaco, Seraphimblade, Shadowjams, Shadowlink1014, Shanel, Shanes, Shimgray, Shinmawa, Shinpah1, Shushruth, Sillybilly, Sillydragon, Silsor, Silverback,
Singhalawap, Sinmiedoanada, Sinolonghai, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sirfrankomac, Siroxo, Sjakkalle, Skidlix, Sky Harbor, Skyemoor, Sloane, Slowking Man, Sluzzelin, Sm8900,
Smith Jones, Smithbrenon, Smitz, Smyth, Snailtree, Snigbrook, Sobolewski, Sodium, Soliloquial, Solitude, Songthen, Spartaz, Spiffy sperry, SpinyNorman, Splash, Spliffy, Squiddy, Ssolbergj,
Sssuuuzzzaaannn, StaticGull, Steel, Stemonitis, Stephan Schulz, Stonemason89, Stonewhite, Storm Rider, Struway2, SunCreator, Super cyclist, Susan Mason, SvenAERTS, TFCforever, THEN
WHO WAS PHONE?, TShilo12, Ta bu shi da yu, Tagishsimon, Tamás Kádár, Tanuki-Dori, Tanvir Ahmmed, Tarquin, Tarret, Tassedethe, Tawker, Taxman, Tboger, Tcrow777, TeaDrinker,
TedE, TehPiGuy, Tellyaddict, Tempest115, Terence, Teryx, That-Vela-Fella, Thatguyflint, The Cunctator, The Ephialtist, The Evil IP address, The Lord Of The Dance, The Original
Juggernautical, The Rambling Man, The Red, The Storm Surfer, The Thing That Should Not Be, The great grape ape is straight out of the know, The last username left was taken, The lorax, The
machine512, TheKMan, TheNewPhobia, Thehelpfulone, Theo Pardilla, Thewikipedian, Thewonderidiot, Thingg, Thiseye, Threlicus, TimR, Timwi, Tiptoety, Titoxd, Tkessler, Tkynerd,
Tnxman307, Tokek, Tom harrison, Tommy2010, Tompettyfan, Tomtom1540, Tono-bungay, Tony Sidaway, Tony1, Torchwoodwho, ToughLuckMeadow, Townmouse, Toytoy, Tpbradbury,
Travia21, Trekkie4christ, Trevor Bekolay, Tripple^C^, Troyeebarua, Trusilver, Tyler, Tzartzam, UBeR, Ubreth, Ucanlookitup, Uch01, Ugajin, Ulric1313, Uncle Milty, Uranographer, Urdna,
Username314, V i s n a v a, VMS Mosaic, Vaibhav.dkm, Vanished 6551232, Vanished user 03, Varco, Vc100, Velvetsmog, Verloren, Viajero, Vinny Burgoo, Violetriga, Voidvector,
Vortexrealm, Vsmith, Vulgarurbanism, WJBscribe, Waitsian, Walkeradam, Walton One, Wanzaidi, Wavelength, Wayward, Werd, Weser, Wesley, West.andrew.g, White Cat, Wiki alf,
Wiki-bob2, Wikibofh, Wikipedian1234, Wildstar2501, William M. Connolley, Wimt, Wing Nut, Wisco, Wisden17, Wixiedoodle, Wizardman, Wizofaus, Wolfman, Wonglijie, Woohookitty,
WookieInHeat, Woood, WpZurp, Wragge, Wrderijke, Wrenelhai, Wtmitchell, Wwoods, Xdenizen, Xerocs, Xiner, Xosmileback, Xtra, Xue hanyu, YAZASHI, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yandman,
Yonatan, Yossiea, Ysangkok, Ytrewqt, ZenSaohu, Zepheus, Zigger, Zinjixmaggir, Zoney, Zorxd, Zundark, Zxcvbnm, 2885 anonymous edits

CLRTAP  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=346873306  Contributors: AndrewRT, Angrense, Avala, Bryan Derksen, Conversion script, Docu, Good Olfactory, Hu Gadarn,
Jonathunder, Lalalalaaaaaa, Mbeychok, NJA, Paul A, Pinkadelica, Qertis, Rich Farmbrough, Ronline, Sumivec, Sysin, Vasil, Wavelength, Wik, 10 anonymous edits

OSPAR Convention  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379692318  Contributors: Anilocra, Cgingold, Dthomsen8, Gilliam, Good Olfactory, Headbomb, InspectorTiger, Ospar,
Smallman12q, Sting-fr, Sumivec, 4 anonymous edits

Stockholm Convention  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386898598  Contributors: 4v4l0n42, A.Ou, Alan Liefting, Aldo L, Andrewrp, Antandrus, Art LaPella, BorgQueen,
Cícero, Dancter, Decltype, Delirium, Dreadlady, Envepidoc, Feministo, Gabbe, Good Olfactory, H Padleckas, Headlessness, HenkBouwman, Ilnyckyj, Kbrose, LeadSongDog, Leyo, Lofor,
Magioladitis, McSly, Mikael Häggström, Nwbeeson, Oldfox2003, Pganas, Physchim62, Plumbago, Punchi, RHaworth, Rjwilmsi, Stone, Stormy56, Sumivec, Terrace4, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Trevor MacInnis, Wtmitchell, Yerpo, Yilloslime, 32 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 139

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:AlfedPalmersmokestacks.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlfedPalmersmokestacks.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alfred Palmer
Image:Canal-pollution.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canal-pollution.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Aarchiba
File:Health effects of pollution.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Health_effects_of_pollution.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mikael Häggström
Image:CO2-by-country--1990-2025.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CO2-by-country--1990-2025.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (original uploader)
File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Runoff_of_soil_&_fertilizer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lynn Betts
File:Santiago30std.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Santiago30std.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AFBorchert, Fred J, Saperaud,
Schaengel89, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Air .pollution 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Air_.pollution_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: High Contrast, Quadell, SCEhardt
File:Luftverschmutzung-Ursachen&Auswirkungen.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Luftverschmutzung-Ursachen&Auswirkungen.svg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Chrkl
Image:Dust Storm Texas 1935.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust_Storm_Texas_1935.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NOAA George E. Marsh
Album, theb1365, Historic C&GS Collection
Image:BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: Liftarn, Paul Erik, Richardelainechambers, Suffusion of Yellow, 4 anonymous edits
Image:Cairo in smog.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cairo_in_smog.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Sturm58
at en.wikipedia
File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Denelson83, User:SKopp, User:Shizhao, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Dbenbenn,
User:Indolences, User:Jacobolus, User:Technion, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Russia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Zscout370
File:Flag of India.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Japan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Various
File:Flag of Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Madden, User:Pumbaa80, User:SKopp
File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:E Pluribus Anthony, User:Mzajac
File:Flag of South Korea.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Various
File:Flag of Italy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: see below
File:Flag of Qatar.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Qatar.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (of code)
File:Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anime
Addict AA, Avala, Dbenbenn, Duduziq, F l a n k e r, Fry1989, Fukaumi, Gryffindor, Guanaco, Homo lupus, Kacir, Klemen Kocjancic, Krun, Madden, Neq00, Nightstallion, Piccadilly Circus,
Pmsyyz, RamzyAbueita, 4 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Kuwait.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Bahrain.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bahrain.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos,
Boricuaeddie, Duduziq, Enbéká, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Madden, Mattes, Nagy, Neq00, Nightstallion, Pumbaa80, SKopp, Tomia, 9 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Luxembourg.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of the Netherlands Antilles.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denelson83,
Duduziq, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Mattes, Nightstallion, Pumbaa80, TFCforever, Zscout370, 1 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Aruba.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Aruba.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anime Addict AA, ChongDae, Drieskamp, Duduziq,
Enbéká, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Mattes, Moipaulochon, Neq00, Vzb83, Zscout370
File:Flag of Australia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ian Fieggen
Image:Gaussian Plume.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gaussian_Plume.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was
Mbeychok at en.wikipedia
File:Empire State Building Night.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Empire_State_Building_Night.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Charliebrown7034, Duesentrieb, Fred J, Lamiot, Man vyi, Quasipalm, Skeezix1000, TwoWings, Wst, Xnatedawgx, Überraschungsbilder, 1 anonymous edits
File:Light pollution country versus city.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_pollution_country_versus_city.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
 Contributors: Jeremy Stanley
File:Skybeamer-uniqema-640.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skybeamer-uniqema-640.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Skatebiker, 1
anonymous edits
File:HPS-lamps.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HPS-lamps.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Klaas
File:Earthlights dmsp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earthlights_dmsp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Data courtesy Marc Imhoff of NASA GSFC and
Christopher Elvidge of NOAA NGDC. Image by Craig Mayhew and Robert Simmon, NASA GSFC.
File:Flat earth night.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flat_earth_night.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific
Visualization Studio
File:Las Vegas Strip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Las_Vegas_Strip.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was BrendelSignature at en.wikipedia
Later version(s) were uploaded by Pavuk94 at en.wikipedia.
File:México City at Night 2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:México_City_at_Night_2005.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:
FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR, MECU, Mitrush, Ruberyuka, Spangineer, Steschke, Zaqarbal, 2 anonymous edits
File:Light pollution europe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_pollution_europe.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Albester, Hertz1888, Ma Baker, 2
anonymous edits
File:Christmas in Dublin, CA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Christmas_in_Dublin,_CA.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: V Smoothe
File:Light pollution It's not pretty.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_pollution_It's_not_pretty.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:
Jeremy Stanley
File:LED Droplight.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_Droplight.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Rintojiang
File:Flat-lens cobra luminaire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flat-lens_cobra_luminaire.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Man vyi, Solipsist
File:Drop-lens cobra luminaire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drop-lens_cobra_luminaire.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: HuBar, Man vyi, Solipsist,
Tintazul
File:090101 Wiki LightPollutionItaly BillStatus.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:090101_Wiki_LightPollutionItaly_BillStatus.JPG  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: User:GiancarloGotta
Image:Obvious water pollution.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Obvious_water_pollution.jpeg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jrockley, Juliancolton,
Komencanto, 3 anonymous edits
Image:MARPOL 73-78 signatories.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MARPOL_73-78_signatories.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jrockley
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 140

Image:Nrborderborderentrythreecolorsmay05-1-.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nrborderborderentrythreecolorsmay05-1-.JPG  License: Public Domain

 Contributors: CNRC
File:Rio tinto river CarolStoker NASA Ames Research Center.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center.jpg
 License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was SeanMack at en.wikipedia
Image:Ship pumping ballast water.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ship_pumping_ballast_water.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Coast Guard
Image:Barbadosdustgraph.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Barbadosdustgraph.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MECU, Thegreatdr
File:Maldives - Kurumba Island.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:PalawanOz
Image:Aguas del lago de Maracaibo contaminadas por Lemna 03.JPG  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aguas_del_lago_de_Maracaibo_contaminadas_por_Lemna_03.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
user:wilfredor
Image:Scheme eutrophication-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scheme_eutrophication-en.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Lycaon
Image:Pollution swan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pollution_swan.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BeatrixBelibaste, Jrockley, Saperaud, Thue, 1
anonymous edits
Image:Laysan albatross chick remains.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laysan_albatross_chick_remains.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hollis Mason,
Kersti Nebelsiek, Kilom691, Lamiot, Maksdo, Manuel Anastácio, WikipediaMaster, Zhuangcg, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Kamilo Beach2 Courtesy Algalita dot org.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kamilo_Beach2_Courtesy_Algalita_dot_org.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Algalita.org
Image:Aerosolcan pullution.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aerosolcan_pullution.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:T3rminatr
Image:Qantas b747 over houses arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qantas_b747_over_houses_arp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arpingstone, Lobo,
Yarl
Image:TullamarineFwy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TullamarineFwy.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Atlantica
Image:Radiation warning symbol.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Radiation_warning_symbol.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Conscious, Fibonacci,
Guillom, Jarekt, Nyks, Rfc1394, Silsor, Ssolbergj, Uwe W., W!B:, Yann, 7 anonymous edits
Image:Periodic Table Radioactivity.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Alessio Rolleri, User:Armtuk, User:Gringer
Image:Soilcontam.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soilcontam.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Dumelow
Image:Bacteriarazorback.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bacteriarazorback.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Denniss, Rosarinagazo
Image:Unit 3 - Potrero Power Plant.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Unit_3_-_Potrero_Power_Plant.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Dragons flight
Image:Coal power plant Knepper 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coal_power_plant_Knepper_1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Arnoldius
File:Ganges river at Varanasi 2008.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ganges_river_at_Varanasi_2008.jpeg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
 Contributors: JM Suarez
File:Jacuecanga Angra dos Reis Rio de Janeiro Brazil Brasfels.JPG  Source:
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Image:Sewer overflow RI EPA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sewer_overflow_RI_EPA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Image:muddy USGS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muddy_USGS.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moreau1
Image:AngleseyCopperStream.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AngleseyCopperStream.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Cls14
Image:Research- water sampling equipment.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Research-_water_sampling_equipment.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
 Contributors: Adrignola, Alloquep
Image:Deer Island MA.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deer_Island_MA.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Fletcher6
Image:REDOX DAF unit 225 m3-h-1000 GPM.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:REDOX_DAF_unit_225_m3-h-1000_GPM.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
user:SmileJohn (enWP)
Image:Riparian buffer on Bear Creek in Story County, Iowa.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG
 License: Public Domain  Contributors: USDA
Image:Confined-animal-feeding-operation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Confined-animal-feeding-operation.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original
uploader was SlimVirgin at en.wikipedia
Image:Silt fence EPA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Silt_fence_EPA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Image:Trounce Pond.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trounce_Pond.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Drm310
Image:Vuilnis.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vuilnis.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Art-top, Dodo, Fruggo, Jarekt, Pengo, Ziko, ŠJů
Image:Charette poubelle in Ouagadougou.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charette_poubelle_in_Ouagadougou.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: Romanceor
File:European legal definition of waste.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:European_legal_definition_of_waste.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
 Contributors: Cmdrjameson, Rotor DB, Zidane2k1, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Polluted Ditch by David Shankbone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polluted_Ditch_by_David_Shankbone.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: David
Shankbone
File:Bin.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bin.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: User:Joolz
File:Kathmandu-Müllabfuhr.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kathmandu-Müllabfuhr.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Seeteufel
Image:Landfill Hawaii.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Landfill_Hawaii.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Eric Guinther
Image:Landfill compactor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Landfill_compactor.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Ropable
Image:District heating plant spittelau ssw crop1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:District_heating_plant_spittelau_ssw_crop1.png  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Contributor, User:Gralo
Image:Steel recycling bales.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steel_recycling_bales.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: blahedo
Image:Compost Heap.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Compost_Heap.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: FredB, Ies, Man vyi, Solipsist
Image:Haase Lubeck MBT.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Haase_Lubeck_MBT.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Alex Marshall
(Clarke Energy)
Image:US Garbage Truck.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Garbage_Truck.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: G®iffen, High
Contrast, Ies, MB-one, Trg, VIGNERON, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Waste hierarchy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Waste_hierarchy.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Stannered
Image:160658main2 OZONE large 350.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:160658main2_OZONE_large_350.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gms, Kyro,
Nils Simon, Telim tor, 7 anonymous edits
File:Ozone cfc trends.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ozone_cfc_trends.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Liftarn, Maksim, Robert Skyhawk, Skamon, 5
anonymous edits
Image:PD-icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Duesentrieb, User:Rfl
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 141

Image:Kyoto Protocol participation map 2009.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kyoto_Protocol_participation_map_2009.png  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: User:Emturan
Image:NOAA-greenhouse-gases.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NOAA-greenhouse-gases.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: The Global Monitoring
Division of NOAA's Earth System Research Laboratory
Image:Carbon Emission by Region.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carbon_Emission_by_Region.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Cory, Dragons flight,
Manuelt15, Mats Halldin, Pflatau, Shizhao, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Convention_on_Long-Range_Transboundary_Air_Pollution.png
 License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:AndrewRT
Image:OSPAR logo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OSPAR_logo.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Anilocra, User:Cydebot
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Image:Stockholm Convention Secretariat.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stockholm_Convention_Secretariat.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: Physchim62
File:Map of Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.svg  Source:
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License 142

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