Set 3 Introduction to Fault Analysis

Reality
Generator (14-16 relay types), Transformer (3-5), Transmission line (2-4), Bus bar
(1) Motor (4-6)

• But we spend “most” of our time doing short-circuit current calculations for only
two of them:

50 Instantaneous overcurrent, or rate-of-rise relay is a relay that functions

instantaneously on an excessive value of current, or on an excessive rate of current
rise, thus indicating
a fault in the apparatus of circuit being protected.

51 AC time overcurrent relay is a relay with either a definite or inverse time

characteristic that functions when the current in an ac circuit exceeds a predetermined
value.

[NOTE: There is one other relay for which we have to do significant calculations – the
loss of synchronism relay – done much later in the course
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 Modelling for Fault Studies

• Line capacitances are in shunt and have a very large impedance. They
have no impact on fault levels. Ignore them.

• X/R ratios for all devices are high

Suppose Z = 1 + j10 = 10.05 (magnitude) then ISC = V/Z = 100/10.05 =
9.95 amps OR ISC = V/X = 100/10 =10.0 [no loss of accuracy]

• We do all our calculations in per unit. Transformer turns ratios

disappear in per unit.

* Therefore all circuit models for short circuit current calculations

involve only voltage sources and reactances.

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 Balanced Fault

Balanced fault (only one):

● Three phase short circuit (tower falls to earth shorting
all three phase together)

1. It acts on all phases in the same way.

1. If we calculate what is happening to the current in

phase A, then we automatically know what is
happening in phase B and phase C. The current
magnitudes are identical, they are shifted in phase by
120 degrees.

2. Therefore we can use a per-phase model.

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 Unbalanced Faults

Unbalanced faults (many):

● Line to ground, or phase to ground (L-G).
● Line to line, or phase to phase (L-L)
● Line to line to ground, or phase to phase to ground (L-L-G)
● Open phase, or open conductor

85% of all faults on the power system are L-G.

80% of them are temporary.

[NOTE:
We often use “single pole, reclosing circuit breakers” on both
ends of our 345 kV transmission lines.]

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 Unbalanced Faults

Unbalanced faults (many):

● Line to ground, or phase to ground (L-G).
● Line to line, or phase to phase (L-L)
● Line to line to ground, or phase to phase to
ground (L-L-G)
● Open phase, or open conductor

85% of all faults on the power system are L-G.

80% of them are temporary.

[AND:
We always use “reclosers” on the distribution
system.
They try to reclose ONCE, TWICE and then stay
OPEN if the fault still persists

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 Unbalanced Fault Analysis

● Faults are unbalanced.

● Cannot use a per-phase model.
● Have to model all three phases.

● Only two choices.

1. Model the self inductance of each phase, and the mutual

inductances between all phases, for every device on the power
system.

2. Use Symmetrical Components – the overwhelming choice.

[Even though this seems ridiculous – why would anyone want to

have to define a new set of impedances for all power system
components?. Later we will learn that we call them positive,
negative and zero sequence impedances]
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A generator is a special component – it is a set of coupled coils

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 The effect of many coupled circuits

For a short time, the current decayed with a very, very

small time constant
Westinghouse
put a direct, Then the current decay was determined by a longer time
bolted, constant
permanent fault Then the steady state was reached
on a small 30
kW three phase
generator
running at no
load. They
measured the
stator phase
current.

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Phasor representation of different decay rates

This led to the concept of dividing the time region up into

three so that a phasor approximation could be used for each
region.
There is a subtransient current in
the stator which is equal to the
generator internal voltage E
divided by a subtransient
reactance.
I” = E / X”

There is a transient current in the

stator which is equal to E divided
by a transient reactance.
I’ = E / X’

There is a steady state current in

the stator which is equal to E
divided by a steady state
reactance, which from your
undergraduate power system
analysis course is Xs
Iss = E / Xs
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Idea 9 – Introducing some synchronous machine reactances

So we are introduced to three

synchronous machine reactances.

X double prime or X” is the

subtransient reactance. It is small.

X prime or X’ is the transient

reactance. It is a little larger.

Xss or X synchronous or Xs is the

steady state reactance. It is larger
still.

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Balanced Fault
Calculation

Three phase
fault at
point F

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Balanced Fault
Calculation

Three phase
fault at
point F

Comment on values of E” and EB

What is the internal voltage of a generator just before a fault?
Who knows – it might be overexcited or it might be underexcited.
Unless otherwise stated, we take it as 1.0 per unit.

I From G = 1.0/ j (0.25 + 0.15) = 1.0/j 0.4 = -j 2.5 per unit

I From IB = 1.0/ j (0.1 + 0.6//0.6) = 1.0/j (0.1 + 0.3) = -j 2.5 per unit
IFault = -j 2.5 - j 2.5 = -j 5.0 (or 500% of Rated Load Current
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 Thevenin Equivalent

Three phase
fault at
point F

For any network, before putting the fault on the network we

could always reduce it to a VThevenin in series with an XThevenin.

This would appear like a single open circuit generator at point F

For this reason, all derivations are done using “open circuit
generators” as models.
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