Introduction

From ancient days India has been famous for her beautiful
fabrics. The art of her gold brocades and filmsy muslins "comely
as the curtains of Solomon" is older than the Puranas. The
Puranas tell us that spinning and weaving were important
handicrafts and that Vedic Indians were fond of Suvasas or
beautiful garments. Vedic hymns sang of Ushas, the daughter of
Heaven, "clothed with radiance".... "Day and night spreading light
and darkness over the earth like two female weavers weaving a
garment." From the Arthashastra we learn that the materials
employed for spinning then were wool (urna), cotton (karpasa),
hemp (tula) and flax (kshauma). The work of weaving in those
days was entrusted only to women, and their wages depended
upon the fineness of the yarn which they spun.
Textile fabrics originally took their names from the place where
they first acquired excellence and retained them long after the local
manufacture had been transferred elsewhere. Thus we have
damask from Damascus, satin from Zaytown in China, sindon,
sandalin from Sindh, calico from Calicut, worsted from Worsted in
England, and muslin from Mosul (in Asiatic Turkey). Chintz is
derived from, chint or chete, which in Hindi means "spotted",
whence cnitta; cramoisy from kermes, which means "insect".
An infinite variety of fabrics are available today. In order to
understand different materials, one should know something of
their origin, manufacture, and properties, and their reactions to the
different processes.

TEXTILE FIBRES
The word fiber creates a mental picture of a long, thin, hair-like
object and indeed textile fibres are like that in general physical
shape.

A textile fiber must possess sufficient length, fineness, strength

and flexibility to be suitable for manufacture into fabrics.

Filament and staple:

These are terms represent the two basic forms of

textile fibres.

Filament is the name given to a fibre of continuous

length, that is to say it is long enough to be used in a
fabric without increasing its length by adding other
fibres on it. An example of a natural filament is silk,
the cocoon of a silk-worm can contain about 3000m
of continuous twin filaments.

Staple is the name given to fibres of limited length.

To make a continuous length of yarn, staple fibres
have to be twisted together. Staple fibres can
range from about 10mm to may centimeters in
length, but in no case do they ever become
long enough to be classed as filament. An example
of a natural staple fibre is cotton. If a yarn
from on ordinary (fibre) is untwisted, it will be seen
to break down into fine fibres about one inch long.

Yarn can consist of either staple fibres, or of filament put

together.
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BASIC FABRICS

Fabric recognition is an important part of textile knowledge.

The main difficulty in conveying information on fabrics
recognition is that there are very few types and constructions
of fabrics which enable a precise description to be given and
the borderlines between similar types of fabrics are not clear
and mostly represent opinion rather than fact. Appearance,
texture and handle are the three important factors in
recognition because these are the fabrics.

Vegetable Fibres

Cotton
Antiquity
Cotton is the fabric for every home and is the most widely
produced of textile fabrics today. It has now been proved that
India was the first country to manufacture cotton. Among the
recent finds at Mohenjodaro were a few scraps of cotton
sticking to the side of a silver vase. This shows that cotton must
have been produced in India as far back as even the fourth
millennium B.C. Historians speak of the beautiful painted and
printed cloths which were sold in Egypt and some parts of
Europe long before the time of Alexander.
It is not known when Indians first started to trade with Europe,
but the use of the oriental word Carbasina (Sanskrit : karpasa)
for cotton suggests that it must have been in use before 200
B.C. To the Greeks who came to India with Alexander the
Great in 326 B.C. India was a land of mystery. They were so
surprised to see cotton that they called it "wool produced in
nuts". They wrote: "The wild trees of that country (India) bear
fleeces as their fruit, surpassing those of sheep in beauty and
excellence, and the Indians use cloth made from this treewool."
We also learn from them that Indians even in those days in
contrast to their simple living loved finery. Many of their
garments were worked in gold and ornamented in precious
stones, or they were made of the finest "flowered muslin".
Even during the time of the Buddha, Banaras and Dacca were
noted for the finest cotton fabrics—"so soft and smooth was
their texture and the bleaching so perfect." It is said that the
mortal remains of the Buddha were covered with cloth from
Banaras. The muslins of Dacca have long been famous. The
name "muslin" is derived from the city of Mosul in Asiatic Turkey,
where the fabric was first made. Marco Polo, the first Venetian
traveller to the East during the thirteenth century, says. “A11 the
clothes of gold and silver that are called mosolins are made in
this country." This shows us that mosolin or muslin had a very
different meaning from what it has now.
Early records tell us of the rare muslin produced in Dacca,
which when laid wet on the grass became invisible from the
ground, and because it became indistinguishable from the even-
ing dew it was named Shubnam, i.e., "evening dew". Another
kind was called Abrawan or "running water"', because it be-
came invisible in -water. Yet another variety was known by a
station at Arikamedu near Pondicherry, which reveals that
large-scale bleaching, starching and dyeing operations were
undertaken in the immediate vicinity.
It is also related that Emperor Aurangzeb one day reproached
his daughter Zebunnisa for lack of modesty in dress showing
her skin through her clothes; whereupon the princess humbly
replied, "Father, I have already entwined myself eightfold with
the Shubnam”.
These muslins were of various qualities and of different
designations. The finest of all Dacca muslins was called Mulmul
Khas or the "king's muslin". It was generally made in half
pieces which measured 10 yds 36 in wide. The weight was about
30 oz and the yarns about 250's to 300's counts.
The Abrawan or "running water" was considered the second
quality. These measured, usually, 20 yds by 1 yd and weighed
only 7 and a half oz. A story goes that in the time of Nawab
Aliwardhi-khan, a weaver was chastised and turned out of the
city of Dacca for his neglect in not preventing his cow from
eating up a piece of Abrawan which he had spread and
carelessly left on the grass. This shows how fine the fabric was
even at that time.
Another variety was Jamdani or ."figured muslin". These have
been spoken of as the chef-d'oeuvre of the Indian weaver. They
are seen in artistic designs displaying the superb skill in
manipulation of loom embroidery. The chikkan (needle work)
embroidery muslins and printed muslins are other varieties
showing considerable beauty.
A popular method of testing fineness was to ascertain that a
piece of cloth could be passed through a lady's finger ring.
These bright cotton fabrics of India reigned supreme for
hundreds of years. No wonder they excited the spirit of rivalry
among the western countries. As far back as even five thousand
years the Indus Valley sent out its popular cotton cloth known
as Sindhu or Sindon to Baluchistan and Babylon. Through land
and sea routes a brisk trade in printed cotton fabrics was
carried on with Egypt, Arabia, Turkistan, China, Thailand and
Java. Trade was of such magnitude that new villages sprang up
engaged solely in supplying the demands of foreign markets.
Long years after, when the Arab merchant-boats plied the
Arabian Sea carrying goods to Europe, they took with them
shiploads of the varied printed cottons. According to
Jacquemart, the famous French writer, these Arab traders got
the chipas or printers of the Coromandel coast to print these
fabrics for them on the spot, all for a mere pittance. These they
sold at fabulous prices in the southern countries of Europe,
where many an ignorant buyer was told the fabrics were from
Arabia.
However that may be, the bright cotton fabrics of Hindusthan
remained a source of wealth and prosperity to the Arab
countries for several centuries and were the envy of the rising
nations in Europe.
But cotton manufacture did not obtain a real footing in
Europe until the last century. Long before the dawn of recorded
history, the art was carried from India to Assyria and Egypt.
Thence it passed over to the Italian States in the thirteenth
century and reached England only in the last century. Soon the
English tried ways and means to produce cotton textiles. During
the last hundred years they have made such rapid progress
that they have surpassed the East in the manufacture of cotton
materials. The introduction of suitable machinery for spinning
helped-this progress.

Cotton
The fibre comes from the fruit of the cotton plant which grows
in the tropical regions of the world. It is the downy "boll" that
surrounds the seeds of the plant. The cotton fibre is also called
a "seed hair" because it is the fluffy fibrous material which
envelopes the seeds of the plant, as distinguished from stem or
bast fibres such as flax or hemp. The principal cotton producing
regions are Egypt, Southern United States, India, Brazil, the
western and southern coasts of Africa and the East Indies. The
U.S.A. produces more than 40 per cent of the world's cotton.
India ranks second to the United States as a producer and
exporter of cotton .
Manufacture of hand-made cotton in India,
The tools and appliances used by cotton weavers consist of a
spinning wheel (charka) and a spindle (takli). The cotton is first
seperated, and carding follows. A bow-shaped beater known as
a dhun is used for the purpose. The string of the bow is placed on
the cotton and is made to vibrate by means of a wooden
hammer. These vibrations disentangle the fibres and cleanse
these of all foreign matter such as seeds and leaves, and soft fine
cotton is left behind. This fine cotton is next rolled on a stick in the
form of a cylinder, about half a cubit long and half an inch in
diameter. This is fastened to the spindle or takli. The wheel is
turned again and again and the thread is gently and carefully
drawn out, until the thread is about three hundred yards long. It
is then taken out of the wheel and rolled on the charka. When a
quantity of thread has been spun and collected, it is wound on a
bamboo reel.
When this is done the threads about 1000-2400—according to the
stuff required—are worked on the mill. The length of the warps
are generally 50-1000 yards long. It is now set ready for weaving
on the handloom.
On finishing the weaving, the cloth is calandered with a blunt
beater to give it a gloss and to soften it.
It is finally passed to the hand folders to give the cloth the final
fold. The cloth is then stamped, ticketed, and made ready for sale.

Manufacture by machinery

Preparation.
(1) The fibres are first removed from the
seeds which are used for the production of seed oil,_hydrogenat-
ed fats, soaps and cosmetics. The cotton mass is then compres
sed into bales for shipment to the spinning mills.
Every bit of the fibre is used. The short ends (linters) left on the
seed, after the longer "fabric" fibres have been removed, go to make
rayon, plastics, dynamite and many other by-products.
(2) In the spinning mills the cotton is fed into machines which
remove the dirt and form the mass of fibre into a soft roll or lap.
Several laps may be combined into one.
(3) Carding. The next process is known as carding, in which the
fibres are smoothed and drawn together to form a loose rope or
sliver.
(4) Drawing The sliver is then combed and smoothened
and stretched. The sliver may be drawn three times and reduced
further, in size and given a slight twist by a process called
roving. In this process, the sliver is passed through rollers and
wound on to bobbins set in spindles. This is done in a speed
frame.
(5) Combing. This process is really a continuation and refinement
of the carding process. Cotton yarns for fabrics are carded but not
all are combed. Yarns that are only carded are not so clean;
whereas combed yarns are finer, even and free from all woody stalk
of the plant. These are used for finer quality fabrics such as voile
and organdie.
(6) Weaving and dyeing. The yarn is then knitted or
woven in any one of a variety of weavers and structure of
fabrics. Warp yarns are usually more strongly twisted than
filling yarns, since they must withstand greater strain in
weavingand finishing.
Dyestuffs may be applied to raw cotton, yarn, or piece-
goods
(7) Finishing. The cotton cloth is now ready for finishing
which includes starching, calendering, sanforizing, schreineri-ing,
mercerising, or other finishes as is necessary for the particular
use for which the cloth is intended. . These finishes may be
applied to the yarns, but are usually applied to the fabric. The
fabrics may be given these special finishes before or after
dyeing. Some of these finishes are durable, others semi-
durable. Scientists are improving on them every day.

COTTON FABRICS

Bedford Cord:
A fabric showing prominent vertical cords which are produced
by a special weave structure. A carded yarn, wale, or cord
material. Two-ply warp yarns and heavier single or ply yarns
used as a backing. These heavy yarns are caught at intervals
in the weaving of the fabric. Single yarns sometimes used in
cheaper versions; the effect of the cord is obtained in the
weaving. Wale runs in warp. Can be napped in back,
bleached, dyed, or printed. Often the face of the fabric is given
a suede finish.

It is a firmly woven hardwearing fabric, very stable, used

originally for riding breeches but also used for ordinary suiting
and costume wear. Conventionally the cords are regular and
of even size but different sizes can be used in stripe form for
dress use. Traditionally wool, cotton or a mixture of the two
was used, but man-made staple fibres can also be used for
dress purposes. cotton Bedford cords are frequently sold
under the name of ‘pique’.The term ‘London cord’ is applied to
twill-face cotton Bedford cords.

Blanket Cloth:

Plain or twill weave, 60 x 80 inches and over. Thick, soft filling

yarns, heavily napped both sides. Often yarn-dyed in plaids or
stripes.

Thick, heavily milled fabrics woven with woolen spun

yarns composed entirely of wool or of wool with an admixture
of cotton. The weft is soft spun, and the quality of the wool
used ranges from strong and coarse fibres to fine cross-bred
and merino. They are made unbordered, with coloured
borders all round, or bordered only at the ends.
Horse blankets are coarse, heavily felted woolen
textures, and rug blankets (q.v.) are used in some parts of the
world as articles of clothing. Cotton blankets are made with a
flannelette finish, as a single cloth or as a weft backed
reversible texture.Blankets are also made in a cellular leno
construction using woolen, cotton or various synthetic staple
yarns. Acrylic staple and polypropylene are used in the
making of light-weight blankets in plain or in 2-and-2 twill
construction.

Brocade:

Basic weave is satin. Elaborate lustrous design woven on a

Jacquard loom. Has a raised appearance, usually on a filling-
faced satin ground but often or twill or rep. The design is on
the surface only. Multicolored yarns used.

Buckram:

A coarse cotton fabric, woven plain, piece-dyed, and stiffened

with resin or size according to the purpose for which it is
intended. Thus, if employed as an under lining,it is not made
so stiff as if used as a foundation for hats, while for use as hat
shapes one class of buckram is composed of two stiffened
fabrics cemented together, one of which is a rather fine muslin,
and the other like cheese cloth. It is sturdy in feel, stiff and
boardy.

Calico:

A plain weave cotton fabric fairly closely woven but varying in

fineness and weight depending on quality. One of the basic
cotton fabrics; widely used for dress and household purposes
in white bleached, plain colors, stripes and printed styles. It is
more closely woven than muslin, but not as fine as lawn, nor
as soft in finish as cambric.
It is also widely used in unbleached form for mattress covers
and cheap covering and lightweight types can be used as Toile
to make up dress patterns for stand modeling.
It is low in texture, coarse and made of carded yarn, has small
design effects when printed.

Cambric:
A fine lightweight plain weave fabric, usually cotton but can
also be made in linen. The yarns are not set closely together
and the finish is soft and smooth used for dress purposes,
plain or printed and for handkerchiefs. Given special sizing and
calendered finish.

Originally the name of a fine linen cloth made at Cambrai in

Belgium, and is now applied also to a fine bleached cotton
texture which is usually given a rather stiff, bright finish and
used for summer dresses. A class of cambric used for dress
linings is finished soft, and is termed kid-finished cambric.
Used for handkerchief linen, children-dress, slips, underwear &
nightgowns light in weight and well adapted for sewing work
has good body; is well sized & has neat finish. It launders well.

Casement cloth:

A plain woven cotton fabric, soft and full handling, and usually
finished white or cream, made in different ways, but generally
with the weft predominating on the surface. The cloth should
be woven with a good quality of warp and weft, and the ends
evenly spaced; sometimes mercerized in the piece. The cloth
is also made with luster worsted weft on the same principle as
Bradford lustres , and while this texture is used for casement
curtains, it is also made into summer dresses.

Cashmere:

A fine botany weft face dress fabric woven in 1-and-2 twill with
a larger number of picks than ends per cm. In the better
qualities the warp also is botany, but for cheaper cloths cotton
warp is used Cobourgs, Henriettas, and Paramattas (q.v.) are
similar in structure to cashmere, and in the finishing processes
the cloths are drawn out in length and shrunk in width in order
to show the weft as much as possible on the surface.

Chiffon:
A very soft and filmy, plain woven silk texture, consisting of the
finest singles, which are hard-twisted and woven in the gum
condition, the cloth being afterwards degummed. The term
chiffon is also used in conjunction with certain silk fabrics
which are finished with a soft pliable feel - e.g., ‘chiffon taffeta’,
‘chiffon velour’. A sheer voile with a dull finish; of fine, hard-
twisted yarns. Often dyed or printed.
They are very light-weight fabrics weighing ½ oz or even less
per square yard. They have beautiful handle and draping
properties. It is difficult fabric to make up because of the
looseness of structure the yarns slide very easily.

Chiffon is also made as man-made fibres, usually

monofilament yarns of nylon or terylene. These are stiffer and
less flexible than the true silk chiffon. Hard twist silk yarns can
be used to make crepe chiffon, (which) with a characteristics
crinkled surface appearance.

Chintz:

A printcloth or high-count fine sheeting with bright, attractive

floral or geometric designs, both large and small. Often given
a permanent or semi permanent glaze; then known as glazed
chintz. Used for draperies, slipcovers, dresses.

Corduroy:

A ribbed pile fabric with a high, soft luster. Made with extra
filling threads or extra warp threads. In weaving, the extra
filling yarns form loops or floats over the ground threads. After
weaving, the loop threads are cut on a special machine.
Threads are then brushed, forming a pile. It was originally
produced as a very hard wearing fabric for working trousers
and breeches but is now produced in many forms for dress
and general use, in a wide variety of cord styles, and sizes.
Dress styles are produced in rayon as well as cotton and
elaborate cord patterns are produced by fancy cutting
methods.
Cotton suitings and trouserings:

Made in imitation of worsted cloths as regards colouring and

weave effects, very good fabrics being produced at a relatively
low price, and although they lack the fullness and warmth of
wool textures, they are suitable for tropical countries. The
colours are mostly subdued with bright treads introduced in the
form of grandrelle twists, while the weaves are simple twills,
hopsacks, ribs, and the warp-face Venetian. The yarns should
be spun from a good quality of cotton, and the warp doubled
with less twist than ordinary, so that the threads in both
directions will be full and soft. The underside of the cloth is
frequently given a flannelette finish.

Crepe:

Has a pebbly or crinkled surface produced by use of special

crepe yarns, can be either crepe, granite, or plain weave.
Generally, mixed-twist crepe yarns used in both warp and
filling; occasionally crepe yarns used in both warp and filling;
occasionally crepe yarns used only in the warp or the filling.
Mostly woven on a box-loom.

This term relates to the crinkled surface given to certain

types of dress fabrics.

Methods of producing crepe fabrics may be summarized as:-

1. By the use of very hard twist yarns causing fabric
surface distortion in finishing.
2. By the use of special crepe weaves which break up the
fabric surface into a random series of interlacing with no
visible repeat.
3. By embossing a crinkle pattern by means of an
engraved roller either into a softened thermoplastic fabric or
in combination with resins.
4. By printing with a chemical paste in a pattern causing
puckering of the treated parts of the fabric.
The crepe technique is widely used as a variation of ordinary
fabric types.

Crepe fabrics are light and soft to the touch, and relatively fine
yarns are used with only sufficient threads per inch in the loom
as will contribute to the proper shrinking of the cloth.
Sometimes a more pronounced crepe effect is obtained by
using weaves, which show small floats on a plain foundation.

Damask:

Design woven on Jacquard loom, on both sides of the fabric.

Usually given a lustrous, smooth finish when used for
tablecloths and a soft or lustrous finish for draperies or
upholstery.

Originally a silk fabric (made in Damascus) with a weft sateen

figure on a warp satin, or twill, or plain ground. The cloth is
now extensively used for household purposes, and is made in
cotton, rayon and linen yarns with the figure and ground in
opposite sateen weaves; the figure usually being in weft
sateen and the ground in warp satin. The weaves generally
used are the 5- and 8- thread sateens, and the terms single
and double damask are sometimes used in order to distinguish
linen fabrics made in the respective weaves. The best linen
damasks are woven with about 50 per cent more picks than
ends per inch, and properly the term double damask should
only be used for 8 – thread sateen cloths which contain such
an excess of picks over ends.

Denim:

A hard-wearing twill fabric, traditionally made from cotton but

now also made in special high tenacity rayon types. The
weave is usually 3 x 1 twill and a steep twill is produced by
setting the warp yarns closer together than the weft. It was
originally a protective clothing fabric but has now become
accepted for leisure wear.
It is a strong warp face cotton cloth used for overalls, jeans,
skirts, etc., The cloth is sometimes piece-dyed, but generally
the warp is yarn-dyed brown or blue and crossed with white
weft. The colours should be fast to washing

Dhoties:

Soft, light, cotton fabrics used in India for turbans, lion cloths,
etc., and made traditionally in lengths of 2/5 yards, 2/6 yards,
or 2/10 yards, etc., the two meaning that the cloth will be cut
through the centre so as to form two garments. The body of
the cloth is plain grey, and the ornamentation consists of
heading and fancy borders, and in some cases of one or three
prominent strips away from the borders. In grey dhotis the
border pattern is made simply by cramming grey or bleached
ends in the reed (double ends in place of single ends may be
employed), or by using thicker two – fold ends. Coloured
dhotis are sometimes woven entirely plain with coloured ends
forming border stripes, but frequently more or less elaborate
figured stripes (termed flush borders) are made by means of
extra threads. The borders are formed by the figure stripe
which may also be introduced once at a third of the width from
one side, or three times across the width at an equal distance
apart .

Doria stripes:

Light, plain woven cotton cloths in which stripe patterns are

formed by varying the denting of the ends, as, for example, 6
ends in six splits, 8 ends in four splits. A convenient method of
making the style consists of placing the crowded ends 2 per
mail and denting the mails regularly, and the above example
might be woven 6 single ends in six splits, 4 double ends in
four splits, 26 splits and 22 picks per cm, 10 tex cotton warp
and 8 tex cotton weft.

Drills:
Warp-face fabrics largely made in cotton yarns, and woven in
3, 4 and 5- thread warp faced twills and 5-thread satin, with the
twill lines running opposite to the direction of the twist of the
warp yarn, in order that a prominent twill effect will be formed.
It may be bleached or piece-dyed, or woven with coloured
stripes in the warp with either white or dyed weft. The fineness
of the yarns and the setting vary according to the weave and
the weight required, satin drills being mostly made in fine yarns
and setting, while a 3-and-1 twill fabric, termed Florentine, is
woven with thicker yarns.
The term ‘pepperall drill’ is applied to a very high quality of the
cloth, and ‘drillette’ to a light make.

Dobby:

Woven on a dobby loom. All material with small figures, such

as dots and geometric designs; floral patterns woven in the
fabric, such as certain shirtings, huck towels, diaper cloth,
certain dress goods, drapery and upholstery fabrics. Can be
dyed, bleached, or yarn-dyed in many colors.

Gabardine:

A distinctive steep-diagonal warp-face twill of carded or

combed yarns. Twill is to the left if made with all single yarns,
and to the right when ply warp and single filling are used.
Thread counts range from 110 x 76 to 130 x 80.

Gauze or Leno or Cheesecloth:

Usually bleached; often specially treated, as when used for

bandages. Better cheese cloths are also used for less
expensive infants’ items under various trademarks .Here
certain ends cross from side to side of adjacent ends.

Gingham:
Plain-weave, medium-weight, or light-weight fabrics. Can be
either combed or carded yarns. Usually woven on a box-loom.
Colored and white yarns or multicolored yarns form the
pattern. Same number and variation of yarns in the warp as in
the filling, forming squares, plaids, and similar patterns.
Strange to say, a solid-color gingham is called a novelty
gingham. Endless variations in color and design. Tissue
ginghams are sheet ginghams made with lighter-weight yarns.
It is a firm, plain woven, cotton fabric usually coloured in the
warp, and frequently made in check form, Coarser qualities are
used for aprons, etc., and finer cloths for blouses and shirtings.

Glass cloth:

A good quality of linen, cotton, or linen and cotton cloth, woven

grey and in stripe and check colourings, and used for drying
and polishing glassware and china. 50 tex cotton or linen warp
and weft, 18 ends and picks per cm.

Grey cloth:

A piece of cloth in the condition in which it leaves the loom.

Huck or Huckaback cloth :

Small-figured dobby weave used for towels. Has a rough

surface. Comes bleached or with yarn-dyed striped border.It is
an absorbent fabric, used for towels and glass cloths, mostly
made in cotton yarns (see Figure 5.11) – 74 tex warp and weft,
16 ends and 38 picks per cm.

Italian cloth:

A lining cloth which was originally made with a dyed cotton

warp and grey botany weft, wool-dyed in the piece, and given
a lustrous surface appearance in the finishing process. The
brilliant luster which can now be obtained in cotton fabrics by
the operations of mercerizing and schreinering has led to the
substitution of cotton weft for the botany weft, and the cloths
are now extensively made entirely of cotton, and woven grey
and piece-dyed. A good warp and soft spun even weft are
required, with many more picks than ends per inch, and the
weave is 5-thread weft sateen arranged to twill in the same
direction as the twist of the weft, in order that maximum
smoothness of surface will be obtained.

Jeans:

Three-harness warp-face twills of light-weight sheeting yarns.

One warp thread goes over two or more filling threads, then
under, moving one pick higher for each return filling thread.
Sometimes made in chevron or herring bone versions.

A cotton fabric similar to denim, but usually lighter and finer,

woven in 2/1 twill with a warp face and showing a fairly steep
twill, the warp being more closely set than the weft. Originally
made for protective clothing and lining use but now widely
adapted for leisure wear in a wide range of colors.

Khaki:

Tan or dusty colored warp face twill; softer and finer than drill.
Name derived from East India word meaning earth color. A
Persian term meaning like the earth. A yellowish-brown fabric
produced from a mixture of differently dyed fibres, and largely
used for military purposes on account of the difficulty of
distinguishing it from natural objects. The mixture of wool
fibres to produce the khaki shade has been standardized as
follows: 80 per cent olive brown, 5 per cent indigo, 15 per cent
white.

Lawn:

Sheer and medium-sheer plain-weave fabrics made with

lightweight yarns and medium to high count. Can be bleached,
dyed, or printed. Also known as batiste or organdy, depending
on the finish.
Plain woven, bleached cotton cloth, very light, fine, and
smooth, used for underwear and dresses. May have a soft
pure finish, or be given a rather firm feel .Victoria lawn is a
closely woven fabric with a somewhat stiff finish, Persian lawn
is a soft finished cloth, while Bishop’s lawn is bleached and
given a bluish-white tint. Linen lawn is made of fine linen
yarns.

A very fine plain weave fabric originally made from linen but
more commonly made from cotton and now also featured in
man-made fibres particularly synthetic fibres. Lawn and
Cambric have similarities because both are fine fabrics but
lawn is usually more closely woven to be ‘sheer’ but lawns
made from synthetic man-made fibres have a tendency to be
sheer.

Longcloth:

Also known as fine plain. A plain-weave, closely woven, high-

count fabric. The weight is between a printcloth and lawn.
Generally combed finer yarns, and with more threads to the
square inch than percales. A few are made of printcloth
yarns.India longcloth is a finer and softer fabric, more like
cambric – 12 to 9 tex warp and weft, 36 to 40 ends and 38 to
54 picks per cm.

Mercerised cloth:

The process of mercerizing cotton cloth is similar to that of

mercerizing cotton yarn, and consists of imparting a fine silky
luster to a fabric by subjecting it to tension while impregnated
with a cold strong solution of caustic soda. Mercerized
material (yarn or cloth) has a much greater affinity for dyestuffs
than unmercerised cotton.

Muslin:
Coarse type of cotton fabric made of carded yarns; of various
thread counts up to 140. Gray printcloth and lightweight
sheetings known as unbleached muslins.
A generic term applied to soft, fine, open, plain woven fabrics
made of silk, worsted, or cotton yarns. The most common are
cotton muslins, which are woven entirely plain or are
ornamented with cords and crammed stripes, and spots and
figures in extra weft or warp. Plain muslin and fabrics with
simple ornamentation are used for summer dresses, aprons,
etc. In Swiss muslins spotted effects are produced by
embroidering the cloth after it is woven, and imitations of the
fabrics are made on the clip-spot principle ,termed Anglo-Swiss
muslin.

Thread harness muslin: A fine, extra-weft, figured muslin

fabric, woven in an ordinary jacquard which controls every
warp thread. The loose floats of weft, extending between the
figures, are cut away so as to leave a light, open ground.

Nainsook:

A fine, light, bleached, plain woven cotton cloth, with a soft

finish, and used for underwear. Made in many different
qualities, and sometimes woven with cord stripes and used for
dresses – 8 tex warp and weft, 36 ends and 34 picks per cm,
to 6 tex warp and weft, 44 ends and 56 picks per cm.
Diaphalene is a nainsook type of fabric, which is
mercerized and dyed in delicate colours for use as underwear.

Organdy:

Plain weave. A sheer, transparent lawn of lightweight yarns.

Slightly lower construction than ordinary lawns. The filling is
slightly finer than the warp yarns. Fewer filling than warp
threads. Comes in many variations, such as permanent
crinkles, leno effects, embroidery, plain or crinkled mixtures,
clip spots. Bleached, dyed, or printed. Stiff finish, either
starched or permanent stiff starchless finish.
A thin open translucent fabric with a stiff handle, made from
cotton, woven in plain weave and given a special acid finishing
treatment which creates the stiff translucent effect by partially
‘gelatinising’ the surface of the fabric. The finish is permanent
but the fabric creases easily and the same type of effect can
be obtained more effectively, but not as cheaply, by the use of
monofilament synthetic yarns. Organdie is used for dresses,
blouses, decoration, for frilling and stiffening.

Oxford:

A plain weave of medium or heavy weight. Made with a variety

of yarns. The majority of oxfords are of combed yarns, with
heavier filling than warp yarns. Cheaper grades are mixed
carded and combed yarns, and sometimes all carded yarns.
Two warp yarns, placed flat next to each other, are woven over
and under one heavier filling thread. Usually mercerized. A
number of variations of this weave are on the market. For
shirtings, dresses, and similar purposes.

Pajama Check:

A lightweight or medium-weight plain weave fabric with small-

sized or medium-sized cord checks. Usually carded yarns.
One of the dimity family.

Poplin:

Has a heavier rib effect than broadcloth. Heavier filling than

warp yarns, and more threads in the warp than filling.
Printcloth yarns mostly Combed yarns in the better cloths.
Many mixtures made. Poplin comes in many variations, such
as slubs, nubs, and yarn-dyed checks and stripes. Mainly
dyed solid colors or printed. Often given special finishes, such
as water-repellent, fire-retardant, mildew-proof.The rib effect is
developed by a deliberate unbalancing of the fabric structure.
The warp yarns are very closely set and the weft yarns are
correspondingly opened out so that in a good quality poplin
there will be twice as many warp yarns per inch there are weft
yarns. This means that the warp yarns bend round the weft
yarns and the latter remain virtually straight. The warp yarn
interlacing close-up and almost hide the weft and straight lines
of weft produce the characteristics ribs. In a good quality
poplin warp and weft are of the same thickness and the rib is
produced entirely by the imbalance of structure. Cheaper
types produce the effect by using a thicker weft and a less
closely set warp. This can make the fabric liable to crack by
the sliding of warp yarns sideways over the straight weft.

Sateen:

This is a weft-faced fabric. It is not a straight forward reversing

of a satin weave because the fabric construction differs in that
the weft yarns are more numerous and more closely set than
the warp yarns in order to give the necessary compactness of
surface. These fabrics are most commonly used for linings,
the standard curtain lining fabric is a good example of this type
of fabric, made from cotton and given a schreiner finish to
produce luster.

Seersucker:

A plain weave. Usually a medium-weight or medium-

heavyweight fabric with a woven crinkled stripe, check, or
plaid. Yarn – dyed or bleached, occasionally overprinted. The
woven crinkle is made by alternating slack tension in warp
yarns. Not to be confused with plisse.It is a woven fabric
which incorporates modification of tension control. In the
production of seer sucker, some of the warp yarns are held
under controlled tension at all times during the wearing, while
the other warp yarns are in a relaxed state and tend to pucker
when the filling yarns are placed. The result produces a
puckered stripe effect in the fabric. Seer sucker is traditionally
made into summer sportswear such as shirts, trousers, and
informed suits.

Shantung:
Plain weave. Has a rib effect formed by slub yarns. Certain
parts of the yarn are not given the usual number of twists.
These places form the slub in the rib.

Sheetings:

Plain weave. Mostly carded but occasionally combed yarns in

all weights: light, medium, and heavy. Generally about the
same number of yarns in warp as in filling, but often warp
yarns are heavier than filling. Sheetings come in both wide
and narrow widths. Yarn sizes range from 10s to 29s.

Sueade Cloth:

Sheeting napped on one side to resemble leather sueade.

Tapestry:

A closely woven yarn-dyed figured material with two or more

sets of warp and filling, often plied. Woven on a Jacquard
loom. Comes in both fine and coarse versions. The reverse
side is smooth.

Voile:

A soft yet firm, sheer fabric of plain weave. Generally made of

combed hard-twisted single yarns, although ply yarns are also
used. About the same number of yarns in warp as in filling.
Occasionally dots are woven in, and a crisp finish given the
fabric; then it is sold as dotted swiss.A fabric originally made
from hard twisted combed cotton yarns in plain weave which
gave a crisp handle to the fabric. Can be produced on plain,
striped or printed styles, used for blouses and dresses. Can
also be made in man-made fibres.

Made in both worsted and cotton yarns which vary extremely in

thickness in different makes. A worsted voile – 110/3 tex warp
and weft, 9 ends and picks per cm. A cotton voile – 34/2 tex
warp and weft, 14 ends, and 15 picks per cm; or, 12/2 tex warp
and weft, 23 ends, and 22 picks per cm. For cotton fabrics
combed and gassed, hard twisted, single yarn of 12 to 10 tex
has been substituted to some extent for two-fold yarn. On
account of the openness of the fabric good selvedges are
required, and these are frequently made 1.25 cm or more in
width, an ordinary yarn being used which is crammed in the
reed so as to give the necessary density. The voile ends are
woven one per split, and the cloths are ornamented by means
of crammed stripes, extra warp and weft figures, etc., in
mercerized cotton, silk, and rayon yarns.

LINEN

Antiquity
The art of making linen from flax is an ancient industry. The
history of linen has been closely identified with the annals of
Egypt. According to Egyptian mythology, flax was the first thing
created for themselves by the gods before appearing on earth.
A series of graphic pictures depicting the entire process of flax
culture were discovered in 1881 in one of the tombs of the
Pharaohs, dating about 2,500 years before Christ. This is proof
of the early linen weaving in the Nile valley. Even if Egypt was
not the birthplace of linen, it was, at least its cradle, as it was in
this country that linen reached a perfection seldom equalled
and never surpassed elsewhere in either the ancient or the
modern world.
Earlier than these evidences of antiquity, it has been established
that Swiss Lake-dwellers as far back as the Stone Age used
the fibres of a wild flax for fish lines and nets.
Linen was an everyday word to the writers of the Bible. It was
an emblem of peace. The biblical description of the
Tabernacle, which formed the central point of worship for the
tribes of Israel, tells us that the curtains were of fine linen, and
when Aaron the high priest entered the holy place, he put on a
holy linen coat and girdle, and upon his head was a linen
mitre. This shows the unique place held by linen in the history
of ancient times. Warden writes, "The very finest cambric or
linen of the present days looks coarse besides these
specimens of Egyptian looms in the days of the Pharaohs."
As civilisation spread, linen manufacture sprang up in other
countries. The Phoenicians with their merchant fleet opened
up new channels of commerce to the peoples of the
Mediterranean, and introduced flax growing and linen
manufacture into Ireland before the birth of Christ. However,
internal dissensions prevented the growth of the industry, and it
was not until the twelfth century that flax production was organis-
ed into an industry. By 1685, Ireland became the centre for the
manufacture of linen. The word "linen" comes from the Celtic
word, Ilin. The flax industry in the U.S.A. dates from the early
1800's when many Irish linen weavers emigrated to that
country.
In India, linen was commonly used during the time of Manu. The
Arthasastra mentions materials made of flax or kshauma. Linen
was also a popular fabric during the days of Lord Buddha. It
was particularly selected and used for the robes of the
Buddhist monks Bhikshus.

Origin

The linen fibre is obtained from the stem of the flax plant, which
grows throughout the temperate climate where there is sufficient
moisture. The Russian Baltic States, Germany, France,
Holland, Northern Ireland, Central Asia and some parts of
America .are the countries where flax is grown extensively
The Plant. The botanical name for common flax is Linum
usitatissium. There are two types of flax grown, fibre flax and
seed flax. The former is grown mainly for fibre purposes, with
the seed crop secondary; the other is grown for its seed, and
the fibre qualities are secondary. The plant is an annual
growing to a maximum height of about 40 inches. The stem is
slender and straight; the flowers are of a pale blue colour.
The fibres for the linen yarns grow in the bast or woody part of
the stem of the flax plant. Thus they are called “bast fibres”.

Manufacture

1. The flax plants are grown closely to prevent the stems from
branching, for once a branch breaks from the parent stem the
fibre above that point is of little value. The plants are pulled by
hand or machine, and care is taken that the entire fibre from its
top to root is intact.
2.After pulling, the seeds are removed and used for the
production of linseed oil.
3. Retting. This is followed by retting or steeping in which the
fleshy part of the stem is rotted by contact with water. This
process is carried out by exposing it to the action of running or
stagnant water, or to the action of dew or sun. Retting is a
ferment process where the pectin ovurum (pectin eater)
bacteria,the spores of which exist in the plant, come to life and
eat the gum (pectin) which binds the fibre to the stem.
Retting is now done in large retting tanks where the com-
position and temperature of the water and the bacterial count
can be carefully controlled. Retting requires about a week and
is an important step in flax preparation, since it determines the
looseness. Stem is finally removed by pressing the stems
between fleeted rollers and beating them with revolving blades
the colour and quantity of the finished fibre. The bundles are
then dried in the fields.

4. Scrutching. By this process the softened woody outer

portions are broken up and removed. An early method of
scrutching was to place a bunch of the fibre in a cleft of a post
called a scrutching post and strike it with a flat beater.
Scrutching machines are now used, which operate on the
same general principle.
5. Hackling or Combing. The inner part that is left
forms the linen fibres. These vary in length from ten
inches to several feet. They are separated into the
short and long linen fibres. The long fibres called line
are passed through a series of combs until they
emerge smooth, fine and glossy, ready for spinning.
The shorter fibres known as tow are also used in the
manufacture of inferior linen The fibres are then ready
for spinning into yarn.
6. Spinning. The long glossy yarn is either spun wet to give very
fine yarns or dry to form coarser yarns. After the fabric has been
woven it may be bleached. Dressing is also added to the
cheaper varieties of fabric, but the effect is lost after washing.
The natural colour of linen varies from a dark grey to a
yellowish grey. Linen is sold in different degrees of bleach,
"full", "half bleach" and natural. This bleaching is done by
chemical methods by spreading the cloth on the grass in the
sunshine. The more the cloth is bleached the more it is weaken-
ed so that a piece of full-bleached linen is weaker than one only
half-bleached. Long flax fibres are used for better quality linen
fabrics. Long "line" fibres give the lustre and body so typical of
linen. Short "tow" are used for less expensive linen.
Linen fibres are naturally stiff, and fabrics made from them
usually have more body than fabrics made from softer fibres.
Because of the natural stiffness of the fabric, linens wrinkle
readily and have to be pressed with each wearing. This objection is
overcome to some extent by special finishes given to linen.

Disadvantages
The material can crease easily if the fibre is not mixed with
oilier fibres to prevent this or if the material is not treated to
shed creases. It can also be subject to mildew. It discolours if
stored in a cupboard with hot water pipes running through it or
in wood-lined drawers or chests. The material regains its
whiteness easily, however. To remove discolouration wash in the
normal way and dry in the sun to bleach.

Uses
Table and bed linen, drying cloths in kitchen and bathroom,
Interlining and clothing including protective clothing against
radioactivity, handkerchiefs, mail bags, hosepipe covers and
insulation in telephones and telephone switchboards, parachute
harnesses, lightweight suitcases for air travel and fishing
lines.
The thread is used for stitching aircraft and railway
carriage upholstery, carpets, suitcases, life-belts, tarpaulins,
footballs and cricket-balls
The fibre is made tip into many types of material such as
juckaback, canvas, double and single damask and slubbed
dress linen. There arc textured suitweights where different
effects are given in the weaving to stimulate tweed, hopsack or
herringbone, and there are also twill weaves and hound tooth
checks.

LINEN FABRICS

Art Linen:
Closely woven round-thread linen, used chiefly for embroidery,
generally in the plain weave. Bleached, unbleached, and
colors. Also used for dresses and table linens.

Bisso Linen:

Fine, sheer linen; sometimes called altar linen. Made of wiry

yarns. Has a crisp feel. Used for altar cloths.

Cambric:

Fine, closely woven fabric with a high thread count. Plain

weave; white and colors. Used chiefly for handkerchiefs.

Canvas:

Many fabrics come under this heading. Two principal types:

(1) Open-mesh canvas used for embroidery; made of hard-
twisted yarns; very durable. Most popularly known in this
group is Java canvas.
(2) Close-woven canvas made from coarse hard-twisted
yarns in the plain weave; in various weights. Finishes range
from heavily sized to soft.

Crash:

A relatively coarse fabric made of uneven slack-twisted yarns.

Made in various qualities; plain weave. Used for towels,
suitings, dresses, depending on the weight.

A linen fabric with an irregular appearance due to the use of

thick, uneven yarns, particularly in the weft, woven plain or in
fancy crepe weaves, largely used for towels. For the warp
brown mercerized cotton is sometimes used in place of linen.
Cotton crash toweling is made with waste cotton weft in
weaves of an oatmeal crepe character (see Oatmeal cloth).

Damasks:
In satin weave as well as the Jacquard pattern. Two types:
single damask and double damask. Single damask has a five-
shaft satin construction; thread count ranges from 100 to 200
to the squares inch; if given a high thread count, is more
durable than double damask. Double damask is more lustrous
because of the longer float of the eight-shaft construction;
reversible because the design is made on both sides; thread
count ranges from 165 to 400 to the square inch.

Handkerchief Linen:

Same as linen cambric. Sometimes called linen lawn or linen

batiste. Plain weave, often corded.

Huckaback:

Coarse fabric, having rough surface. Variations in weave; may

have small figures. Color range from semi-bleached to white.

Sheeting:

Firmly constructed plain-weave cloth. Used industrially.

Closer construction used for bed linens. May be unbleached
or white.

Woven in linen and cotton yarns, the latter being generally

known as Bolton sheeting. Made in comparatively thick yarns,
in 2-and-2 twill or plain weave, from 140 to 300 cm wide, and
sold grey or bleached – 2-and-2 twill cotton sheeting – 49 to 42
tex warp, 60 to 49 tex weft, 18 to 20 ends, and 25 to 28 picks
per cm. Plain sheeting – 33 tex warp, 38 tex weft, 18 ends and
18 to 24 picks per cm. Coarser cotton sheetings are woven
with thick condenser weft (see Condenser cotton yarns), while
flannelette sheetings are usually made of this weft in plain
weave. Fine sheetings are also woven with cotton polyester
blended yarns.

Terry or Turkish Toweling:

General name that covers all types of linen woven in special
widths for towels. Some are terry, huckaback, crash, bird’s-
eye, glass.
A looped warp pile fabric, made in linen and cotton yarns, and
used for towels, bath mats, bed covers, dressing gowns, etc.

MINOR VEGETABLE FIBRES

JUTE
Jute is the second most widely used vegetable fibre, exceeded
only by cotton. The name of this plant is derived from the
Indian word that which means "to be entangled", probably
referring to the irregular fibres which readily mesh together.
The fibre has been used in India as handicraft material since
very ancient times. The early Sanskrit writings speak of pat
or jute as a useful household plant, serviceable both as a pot
herb and as a fibre.

Origin
AJute is often called "Calcutta Hemp", but it only receives the
name- from the fact that most of this fibre enters into com-
merce through that port. Jute is obtained from a plant
Corchorus, capsularis.
Practically all of the jute fibre is produced in India, and 85 per
cent of the total world production is in Bengal. Today, the
cultivation of jute has spread to other sections of India, as the
chief producing centre has gone to Pakistan after the partition
of India. Brazil is also making a successful attempt to grow
jute.

The plant
Jute is an annual plant growing from 5 to 10 feet high. It has
a cylindrical stalk as thick as a man's finger. There are no
branches except near the top. The plants are grown not only
for the fibre, but also for the leaves, which, as staled before,
are used as a pot herb.
 The crop is ready for cutting when the flowers begin to fade. If
gathered earlier, the fibre is weak; if left until the seed is ripe,
the fibre, although stronger, is coarser and lacks the
characteristic lustre. The best fibre is secured by hand-strip-
ping, when each stalk is peeled separately.

The fibre
The fibre consists of bundles of cells with sharply defined
polygonal outlines. The individual bast cells of the jute are
very fine and much shorter than flax fibres. The best quality of
jute fibre is a clear yellowish colour with a fine silky lustre. It is
soft and smooth to the touch.
The jute fibre is decidedly less strong than flax or hemp. It
is highly hygroscopic. In a dry atmosphere it may have no
more than 6 per cent'of moisture, but in damp conditions the
moisture may be as high as 23 per cent.

Manufacture
1. The plants grow to a height of ten feet, and are
gathered just as the flowers.
2. Retting. The cheapest method of removing the fibres from
the jute plant is to steep the stems in streams or pools until
bacterial action destroys the tissues in which the fibres are
embedded. Great care has to be taken. If over-retted, the fibres
are injured, if insufficiently retted, the fibres cannot be handled by
the spinner.
3. Softening. Jute is naturally very harsh owing to a low wax
content and also' to its lignified nature. For this reason it must be
softened to permit the division of the fibre and also lubricated.
Water and oil are added to the fibres, and they are passed
through a series of rollers until the desired change is obtained.
 4. Preparing the yarn The fibres are sent to the
carding_machine and made into long round slivers. These slivers
are drawn out by combining a number of slivers into one. It is then
delivered to the roving frame, where it is drawn out to about eight
times its length and is given a slight twist and wound on bobbins.
It is now ready for weaving.
The finished material is lustrous and can be bleached to a cream
shade or dyed. Jute is used mostly for making hessian, sacking,
dhurries and cheap pile fabrics. Bleached jute is also used as
filling weft to cotton warp in the so-called linen-towelling. Of
late years, a variety of novelty fabrics for dress goods have also
been made from jute, used in conjunction with woollen or cotton
yarns. It is also used largely in the manufacture of twine, rope
and carpet making.
Jute is susceptible to microbiological decay, especially under
conditions of high temperature and high relative humidity. Rot-
proofing is accomplished by the use of insoluble antiseptics which
are fixed on or within the fabric. Mineral salts, organic metallic
compounds and phenolic derivates are among the substances
used for this purpose. Today, jute is made water-resistant and
fireproof.

HEMP
Origin
Hemp was very much in vogue among the ancient Asiatics long
before the birth of Christ. It was used for carpets, tapestry, ropes,
soles of shoes and even trying their letters which were carved
on wood, for paper was not known there. Some of these
antiquities were brought to India by Sir Auriel Stein during his
expedition to the heart of Asia and are now exhibited in the
Archaelogical Museum in Delhi.
Hemp is grown chiefly in the Philippine Islands, China,
Mexico, Russia, the West Indies and India. The Manila variety
is white.
In India, Deccan hemp is grown both as a crop and as a
hedge plant. It is cultivated largely in Maharashtra—Deccan
and Carnatic—and Madras. It grows best in the alluvial soils
of North Gujarat and in medium black soils.
Fibre
The fibre is lustrous and has the microscopic nodes and
joints of linen, but the central canal is wider; the cell are blunt
ended.
Manufacture is the same as for flax

Uses
Being stronger than linen or jute, it is ideal for making twine,
ropes, cables, carpets, canvas, ship cordage and sailcloth, as
it is not weakened or rotted by water. Today, even fine fabric
are made from hemp.

RAMIE
Ramie is another vegetable fibre from nettles grown chiefly in
India, China and our other neighbouring countries. The
Chinese variety is often known as "China grass" or Rhea.
The finished fibre is fine, silky and strong. This makes it suitable
for weaving into fine table-linen, like tray-cloths, table cloths,
napkins, etc. Ramie has many properties similar to those of
linen. A slight amount of gum in the fabric makes starching
unnecessary as the material will stiffen sufficiently if ironed damp.
Another quality of ramie that makes it unique among fibres is its
behavior when in contact with water. Ramie is more absorbent
than cotton, holding-water to the extent of 28 percent of its dry
weight, whereas cotton holds water' to the extent 26percent.
Moreover, instead of losing strength when wet, as do many
fibres, ramie is 30 to 60 per cent stronger when wet than when dry.
It dries more rapidly than does flax or cotton. That has the
additional advantages of being unshrinkable and of being highly
resistant to mildew as well as to the attack of micro-organisms that
cause rot.

SUNN
This plant is a native of southern Asia, chiefly India.
There are two varieties—Bhadoi San and Rabi San. The former
is planted in May and June and harvested in October and
November, and the latter, which is the better variety is planted
 in October and November and harvested in February and
March..
In order to secure the best grade of fibres, the plants are cut
when they are in flower. They are exposed for 36 hours, and
then retted in water for three to four days and fibres are
immediately stripped off owing to their tendency to rot. They are
then dried and sorted.
Sunn is better in quality than jute, being lighter in colour and
having greater tensile strength. It contains 80 per cent
cellulose as against 64 per cent cellulose in jute.
Sunn is used for fishnets, twines, rug yarns, sacking fabrics
and in papermaking.

CABACA OR MANILA
This plant is a native of the Philippine Islands. It is cultivated
in the Philippine Islands on a large scale. It is also grown in
Sumatra and Borneo. It is planted clear of other trees and
ten feet apart each way. It is perennial and grows to a
height of 9 to 10 feet. A single plant yields about 1 Ib. of
fibre. The fibre is white and lustrous in appearance, light
and hard, and easily separable. It has good tensile strength
and great durability. The cellulose content is 64 to 65 per
cent. It is used in the manufacture of rope and heavy
cordage.

SISAL
Sisal is grown on large plantations in East and West Africa,
the East India, Java and Mexico. The plant is triennial. The
leaves grow from the base of the plant, and each leaf is cut
by hand close to the ground. The leaves are beaten by hand
and fibres removed. The fibres are washed simultaneously
with scraping. It contains 72 percent cellulose and 14 to 15
percent lignin. It rots readily in salt water. Its principal use is in
the manufacture of commercial tying twines, ropes and cords.
It can be admixed with cotton to alter the quality and price of
the rope.
 COIR
Coir is obtained from the shell of the cocoanut.The fibres are
about 10 inches long. Kerala and Ceylon are the home and
centres of coir fibres. The cocoanut husks are softened by steep-
ing them in sea-water and the wood is separated from the fibres
by pounding with a stone, hackled with a steel comb and then
dried. Fibres are changed into yarns from which cordage and
coarse cloths are prepared, and from the fibres bristles for bru-
shes are made.
Coir fibre has a natural affinity towards dyestuffs. Coir being a
vegetable fibre, shows more sensitiveness towards basic
colours; and good, brilliant colours are obtained when the fibre
is dyed with such dyestuffs. Basic colours are not stable to
sunlight. Even then they can be safely applied to coir fibre
because the use of dyed coir mats will always be confined to
indoor purposes of houses and bungalows.

Rayon
One could not imagine a modern world without
synthetic textile “Man-made” or synthetic fibres, as they are
more loosely known, were born in this country. The commercial
production of rayon stretches back no further than about forty-
eight years. It blends well with all other fibres. Rayons are
classed as regenerated cellulose fibres. Yet within this short
time, rayon— or "artificial silk", as it was originally known—has
become an intrinsic part of everyday life. It has brought to the
many a standard of luxury, once enjoyed only by the few.
The main object in manufacturing rayon was to provide a
cheap substitute for silk. Softness, coolness, lightness in
weight and attractive appearance, all count for the popularity of
rayon. So cleverly is the "limitation" done that many an Indian
housewife is not able to distinguish silk from rayon unless she
has a knowledge of the latter.
India's first rayon factory was started in 1946 in Kerala. Since
then several factories have been started in India.
Origin
All the varieties of rayon are of vegetable origin and are derived
from a cellulose base. There are four main procedures by which
cellulose is transformed into rayon. These are :
(a) the nitro-cellulose method,
(b) the cuprammonium method,
(c) the viscose method,
(d) the cellulose acetate method.
The general principles of rayon yarn production involve
making a treacly liquid and then forcing it through the fine
holes of a jet. There are, however, certain differences and
these give each type of yarn properties distinct from the others.

How differences arise in rayons

All processes for producing rayons have this in common that
they copy the technique of the silkworm of forcing a sticky fluid
through a small hole and then hardening the thread to obtain
filaments. We may say, therefore; that some of the important
differences in rayons can be accounted for by the method of
treating the cellulose raw material. The viscose method con-
verts the cellulose by the addition of carbon bi-sulphate, where-
as it is copper sulphate and ammonia that are the chemical
agents used in the cuprammonium method. In the acetate
method the purified cellulose is treated with a mixture of acetic
acid and the acetic anhydride.
The nitrocellulose method was the first to be used for the
production of rayon fabrics. This was started by Count Hiliare
Chardonnet in 1884 in France. The fibre is produced from cotton
linters (short stapled cotton), which treated with a mixture of
sulphuric and nitric acids, produce nitre-cellulose. The inflam-
mable material then produced is dissolved in spirits, and the
solution is forced through tiny holes into the air. The solvent
evaporates leaving fine thread. In this form the fibre is highly
inflammable, so it is denitrated and rendered non-inflammable.
This method is little used today owing to the expense.
The cuprammonium process : This was first made in Germany
in 1897. Cotton linters or wood pulp are treated with caustic
soda solution and steeped in cold saturated copper sulphate
solution. It is squeezed and then dissolved in strong aqueous
ammonia to give cuprammonium solution. The solution is
forced through fine jets into dilute acid to give threads which
may be stretched into fine fibres. This rayon closely resembles
silk. The American Bemberg Corporation is a specialist in the
production of these rayons,

Manufacture of Bemberg yarn

The accompanying drawing depicts the most important steps in
the manufacture of cuprammonium cellulose yarns by the
"Bemberg" stretch-spinning process.
1. Raw material used for the production of yarn may be cotton
linters or wood pulp Cotton linters formerly supplied the chief
source of cellulose used in the production of cuprammonium
cellulose yarns by the 'Bemberg' stretch-spinning process.
Cotton linters are the fine, soft fibres adhering to the cotton
seed after the long fibres have been removed during ginning.
These fibres are separated from the cotton seed, cleaned and
bleached before use for conversion into rayon yarns. Now
highly refined wood pulps serve also as a raw material in this
process.
2. Cellulose is bleached to a pure white in a washing
machine. The only bleaching required for this type of rayon
yarn is accomplished at this point.
3. Cuprammonium cellulose spinning solution is next prepared
in a solution mixer by dissolving the cellulose at a low
temperature in acqueous ammonia containing basic copper
sulphate.
4. The impurities are then filtered out in a solution filter. The
pure, clean spinning solution is of a dark blue colour and the
consistency of honey.
5. The spinning solution is allowed to mature or age in a
storage tank.
6. The solution then passes through a spinning bath-supply of
purified, slightly alkaline water which causes coagulation of the
filaments as they leave the spinneret.
7. This step depicts the stretch-spinning apparatus where the
spinning solution is forced through the comparatively large
holes of the spinneret, which is flitted into the top of a glass
cylinder containing a long, tapering glass funnel. The water
from the spinning bath supply is admitted at the bottom of the
cylinder, flows up and descends through the funnel. The action of
the water coagulates the spinning solution coming through the
spinneret and at the same time stretches the filaments thus
formed. (Final coagulation and stretching of the combined
filament is" accomplished by passing the filament bundle
through a dilute sulphuric acid bath to a driven collecting reel.)
The size of "Bemberg" rayon filaments is not limited by the
size of the spinneret holes but achieves unsurpassed fineness as
a result of the unique stretch-spinning device.
8. Finished yarn is wound on reels in skein form. As it is
removed, it is tied with coloured thread to indicate denier and
type. The skeins are then completely decoppered, washed,
soaped and dried. The yarn may be twisted into skeins or
wound on bobbins or cones for use by manufacturers. Due to
the great demand for filament yarn made by this process, only a
small percentage of American Bemberg Corporation's product is
made into staple fibre.

All Bemberg rayon fabrics

Fabrics woven and knitted entirely of 'Bemberg' rayon yarn are

used for a wide range of apparel types. Formal fabrics include
velvet, satin, brocades, taffeta, chiffon, voileten. Among daytime-
fabrics are sheers; reverse crepe, shirting and jersey. For
lingerie there are crepe and satin and a variety of knitted
lingerie fabrics. 'Bemberg' is also used extensively for gloves,
scarves, and for undergarments.
In the interior decoration field, ninon, drapery satin and taffeta,
brocades, jacquards and table damask are woven of "All
Bemberg" rayon yarns.

Combination fabrics
The unusual texture, rich appearance or durability of
certain fabrics is the result of combining yarns of different
fibers. This may be done by blending different kinds of rayon
staple fibres together or with natural fibres, by twisting rayon
filament or spun yarns together or with natural fibre yarns, and
by combining yarns of different fibres in the weaving.
In upholstery fabrics, "Bemberg" rayon yarn is used largely on the
surface to add richness to cotton, wool, or other types of rayon
fabrics, and to increase resistance to sunlight and light
deterioration.
Apparel fabrics such as bengaline, poplin fabrics, crepes, many
sportswear fabrics, and novelties receive their characteristic
textures through the combination of "Bemberg" with natural or
other man-made yarns.

The Viscose method: Viscose was first manufactured in Eng-

land in 1892 by three British chemists, Sevan, Cross and Beadle.
The largest proportion of rayons today is manufactured by this
process, as the cost of production is not only comparatively low
but also excellent fibres are produced. In India the raw material
used for viscose rayon is bamboo.
(i) The lofty spruce trees on mountain slopes are felled,
(ii) Spruce logs are reduced to wood pulp and purified for
cellulose base.
(iii) This wood pulp is treated with caustic soda to form alkali
cellulose.
(iv) This is mixed with carbon bisulphide to form cellulose
zanthate, which is dissolved in weak caustic soda solution. A
reddish or orange liquid is formed, which after filtering and
ageing thickens and is known as Viscose.
(v) This is forced through nozzles into a coagulating liquid
consisting of sulphuric acid and sodium-sulphate.
(vi) Many of the fine filaments are drawn together to form the
rayon threads or yarn for textile mills.

The Cellulose Acetate Process : This process has been

commercially developed since 1918 although it was first dis-
covered about half a century earlier.
The acetate silks differ from other three mentioned above,
since the substance forming the filament is not a regenerated
form of cellulose, but is compound of cellulose and acetic acid
— cellulose acetate.
(1) Wood pulp or cotton linters when treated
with acetic anhydride under suitable conditions is
converted into cellulose acetate. This is washed
and dried and then dissolved in acetone. It is
forced through fine orifices and solidified by
evaporation in a warm chamber or a coagulation
bath.

The fibre:
Untwisted from the yarn, the rayon fibre appears heavier,
stiffer and less elastic than silks and breaks more easily.
When ignited, rayon burns quickly with with a flare like
cotton, melts and runs into a black horny bead. It gives out
an odour like that of burnt string or paper and leaves a little
grey ash.

ANIMAL FIBRES
WOOL— THE WONDER FIBRES
Antiquity
 In cold countries wool probably was the first textile fibre to be
made into materials. It was first worn in the form of a skin or pelt,
later the fabrics were matted or felted.
An interesting story is sometimes told of the shepherd lad who
twisted together a strand of wool fibres to bind around his bundle
of fagots. This is said to be the beginning of the formation of short
fibres into yarns from which cloth could be woven.
English historians tell us that the early Romans encouraged
sheep farming in England and in A.D. 80 introduced wool weaving
in England. Soon the British woolen cloths gained reputation far
and wide. The cloth sent to the Roman Emperors was said to be
"so fine that it was comparable to a spider's web".
Woollen Kashmir shawls seem to be as old as the Epics of India.
Tradition has it that when Krishna went to the Kurus as a delegate
from the Pandavas, the presents of Dhritarashtra to him included
ten thousand shawls of Kashmir. Martin, describing India's
greatness, writes, "The gossamer muslin of Dacca and beautiful
shawls of Kashmir......adorned the proudest beauties at the
courts of Caesar."
In ancient India, cotton was not known to Vedic people, but wool
was an important material. Fine wool was obtained from the
ewes of Ghandhara and the region in which the river Ravi (the
tributary of the River Indus) flowed. From this wool blankets
(kambala), Dhussa (dursa, a variety of woollen cloth and
bleached wooJen stuff—Sundhyavah) were manufactured. It is
said in the Mahabharata that the Kambojas (the people of
Dakshan and Pamir) presented Yudhisthira at the time of Raja-
Bhoj with woollen cloth (aurna) embroidered with gold ( Jata-
rupaparishkritan); the Abhiras brought woollen cloth of various
designs (kambalan vividhan) manufactured from soft wool of
the sheep (avikam) and the shaggy goat (ajinam) and hair
of the deed (rankavah). These were manufactured in Cina
and Valhika ,Valhika was the province between the Sindh and
Sutlej.
The people of the Indus Valley during the third millenium B.C.
used wool for their warmer textiles and cotton for their lighter
ones. No textiles of this age have been preserved for us,
because of the saline nature of the soil of the Valley. How-
ever, the statues found in the site give sufficient proof that
hand-spun and hand-woven shawls were in fashion then.
There is a statue drapped with a light shawl decorated all
over with a design of trefoils in reliefs interspersed
occasionally with small circles, the interiors of which are filled
with red pigment.
The Moghul kings, renowned in Indian
history as lovers and patrons of art,
encouraged the industry of Kashmir and
gave it a great stimulus. During Akbar's
time "shawls were being sent as
valuable gifts to kings of every time." By
the end of the eighteenth century, the
Kashmir shawls had a vast market in India,
Persia. Afghanistan, Russia, and Europe.
So popular was the shawl in Europe that
England sought to shift the shawl industry
from Kashmir to Paisley. This struck a
severe blow to the industry and by the end
of the ninteenth century, Kashmir shawls
(in Europe) became a memory of the
past.
Today, fortunately, the woollen industry
in Kashmir is slowly coming into its
own. Among the popular woollen goods
are the Pashmina shawls both
embroidered and woven (pashm is den
of a man draped with the under fleece of
the cashmere goat), a trefoil patterned
shawl the sha tus, the gabha (a kind of
embroidered carpet nig), the woollen
chadder and loins and the namdhas
(embroidered felt flow rugs).
Thousands of namdhas from Kashmir
and druggets from Mysore are
exported to the U.S.A., earning
valuable foreign exchange.
At present the chief wool
manufacturing countries are
Australia, New Zealand, the British
Isles, South America and
South Africa. Not only wool but also
hair from the camel
goat, and rabbit is used for making
woollen fabrics. Some breeds
of sheep provide wool that is short and
curly while others give
long-staple wool that has a smooth,
silky, appearance.

HAND PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE OF WOOL IN

INDIA
1. Grading and sorting
To begin with wool is graded and sorted. Sorting is the process of
breaking up the fleece into distinct qualities. This very important
work is done by machines in the western countries. In the Indian
cottage industries the fleeces are opened out on sorting tables
by hand and separated in accordance with the purpose for which
they are to be used—viz.. for carpets. kumbles or blankets and
good woollen cloth.
2. Blending and carding
Wool is next blended and carded.
Carding is done with a bow made of
bamboo or cane, the ends of which are
connected with string. The professional
carders are called Pinjaris

3. Drawing
The lakli and charka are used for the work of drawing and
twisting the loose-wool sliver.
4. Spinning and weaving
To prepare the warp yarn a board with a series of upright pegs
arranged in a U-shape is frequently used. The yarn is wound on
to selected pegs, according to the length required and this is
repeated until the desired number of warp ends is obtained. In
the case of blankets or kumbles, there are usually 10 to 12 to an
inch. When the yarn is removed from the peg, the threads are
arranged to give the required width and are then placed on a
trestle. After they have been stretched tight, they are brushed
with size made from crushed tamarind seed boiled in water.
Once it is dry the yarn is ready for the handloom. This is
frequently a throw-shuttle, a type of "pit" loom, which has the
advantage of being both simple and cheap. The weaver uses a
hollow cane or bamboo in which is placed the filling yarn, the
shuttle is thrown backwards and forwards, the shed being
opened as required .

Manufacture of wool by machinery

The sheep are washed in early summer, shearing being done a
few weeks later. The wool is packed into bales and sent 10 the
factory.
1. Sorting and Cleaning
This wool is first of all sorted according to quality, and the dirt is
removed by a machine known as a duster.
2. Washing and Scouring
The wool is then moved and washed in a series of four
connecting tanks, each containing warm soapy water and
weak alkali. Thus wool grease and perspiration are removed.
The fibres are washed in the first tank and rinsed in the
others. The wool as it comes from the last tank is soft and
while. If the wool is to be fibre-dyed it is sent to the drying
machine. If not it is dried by forcing hot air through the fibres.
Usually about 16 per cent of moisture is left in the wool.
Valuable by-products are obtained from the spent liquors in the
scouring of wool. The most important of these is lanolin which is
 largely used in the manufacture of cosmetics, adhesive plasters,
disinfectants, ointments and a host of other preparations.
3. Carbonising
Although scouring removes all grease and dirt some vegetable
matter, such as seeds and burrs, may still remain in the wool.
These impurities must be removed. The process used for this
purpose is called carbonising. In it the wool is immersed in dilute
sulphuric acid, the excess acid squeezed out and the wool dried
under conditions of carefully controlled temperature. The
cellulose of the burr is converted into a brittle state and is
crushed dust by rollers and shaken out.
4. Drying and Oiling
Wool is next rinsed in clear warm water and spread out on racks
until it is as dry as the air around it. The wool is kept soft and
elastic by oiling it. This also minimises the chances of fibres
breaking in the more violent process of carding, which follows.
5. Carding
The clean wool is by no means in a fit state for spinning. Its
fibres will be lying in all directions. It is, therefore, blended,
opened out and converted into a soft, thin, gauze-like band. This
preparation of wool is called carding.
The carding process introduces the classifications of woolen yarns
and worsted yarns. Manufacturing processes from this point
differ, depending on whether the wool fibre is to be made into a
woollen or a worsted product.
In the manufacture of woollen yarns, the essential purpose of
carding is to disentangle the fibres by passing the wool fibres
between rollers covered with thousands of fine wire teeth. Inci-
dentally, this action also removes some dirt and foreign matter from
the fibres; as the wool fibres are brushed and disentangled by these
wires, they tend to lie parallel, which would make woollen yarns too
smooth. Since woollen yarns should be somewhat rough or fuzzy, it is
not desirable to have the fibres entirely parallel. By the use of an
oscillating device, one thin film or sliver of wool is placed
diagonally and overlapping another entangled and somewhat
parallel and at the same time provides a fuzzy surface to the
yarn. After this carding process, the woollen slivers go directly
to the spinning operation.
 In the manufacture of worsted yarns, the essential purpose of
carding is also to disentangle the fibres by passing the wool
fibres between rollers covered with fine wire teeth. Since worsted
yarns, however, should be smooth, the fibres are made to lie as
parallel as this process will permit. Following this operation, the
wool goes to the gilling and combing processes.
6. Gil/ing and Combing
The carded wool, which is to be made into worsted yarn, is put
through gilling and combing operations. The gilling process is
continued in the combing operation, which removes the shorter
fibres of 1 to 4 inches in length, called combing noils, places
the longer fibres called tops, as parallel as possible, and further
cleans the fibres by removing any remaining loose impurities.
The short-staple noils are not necessarily of poor quality.
Combing noils may well be of good quality, depending on the
original source of the wool. They may be used as fillers for other
types of wool fabrics; however, such fibres must be classified as
reprocessed wool.
The long-staple tops which are over 4 inches in length excel in
colour, feel, and strength. They are used in the production of
such worsted fabrics as serge, whipcord, gabardine, and covert.
7. Spinning and Weaving
Wool fibres are then drawn out and twisted into yarn. Loosely
twisted fluffy yarn is made into soft woollen material. The
smoother tight and evenly twisted yarn is used for weaving
worsted.
8. Dyeing and Bleaching
Dyeing and bleaching, may be done next. These processes may
take place at any stage after scouring. In some cases, yarn-
dyeing is done, as for plaids. Bleaching is usually necessary for
undyed woollens owing to the yellow colour produced by the
scouring process.
Acid colours are extensively used in wool dyeing. They are direct
dyes for wool requiring no mordant.
9. Finishing
The beauty of woollen goods, depends largely on the finish of the
cloth; and of worsted goods, in the weave. Worsted suitings,
when taken from the loom, look much as they will in the finished
state, but woollen fabrics are far from attractive, being coarse
and rough and needing many processes to develop their
beauty. The wool fabric is dried and stretched during drying to
retain the even width. The surface is brushed to raise the hairs,
which are then cut into even lengths. The material is then
pressed and folded ready for sale.
Drawing. Drawing is an advanced combing operation, which
doubles and redoubles slivers of wool fibres. The process
draws, drafts, twists, and winds the stock, making the slivers
more compact and thinning them into slubbers. Drawing is
done only to worsted yarns.
Roving. This is the final state before spinning. Roving is
actually a light twisting operation to hold the thin slubbers
intact.
Spinning. In the spinning operation, the wool roving is drawn
out and twisted into yarn. Woollen yarns are chiefly spun on
the mule spinning machine. Worsted yarns are spun'' on any-
kind of spinning machine—mule, ring, cap, or flyer. There are
two different systems of spinning worsted yarns.

Typical woollens are made from short-stapled fibres, and have

a fluffy appearance. Examples: Suede cloth, tweeds, flannel
broadcloth and wool crepe.

Worsteds are made from long fibres, which are laid almost
parallel before being highly twisted. They have a distinctly
visible weave, wiry feel, and are somewhat harsh. They are
finely woven and free from nap and are smooth in appearance.
Worsteds give very good service. Examples : Men's suitings,
gabardine, crepes, and Bedford cord.

Special finishes. Modern scientific research has enabled

manufacturers to make wool proof against shrinkage, water
and moths.

Unshrinkable wool. Processes to make wool unshrinkable

generally aim at removing or modifying the scales on the fibre
and so preventing the tendency to creep. For this purpose
chlorine is often used to attack the surface of the fibre. In
another process the surface of wool is partly digested by an
enzyme called papain from the paw-paw tree, which grows in
India, Ceylon and Africa. The action of papain renders the
scaly surface of the wool fibre soluble, smoothens it and thus
renders it shrink-proof and glossy.
The fibre
Untwisted from the yarn it has a kinky appearance. Its length
varies between 1 and a half inch and 18", the long fibres
being generally coarser than the short ones. The fibres used
for worsteds are usually 3 to 8 inches in length, whereas those
used for woollens are from 1 to 2 inches.
If ignited the fibre burns or smoulders with a smell, like
burning hair of feathers, leaving behind a black bead.

The qualities of wool

(1) Crimp. The wool fibre grows in a more or less wavy form
with a certain amount of twist. This waviness is called
crimp. The finer the wool the more crimps there are. In fine
merino Wool there may be as many as 30 crimps per inch
and in coarse wools as few as two or one. Crimp is a most
important quality, since it is responsible for some of the
elasticity which is so characteristic of wool garments.

(2) Resiliency : Wool is resilient. In other words, it is able to

spring back to its original form like a rubber band after being
wrinkled or creased. It is a virtue which most fibres lack. If
wool is slowly elongated, a definite extension will result.
When this tension is released, the fibre makes a partial
recovery, and slowly loses its temporary "set" if allowed
enough time. Scientists tell us that it may be extended 10,
20, 30—and if the fabric is wet—40 OT 50 per cent without
breaking, and when you let it go back, it returns to its
original length undamaged. This is a very important property
for the fibres used, say, at the knee or the elbow of a suit.
 This is the one reason why good wool fabrics do not usually
become permanently wrinkled or shapeless. This resiliency
or elasticity not only enables wool fabrics to hold their
shape better but also helps them to withstand wear.

(3) Warmth : Wool keeps one warm. This is because the

serrations or scale-like projections of the fibre entangle air,
which is a bad conductor of heat, around and in between the
fibres. The more loosely a fabric is woven or knitted, the
greater is the air entangled. Hosiery fibres have about 80 per
cent air to 20 per cent fibres. Even tightly made worsted
suiting has about 70 per cent air to 30 per cent fibre.

(4) Affinity for moisture : Wool is the most hygroscopic of all

fibres. It can
absorb moisture from the surrounding air. Upto 50 per cent of
its weight and can carry up to one-fifth its weight in
moisture. without feeling damp. It dries slowly, thus preventing a
chilling of the body through too rapid evoporation. Wool
absorbs perspiration after violent exercise, acting as a thermostat
which guards the body against quick changes in temperature.
Experience has taught the Indian Army to equip its men on duty
in the far northern mountain borders with uniforms in several
layers of wool in order to keep the "frost" line as far away from
the body as possible.
Insulation
Wool is the ideal protective fibre. It protects with comfort,
because it insulates. Millions of tiny cells of air are trapped by
the wool fibres and form an insulating layer between wearer and
weather. For this reason, wool is the best protection against
both cold and heat.
(5) Strength : Wool loses 25 per cent of its strength when wet.
In general the longer the wool fibre the greater the yarn
strength.
(6) Felting : Wool fibres interlock and contract when exposed to
heat, moisture and pressure. The scale-like exterior of the fibre
is one contributing factor to felting. Normally wool fibres repel
one another. The fibers become softened in warm alkaline
solutions, the scales expand at their unattached edges, and
with friction and pressure they lock and interlock and ultimately
felt.
This very useful property of wool finds application in the
manufacture of felts for hats, shoes, floor coverings and sound
insulating purposes.
Although felt is valuable, shrinkage of wool during washing is
not desirable. To avoid shrinkage as much as possible in
washing woollens, moderate temperature, low alkalinity, and
little handling must be observed. Processes for making wool
unshrinkable generally aim at removing or modifying the
scales on the fibre and so preventing the tendency to creep.
For this purpose chlorine is often used to attack the surface
of the fibre. In another process the surface of the wool is
partly digested by an enzyme called papain (from the paw-
paw tree which has the effect of making soluble in scale-
surface of the wool fibre). In yet another very special double
process, chformation is followed by the enzyme action—all
trace of scales is removed and a smooth fibre results. This
"glossy wool" is completely shrink-resistant.
WOOL AND HAIR FABRICS

Afghalaine:

A wool dress fabric made in plain weave using firmly twisted

yams in alternate ‘s’ and ‘z’ twist in both warp and weft. The
use of firmly twisted yarns gives a fairly crisp handle and the
use of opposing twists gives a faintly crinkled appearance to
the surface of the fabric. The surface of the fabric should be
fairly clear of fibres.

Barathea:

A wool suiting or costume fabric. The best types are fine

Botany worsted fabrics, firm and compact in structure with a
clean finish.
The weave is special forms of twilled rib weave which in
combination with the fine setting produces a finely indented
fabric surface with faint regular twill lines running in opposite
directions. The weave shown is the simplest form of barathea.

Bedford Cord:

Vertically ribbed fabric of substantial construction used for

severe wear. Rib is pronounced and runs in same direction as
warp. Originally an all wool fabric, now also made of other
fibers. Term describes weave rather than material.

Cavaly Twill:

A firmly woven fabric with a steep prominent double twill effect,

produced by a special twill weave and finely set warp.
Traditionally a fine wool worsted fabric, or combination of
worsted warp and woolen weft used for riding breeches. Also
used for suiting and costume wear. Manmade staple fibres
can be used for cheaper versions, because the traditional form
of this fabric is expensive.

Crepe (Wool):

Wool crepe is a lightweight worsted fabric with a more or less

crinkly appearance, obtained by using warp yarns that are
tightly twisted in alternate directions. The term is often applied
to lightweight worsted fabrics for women’s wear that have little
or no crepe surface.

Felt:

The distinguishing feature of true felt is that it contains no

threads, but is purely a fibrous structure. The wool fibres from
a woolen carding machine are arranged layer upon layer until
the desired thickness is built up the width of the card, and at
the same time, by a continuous forward movement, the
required length of material is obtained. This is submitted to a
process of milling, while the fibres are moistened, as in the
felting of woolen cloth (see Felted cloth). The fibres become
interlocked and matted, and a compact texture is produced,
which is used for felt hats, glove linings, table covers, floor
coverings, etc., the quality and thickness varying according to
its use.
Woven felt Fibrous faced woolen cloths which have been
felted to such a degree that the fibres and compactly matted
together so that the thread structure does not show and the
texture has the appearance of felt. The construction of a
woven felt may shrink 50 per cent in width and length, and the
resultant structure is stronger, firmer, and more elastic than a
similar carded felt.

Flannel:

A fulled and napped woven fabric, made generally of woolen

yarn but sometimes with worsted yarn used in the warp or
filling. Usually woven with a twill weave, which may be
obscured by the nap. Counts range from 56 x 30 to 86 x 52;
distinguished for its softness. Used for bathrobes, skirts,
men’s suits and trousers. Cotton flannel or dannelette is not
dissimilar in appearance.
It has a very soft handle, which makes it particularly suitable
for being worn next to the skin. The yarns are mostly woolen
spun and medium English wools and Colonial cross-breds are
used for ordinary qualities and merino for fine textures. The
cloths are milled and raised and are usually finished with a
fibrous face, but sometimes the surface is more or less clear

Gabardine:

A firm, hard-finished worsted fabric in the twill weave with a

fine diagonal wale.
Traditionally a fine quality wool (worsted) fabric showing a
clear prominent steep twill on the face and a flat back. The
steep twill was obtained by setting the warp yarns closely
together, and opening the weft yarn spacing. The face twills
were made prominent by arranging the loom so that warp
yarns on the back of the cloth were pulled tighter than those on
the face. The 2/2 twill is the standard weave, but the 2/1 twill
is also used. Union gabardines are made using a worsted
wool warp and a cotton weft. The special construction hides
the weft almost completely. Very fine constructions can be
used in all cotton gabardines and fabrics of staple fibre rayon
are also made.

Homespun:

A coarse and loosely woven woolen material made to simulate

homemade cloth-in effect, a coarse, rough tweed. Yarn is
usually heavy and contains coarse wool fiber unevenly spun.
Term applied to woolen cloths composed of yarns
hand spun from local wools and woven on hand looms. The
weave is usually plain or 2-and-2 twill, and the yarns are
coarse and uneven, and frequently consist of a mixture of
fibres in the natural colours, or dyed with natural dyes obtained
from local sources. The cloth is usually a rough fibrous tweed
in various ‘heather mixture’ shades, with the weave effect
showing quire clearly.

Jersey:

Elastic knitted fabric made from either woolen or worsted

yarns. The rib is clearly discernible on one side of the fabric.

This term has not, as yet, been precisely defined and can
quite, literally be applied to almost and knitted fabric. Single
jersey refers to a knitted fabric (usually weft knitted) made in a
machine having one set of needles. In consequence the fabric
is simple in structure and therefore not very stable being
simple in structure single jersey is cheaply and quickly made.
Double jersey is taken to mean a fabric knitted on a machine
with two sets of needles and the fabric can be knitted on the
interlock principle and patterns can be formed by interchanging
yarns between face and back needles. These fabrics are more
stable than single jersey because yarns not required to show
on the face are knitted into the back thus avoiding long floats
and loose structure. They are slower to make and more
expensive than single jersey fabrics.

Mackinaw:

A heavy woolen fabric, heavily fulled or felted, sometimes

napped, with the result that no weave is apparent on the
surface. In general construction, the same as melton except
that the latter is usually made in plain colors, whereas
mackinaw cloth is commonly woven with large distinctive
plaids or color effects. Usually made of the coarser wools.

Nun’s Veiling:

A fine, lightweight plain-weave woolen fabric, very soft and

thin, originally for veils but now used for women’s and
children’s dresses. Plain colors.
A very light and flimy veiling texture made of silk, worsted, or
cotton, sometimes with a border on one side, and used for
mourning. A heavier, plain woven fabric, made of rather hard-
twisted worsted yarns, and dyed in various colours, is used for
blouses and dresses – 24 tex worsted warp and weft, 22 ends
and picks per cm.

Pile fabrics:

Cloths in which a proportion of either the weft or the warp

threads is made to project from the foundation in such a
manner as to form a pile or nap on the surface.

Poplin:

Originally a fabric having silk warp and a filling that consisted

of a wool yarn heavier than the silk, thus producing a ribbed
surface.
A plain woven warp rib fabric with fine warp and thick weft .
Originally made with silk in both warp and weft, but poplin is
now applied to fine warp rib cloths whether made of silk, wool,
cotton, or a combination of the yarns. Irish poplin is made with
organzise silk warp and hard twisted and napped worsted weft.
Cotton poplin is now mostly mercerized, and this class of fabric
is frequently given a moiré finish.

Sueade:

A fine soft fabric with closely clipped nap made to imitate

sueade leather.

SILK
Antiquity
Silk is considered the "Queen of Fabrics" even to-day. Its
strength, lustre, softness and the graceful line in which it hangs
makes it the most attractive of all textiles. This fibre is known to
have been used in China more than 2500 years ago. A legend
tells us that a beautiful Chinese princess, while in her garden
one day, dropped a cocoon into a cup of lea. Taking it out she
discovered that she could unwind the strong continuous fibre
from the softened exterior.
Whether or not this is true, it is recorded that about 2640 B.C.,
Si-Ling-Chi the young wife of the third Emperor of China,
discovered how to reel silk from cocoons, which she later wove
into a robe for the Emperor. This was the beginning of a great
industry the Orient has known — an industry which furnished
a livelihood for millions of workers. For nearly 2,000
years the Chinese jealously guarded the secret of manufacturing
silk. Throughout these centuries this fabric of exotic
beauty went round the world in camel caravans. Imperial _
Rome received them in quantities. Cleopatra took pride
in possessing a silk robe woven in China, dyed in Asia Minor,
and embroidered in Egypt. In the meantime many attempts
were made by other countries to learn the art of making silk.
Slowly the knowledge of sericulture began to trickle out of
China in about A.D. 300. Caravans traveling from China to
Persia and thence west carried silk cloth. Silk became the
noble fabric of the Roman Empire. Pompey (106-48 B.C.)
during his conquests returned form China, wearing a beautiful
robe woven in silk.
About A.d. 550 two Nestorian monks, who had long resided in
China, learning the art of silkworm culture, were fortunate in
being able to smuggle a few silk worms out of China to
Constantinople by carrying them concealed inside their hollow
canes. These few worms were probably the beginning of the
varieties that supplied the Western world for more than 1,200
years. Byzantine silks became famous; the Saracens mastered
the industry; Venice. Florence and Milan became known as silk
centres.
In India, silk is referred to in the Epics. Valmiki in his Ramayan
says that Sita was clad in silk when she accompanied Ram to
the forest. In the days of old it was called by the name of
"ketaja". Country-made silks were called by such names as
"palta" or "kauseya" and "Chira-Shuko" or "Chinapatta" for silk
from China.
Even long before the days of King Harsha, A.D. 606-648, every
young bride in Gujarat longed to have a patolu.. The
patolu is a rich and colourful member of the family of silk saris.
This lovely fabric resembles printed cloth, but unlike the cloth it
has no reverse side, and is woven in such a way that it has
similarity of design on both sides. Its warp and weft are both
dyed in a rich variegated range of shades the length of each
thread by the technique of tie-dyeing or bandana work. This
cottage craft appears to have been thriving in Gujarat for nearly
two thousand years, well appreciated at home and patronised
abroad for its colour scheme and rich configuration. But on
account of the long time taken in weaving, its high price, and
the substitution of cheaper woven fabrics, the patolu very
nearly disappeared from the Indian market of yesterday.
Fortunately, with the revival of the ancient art very recently, the
patolu is not such a rare sari as it was yesterday, and one
sees the patolu technique extended on other fabrics, such as
curtains, table covers, blouse-pieces, cushion covers and other
house-hold textiles. They are chiefly woven in Benaras,
Gujarat, Hyderabad (Deccan), Sambalpur (Orissa) and some
towns in Madras State.
Pitamber is another very superior class of dhoti of historical
interest. Tasar (Kosa or Kaushik Vastra) is indigenously known
throughout India. It is perhaps one of the oldest natural gifts
of occupation to a number of people. Kosa cloth still serves
the purpose of silk cloths for their use as pattavastra. Their
subdued lustre and rich colour schemes combined with gold
embellishments make them ideally suited for ceremonial
occasions. Saris woven with excellent designs such as lotus,
elephants, swans, rudpaksha, deer and other designs are in
vogue today.
Patronised, in the main, by the Royal courts, Indian seri-
culture has had a long and chequered career. History tells us
that Muhammad Tughlak ( A . D . 1325-1350) was a great patron
of the industry Abul Abbas Ahmad, a Damascus traveller, who
came to India from Egypt during this time records as follows :
"The Sultan has a manufactory, in which 400 silk weavers are
employed, and where they make silken stuffs of all kinds for
robes of honour. Every year the Sultan distributes 200,000
complete dresses, 100,000 in spring and 100,000 in autumn.
The spring dresses are made of goods imported from
Alexandria whilst those of autumn are made of silk
manufactured in Delhi. The Sultan keeps in his service 500
manufacturers of golden tissues, who weave gold brocades
worn by the wives of the Sultan or for presents to be given to
the Amirs and their wives."
Countries producing silk
Today, silk is largely produced in China, India. Japan and the
South of France.
India is the fourth largest producer of raw silk in the world. The
main silk-producing states are Mysore, Jammu and Kashmir.
Besides producing mulberry silk, India also produces all the
three types of non-mulberry silk in substantial quantities, a
feature which is not associated with any other sericulture
country.
Origin
Silk is the secretion of the silkworm and is the fibre used by
the larva to make the pupal case.
Fornmtion of the cocoon
The eggs of the silk worm are placed in well-lighted and
ventilated chambers to hatch. At the end of about twelve days
the silk worm appears. These are fed on mulberry leaves.
When the caterpillar is about eight weeks old, it secretes a
viscous fluid from two glands in is head. This substance, called
fibroin is forced through two-minute channels into a single exit
near its mouth. At the same time two other glands secrete a
gummy liquid called sericin which passes through the same
exit. The fibroin, as it emerges from the head of the silk worm,
sets or coagulates forming a filament coated with sericin. With
this thread the caterpillar wraps itself round to form a cocoon.
The cocoon contains 2,000 to 4,000 yards of silk, but hardly
one quarter of this can be reeled.
The cocoons are white, yellow or sometimes green in colour,
the colour being due to the pigment that occurs almost entirely
in the gum layer. The greater part of Japanese and Chinese
silks and white, and Italian silks yellow.

TYPES OF SILK
Silks may be classified under two main types :
(!) Mulberry or cultivated silk. (2)
Non-mulberry or wild silk.
(1) Mulberry silk is made by the silkworm of the Bomby-cidae
varietv.
Among the Bombycidae variety there are two types : one is
known as Univoltine and the other Multivoltine. The former,
which gives only one crop of silk during the year, is the ordinary
European silk worm (Bombyx mori). The latter, which gives
more than eight crops passing through a succession of
generations during the year, is the Bengal Silk worm. Every
generation or cycle of the Multivoltine is not utilised for a silk
crop.
The cocoons of the Uuivoltine silk worms are of a firm and
close consistency, so that the silk can be readily reeled of them,
and the eggs require a certain degree of cold to hatch out
regularly and healthily. The eggs of Multivoltines hatch out
healthily without exposure to cold, and their cocoons contain a
small amount of silk. The conditions for Univoltines and fulfilled
in Kashmir, whereas those for Multivoltines prevail in Bengal.
(2) The wild silk or non-mulberry silk: The non-mulberry feeding
variety insects are classed as the Saturniidae. The most
important species of silk are :
(a) Tassar Silk: (also written as tussur and tussore)
obtained from an oak-feeding type of moth, native of
India and China. Unlike the mulberry cocoons, the
tassar cocoons possess a peduncle attached to the
mouth of cocoons which support the cocoons on the
twigs of the trees.
(b) Muga Silk : The mooga moth is a species that is
to some extent domesticated in India. The Muga silk is
superior to the tassar in point of view of gloss and
other qualities. It is commonly employed for the
manufacture of mixed fabrics and for some kinds of
embroidery.
(c) Eri Silk : The eri or arrindi moth of Bengal and
Assam is fairly widely distributed in the East. The
eriworm, feeding on castor leaf is reared indoors in
Assam, Bihar and West Bengal.
The cocoons are remarkably soft, white or yellowish, and the
filament so exceedingly delicate makes it impracticable to wind
off the silk. It is spun like cotton.
Manufacture
The silk industry consists of two main divisions, namely, the
production of material made from (a) continuous filament or
nett silk, and (b) residual or waste or spun silk that cannot be
economically reeled into continuous filament thread or yarns.
In the production of nett silk, the cocoons are collected and
those unsuitable for reeling or those intended for supplying the
next crop of eggs are removed.
 (1) The cocoons are stifled by steam or hot air in
order to kill the chrysalis within it.
(2) These cocoons are then sorted for the filatures or
establishments consisting of a large number of reeling
basins. Here they are treated with hot water and
mechanically brushed and thus the outer layers are
removed and the worker is able to find the single end
of the cocoon thread.
(3) Three to eight of these cocoon filaments are
reeled together the compound thread passing up,
down and then up again, so that the thread ascending
for the second time twists round the ascending thread
from the basin this arrangement does not produce any
actual twisting of the thread itself, but serves to
smooth, compress and cement the filaments. A fresh
end is added to the composite thread immediately one
breaks or runs out from the cocoon.
(4) The thread now passes to a swift and is wound in
the form of a hank. During its passage to the swift, the
thread is dried either naturally or by artificial means.
The yarns made of reeled silk threads twisted together
are called thrown silk these yarns are wound on
spools or skiens for the weavers.
(5) Bleaching. The silk is treated with hydrogen-per-
oxide or sulphur-dioxide. It is more difficult to remove
all the gum from the wild silk, hence the finished fibre
has slightly different properties from cultivated silk
owing to the fact that gum is still present.
(6) Dyeing. Like wool, silk has an excellent affinity for dyes,
specially acid dyes, which produce brilliant shades on silk. As a
group, these dyes have a good fastness to washing and Sight.
(7) Printing. Silk fabrics may be left plain or may be printed by
any method—roller, screen or block. Silks are usually dyed and
then printed.
(8) Finishing. With its natural lustre, its soft drapability, most
silk fabrics require very few finishes unlike other fabrics.
Spunsilk. This silk is commonly known as '"waste" silk. It
consists of silk that cannot be unwound from the cocoons and
reeled into skeins, or it may be got from the damaged or
unreelable cocoons such as those from which the moth has
emerged.
Spun silk yarn requires more twists than reeled silk, to hold in
all the short fibres. Twisting decreases lustre, so that spun silk
appears less lustrous than reeled silk. It also has less tensile
strength, less elasticity, and a rather cottony feeling.
The silk to be used for this purpose is scoured, the gum is
boiled off and the fibres are dried. They are then combed so
as to separate and straighten them and made parallel. The
filament ends of fibres are then drawn out between rollers,
several times. A slight twist called roving is put in. A spinning
frame, which winds and rewinds the yarn on spindles, puts in
the twists. Spun silk requires a tighter twist than thrown silk.
Spun silk is less expensive than reeled silk, and is often used
for the weft or filling threads in a cloth. These threads do not
have to be so strong as warp yarns. Plush, velvet, satin, and
lace may have spun silk yarns. Sarees, knitted ties, sweaters,
scarves, hosiery and upholstery materials use mixture of spun
silk and other fibres.

How to identify spun silk and reeled silk

If the yarns are unravelled and each one is carefully examined,
it will be seen that some yarns are composed of several
fibres that lie parallel and are slightly twisted together. The
yarns are lustrous and the fibres shred apart. These are
reeled silk yarns. If the yarns appear dull and cottony in
texture and their fibres are short and of uneven length, the
yarns are spun silk.
However, delustred fabrics today are popular. It must be
noted that many georgettes and crepes look dull, but that
does not mean that the yarns are of spun silk. The 'crepy'
effect of fabrics is secured by the tightness of the twist of the
yarn. This decreases the lustre.
Weighting of silk
Weighting of silk is a common practice. When yarns are
prepared for weaving, the yarn is boiled in soap solution to
remove the natural silk gum or sericin. The silk nay thus lose
from 20% to 30% of its original weight. As sill: has a great
affinity for metallic salts, such as those of tin and iron, the
loss of weight is replaced through the absorption of these
metals. Thus, a heavier fabric can be made at a lower price
than that of pure silk. Weighted silk does not wear as long as
pure unweighted silk, because sunlight and perspiration
weaken the fibres. Heavy weighting causes the silk to crack—
a process often seen in taffetta and other flat crepes.

The fibre

The silk fibre is in every respect one of the most perfect

natural substances known for yarn-making. Silk is smooth and
semi-transparent. It is the longest of all natural fibres ranging
from 800 to 1200 yards.

SILK FABRICS

Brocade:

Most figured silk fabrics in a Jacquard weave are known as

brocades. The pattern is raised above the general surface of
the fabric. Used mainly for elaborate evening wear.
It was originaly a heavy, rich, silk fabric ornamented with raised
figures formed by extra threads or by embroidery, but now
applied to any ordinary jacquard figured cloth which shown
variety of effect.

Canton Crepe:
Characterized by a heavy filling and a finer warp. Heavier than
crepe de chine, having pronounced crinkle and greater
durability. Used chiefly for dresses.

Chiffon:

A transparent sheer fabric in a plain weave. Extremely light in

weight but very strong. It usually has a soft finish. Used for
evening dresses, lingerie, blouses, and scarves.

China Silk:

A very soft, extremely lightweight silk made in plain weave,

used chiefly for linings. Irregularities of threads, caused by the
extreme lightness and softness of China silk, are characteristic
of the fabric.

Crepe:

Fabric with a crinkled effect, produced either by the use of

tightly twisted yarns or by the method of weaving.

Crepe-back Satin or Satin Crepe:

Satin weave with a crepe-twist filling. As the fabric is

reversible, interesting effects can be obtained by contrasting
the surfaces. Used for dresses, blouses, linings.

Damask:

Reversible figured silk fabrics woven on the Jacquard loom.

Pattern flatter than in brocade. Used for upholstery and
draperies; the lighter weights, for dresses and lingerie.

Georgette:

Highly creped sheer silk fabric, chiefly for dresses and

blouses.It is made by using highly twisted ‘S’ and ‘Z’ yarns in
both warp and weft and woven in a special crepe weave. This
combination gives a strong crepe effect and a crisp handle and
a rather springy fabric which is difficult to make up, but drapes
well.This type of fabric is made in silk, wool and rayon and is
used for dress wear. It can be bonded to acetate locknit and
this improves the stability and makes the fabric easier to use.

Organza:

A light-weight, plain weave, sheer fabric made originally from

fine silk yarns but now also made in man-made synthetic fiber
yarns. It has a crisp handle and drapes well. Made in plain
colors and in printed style, for dress use.

Satin:

Silk fabric with a highly lustrous surface and usually a dull

back. Made in different weights according to its uses, which
vary from lingerie and dress goods to drapery and upholstery
fabrics. May be made with a cotton back. Sometimes double-
faced for use as ribbon.
A fine fabric with a smooth lustrous face. It originated as a
woven silk fabric and its effect depends on a special
construction. A special satin weave is used which has long
‘floats’ of warp over weft. The warp is very closely set and
there are usually at lest twice as many warp yarns per inch
than weft. This gives a close compact face predominantly
warp. The interlacings of warp with weft should be completely
hidden giving the fabric an apparently smooth featureless
surface. The back of the fabric is comparatively dull in
contrast, because non-lustrous yarn can be used.

Used for ribbons, trimmings, dresses, linings, etc., and

originally was an all silk fabric with a fine rich glossy surface
formed in a warp satin weave (see Duchessee). The warp is
much finer and more closely set than the weft, and the latter,
which only shows on the under side, is frequently composed of
cotton. Double faced satins are made on the reversible warp
backed principle, with one side differently coloured from the
other. The term satin is also applied to fine cotton warp satins
used for shirtings and linings (see Cotton Venetians).

Shantung:

Low in luster, heavier and rougher than pongee. A plain weave

in which irregular (slub) filling yarns are used. Sometimes
used to describe a heavy grade of pongee made in China.

Taffeta:

A smooth, closely woven fabric in a plain weave. Often

weighted to produce its characteristic crispness. Sometimes
has a moiré pattern. Used for dresses, suits, coats, and
lingerie.
Originally a plain, closely woven, silk fabric used for dress
fabrics and linings, and frequently the cloth is made with
thicker weft than warp, and is set so as to produce a fine warp
rib structure. The term taffeta is also used in conjunction with
certain effects, thus taffeta glace indicates a ‘shot’ silk taffeta.

Tussore:

Originally a light brown, fawn, or natural coloured plain woven

silk fabric; also made in cotton yarns and mercerized and dyed
to imitate the colour of the silk cloth. The structure is that of a
plain woven warp rib (q.v.), and in some cases a few darker
threads are introduced at a place so as to form stripes – 30 tex
cotton warp, 50 tex cotton weft, 36 ends, and 14 picks per cm.

Velvet:

Silk velvet has a silk pile and a silk back. Some velvets are
made with a silk pile and a rayon or cotton back. Transparent
velvet is a sheer velvet having a rayon pile and a silk back.
Panne velvet has a special luster that is produced by pressing
the pile in one direction.
A warp pile fabric, i.e. a woven fabric made with two warps, a
ground warp and a pile warp. A special weave construction
causes loops to be formed in the pile warp which stand upright
and which can then be cut. The cut ends of the pile yarn form
the fabric surface; the backing fabric, formed by the ground
warp and the weft, holds the loops in place. Velvet can be
woven perfectly plain or a figured design can be produced by
forming pile patterns on a flat ground, or by a contrast of cut
and uncut loops, or different heights of pile.
A cut warp pile fabric with a short, soft, dense pile.

Duopione: An irregular, slub silk reeled from double

cocoons or silk worms which have spun their cocoons side by
side causing an interlock, making it necessary to reel them
together. Antique taffetas and sheers are woven with doupione
weft yarn, as are many damasks.