Location

:Harappa (Punjabi pronunciation: [ɦəɽəppaː]; Urdu/Punjabi: ‫ )ہڑپّہ‬is an archaeological

site in Punjab, Pakistan, about 24 km (15 mi) west of Sahiwal. The site takes its name from a modern village
located near the former course of the Ravi River which now runs 8 km (5.0 mi) in north. The current village
of Harappa is less than 1 km (0.62 mi) from the ancient site. Although modern Harappa has a legacy railway
station from the period of the British Raj, it is today just a small crossroads town of population 15,000.
The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Indus
Valley Civilization centered in Sindh and the Punjab, and then the Cemetery H culture.[1] The city is believed
to have had as many as 23,500 residents and occupied about 150 hectares (370 acres) with clay brick
houses at its greatest extent during the Mature Harappan phase (2600–1900 BC), which is
considered large for its time.[2][3] Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilization
by its first excavated site, the Indus Valley Civilization is also called the Harappan Civilization.
Location

:Mesopotamia (from the Greek, meaning 'between two rivers’) was an ancient region located in the
eastern Mediterranean bounded in the northeast by the Zagros Mountains and in the southeast by the
Arabian Plateau, corresponding to today’s Iraq, mostly, but also parts of modern-day Iran, Syriaand Turkey.
The 'two rivers' of the name referred to the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers and the land was known as 'Al-
Jazirah' (the island) by the Arabs referencing what Egyptologist J.H. Breasted would later call the Fertile
Crescent, where Mesopotamian civilization began.

Mesopotamia (from the Greek, meaning 'between

Town Planning of Indus Valley Civilization

Streets
The streets were straight and cut each other at right angles. They were 13 to 34 feet wide and were well
lined. The streets and roads divided the city into rectangular blocks. Archaeologists have discovered the
lamp posts at intervals. This suggests the existence of street lights. Dustbins were also provided on the
streets. These prove the presence of good municipal administration.

Drainage System
One of the most remarkable features of the Indus valley civilization is that the city was provided with an
excellent closed drainage system. Each house had its own drainage and soak pit which was connected to
the public drainage. Brick laid channels flowed through every street. They were covered and had manholes
at intervals for cleaning and clearing purposes. Large brick culverts with corbelled roofs were constructed
on the outskirts of the city to carry excess water. Thus Indus people had a perfect underground drainage
system. No other contemporary civilization gave so much attention to cleanliness.

The Great Bath

The most striking feature in Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath. It consists of a large quadrangle. In the centre,
there is a huge swimming pool (approximately 39 ft long, 23 ft wide and 8ft deep) with the remains of
galleries and rooms on all four sides. It has a flight of steps at either end and is fed by a well, situated in
one of the adjoining rooms. The water was discharged by a huge drain with corbelled roof more than 6 ft in
depth. The Great bath had 8 ft thick outer walls. This solid construction has successfully withstood the
natural ravages for 5000 years. There were arrangements for hot water bath in some rooms.

Granaries
The largest building in Mohenjodaro is granary which is 45.71 mtrs long and 15.23 mtrs wide. In Harappa
there are a series of brick platforms which formed the base for two rows of 6 granaries each. In the
Southern part of Kalibangan brick platforms have also been found. These granaries safely stored the grains,
which were probably collected as revenue or store houses to be used in emergencies.

Buildings
People of Indus valley civilization built houses and other buildings by the side of roads. They built terraced
houses of burnt bricks. Every house had two or more rooms. There were also more than one storied
houses. The houses were designed around an inner courtyard and contained pillared halls, bath rooms,
paved floors, kitchen, well etc. Besides residential quarters, elaborate structures have also been found.
One of these buildings has got the biggest hall measuring 80 ft long and 80 ft wide. It might have been a
palace, or temple or hall for holding meetings. The workmen quarters are also found. There was an
excellent system of water supply. There were public wells by the side of streets. Every big house had its
own well. They also built a dockyard at Lothal.

Architecture of Mesopotamia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate at Babylon, Pergamon Museum, Berlin

A restored ziggurat in Iraq

The architecture of Mesopotamia is ancient architecture of the region of the Tigris–Euphrates river system
(also known as Mesopotamia), encompassing several distinct cultures and spanning a period from the 10th
millennium BC, when the first permanent structures were built, to the 6th century BC. Among the
Mesopotamian architectural accomplishments are the development of urban planning, the courtyard
house, and ziggurats. No architectural profession existed in Mesopotamia; however, scribes drafted and
managed construction for the government, nobility, or royalty. The Mesopotamians regarded 'the craft of
building' as a divine gift taught to men by the gods as listed in me 28.
The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial
representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. According to Archibald Sayce, the primitive
pictograms of the Uruk period era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and
seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples and houses were
constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a
tower-like appearance. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a
sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double. ... Demons were feared
who had wings like a bird, and the foundation stones – or rather bricks – of a house were consecrated by
certain objects that were deposited under them."[2]
Scholarly literature usually concentrates on the architecture of temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and
other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as
well.[3]Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian citie

An Assyrian lamassu, Bas-relief c. 713–716 BC

As time went on, however, later Assyrian architects began to shake themselves free of Babylonian
influence, and to use stone as well as brick. The walls of Assyrian
Landscape architecture[edit]
Text sources indicate open space planning was a part of the city from the earliest times. The description
of Uruk in the Epic of Gilgamesh tells of one third of that city set aside for orchards. Similar planned open
space is found at the one fifth enclosure of Nippur. Another important landscape element was the vacant
lot (Akkadian: kišubbû).
External to the city, Sumerian irrigation agriculture created some of the first garden forms in history. The
garden (sar) was 144 square cubits with a perimeter canal.[12] This form of the enclosed quadrangle was
the basis for the later paradise gardens of Persia.
In Mesopotamia, the use of fountains date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. An early example is
preserved in a carved Babylonian basin, dating back to circa 3000 B.C., found at Girsu, Lagash. An ancient
Assyrian fountain "discovered in the gorge of the Comel River consists of basins cut in solid rock and
descending in steps to the stream." The water was led from small conduits.[13]

ARCHITECTURE OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

India's Cultural history dates back to about 3200 BC to the times of the lndus Valley Civilisation or what is
also called the Harappan Culture. It flourished for about a thousand years. This civilization came to light in
1922 while archaeologists were carrying on excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, now in Pakistan.
Since then, many other Harappan sites and artifacts such as seals, toys, weapons, sculptures and jewellery
have been discovered along the river Indus up to the river Ganges in the East. Archaeologists believe that a
number of communities lived here in villages, towns and sea-ports.
The sea-port of Lothal on the Gulf of Cambay has an enclosed shipping dock more than 216 metres long
and 37 metres wide. It was controlled by a sluice-gate and ships could be loaded at both high and low
tides. Other buildings unearthed in the citadel are the Great Bath, Granaries, residential houses and the
Assembly Hall.
The Great Bath
The most impressive structure excavated at Mohenjo-Daro so far, is the Great Bath. Constructed with kiln-
burnt bricks, this Monumental Bath is a pool 12 metres long, 7 metres wide and 2.5 metres deep. Gypsum
has been used along with mortar to make the floor and sides of the pool water-tight. The pool is in the
centre of a large open quadrangle with rooms and galleries on all sides. A flight of steps at either end
connects it the rooms. Probably meant for religious rites, it may have been used by the
people for changing their clothes. The pool was fed by a well nearby and the dirty water was drained into
the city's sewage system through a large corbelled drain 1.83 metres high.
The Granary at Harappa
The Granary at Harappa is made of burnt brick. Built close to the river Ravi to make transportation easy, it
is comprised of two blocks. Each block has six storage rooms 15 metres long and 6 metres wide. The two
blocks are separated by a passage. Air-ducts are provided under the wooden floor. The row of triangular
openings may have been for ventilation. The granary complex measures 55 metres by 43 metres
The Assembly Hall
The Assembly Hall covers an area of 750 square metres. Four rows of fine brick piers and pillars at the
corners suggest that it was used as an assembly hall.
Images for architecture of harappan civilization
 Social and Economic Life of Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization)

Category: History of Ancient India, History of IndiaOn August 5, 2013 By Vinay Pandey

The social and economic life of the people of Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) was
systematic and organisedFood of the people of Indus Civilization

The food of the Harappan people was supplied from extensive areas cultivated in vicinity of the city.
Besides food was supplied from distant areas by boats plying on the rivers. Rice was probably grown in the
Indus valley.

The staple food of the people comprised wheat, barley, rice, milk and some vegetables like peas,
sesamums and fruits like date palms. Mutton, pork, poultry, fish etc. were also eaten by the Indus people.

Agriculture appears to be the main occupation of the Indus people. The discovery of a granary at Harappa
lends support to this.

Social Dress of the Harappan People

Many spindles were discovered at the Harappan sites. This proves the use of cotton for weaving social
cloths. Probably wool was also used. The garments might have been sewn.

Both men and women used two pieces of cloth. The men folk wore some lower garment like dhoti and
upper garment like shawl. The upper garment wrapped the left shoulder.

Female attire was the same as that of men. Arts and crafts and trade formed one of the main occupations
of the people.

The potter, the mason, the metal worker had high demand. The cotton and woolen dresses show the
existence of cotton and woolen industries. Goldsmiths and silversmiths made ornaments.

Hair-style, Ornaments of people of Indus Valley

Men wore long hair, parted in the middle and kept tidy at the back. The women of Indus valley usually
wore long hair in plait with fan-shaped bow at the end. Fillets made of gold or silver were used to keep the
hair in particular position.

Both men and women of Harappa were fond of ornaments made of gold, silver and copper. The ornaments
were decorated with precious stones like jade, carnelian, agate and lapis-lazuli. The female beauties of the
Indus valley had a taste for toilet culture like their modern sisters. The “vanity case” and the toilet jars
found at Harappa consisted of ivory powder, face-paint and many other varieties of cosmetics.

House-hold articles and Furniture’s of Indus People

Most of the house-hold articles were made of pottery or of metals like copper and bronze. The art of
pottery attained a wonderful excellence at Mohenjo-Daro. This is proved by painted and glazed wares.
Most of the kitchen utensils including jars, vessels, dishes etc. were made of earth and stone.

Domestic implements like axe, knife, needles, saws etc. were made of bronze or copper. Copper supply
was limited as it had to be imported from outside. So copper had to be discretely used for making
necessary implements and weapons like axe, lance, and dagger. There is lack of defensive weapons like
sword. Chairs and tools were used for decorating rooms and for sitting comfortably.

Trade and Commerce and Economy of Harappa

The Indus people used copper and tin. Copper, gold, tin, silver were brought from the Nilgiri region of
South India, Mysore, Rajputana, Kashmir, Afghanistan and Persia. That the Indus people had a brisk trade
link with Western Asia is clear from the discovery of the Indus seals in these areas. Silver and sapphire
were imported from Persia and Afghanistan. That the Indus cities had brisk trade with Sumeria is proved by
the discovery of numerous Indus seals in Sumeria. At Umma and Akkad two bales of Indus clothes with
Indus seals have been discovered. Indus cities had a lucrative market of cotton goods in Sumeria and
Western Asia. Besides ivory works, combs, pearls were exported to West Asia from the Indus cities. It is
presumed that large number of merchants from the Indus cities lived in Sumeria. The Indus cities had
maritime trade with Sumeria through the Persian Gulf. The skeletal remains of camels have prompted
scholars to think that trade with Turkomania and West Asia was also carried by overland route.

Social Class and Social Structure of Indus Valley Civilization

The humped bull, buffalo, ship etc. and the granary indicate the existence of a prosperous agricultural
community. Some scholars believe that there was a prosperous and powerful ruling class in the Indus cities
who imposed their domination on the rest. All men of the cities and the nearby areas did not enjoy social
and economic equality. Those who lived in the upper portion of the cities near the forts formed a ruling
class. The existence of forts has led Prof. Wheeler to surmise that the ruling class dominated over the
workers and peasants from these forts. As copper was scarce, common men could hardly afford to possess
copper weapons. The ruling class had a monopoly of the copper weapons by which they terrified the
people and exploited the resources produced by them by fanning or by craft. The existence of two roomed
tenements has led Sir Mortimer Wheeler to guess that they were perhaps workers’ quarters.

Indus Religion: Religion of Indus People

The religion of the Indus people had some interesting aspects. There is a striking absence of any temple
among the remains of the Indus valley. Some scholars like to believe that the large buildings found at
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro was in fact temples. But Dr. Basham has rejected this view on the ground that
no idol has been found within these buildings.

The prevalence of the worship of the Mother Goddess (Sakti) has been suggested. The worship of Siva is
suggested by the discovery of figure of a deity with three faces, with horned head-dress, seating cross-
legged in a Yogic posture, surrounded by animals like buffalo, rhinoceros, deer, tiger, etc. The figure has
been identified by Prof. Marshall with that of Siva (Shiva); Trimukha (three faced), Pasupati (lord of
animals), Mahayogin. Two more figures representing Siva(Shiva) have been unearthed also. In these figures
Siva seats in a Yogic posture and plants or flowers emerge from his head. Shiva has infinite and limitless
powers. Lord Shiva blesses his devotees in every-way. The worship of Shiva Linga was prevalent.

Funerary Custom of Indus People

The Indus people had three funeral custom viz.,

1. Complete burial of the dead body.

2. Burial of the bones of the dead body after wild beasts ate of it.
3. Burial of ashes and bones after burning the dead body.

Many historians have discovered existence of different classes in the Harappan society from the difference
of the funeral custom.

The Indus Script : Scripts of Harappa

The Indus script is yet a closed realm to scholars as it is undeciphered. There are various theories about the
origin of the Indus Script. According to Waddel it was of Sumerian origin. Hunter believes it to be of
Egyptian origin. But, David Diringer suggests it to be of Elamite origin. It is true that there are many
resemblances between the Indus Script and that of Sumer, Elam, Egypt, Crete, Chinese etc. But the
similarities go up to the certain points only. Indications are there that fundamentally the Indus Script is
different from them. Mr. Langdon holds it to be of purely indigenous origin. According to him Brahmi Script
was derived from the Indus Script. Dr. Pran Nath of Benaras Hindu University holds it to be of Sanskrit
Origin. Some other scholars suggest the theory of Dravidian origin of the Indus Script.

Life and Society in Mesopotamia

Society in Mesopotamia was strictly hierarchically organized. Artificial irrigation was the only way to
produce enough food but it required better organization than in Egypt where the annual Nile flooding was
controlled by small and economically independent communities. Heat in Mesopotamia was severer than in
Egypt, while the Tigris had much deeper stream than the Nile making construction of the channels much
more difficult and complicated. Very difficult was also to predict the floods because they depended from
snow melting in Anatolia and could occur at the time of ripening crops in March or April which means that
the floodwater had to be held up. Besides unfavorable flooding time the floodwater returned to the river
stream just before the summer heat in June. For that reason the fields had to be artificially irrigated all the
time. However, because of perpetual irrigation the farmers in Mesopotamia harvested twice a year, while
the Egyptians harvested only once.

Intendant Ebish-II,
c. 2400 BC
The irrigation systems which were essential for agriculture required great amount of physically hard work,
complicated construction and the most important of all mobilization of sufficient labour force and good
organization. Thus artificial irrigation eventually led to formation of larger communities and social
stratification into three classes: nobility, free citizens and slaves. Nobility, priesthood and a priest-king as
supreme religious and secular ruler were responsible for the construction, organization and maintenance
of irrigation systems. Priest-kings called en, lugal or ensi were viewed as representatives of city’s patron
god whom belonged all the land of the city. Priest-kings lived in the temples which were both religious and
administrative centers of particular irrigation system unit. Around the temples developed cities as
administrative, religious and trade centers resulting in the emergence of Sumerian city-states also referred
as the temple-states because of the leading role of priesthood in society.
The Sumerian cities were inhabited by nobility executing king’s will and orders through a well organized
administrative apparatus. The Sumerian priest-kings collected taxes usually in goods to sustain the
governmental and administrative organization, while the Sumerian priest invented writing - the Cuneiform
script to simplify state administration and trading. Besides priesthood and nobility, Sumerian city
population consisted of merchants, craftsmen and others who were mostly engaged in trade. The middle
class of merchants and craftsmen in Mesopotamia was very strong and relatively independent. Merchants
and craftsmen in Mesopotamia were allowed to take initiative and did not only work on king’s order like
the Egyptian merchants and craftsmen. Farmers, shepherds, fishermen and hunters in Mesopotamia lived
in the city surroundings and were the lower class of the Mesopotamian society. They took care for food
supply of the cities and were mostly poor but personally free. At the very bottom of social hierarchy in
Mesopotamia were the slaves who were mostly prisoners of war. Slaves could be bought or sold but they
were allowed to marry and to have families. Special position in both administration and economy had the
scribes.
The priest-kings were replaced by monarchical rule during the Akkadian Period (c. 2340 BC - 2150 BC)
which probably resulted in greater social stratification. Unlike during Old Sumerian Period when all land
was owned by the temples the sources from Akkadian Period mention private possession. The Old
Sumerian social order with strong middle class was mostly restored after the fall of Akkadian Empire but
society in Mesopotamia became mostly feudal about middle of the 2nd millennium BC (Middle Babylonian
Period). Noble families held land as inalienable fiefs, while the farmers were becoming more dependent.

What was the occupation of the people of indus valley civilisation?

Although a developed city life was in existence in the Indus valley civilisation, the main economic
foundation of the society in that civilisation was cultivation work. So the principal occupation of the people
was cultivation. besides,a section of people were engaged as artisans , craftsmen andthe indus valley in
indian can now be found in modern day pakistan, it is classed as one of the most advance locations of the
planet that pre-date any of the other places in europe. the age of the bronze age dates to 3,300 BC BC
stand for BEFORE CHRIST (was born) they had Hot and Cold running water which would be heated at night
with a fire & also had water towers,roads,path ways, "the great bath" which was thought to be used for
religious purpose, they also had sewage lines and brick houses. The indus valley is the birth places of the
indus valley where the oldest swastikas on the planet have been found showing the mediation positions
and the swastika aswell as 3 gods which match the hindu trinity of today. they also had a type of writing
system called indus valley text which is a mixture of Indus & sumerian and is thought to be used as seals for
merchants. also they seem to be "Dbasic agriculture,hunting,pottery,weapons for huntingraAgriculture and
cattle breeding.vidian" business apottery, smithing, hunting, mainly what most ancient civilizations did.lbas

Images of harappan occupation

What Occupations Were There in Ancient Mesopotamia?

A:

QUICK ANSWER
The primary jobs in the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia were based on the agrarian nature of the
society. Most Mesopotamian citizens raised and tended crops or livestock. There were also other jobs
available, such as weavers, artisans, healers, teachers, and priests or priestesses.

Both men and women held jobs in Mesopotamian society. In ancient Mesopotamia, women had many of
the same rights as men and could hold the same types of jobs. Male and female citizens not only farmed
and raised livestock, but also held jobs as potters, shoemakers, builders and fishermen. Women played a
vital role in the workforce. It is believed that women were actually the first to brew beer and wine, and
they were also early healers. These occupations only became male-dominated later after it was discovered
how profitable these occupations were. Mesopotamia also had a large army, and many of the male citizens
took positions as soldiers working in the palace for the king.

All members of the society held different jobs as a means to provide for themselves and their families, as
well as due to a belief that everyone in the society needed to work together for the greater good and to
please their ruling deities.
People in ancient Mesopotamia (3,500 BC - 539 BC) wore clothes made with animal skins and wool,
originally a skirt, and laterCommon sports people played in ancient Mesopotamia include hunting, boxing,
wrestling and polo. Games and sports were held on holidays and festival days to a tunic with a shawl
Society in ancient Mesopotamia was primarily male-dominated. As one of the world's first urban centers,
however, the role played by men changed from one inover it.?
7 Answers
What is the trade system in Indus Valley civilization?
conomy was heavily based on trading, it was one of the most important characteristics of this civilization.
Almost every aspect of their society, from the cities they built to the technology they developed, was to
ensure that they could create high-quality and profitable trade products for the civilizations the Indus
people traded with.

2.Traders and craftsmen used the trade routes to bring raw materials into the towns and cities, this is
where they were turned into jewelry, pottery, and metal ware. Archaeologists have found weights and
measuring sticks which suggests that there were trade centers within the cities

3.Cotton was one of the most important product of the Indus Valley trade. Their wealth was based on a
subsistence economy of wheat and barley.

4.The Indus civilization had a broad trade network, but their currency was traded goods. Instead of money,
there was a swapping and bartering system. The Indus Valley Civilization had what was called soapstone
seals and this is what they might have used for money later on in the civilization.

5.The Indus Valley people had one of the largest trading areas, ranging anywhere from Mesopotamia to
China We know Indus Valley traders went to Mesopotamia as well as other countries, because Indus seals
have been found in there. Also, the Mesopotamians wrote about importing goods from the Indus people
which further support the idea of a trading partnership between the two civilizations.

6.Indus Valley traders crossed mountains and forests to trade. They followed rivers walking along the river
bank and used boats to cross rivers, when needed.

7.Apart from trade and industry, agriculture was the main occupation of the Indus people. The Indus
people were a civilization that was built on the practice of trade with other civilizations of the day. Farmers
brought food into the cities. City workers made such things as pots, beads and cotton cloth. Traders
brought the materials workers needed, and took away finished goods to trade in other cities.

8.Trade goods included terracotta pots, beads, gold and silver, colored gem stones such as turquoise and
lapis lazuli, metals, flints (for making stone tools), seashells and pearls. Minerals came from Iran and
Afghanistan. Lead and copper came from India. Jade came from China and cedar tree wood was floated
down the rivers from Kashmir and the Himalayas

Mesopotamia Trade: Merchants and Traders

Mesopotamia trade grew organically from the crossroads nature of the civilizations that dwelt between
the rivers and the fertility of the land. Because of irrigation, southern Mesopotamia was rich in agricultural
products, including a variety of fruits and vegetables, nuts, dairy, fish and meat from animals both wild and
domestic. Other than food items, Mesopotamia was rich in mud, clay and reeds out of which they built
their cities. For most other essential goods, such as metal ores and timber, Mesopotamia needed trade.
Besides local trade, which brought food and animals into the city and took tools, plows and harnesses out
to the countryside, long-distance trade was needed for resources like copper and tin and for luxury items
for the nobility. Merchants and traders in early Mesopotamian cities began to form caravans for long-
distance trading.

Mesopotamia Trade: Development

With the development of the wheel and sail, transportation of goods became easier. Heavy bulk goods
could travel by ox cart or be loaded onto riverboats. Most long-distance trade, however, was carried out by
caravans using donkeys as pack animals. Donkeys could carry about 150 pounds and travel on the plains
and into the mountains, places were wheeled carts couldn’t go.
Craftsmen in Mesopotamia created a variety of trade goods from fine textiles to sturdy, nearly mass-
produced pottery made in temple workshops to leather goods, jewelry, basketry, devotional figurines and
ivory carvings among others. Agricultural products such as grains and cooking oils were also exported as
were dates and flax.
Mesopotamian cities established trade all up and down the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and into Anatolia,
today’s Turkey. Other overland trade routes went east over the Zagros Mountains into present-day Iran
and Afghanistan. A busy sea route went through the Persian Gulf across the Arabian Sea to the Indus valley
in what is today’s northern India and Pakistan. By the 3rd millennium, Mesopotamia trade went in all
directions.

Mesopotamia Trade: Outposts

As Mesopotamian trade developed, merchants even set up trade emporiums in other regions and cities.
Around 1700 B.C., Assyrian traders set up a trading outpost in Kanesh, Anatolia. The traders traveled over
1,000 miles to this city in today’s Turkey. There the Assyrian merchants paid a tax to the city’s ruler to live
in their own quarter of Kanesh and trade with the city dwellers and other merchants who came from afar
to trade for their Mesopotamian goods.
The Assyrian traders came with a caravan of donkeys loaded with fine textiles their womenfolk wove, and
tin that originally came from farther east. They traded the textiles and tin for silver and other goods. The
Assyrian merchants were part of a family business that traded all over Mesopotamia and beyond. An
archeological excavation of 20,000 clay tablets in present-day Kultepe, Turkey, brought these detailed
merchant records to light.
By the time of the Assyrian Empire, Mesopotamia was trading exporting grains, cooking oil, pottery,
leather goods, baskets, textiles and jewelry and importing Egyptian gold, Indian ivory and pearls, Anatolian
silver, Arabian copper and Persian tin. Trade was always vital to resource-poor Mesopotamia.IMAGE
Religion of Indus valleyWorship of Mother Goddess: A large number of excavated terracotta figurines are
those of a semi-nude figures which is identified with some female energy or Shakti or Mother Goddess,
who is the source of all creation. She is wearing numerous ornaments an a fan-shaped head dress. It is
concluded from the smoke stained figures that the people offered burnt incense before her.

Worship of Pashupati or Lord Shiva: The Pashupati seal in which the three faced male god is shown seated
in a yogic posture, surrounded by a rhino and a buffalo on the right, and an elephant and a tiger on the left,
make the historians conclude that the people of those days worshipped Lord Shiva who is the Lord of the
Beast (Pashupati) and the male principle of creation. Discovery of a large number of conical or cylindrical
stones show that the people worshipped lingam, the symbol of Lord Shiva.

Worship of Trees: The worship of trees was widespread. The Pipal tree was considered most sacred. One of
the seals shows a god standing between the branches of a people tree and the god was being worshipped
by a devotee on his knees. The discovery of a large number of seals with papal trees engraved on them
suggests that this tree was considered sacred, same as some nowadays Hindu do.

Other Objects of Worship: People also worshipped animals such as the bull, buffalo and tiger. The worship
of mythical animals is evident from the existence of a human figure with a bull's horns, hoofs and a tail.
Besides animals, these people also worshipped the Sun, the Fire and the Water.

Faith in Magic, Charms and Sacrifices: The discovery of amulets suggests that the Indus valley people had
belief in magic and charms. Some seals have figures of men and animals in act of sacrificing. This shows
that sacrifices played some part in their religion.

Belief in Life after Death: The people of Indus Valley disposed of their dead either by burial or by
cremation. They buried their dead together with household pottery, ornaments and other articles of daily
use. Even when they cremated the dead, they preserved the ashes of the bodies in clay urns. Both these
practices show that people believed in life after death.

The existence of public baths suggests that people believed in ritual bathing. The religious beliefs such as
the worship of Shiva, animals and trees, show that the religious beliefs of the Indus Valley people were the
foundation on which the modern day Hinduism grew up.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mesopotamian religion: refers to the religious beliefs and practices of the civilizations of
ancient Mesopotamia, particularly Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babyloniabetween circa 3500 BC and 400 AD,
after which they largely gave way to Syriac Christianity. The religious development of Mesopotamia and
Mesopotamian culture in general was not particularly influenced by the movements of the various peoples
into and throughout the area, particularly the south. Rather, Mesopotamian religion was a consistent and
coherent tradition which adapted to the internal needs of its adherents over millennia of development. [1]
The earliest undercurrents of Mesopotamian religious thought date to the mid 4th millennium BC, and
involved the worship of forces of nature as providers of sustenance. In the 3rd millennium BC objects of
worship were personified and became an expansive cast of divinities with particular functions. The last
stages of Mesopotamian polytheism, which developed in the 2nd and 1st millenniums, introduced greater
emphasis on personal religion and structured the gods into a monarchical hierarchy with the national god
being the head of the pantheon.[1] Mesopotamian religion finally declined with the spread of Iranian
religions during the Achaemenid Empire and with the Christianization of
Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, thereby accepting the existence of many different deities, both
male and female, though it was also henotheistic,[16] with certain gods being viewed as superior to others
by their specific devotees. These devotees were often from a particular city or city-state that held that
deity as its patron deity, for instance the god Enki was often associated with the city of Eridu in Sumer, the
god Ashur with Assur and Assyria, Enlil with the Sumerian city of Nippur, Ishtar with the Assyrian city
of Arbela, and the god Marduk was associated with Babylon.[17] Though the full number of gods and
goddesses found in Mesopotamia is not known, K. Tallqvist, in his Akkadische Götterepitheta (1938)
counted around two thousand four hundred that we now know about, most of which had Sumerian
names. In the Sumerian language, the gods were referred to as dingir, while in the Akkadian language they
were known as ilu and it seems that there was syncreticism between thBesides the worship of the gods at
public rituals, individuals also paid homage to a personal deity. As with other deities, the personal gods
changed over time and little is known about early practice as they are rarely named or described. In the
mid-third millennium BC, some rulers regarded a particular god or gods as being their personal protector.
In the second millennium BC, personal gods began to function more on behalf of the common man,[35] with
whom he had a close, personal relationship, maintained through prayer and maintenance of his god's
statue.[36] A number of written prayers have survived from ancient Mesopotamia, each of which typically
exalt the god that they are describing above all others.[37] The historian J. Bottéro stated that these poems
display "extreme reverence, profound devotion, [and] the unarguable emotion that
the supernatural evoked in the hearts of those ancient believers" but that they showed a people who were
scared of their gods rather than openly celebrating them.[21] They were thought to offer good luck, success,
and protection from disease and demons,[35] and one's place and success in society was thought to depend
on his personal deity, including the development of his certain talents and even his personality. This was
even taken to the point that everything he experienced was considered a reflection of what was happening
to his personal god.[36] When a man neglected his god, it was assumed that the demons were free to inflict
him, and when he revered his god, that god was like a shepherd who seeks food for him. [38]e gods
worshipped by the two groups, adopting one another's deities. [2] Although ancient paganism tended to
focus more on duty and ritual than morality, a number of general moral virtues can be gleaned from
surviving prayers and myths. It was believed that man originated as a divine act of creation, and the gods
were believed to be the source of life, and held power over sickness and health, as well as the destinies of
men. Personal names show that each child was considered a gift from divinity.[4Sin, on the other hand, was
expressed by the words hitu (mistake, false step), annu or arnu (rebellion), and qillatu (sin or
curse),[45] with strong emphasis on the idea of rebellion, sometimes with the idea that sin is man's wishing
to "live on his own terms" (ina ramanisu). Sin also was described as anything which incited thewroth of
god. Decline of the Harappan Culture

. 1. Law of Nature:

Renowned historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee has categorized the decay of a culture as its final stage after a

culture is born and grows to its highest point of efficacy. The Harappan culture was no exception to this
general law of nature. Its decline set in around 1800 B.C. and in course of time came its extinction.

2. Floods:
The massive floods in the Indus must have been a potent cause for the extinction of the Harappan culture.
The point is proved by the silt-clay that covers the collapsed houses at Mohenjo-Daro. Repeated floods must
have forced the people to flee the inundated places and set up permanent habitat elsewhere. As a
consequence came the decline of Harappa.
3.Earthquakes

Geographically, the Harappan culture occupied an area that was prone to earthquakes as it came under a
seismographic zone. Repeated seismographic vibrations must have led to erosion that brought down the
buildings. Earthquakes constitute an important reason for the decline of Harappan culture.

4. Change of the Course of the Indus:

Some Historians attribute the decline of the Harappan culture to the river Indus changing its course

frequently. As such the Indus delta shifted away from Mohenjo-Daro and water became scarce. Water

scarcity must have led to the exodus of the Harappan people to other places. Yet, the change of course of

the Indus is not reason enough for the decline in Lothal, Kalibangan, Rupar etc. because the Mohenjo-Daro
situation did not occur in these regions.

5. Plague:
Outbreak of the plague epidemic is shown as a reason for the decline of Harappan civilization. Skeletal

remains from the main roads of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro as found out through archaeological efforts
tell a sad story. When an epidemic like plague visits a human habitation, it leaves its trail of death

everywhere. The scattered skeletal remains therefore lead some to attribute it to epidemic like plague,
though there is no concrete proof of outbreak of plague in the region.

6. Foreign Invasion:
Sir Mortimer Wheeler however is of the opinion that the Aryan invasion is the reason for the decline of
Harappan culture. There is archaeological proof of genocide and unburied skeletal remains scattered
everywhere in Mohenjo-Daro. An autopsy on these skeletons reveals damages that must have been caused
by sharp objects or weapons. Knowledge and use of iron as weapons was known to the Aryans, not to the
Harappan people. Defeat and death of the Harapan people must have com

CONCLUSION:I guess you could write about the trade interests of the Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley
that led to some sort of economic-interdependence between the two civilisations. Meluhha, the name for
the IVC in Mesopotamian texts, was a source of exotic goods for the Mesopotamian people. Apart from the
seals, you could write about the vast evidence for the movement of both people and goods between the
two civilisations, shedding light on the fact that globalisation and cultural exchange is not a recent
phenomenon; although in recent decades the scale of globalisation has far exceeded that of any
globalisation that has ever occurred in the past.

There is also the Flood Myth in both the IVC and Mesopotamian cultures. Both the regions faced
devastating floods. Floods in the IVC were on-schedule (twice a year) and irrigation was easy; whereas the
Tigris and Euphrates flooded capriciously, making agriculture a lot more labour-intensive.

e at the hands of the invading Ar

Urban planning is concerned with the ordering and design of settlements, from the smallest towns to the
world's largest cities. Shown here is Central, Hong Kong's central business district.

Urban planning OF MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILISATION: is the integration of the disciplines of land-use planning
and transport planning, to explore a wide range of aspects of the built and social environments of
urbanized municipalities and communities. The focus is the design and regulation of the uses of space
within the urban environment. This involves their physical structure, economic functions, and social
impacts. In addition to the design of new cities or the expansion of existing ones, a key role of urban
planning is urban renewal, and re-generation of inner cities by adapting urban-planning methods to
existing cities suffering from long-term infrastructural decay.
yans. was a city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah,
Babil Province, Iraq, about 55 miles south of Baghdad. All that remains today of the ancient famed city of
Babylon is a mound, or tell, of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian plain
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq. It began as a small town that had sprung up by the
beginning of the third millennium B.C.E.. The town flourished and attained prominence and political repute
with the rise of the first Babylonian dynasty.
The city itself was built upon the Euphrates and divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with
steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Babylon grew in extent and grandeur over time,
but gradually became subject to the rule of Assyria. It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city
in the world from c. 1770 to 1670 B.C.E., and again between c. 612 and 320 B.C.E. It was the "holy city" of
Babylonia by approximately 2300 B.C.E., and the seat of the Neo-Babylonian Empire from
612 B.C.E. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.