Lecture Notes 3: (Chapter 12)

Energy principles in Open-Channel

Energy generated at an overfall (Niagara Falls).

prepared by Ercan Kahya

12-0
 Total & Specific Energy
Specific Energy: the energy per unit weight of water measured from
the channel bottom as a datum

► Note that specific energy & total energy are not generally equally.

At section 1: Specific Energy Total Energy

12-1
 Total & Specific Energy
► Specific energy varies abruptly as does the channel geometry

► Velocity coefficient (α) is used to account nonuniformity of the

velocity distribution when using average velocity.

► It varies from 1.05 (for uniform cross-sections) to 1.2 (nonuniform

sections).

► For natural channels, a common method to estimate α:

Weighted mean velocity:

A channel section divided into three sections

12-2
 Specific Energy
Assuming α equal to 1, it is convenient to express E in terms of Q
for steady flow conditions

f(E, Q, y) = 0

Specific Energy Diagram (SED)

SED is a graphical representation for the variation of E with y.

Let`s write E equation in terms of static & kinetic energy:

where and

12-3
 Specific Energy Diagram
- Es varies linearly with y

- Ek varies nonlinearly with y

- Horizontal sum of the line OD

& the curve kk` produces SED

- For given E: alternate depths

(y1 & y2)

- They are two depths with the

same specific energy and
conveying the same discharge

-Emin vs critical depth

The specific energy diagram

12-4
 Specific Energy Diagram

- An increase in the required

Emin yields bigger discharges.

- Fn : Froude number

equals to V square / gD

The specific energy diagram

for various discharges

12-5
 Critical Flow Conditions
General mathematical formulation for critical flow conditions:

- Assume dA/dy = B

12-6
 Critical Flow Conditions
At the critical flow conditions, specific energy is minimum:

Then, which can also be

expressed as -->

Then,

In wide or rectangular section, D = y

at critical
depth
12-7
 Critical Velocity
The general expressions for

Used to determine the state of flow

Critical state condition:

Critical velocity for the general cross section:

Velocity head at critical conditions:

In wide or rectangular section, D = y

12-8
 Critical Depth
For a certain section & given discharge:

Critical depth is defined as the depth of flow requiring

minimum specific energy

This equation should be solved …

For the trapezoidal cross section:

Solve this by trial & error …

For the rectangular Critical depth trapezoidal and circular

cross section: sections
12-9
 Critical Energy
Critical Energy is the energy when the flow is under critical conditions.

Recall for any cross section:

Then,

For wide or rectangular section, D = y

12-10
 Critical Slope
Critical slope is the bed slope of the channel producing critical conditions.

► depends discharge; channel geometry; resistance or roughness

For Chezy equation:

Then,

For Manning equation: In English unit:

For direct computation:

12-11
 Critical Slope

Critical slope is very important in open-channel hydraulics. WHY?

2 2
Q n
Sc  2 4 / 3
A R

The summary given above encompasses much of the important concepts

of the energy & resistance principles as applied to open channels.

12-12
 Discharge-Depth Relation for
Constant Specific Energy
Now assume Eo constant, then evaluate Q-y relation:

For the condition of the Qmax:

It reduces to

Then substitute this into Q equation at the top:

implies that the Qmax is encountered at the critical

flow condition for given E.
12-13
 Discharge-Depth Relation for Constant
Specific Energy

Q-y relation

for constant specific energy

For wide or rectangular section, D = y

can be written as

Differentiating this w.r.t. y and equating to zero:

12-14
 Transitions in Channel Beds
Consider an open-channel with a small drop ∆z in its bed
Assume that friction losses and minor losses due to drop are negligible

The method provides a good first approximation of the effects of the transition

First step: compare the given conditions to critical conditions to determine

the initial state of flow.

A small drop in the channel bed (subcritical flow): (a) change in

water levels, and (b) steps for solution.
12-15
 Transitions in Channel Beds
Consider an abrupt rise ∆z in the open-channel bed

Assume that upstream conditions are subcritical & initial E1

Note that ∆z should be subtracted from E1 & While TEL unchanged, E reduced

12-16
 Transitions in Channel Beds
Consider an abrupt rise ∆z in the open-channel bed

Assume that upstream conditions are supercritical & initial E1

Note that ∆z should be subtracted from E1 & While TEL unchanged, E reduced

RESULT : Water depth must rise after the step

12-17
 Chokes

 Chokes can only occur when the channel is

constricted, but will not occur where the flow
area expanded such as drops or expansions.

 In designing a channel transition that would

tend to restrict the flow, engineer wants to
avoid forcing a choke to occur if at all
possible.
 Chokes

Figure 12.16: Rise in a channel bed: (a) a small step-up,

(b) a bigger step-up
 Chokes

Figure 12.16: Rise in a channel bed: (c) a still bigger step-

up, and (d) changes in the specific energy.
Enlargements and constructions in channel widths

(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(a) A contracted channel. (b) Water levels in a contracted channel.

(c) SED for a contracted channel. (d) Water level in a contracted channel-
supercritical flow.
EXAMPLE

A 6.0 m rectangular channel carries a discharge of 30 m3/s at a depth of

2.5m. Determine the constricted channel width that produces critical depth.
 EXAMPLE: solution

2 2
q 5
E  y 2
 2.5  2
 2.70m
2 gy 2 * 9.81 * 2.5

3
E  Emin  yc  y c  1.80m
2

q2
yc  3  q  gyc  7.56 m / s
3 2

b2 = Q/ q2 = 30 / 7.56 = 3.07 m
 Weirs & Spillways
To control the elevation of the water
2 2
- Functions as a downstream choke control V V
- Classified as sharp crested or broad crested
y1  1
 y2  2

depending on critical depth occurrence on 2g 2g

the crest

y2=0

V2  2 gy1  V 1
2

V12
y1  H
2g
Head on the weir crest
Orifice equation: V2  2 gH
 Weirs & Spillways
Assume V1=0 Immediate region of weir crest

Discharge through the element: Integrate across the head (0 - H):

dQ  VdA  2 gH LdH Q  2 g L  H dH 
2
1/ 2
2 g LH 3 / 2
3
2
Total discharge across the weir: Q  Cd 2 g LH  CLH
3/ 2 3/ 2

3
 Coefficient of Discharge
Losses due to the advent of the drawdown of the flow immediately
upstream of the weir as well as any other friction or contraction
losses;

To account for these losses, a coefficient of discharge Cd is

introduced.

2
Q  Cd 2 g LH  CLH
3/ 2 3/ 2

Cd  0.611  0.08H / Z (Henderson, 1966)

where, H is the head on the weir crest, Z is the height of the weir.

Use this equation up to H/Z = 2

 Discharge Measurements
• Weirs
• Flume
• Orifices

• Weirs and flumes not only require a simple head reading to measure
discharge but they can also pass large flow without causing the
upstream level to rise significantly and causing flooding.

Discharge Control

- Orifices are rather cumbersome for discharge measurements, but

they are very useful for discharge control

Practical Hydraulics by Melvyn Kay

Copyright © 1998 by E & FN Spon . All rights reserved.
 Discharge Control

Practical Hydraulics by Melvyn Kay

Copyright © 1998 by E & FN Spon . All rights reserved.
WEIRS
WEIRS
FLUMES

Practical Hydraulics by Melvyn Kay

Copyright © 1998 by E & FN Spon . All rights reserved.
Class Exercises:

10-32