Metal Cutting

Unit-3
Introduction:
 Metal cutting is a process of removing (cutting) a layer of material from a metal blank
by means of a tool which is harder than the metal being cut.
 The development of civilization and the technological innovations made man to
develop new machines and methods for shaping materials. It was soon learnt that the
metal cutting process is basically one of shearing the work material.
 The layer of metal is removed in the form of a chip through the process of
plastic deformation or controlled fracture.
 The significant efforts and contributions by various scientists and machinists finally
helped to develop technological/physical models for engineering of efficient
machining.
 It is important for every individual involved in manufacturing to have a basic
knowledge of the fundamentals of machining of materials, and also the theory/physics
behind the metal cutting process.
 This knowledge helps one to understand and solve the various problems encountered
in metal cutting process.

Engine Lathe parts and Function

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Bed: The bed is the base or foundation of the lathe. Usually made of cast iron. The main
feature of the bed is the guide ways, which are formed on the bed’s upper surface and run the
full length of the bed. The guide ways keep the tailstock and the carriage, which slide on
them, in alignment with the headstock.

Headstock: Head stock is mounted in a fixed position on the inner ways, usually at the left
end. The headstock contains the headstock spindle and the mechanism for dividing it. Hole
through the headstock is used to feed bar stock, which allows shafts that are up to 2 times the
length between lathe centres to be worked on one end at a time.

Tail stock: The primary purpose of the tailstock is to hold the dead center to support one end
of the work being machined. However, the tailstock can also be used to hold tapered shank
drills, reamers, and drill chucks. It can be moved on the ways along the length of the bed and
can be clamped in the desired position by tightening the tailstock clamping nut. This
movement allows for the turning of different lengths of work.

Carriage: The carriage is the movable support for the cross feed slide and the compound
rest. The compound rest carries the cutting tool in the tool post. Carriage moves on the outer
guide ways.

Compound Rest: The compound rest mounted on the compound slide, provides a rigid
adjustable mounting for the cutting tool.

Apron: The apron is attached to the front of the carriage and contains the mechanism that
controls the movement of the carriage and the cross slide.

Feed Rod: The feed rod transmits power to the apron to drive the longitudinal feed and cross
feed mechanisms. The feed rod is driven by the spindle through a train of gears.

Lead Screw: The lead screw is used for thread cutting. It has accurately cut Acme threads
along its length that engage the threads of half-nuts in the apron when the half –nuts are
clamped over it. The lead screw is driven by the spindle through a gear train.

Cross Feed Slide: The cross feed slide is mounted to the top of the carriage in a dovetail and
moves on the carriage at a right angle to the axis of the lathe.

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Functions:

Chamfering: The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner of the
cylinder, forming what is called a ‘‘chamfer”

Cut-off: The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location along its length to
cut off the end of the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as “parting”

Threading: A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating work part
in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus creating threads
in the cylinder.

Knurling: This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of material.
Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular cross hatched pattern in the
work surface.

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Single point cutting tool nomenclature:
Cutting tools are classified based on their number of cutting edges they are

1. Single point cutting tool

2. Multi-point cutting tool
 Single point cutting tool

A single point cutting tool is the simplest type consisting of a single effective cutting
edge that removes the excess material from the workpiece, lathe tool (parting tool, facing tool
etc.), shaper tools (tools used in shaping machine), planer tools, boring tools etc., are
examples single point cutting tools.

 Multipoint cutting tool

A multipoint cutting tool has more than one cutting edge and includes milling cutters,
drill bit, reamers, broachers, grinding wheel etc.

Single point cutting tool nomenclature

Cutting tool nomenclature designates the various elements or parts of a cutting tool.
Although the terminology used to designate the various elements remain same for both single
point and multipoint cutting tools, it is easier to understand the same in a single point cutting
tool. The important nomenclature for a single point turning tool is illustrated in figure and
listed below

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 3.

Single point cutting tool nomenclature

Tool shank

It is the main body of the cutting tool, and is also the part of the tool that is gripped in the
tool holder.

Face

It is the top surface of the tool over which the chip flows during cutting.

Cutting edge

Cutting edge is the portion of the face edge that separates the chip from the workpiece. The
total cutting edge of the tool includes end cutting edge and side cutting edge.
• End cutting edge is the cutting edge formed at the end face of the tool
• Side cutting edge is the cutting edge on the side face of the tool.

Flank

It is the surface adjacent to, and below the cutting edge when the tool lies in a horizontal
position.

Nose

It is the tip of the cutting tool, and is formed by the intersection of the side cutting edge and
the end cutting edge.

Nose radius

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It is the radius of the nose of the cutting tool. The nose radius is a very important parameter,
since it gives strength to the cutting tip, increases tool life, and gives a fine surface finish on
the workpiece. The value of the nose radius ranges from 0.4 -1.6 mm and depends on several
factors like depth of cut. Amount of feed, type of tool (solid, or with insert) etc. As the value
of the nose radius increases, a higher cutting speed can be used, but the life of the tool will be
reduced. Also, it may lead to chatter and vibrations due to higher level of cutting forces
generated during cutting.

TOOL GEOMETRY
A cutting tool should provide best results in any situation or condition during machining.
Unless the cutting tool is ground to the correct shape with correct angles, it is impossible to
obtain good results on the workpiece. Tool geometry refers to the various angles provided on
the cutting tool. Figure shows a single point cutting tool with various geometric elements
marked on it.

Geometry of single point cutting tool

a)Rake angle

Rake angle is the inclination of the face (top surface) of the tool with respect to the horizontal
reference surface. Rake angle facilitate wedge action in cutting and help the chips to flow
away from the cutting edge thereby reducing the pressure of the chip on the tool face. Rake
angle can be zero, positive or negative as shown in figure

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Types of rake angles

When the face of the cutting tool is flat or horizontal, the tool is said to contain a zero
rake. Zero rake increases the strength of the tool and prevents the cutting edge from digging
into the work piece. However, tools with zero rake have a larger crater wear due to the chip
sliding over the rake face. Forming tools are usually provided with zero rake, as they are
mainly used for finishing formed surfaces where little amount of pressure is required to
remove small amounts of material.
When the face of the tool is so ground that it slopes downwards from the tip of the
tool, it is said to contain a positive rake. Tools with positive rake angle are used for cutting
non-ferrous and low-tensile strength materials, and also for materials which work harden
while being machined. However, excessive positive rake weakens the cutting edge. Hence for
machining hard metals, tools are given smaller rake angles, while for machining soft metals,
larger rake angles are used.

When the face of the cutting tool slopes upwards from the tip of the tool, it is said to
contain a negative rake. Cutting tools with negative rake angle are stronger, and hence, are
used for machining high-tensile strength materials; for taking interrupted cuts, and machining
with high feeds. Negative rake angles are generally employed on carbide tipped tools for
machining extra-hard surfaces, hardened steel parts, cast steels etc. However, increased
negative rake angle leads to increased cutting force during machining, which in turn causes
vibrations, reduces machining accuracy, and increased power consumption. Therefore, tools
with negative rake should be used only when absolutely necessary.

Rake angle is a combination of back rake angle and side rake angle.
• Back rake angle measures the downward slope of the top surface of the tool from the tip
of the tool (nose) to the rear along the longitudinal axis (z-axis). Back rake angle can he
positive or negative type.

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• Side rake angle measures the slope of the top surface of the tool to the side in a direction
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis (z-axis). Side rake angle can be positive or negative
type.

b) Side cutting edge angle

It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the longitudinal axis (z-axis) of the tool. It
avoids formation of built-up-edge, controls the direction of chip flow, and distributes the
cutting force and heat produced over a larger cutting edge.

c) Side relief angle

It is the angle made by the flank of the tool and a plane perpendicular to the base just under
the side cutting edge. Side relief angle permits the tool to be fed side-ways into the job
(workpiece), so that it can cut without rubbing against the job.

d) End cutting edge angle

It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the tool shank. It acts
a relief angle by allowing only a small section of the end cutting edge to participate in the
cutting action thereby preventing chatter and vibration.
e) End relief angle

It is the angle between a plane perpendicular to the base and the end flank of the tool. End
relief angle prevents the end of the cutting tool from rubbing against the job during
machining

f) Lip angle
It is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of the flank.

ORTHOGONAL & OBLIQUE CUTTING

The process of metal cutting is classified into two types:

• Orthogonal cutting and
• Oblique cutting.

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a) Orthogonal cutting
Orthogonal cutting is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the tool is
straight and perpendicular to the direction of work or tool travel. Refer figure. The chip does
net flow to either side, but flows over the tool face, and the direction of chip flow velocity is
norm, to the cutting edge. Only two components of the cutting force acts on the tool, and both
of them are perpendicular to each other and can be represented in a 2-D (two dimensional)
plane. Hence, orthogonal cutting is also referred to as 2-D cutting operation.

b) Oblique cutting

Oblique cutting is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the tool is
straight and inclined to the direction of work. The inclination changes the direction of the
chip flow across the tool face with side-ways movement producing the helical form of the
chip.

CHIP REMOVAL PROCESS

Mechanics of metal cutting

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 Figure illustrates the basic geometry of a 2-D chip formation. When the cutting tool
forced to move against the workpiece, the tool exerts a compressive force on the workpiece
the material of the workpiece is stressed beyond its yield point causing it to deform
plastically and shear off. The plastic flow takes place in the localized region called shear
plane, as shown in figure. The sheared portion of the metal begins to flow along the cutting
tool face in the form of small pieces called chips Work is done by the tool on the workpiece,
and more than 90% of the energy is transformed into heat. The heat is concentrated near the
tip of the tool and as such, raises the temperature of the tool, the workpiece and shearing
chips.

Mechanics of chip formation process

In the process of metal cutting, as the cutting tool moves forward, the workpiece
material ahead of the tool passes through the shear plane. The advancing tool removes the
workpiece metal along the shear plane in the form of chips. Three different types of chips arc
formed.
They are:
• Continuous chips
• Continuous chips with Built-Up-Edge (BUE) and
• Discontinuous chips.

The type of chip produced depends on the machining conditions and the material being cut.

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a) Continuous chips

When the workpiece material is ductile (Example mild steel, copper, aluminum etc.)
fracture will not occur in the shear plane, and the chip comes off in the form of a long string
or ribbon like with a smooth shining surface. Refer figure.
This type of chip is called continuous chip and the primary reason for its formation is
the fact that, ductile material has a tendency to elongate or flow much more before it ruptures
or completely separated from the parent workpiece material.
Continuous chips are desirable, since it creates a smooth finish on the workpiece,
absorb less energy/power create less machining noise, and enhance tool life. However, for
some metals, continuous chips are undesirable. When the chip is too long/stringy, it wraps
around the tool or the workpiece resulting in a poor surface finish on the workpiece, and also
posing problems to the operator. In such cases, chip breakers are used to break the continuity
of the chip. Refer figure.

b) Continuous chips with Built-Up-Edge (BUE)

During machining tough steels such as alloy steels, tool steels etc., larger cutting
forces are required and this in turn produces a lot of heat at the tool-work interface. The high
heat generated causes the compressed metal adjacent to the tool nose to get welded to it in the
form of metal lumps. Refer figure. The extra metal welded to the nose or point of the tool is
called built-up-edge. 1 his metal is highly strain hardened and brittle. Eventually, the tool
edge becomes blunt and loses its cutting capability. As the chip slides up the tool, the built-
up-edge is broken and carried away with the chip, while the rest of it adheres to the surface of
the workpiece making it rough. Thus, the formation of BUE should be reduced and this is
achieved by means of cutting fluids, which also play a very important role in metal cutting
operation. Other factors like using a tool material with low coefficient of friction compared to
workpiece material, and making the tool face smooth, also help in reducing the formation of
Build-Up-Edge.

c) Discontinuous or Segmented chips

While cutting brittle materials like cast iron, bronze etc. the workpiece material along
the shear plane will periodically fracture producing a segment of the chip. This type of chip
formed is called discontinuous or segmented chips. Refer figure. The primary reason for the
formation of such chips in brittle materials is the fact that, the binding strengths for metal

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grains are not very strong, and as such, the metal easily shears before it elongates.
Discontinuous chips normally degrade tool life and enhance tool wear. They are also
sometimes produced while machining ductile materials, especially when low cutting speeds
are used and adequate coolant is not supplied during cutting operation.

d) Serrated chips (shear-localized chip)

These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is
produced by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear strain followed by low shear
strain. This fourth type of chip is most closely associated with certain difficult-to-machine
metals such as titanium alloys, nickel-base superalloys, and austenitic stainless steels when
they are machined at higher cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also found with
more common work metals (e.g., steels) when they are cut at high speeds.

Serrated chips

MERCHANTS CIRCLE DIAGRAM & ANALYSIS

Consider the process of metal cutting as shown in figure. The various forces acting on the
chip during cutting is shown by arrows. It is desirable to know the value of these forces, since
it helps to calculate the power required for the machine tool design and stiffness, etc. for
machine tolerances whether the workpiece is capable of withstanding the cutting pressure,

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and other information. The relationship among the various forces was established by
Merchant with the following assumptions
• The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact between the workpiece and the tool
flank.
• Only continuous chip is produced.
• There is no sideways flow of chip.
• Cutting velocity always remains constant.
• Depth of cut is constant.
• Inertial forces of the chip are neglected.
• The width of the tool is greater than that of the workpiece.

Let,
α = Rake angle
Φ = Shear angle
Ft = thrust force
Fc= cutting force

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Fs = Shear force
Fn = Force normal to the shear force.
The normal force to friction N is perpendicular to the friction force. The coefficient of
𝑭
friction can between the chip and tool is given by 𝝁=
𝑵
The friction force and its normal force can be added vectorially to form a resultant force R,
which is oriented at an angle𝛽, called the friction angle. The friction angle is related to the
coefficient of friction as 𝝁 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷
The shear stress that acts along the shear plane between the work material and the cutting
condition is obtained by using simple expression
𝐹𝑠
𝜏𝑠 =
𝐴𝑆
𝑡𝑜 𝑤
𝐴𝑆 = 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝐴𝑆 =
sin ∅
The cutting force Fc is in the direction of cutting, the same direction as the cutting speed v,
and the thrust force Ft is perpendicular to the cutting force and is associated with the chip
thickness before the cut to resulting in resultant force R0. The respective directions of these
forces are known, so the force transducers in the dynamometer can be aligned accordingly.
Equations can be derived to relate the four force components that cannot be measured to the
two forces that can be measured. Using the force diagram.
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒂 + 𝑭𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒂
N = 𝑭𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒂 − 𝑭𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂
𝑭𝒔 = 𝑭𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ + 𝑭𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅
𝑭𝒏 = 𝑭𝒄 𝑺𝒊𝒏∅ + 𝑭𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅

From the above equation the merchant equation can be obtained as

𝑭𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅−𝑭𝒕 𝑺𝒊𝒏∅
𝝉=
𝒕𝒐 𝒘/𝒔𝒊𝒏∅
Merchant reasoned that, out of all the possible angles emanating from the cutting edge of the
tool at which shear deformation could occur, there is one angle ∅ that predominates. This is
the angle at which shear stress is just equal to the shear strength of the work material, and so
shear deformation occurs at this angle. For all other possible shear angles, the shear stress is
less than the shear strength, so chip formation cannot occur at these other angles. In effect,

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the work material will select shear plane angle that minimizes energy. This angle can be
determined by taking the derivative of the shear stress S in above equation with respect to ∅
and setting the derivative to zero. Solving for f, we get the relationship
𝛼 𝛽
∅ = 45 + −
2 2
Tool Wear

Tool wear is a term often used with cutting tools and to describe its gradual failure due to
regular operation. A cutting tool is ground with various angles to perform cutting operation
efficiently on different materials and in different situations of varying speed, feed and depth
of cut.
It is well know that tool wear cannot be avoided, but under suitable operation condition it
can be minimized. Hence, it is desirable to understand the behavior of the tool.

Forms of Tool Wear

The different forms of wear on the cutting edge of a tool include:
• Crater wear
• Flank wear

a) Crater wear

Crater wear is essentially the erosion of an area on the tool face as shown in figure
Crater wear generally takes place while machining ductile materials in which the continuous
chip produced gets curled and flows over the face of the cutting tool. During this process, the
pressure of the hot chip rubbing and sliding up the face of the cutting tool results in the
formation of a crater or a depression at the tool-chip interlace. The metal from the tool face is
eroded or transferred to the sliding chip by means of the diffusion process. Continued heating
by the rubbing action of chip enhances crater growth, which in turn impairs the cutting edge
& finally leads to the failure of the tool. Under very high cutting speeds, lack of cutting
fluids, & while machining tough materials, crater wear can be the factor, which determines
the life of the tool

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b) Flank wear

Flank wear is a form of wear, which appears on the flank, below the cutting edge of
the tool. It occurs due to the abrasion between the flank of the tool and the newly machined
workpiece surface. Referring figure. Flank wear will be more near the nose of the tool, and it
is not uniform along the cutting edge. Refer figure. This type of wear occurs on all tools
while cutting any type of work material.

Wear Mechanisms of Cutting Tools

The various wear mechanisms responsible for different forms of tool wear include:
Abrasion
Adhesion
Diffusion and
Oxidation

a) Abrasion

In the abrasion wear mechanism, as the chip slide up the face of the cutting tool, the
hard particles on the underside of the chip plough into the relatively softer material of the tool
face and remove metal particles by the mechanical (rubbing/abrasion) action. Hard particles
on the underside of the chip includes fragments of hard tool material, broken pieces of built-
up-edge, and/or hard constituents like carbides, oxides, scales etc., present in the work
material.

b) Adhesion

When two metallic surfaces are brought into intimate contact under external load, a
metallic bond between the two materials takes place. This phenomenon is known as adhesion.
In metal cutting a high-temperature is generated at the tool-chip interface causing a metallic

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bond to take place between the chip and the tool material. The bond takes place at the contact
points in the form of small spot welds. As the chip slides up over the tool face it tears away a
small portion of the welded tool contact material. Thus, small particles from the tool face get
separated forming the wear on the tool.

c) Diffusion

Solid state diffusion is a mechanism by which atoms in a metallic crystal shift from
one lattice point to another, causing a transfer of the element and thereby leading to tool
wear. Although the amount of metal transported from the tool material to the chip material is
very small (micro transfer), the portion of the tool from where the is transferred form a
weaker section thereby giving a chance for other forms of wear like abrasion, adhesion etc. to
take place. Diffusion is a time and temperature dependent process and the rate diffusion
increases exponentially with temperature.

d) Oxidation

During metal cutting, the high temperatures generated at the tool-work interface
causes oxidation of carbide in the cutting tool. The oxides that are formed are easily carried
away, leading to increased tool wear.

Tool Failure

A cutting tool is said to have failed when it ceases to perform its intended function.
The failure may be due to any of the following reasons:

a) Thermal softening

The high-heat generated at the tool-chip interface is mainly responsible for the tool
failure. Al high-temperatures, the cutting tool loses its hardness and becomes soft. Under the
action of the cutting force, the tip of the tool deforms and become blunt. Thus the tool loses
its cutting ability and is said to have failed.

b) Rupture of the cutting edge

Owing to high-temperatures, cutting tools are usually designed with materials

possessing high hardness. But the high hardness makes the cutting tool to be mechanically

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weak and brittle in nature. This causes the cutting edge and the tip of the tool to break or
chip-off in small portion during the machining.

c) Gradual wear

Any tool used in metal cutting wears out gradually. As the cut progresses, the wear of
the tool also progresses.

TOOL LIFE

Tool life is the duration (time) a tool can be reliably used for cutting before it must be
discarded or re-ground. The life of the cutting tool is one of the most important economic
considerations in metal cutting. The tool should be utilized efficiently to the maximum
possible extent before it can be ground or discarded, because tool grinding or replacement
costs are very high.

The life of the tool is affected by various parameters listed below:

• Machining variables like feed, speed and depth of cut
• Tool geometry that includes various angles
• Type of tool material
• Type of workpiece material, and
• Use of suitable cutting fluids.

Taylor’s Tool Life Equation

Of all the variables like feed, speed, depth of cut, type of workpiece material, coolant
etc., that affect the tool life, the cutting speed forms the most significant parameter. F.W.
Taylor, an American engineer developed a standardized test to determine the relationship
between the cutting speed and the time the tool remains useful. The test was carried out for
different combination- of tool and workpiece material and the flank wear of the tool under
test was measured. It was found that a practical amount of wear to measure before breakage
was 0.75 mm (VB) for solid and brazed tips, and 1.25 mm (VB) for ceramic tools. Tests were
carried out to determine the time taken to reach this amount of wear at different cutting
speeds. The results were plotted or a graph showing that a logarithmic relationship existed
between the cutting speed and the tool life (cutting time).

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The empirical relation of tool life with cutting speed is given by the Taylor’s equation and is
known as Taylor’s tool life equation.
VTn=C
Where, V= cutting speed in m/min
T=tool life in minutes
C=A constant called machining constant, which is numerically equal to the cutting speed in
m/min
n= an exponential index for a particular combination of tool and workpiece material.
The value of n for most combination of the tool material

SI no Tool Material Value of n

1 HSS Tools 0.1-0.18
2 Uncoated tungsten carbide 0.2-0.25
3 Ti-C or Ti-N Coated WC tools 0.3
4 Al2O3 coated WC tools 0.4
5 Ceramics tools 0.4-0.7

Advanced Cutting Tool Materials:

The advanced cutting tool materials are
 Coated carbides
 Cermets
 Coronite
 High Performance Ceramics (HPC)
 Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)
 Diamond

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Coated carbides
The properties and performance of carbide tools could be substantially improved by
• Refining microstructure
• Manufacturing by casting – expensive and uncommon
• Surface coating – made remarkable contribution.
Thin but hard coating of single or multilayers of more stable and heat and wear resistive
materials like TiC, TiCN, TiOCN, TiN, Al2O3.on the tough carbide inserts (substrate) (by
processes like chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD), Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) at
controlled pressure and temperature enhanced MRR and overall machining economy
remarkably enabling,
• Reduction of cutting forces and power consumption
• Increase in tool life (by 200 to 500%) for same VC or increase in VC (by 50 to 150%) for
same tool life
• Improvement in product quality
• Effective and efficient machining of wide range of work materials
• Pollution control by less or no use of cutting fluid through
• Reduction of abrasion, adhesion and diffusion wear
• Reduction of friction and BUE formation • heat resistance and reduction of thermal
cracking and plastic deformation

Cermets
These sintered hard inserts are made by combining ‘cer’ from ceramics like TiC, TiN or
TiCN and ‘met’ from metal (binder) like Ni, Ni-Co, Fe etc. Since around 1980, the modern
cermets providing much better performance are being made by TiCN which is consistently
more wear resistant, less porous and easier to make. The characteristic features of such
cermets, in contrast to sintered tungsten carbides, are :
• The grains are made of TiCN (in place of WC) and Ni or Ni-Co and Fe as binder (in place
of Co)
• Harder, more chemically stable and hence more wear resistant
• More brittle and less thermal shock resistant

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• Wt% of binder metal varies from 10 to 20% • Cutting edge sharpness is retained unlike in
coated carbide inserts
Application wise, the modern TiCN based cermets with bevelled or slightly rounded cutting
edges are suitable for finishing and semi-finishing of steels at higher speeds, stainless steels
but are not suitable for jerky interrupted machining and machining of aluminium and similar
materials. Research and development are still going on for further improvement in the
properties and performance of cermets.

Coronite
It is already mentioned earlier that the properties and performance of HSS tools could have
been sizeably improved by refinement of microstructure, powder metallurgical process of
making and surface coating. Recently a unique tool material, namely Coronite has been
developed for making the tools like small and medium size drills and milling cutters etc.
which were earlier essentially made of HSS. Coronite is made basically by combining HSS
for strength and toughness and tungsten carbides for heat and wear resistance. Microfine
TiCN particles are uniformly dispersed into the matrix. Unlike solid carbide, the coronite
based tool is made of three layers;
• The central HSS or spring steel core
• A layer of coronite of thickness around 15% of the tool diameter
• A thin (2 to 5 μm) PVD coating of TiCN. Such tools are not only more productive but also
provide better product quality.
The coronite tools made by hot extrusion followed by PVD-coating of TiN or TiCN
outperformed HSS tools in respect of cutting forces, tool life and surface finish.

High Performance ceramics (HPC)

Ceramic tools as such are much superior to sintered carbides in respect of hot hardness,
chemical stability and resistance to heat and wear but lack in fracture toughness and strength
as indicated Through last few years remarkable improvements in strength and toughness and
hence overall performance of ceramic tools could have been possible by several means which
include;
• Sinterability, microstructure, strength and toughness of Al2O3 ceramics were improved to
some extent by adding TiO2 and MgO
• Transformation toughening by adding appropriate amount of partially or fully stabilised
zirconia in Al2O3 powder

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• Introducing nitride ceramic (Si3N4) with proper sintering technique – this material is very
tough but prone to built-up-edge formation in machining steels
• Developing SIALON – deriving beneficial effects of Al2O3 and Si3N4
• Adding carbide like TiC (5 ~ 15%) in Al2O3 powder – to impart toughness and thermal
conductivity • Reinforcing oxide or nitride ceramics by SiC whiskers, which enhanced
strength, toughness and life of the tool and thus productivity spectacularly. But manufacture
and use of this unique tool need especially careful handling
• Toughening Al2O3 ceramic by adding suitable metal like silver which also impart thermal
conductivity and self-lubricating property; this novel and inexpensive tool is still in
experimental stage.
The enhanced qualities of the unique high performance ceramic tools, specially the whisker
and zirconia based types enabled them machine structural steels at speed even beyond 500
m/min and also intermittent cutting at reasonably high speeds, feeds and depth of cut. Such
tools are also found to machine relatively harder and stronger steels quite effectively and
economically

Cubic Boron Nitride

Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride is the hardest material presently available. Only in 1970
and onward cBN in the form of compacts has been introduced as cutting tools. It is made by
bonding a 0.5 – 1 mm layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to cobalt based carbide
substrate at very high temperature and pressure. It remains inert and retains high hardness and
fracture toughness at elevated machining speeds. It shows excellent performance in grinding
any material of high hardness and strength. The extreme hardness, toughness, chemical and
thermal stability and wear resistance led to the development of cBN cutting tool inserts for
high material removal rate (MRR) as well as precision machining imparting excellent surface
integrity of the products. Such unique tools effectively and beneficially used in machining
wide range of work materials covering high carbon and alloy steels, non-ferrous metals and
alloys, exotic metals like Ni-hard, Inconel, Nimonic and many non-metallic materials which
are as such difficult to machine by conventional tools. It is firmly stable at temperatures up to
1400 0C. The operative speed range for cBN when machining grey cast iron is 300 ~ 400
m/min. Speed ranges for other materials are as follows:
• Hard cast iron (> 400 BHN) : 80 – 300 m/min
• Superalloys (> 35 RC) : 80 – 140 m/min

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• Hardened steels (> 45 RC): 100 – 300 m/min In addition to speed, the most important factor
that affects performance of cBN inserts is the preparation of cutting edge. It is best to use
cBN tools with a honed or chamfered edge preparation, especially for interrupted cuts. Like
ceramics, cBN tools are also available only in the form of indexable inserts. The only
limitation of it is its high cost.

Diamond Tools
Single stone, natural or synthetic, diamond crystals are used as tips/edge of cutting tools.
Owing to the extreme hardness and sharp edges, natural single crystal is used for many
applications, particularly where high accuracy and precision are required. Their important
uses are:
• Single point cutting tool tips and small drills for high speed machining of non-ferrous
metals, ceramics, plastics, composites, etc. and effective machining of difficult-to-machine
materials
• Drill bits for mining, oil exploration.
• Tool for cutting and drilling in glasses, stones, ceramics, FRPs etc.
• Wire drawing and extrusion dies
• Superabrasives wheels for critical grinding. Limited supply, increasing demand, high cost
and easy cleavage of natural diamond demanded a more reliable source of diamond. It led to
the invention and manufacture of artificial diamond grits by ultra-high temperature and
pressure synthesis process, which enables large scale manufacture of diamond with some
control over size, shape and friability of the diamond grits as desired for various applications.

Thermodynamics in Metal Cutting : The total energy consumed in machining, nearly

(98%) is converted into heat. This heat can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool–
chip interface over 6000 C is not unusual. The remaining energy (2%) is retained as elastic
energy in the chip.
Cutting temperatures are important because high temperatures
(1) reduce tool life,
(2) produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine operator,
(3) can cause inaccuracies in work part dimensions due to thermal expansion of the work
material.
Measuring of cutting temperature can be done using tool-chip thermocouple. The
thermocouple consists of the tool and the chip as the two dissimilar metals forming the

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thermocouple junction. Connecting electrical leads to the tool and wok piece ( which is
connected to the chip), the difference in voltage generated at the tool-chip interface during
cutting can be monitored using a recording potentiometer.

The tool-chip thermocouple speed-temperature relationship can be obtained by the

relationship as
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑣 𝑚
T= measured tool-chip interface temperature
V= cutting speed.
K & m depend on cutting conditions.

Machining of Various Metals Used in Aerospace:

Aluminium : Aluminium exhibits extremely good machinability. Its high thermal
conductivity readily conducts heat away from the cutting zone allowing high cutting speeds,
usually expressed in surface feet per minute (SFM):
SFM = 𝝅DN/12
where
D = tool diameter in inches
N = tool rotation in revolutions per minute (RPM)
The objective of any machining operation is to maximize the metal removal rate
(MRR) in m3/min which for milling is equal to:
MRR = RDOC×ADOC×F
where
RDOC = radial depth of cut in inches
ADOC = axial depth of cut in inches
F = feed rate in in./min
The important concept in machining is feed per tooth, also called chip load,
ft = F/nN
where
ft = feed per tooth in in./tooth
F = feed rate in in./min
n = number of teeth on cutter
N = tool rotation in RPM

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Cutting speeds for aluminium alloys are high, with speeds approaching, or exceeding, 1000
sfm common. In fact, as the cutting speed is increased from 100 to 200 sfm, the probability of
forming a built-up edge on the cutter is reduced; the chips break more readily and the surface
finish on the part is improved.
The depth of cut should be as large as possible to minimize the number of cuts required.
During roughing, depths of cuts range from 0.250 in. for small parts to as high as 1.5 in. for
medium and large parts, while finishing cuts are much lighter with depths of cuts less than
0.025 in. common place. Feed rates for roughing cuts are in the range of 0.006–0.080 in./rev,
while lighter cuts are used for finishing, usually in the range of 0.002–0.006 in./rev.

Because aluminium alloys have a relatively low modulus of elasticity, they have a tendency
to distort during machining. Also, due to aluminium’s high coefficient of thermal expansion,
dimensional accuracy requires that the part be kept cool during machining; however, the high
thermal conductivity of aluminium allows most of the heat to be removed with the chips. The
flushing action of a cutting fluid is generally effective in removing the remainder of the heat.
The use of stress relieved tempers, such as the TX51 tempers, stress relieved by stretching,
also helps to minimize distortion during machining. Excessive heat during machining can
cause a number of problems when machining aluminium alloys. Friction between the cutter
and the work piece can result from dwelling, dull cutting tools, lack of cutting fluid, and
heavy endmill plunge cuts rather than ramping the cutter into the work piece. In adequate
backup fixtures, poor clamping, and part vibration can also create excessive heat. Localized
overheating of the high strength grades can even cause soft spots which are essentially small
areas that have been overaged due to excessive heat experienced during machining. These
often occur at locations where the cutter is allowed to dwell in the work. Standard high speed
tool steels, such as M2 and M7 grades, work well when machining aluminium. For higher
speed machining operations, conventionalC-2 carbides will increase tool life, resulting in less
tool changes and allowing higher cutting speeds.

Titanium: Titanium is difficult to machine for several reasons

1. Titanium is very reactive and the chips tend to weld to the tool tip leading to premature
tool failure due to edge chipping. Almost all tool materials tend to react chemically with
titanium when the temperature exceeds 9500 F.

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2. Titanium’s low thermal conductivity causes heat to build-up at the tool- work piece
interface. High temperatures at the cutting edge is the principal reason for rapid tool wear.
When machining Ti-6-4, about 80% of the heat generated is conducted into the tool due to
titanium’s low thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity of titanium is about 1/6 that of
steel. This should be contrasted with high speed machining of aluminium in which almost all
of the heat of machining is ejected with the chip.
3. Titanium’s relatively low modulus causes excessive work piece deflection when machining
thin walls there is a bouncing action as the cutting edge enters the cut. The low modulus of
titanium is a principal cause of chatter during machining operations.
4. Titanium maintains its strength and hardness at elevated temperatures, contributing to
cutting tool wear. Very high mechanical stresses occur in the immediate vicinity of the
cutting edge when machining titanium.
The following methods are well established for the successful machining of titanium:
1. Use slow cutting speeds. A slow cutting speed minimizes tool edge temperature and
prolongs tool life. Tool life is extremely short at high cutting speeds. As speed is reduced,
tool life increases.
2. Maintain high feed rates. The depth of cut should be greater than the work hardened layer
resulting from the previous cut.
3. Use generous quantities of cutting fluid. Coolant helps in heat transfer, reduces cutting
forces, and helps to wash chips away.
4. Maintain sharp tools. As the tool wears, metal builds-up on the cutting edge resulting in a
poor surface finish and excessive work piece deflection.
5. Never stop feeding while the tool and work piece are in moving contact. Tool dwell causes
rapid work hardening and promotes smearing, galling, and seizing.
6. Use rigid setups. Rigidity insures a controlled depth of cut and minimises part deflection.
Rigid machine tools are required for machining of titanium. Sufficient horse-power must be
available to insure that the desired speed can be maintained for given feed rate and depth of
cut. Titanium requires about 0.8 horsepower per cubic inch of material removed per minute.
The base and frame should be massive enough to resist deflections, and the shafts, gears,
bearings, and other moving parts should run smoothly with no backlash, unbalance, or
torsional vibrations.
Cutting tools used for machining titanium include cobalt-containing high speed tool steels,
such as M33, M40, and M42, and the straight tungsten carbide grade C-2 (ISO K20). While
carbides are more susceptible to chipping during interrupted cutting operations, they can
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achieve about a 60% improvement in metal removal rates compared to HSS. Ceramic cutting
tools have not made inroads in titanium machining due to their reactivity with titanium, low
fracture toughness, and poor thermal conductivity. It should be noted that although
improvements in cutting tool materials and coatings have resulted in tremendous productivity
improvements in machining for a number of materials (e.g., steels),none of these
improvements have been successful with titanium.
Cutting fluids are required to achieve adequate cutting tool life in most machining operations.
Flood cooling is recommended to help remove heat and act as a lubricant to reduce the
cutting forces between the tool and work piece. A dilute solution of rust inhibitor and/or
water soluble oil at 5–10% concentration can be used for higher speed cutting operations,
while chlorinated or sulfurized oils can be used for slower speeds and heavier cuts to
minimize frictional forces that cause galling and seizing. The use of chlorinated oils requires
careful cleaning after machining to remove the possibility of stress corrosion cracking.
For the production of airframe parts, end milling and drilling are the two most important
machining processes, while turning and drilling are the most important for jet engine
components. In turning operations, carbide tools are recommended for continuous cuts to
increase productivity, but for heavy interrupted cutting operations, high speed tool steel tools
are needed to resist edge. Chipping. Tools need to be kept sharp and should be replaced at a
wear land of about 0.015 in. for carbide and 0.030 in. for HSS. Tool geometry is important,
especially the rake angle. Negative rake angles should be used for rough turning with carbide,
while positive rakes are best for semi-finishing and finishing cuts and for all operations using
HSS.
Composite: Composites are more prone to damage during trimming and machining than
conventional metals. Composites contain strong and very abrasive fibers held together by a
relatively weak and brittle matrix. During machining, they are prone to delamination’s,
cracking, fiber pullout, fiber fuzzing (aramid fibers),matrix chipping, and heat damage. It is
important to minimize forces and heat generation during machining. During metallic
machining, the chips help to remove much of the heat generated during the cutting operation.
Due to the much lower thermal conductivity of the fibers (especially glass and aramid),heat
build-up can occur rapidly and degrade the matrix, resulting in matrix cracking and even
delaminations.
When machining composites, generally high speeds, low feed rates, and small depths of cuts
are used to minimize damage. Most composite parts require peripheral edge trimming after
cure. Edge trimming is usually done either manually with high speed cut-off saws or
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automatically with NC abrasive water jet machines. Lasers have been often proposed for
trimming of cured composites, but the surfaces become charred due to the intense heat and
are unacceptable for most structural applications. Carbon fibers are very abrasive and quickly
wear out conventional steel cutting blades; therefore, trimming operations should be
conducted using either diamond-coated circular saw blades, carbide router bits, or diamond-
coated router bits. A typical manual edge trimming operation, can be conducted with a high
speed air motor (e.g., 20 000 rpm) with either a diamond-impregnated cut-off wheel or more
typically a carbide router bit.

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