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The geology and genesis of high grade hematite ore deposits

Article  in  Applied Earth Science IMM Transactions section B · April 2003

DOI: 10.1179/037174503225011243

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The Geology and Genesis of High-Grade Hematite Iron Ore
Deposits
N J Beukes1, J Gutzmer1 and J Mukhopadhyay1,2
INTRODUCTION
Most world-class high-grade (60 - 67 wt per cent Fe) hematite
iron ore deposits are the product of enrichment of Precambrian
iron-formations but processes responsible for enrichment are still
unclear. Different models, ranging from syngenetic and
diagenetic (King, 1989), deep-seated hydrothermal (Powell et al,
1999; Barley et al, 1999; Taylor et al, 2001; Gutzmer et al, 2002)
and ancient supergene (Morris, 1980; 1985; Van Schalkwyk and
Beukes, 1986) to modern supergene (MacLeod, 1966) have been
suggested. The high-grade hematite deposits stand in contrast to
martite–goethite ores which are generally accepted to be the
result of supergene enrichment of iron-formation because they
are found along Cretaceous to Tertiary lateritic weathering
profiles (Morris, 1980; Harmsworth et al, 1990).
Uncertainties about the origin of the high-grade hematite ores
appear largely due to the monomineralic composition of the ores.
They are almost exclusively composed of hematite (as
microcrystalline hematite and martite), a mineral with wide
stability field and very simple chemical composition that reveals
little about its origin. Second, many of the deposits have been
overprinted by later deformation and chemical weathering
obscuring primary ore characteristics and zonation (Taylor et al,
2001). Third, surprisingly few detailed geological studies have
been undertaken on the deposits with the aim of unraveling ore
genesis. Most studies focus on the present-day structure of
orebodies and their general physical-chemical composition for
mining and beneficiation purposes. A more thorough
understanding of the origin of high-grade hematite iron ore
deposits may be gained by combining available mining-
1. Department of Geology, Rand Afrikaans University, PO Box 524,
Auckland Park 2006, South Africa.
2. Department of Geology Presidency College, Calcutta, Calcutta
700073, India.
FIG1 - Locality map illustrating the distribution of important high-grade hematite ore deposits.
Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
orientated data with systematic petrographic-geochemical
analyses of different ore generations and hematite phases.
This paper presents a first summary of results of an ongoing
study, started some two years ago, of high-grade iron ore
deposits in South Africa, India and Brazil, including a
comparison with the rather well studied deposits of the
Hamersley Province in Australia.
CLASSIFICATION
Following field investigations and literature surveys of
high-grade hematite ore deposits in South Africa (Sishen-
Beeshoek and Thabazimbi districts), Brazil (Quadrilátero
Ferrífero and Carajas districts), India (Noamundi and
Dalli-Rajhara districts) and Australia (Hamersley Province)
(Figure 1), we recognise three general genetic types, namely
ancient supergene, hydrothermal and supergene-modified
hydrothermal deposits (Figure 2). Ancient supergene deposits,
represented by Sishen-type deposits in South Africa, occur
immediately below a major erosional unconformity and grade
downwards into unmineralised banded iron-formation (Figure
2A). The ores are typically overlain by red beds, which may
contain detrital ores derived from the underlying hard lateritic
ores (Figure 2A). In contrast, hydrothermal ores, of which
Thabazimbi in South Africa and hard hematite ores of Mount
Tom Price, Mount Whaleback, Paraburdoo and Newman in
Australia are type examples, are not associated with any
unconformity and typically grade from the bottom upwards into
unmineralised iron-formation (Figure 2B). Supergene-modified
hydrothermal ores, represented by deposits of the Quadrilátero
Ferrífero and Carajas districts in Brazil, and the Noamundi and
Dalli-Rajhara districts in India, are characterised by the presence
of large volumes of friable saprolitic ores that were derived from
supergene enrichment of earlier hydrothermally altered
iron-formation, next to hard high-grade hydrothermal hematite
orebodies (Figure 2C).
23
N J BEUKES, J GUTZMER and J MUKHOPADHYAY
A High-grade hematite iron ores are only developed in areas
B A siliceous chert breccia, known as the Wolhaarkop breccia,
C This is, for example, the case where the unconformity transects
FIG 2 - Classification of major types of high-grade hematite ore
deposits.
Although there are large variations in size (from small to
superlarge, depending on geological setting and erosional
preservation) in each of the deposit types, it is interesting to note
that the largest known reserves of up to 13 billion tons of in situ
ore are developed in association with supergene-modified
hydrothermal ores in the Carajas district. Ancient supergene ore
deposits can also be very extensive and contain in situ reserves of
up to two billion tons as in the case of Sishen deposit in South
Africa (Van Schalkwyk and Beukes, 1986). Hydrothermal ore
deposits tend to be somewhat smaller with largest known
deposits containing 0.9 - 1.4 billion tons of ore (Taylor et al,
2001).
ANCIENT SUPERGENE DEPOSITS
The Sishen, Manganore, Beeshoek, Welgevonden and Rooinekke
deposits that developed below the pre-Gamagara unconformity in
the Griqualand West area of the Transvaal Supergroup, South
Africa (Figure 3), are considered type examples of ancient
supergene deposits. The unconformity, which is regionally
developed over the entire Transvaal basin, is consistently marked
by the presence of a ferruginous lateritic weathering profile in
the rocks immediately below (Figure 3). Weathering took place
around 2.18 - 2.2 Ga, following a period of folding and uplift of
Transvaal strata (Beukes et al, 2002). Because of the folded
nature of the strata below, the unconformity transects a wide
variety of rocks, the compositions of which determine lateral
variations along the lateritised surface (Figure 3).
24 Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
where the unconformity transects iron-formations. The ores
derived from leaching of chert from the iron-formation during
weathering. Three iron-formation successions are involved,
namely a) the Asbesheuwels succession, comprised of the
Kuruman and Griquatown Iron Formations that are overlying
Campbellrand carbonates, b) the Rooinekke Iron Formation of
the Koegas Subgroup and c) the Hotazel Iron Formation
overlying basaltic andesites of the Ongeluk Formation (Figure 3).
However, large to superlarge deposits of high-grade iron ore are
only developed in karstic laterite settings, where Asbesheuwels
iron-formation has slumped into carbonates of the underlying
Campbellrand Subgroup along the Maremane dome (Figure 3).
In these karstic slump structures the iron ores are typically
overlain by reworked conglomeratic iron ores and highly
aluminous diaspore-rich shales and closely associated pisolitic
laterite profiles (Gutzmer and Beukes, 1998).
marks the dissolution surface between the dolomite and
overlying ore-bearing iron-formation (Figure 3). In areas outside
of karst slump structures only thin (one to 2 m thick) high-grade
hematite ore beds are locally preserved below the unconformity.
the Hotazel Formation in the Kalahari manganese field (Figure
3). However, this upper lateritic iron ore capping has often been
removed by erosion prior to deposition of the overlying
Gamagara red beds. In such cases, only a thick oxidised
paleo-weathering profile, without removal of chert, is preserved
in the underlying iron-formation (Holland and Beukes, 1990).
Two major ore types are present in Sishen-type deposits,
namely hard microcrystalline hematite ores derived from
supergene enrichment of Asbesheuwels iron-formation below the
Gamagara unconformity, and conglomeratic (detrital) ores
derived from erosion of underlying laminated ores and
concentration in the lower part of the overlying Gamagara
Formation. The microcrystalline ores can be described as ancient
saprolites, because they preserve original textures and banding of
the iron-formation precursor.
Due to their karstic setting, the Sishen-type deposits on the
Maremane dome have very irregular floor and thickness
distribution (Figure 4). Bedding in the iron-formation precursor
is often highly contorted and/or brecciated due to slumping. The
microcrystalline orebodies have a more regular outline because
they crosscut bedding in the iron-formation and their tops
conform to the pre-Gamagara unconformity (Figure 4).
Conglomeratic orebodies in the lower part of the Gamagara
Formation tend to thicken into karstic depressions, which also
contain thick accumulations of Al-rich shales. This indicates that
the karstic depressions were present at time of deposition of the
Gamagara Formation, an important observation because at least
some of the karst structures were reactivated in more recent
times.
The ores of the Sishen-Beeshoek area have been affected by
very localised hydrothermal alteration as manifested by the
presence of coarse specularite which fills secondary pores and
veinlets in both laminated and conglomeratic ores. The
spekularite must have developed late in the history of the
succession because it also occurs in veinlets in the overlying
Gamagara shales and quartzites.
Paleomagnetic data shows that ore formation and deposition of
overlying Gamagara red beds took place in a near equatorial
setting (Evans et al, in press), supporting a lateritic supergene
enrichment origin for the Sishen-Beeshoek deposits. A positive
conglomerate test on hematite pebbles in the lower Gamagara
Formation indicates that the ores formed prior to transport and
deposition of the pebbles.
Iron Ore Conference
 THE GEOLOGY AND GENESIS OF HIGH-GRADE HEMATITE IRON ORE DEPOSITS

FIG 3 - (A). Illustration of a truncation model of folded Transvaal strata by the lateritised erosion surface on subcontinental scale below the
pre-Gamagara unconformity. (B). Lateral variations along laterite profiles. All laterite profiles illustrated were intersected in drill core depths
of >100 m and are free of modern weathering. The Wolhaarkop profile (note depths below red bed cover rocks) display liesegang and
corestone weathering patterns in saprolite derived from massive lava and diamictite bedrock. Karstic laterites on dolomite bedrock contain
supergene manganese ores at Glosam and iron ore crusts derived from supergene leaching of iron-formation at Sishen, in addition to
Al-rich claystones. Supergene iron ore beds are also sporadic preserved below the unconformity at the base of the overlying Mapedi and
Gamagara red beds, in areas outside of the karstic environment, such as in the vicinity of Hotazel. The red beds contain hematite pebble
conglomerates derived from the iron ore beds and pisolitic laterites. In the Hekpoort profiles the saprolite zone preserves original textures of
the parent basalt but the pallid and upper ferruginous zones have a massive reconstituted fabric.

Hematite in the ores display oxygen isotope compositions that

vary between -3‰ and +3‰ (relative to SMOW) indicating
precipitation from normal meteoric water at low temperature.
REE distributions (normalised to PAAS) in Sishen-type ore
display positive Ce anomalies, in contrast to parent
iron-formations. Some samples also display strong enrichment in
HREE, a feature characteristic of lateritic weathering profiles.
The presence of positive Ce anomalies in Sishen-type ore
suggests leaching of REE from the system during supergene
alteration but with retention of Ce due to highly oxygenated
ground water conditions.

HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS
Type examples of hard high-grade hydrothermal hematite ores
from the Brockman Iron Formation of the Hamersley Group in
Western Australia and the Penge Iron Formation of the Transvaal
Supergroup at Thabazimbi in South Africa (Figure 1) share many
features. The parent iron-formations are of correlative age (in the
order of 2460 - 2480 m.y.) and overly black shales capping
carbonates. In both areas the main orebodies are located near the
base of the iron-formation succession in contact with underlying
black shale. Mineralisation also invariably appears to be
associated with early normal faults (Taylor et al, 2001;
FIG 4 - Schematic diagram illustrating the setting of ancient
Netshiozwi, 2002; Netshiozwi et al, 2002). At Thabazimbi, loss
supergene hematite ores in karstic solution collapse structures
of stratigraphy along the contact between the Penge Iron
at the Sishen deposit, South Africa.

Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002 25

N J BEUKES, J GUTZMER and J MUKHOPADHYAY
Formation and underlying Malmani dolomite indicates that
mineralisation took place along early low-angle normal lystric
faults that were later rotated to steep dip by thrust deformation
(Figure 5). Similarly, at both Mount Tom Price and Paraburdoo,
high-grade iron ores formed along steep normal faults (Taylor et
al, 2001).
Ore formation can be ascribed to leaching of silica (chert)
from iron-formations and recrystallisation of other iron mineral
phases to specularite and martite. There may have been some
mobility of iron in the system, as indicated by the replacement of
chert-bands by hematite without significant volume loss.
However, for the most part hematite enrichment can apparently
be accounted for by leaching of silica, compaction and an
increase in porosity (Taylor et al, 2001).
Shales, dykes and sills in the iron-formations at both
Thabazimbi and in the Hamersley Province appear to exceed an
important control in the localisation of the orebodies (Taylor et
al, 2001; Netshiozwi, 2002). Ores are often only developed along
one side of dolerite dykes that intruded prior to ore formation.
Similarly, impermeable shale beds and dolerite sills appear to
have acted as hydrological seals that restricted ore formation.
This is illustrated by the observations that high-grade iron ores
are only rarely developed above the Whaleback shale in the
Hamersley District, or above a prominent pre-mineralisation
diabase sill in the Penge Iron Formation at Thabazimbi. It is also
important to note that the orebodies are always surrounded by a
halo of oxidised (hematite-rich) iron-formation. This is very well
illustrated at Thabazimbi, where earlier carbonate and silicate
facies iron-formations have been transformed into hematite-rich
iron-formation in vicinity of the orebodies (Netshiozwi, 2002).
The age of ore formation in the Hamersley Province and at
Thabazimbi also appears rather similar. At Thabazimbi, hematite
ore replaces contact metamorphic grunerite in the iron-formation
FIG 5 - Schematic cross-section of the Donkerpoort West high-grade hematite orebody at Thabazimbi Mine, South Africa.
26 Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
related to intrusion of the Bushveld Complex at ~2.058 Ga.
However, mineralisation took place prior to deposition of circa
2.0 Ga conglomerates of the unconformably overlying Waterberg
Group that contain pebbles of iron ore. Mineralisation thus
appears to have taken place shortly before 2.0 Ga, very similar to
the age of ore formation in the Hamersley Province recently
proposed by Taylor et al (2001). Following ore formation,
the ores at Thabazimbi have been duplicated by a series of
north-verging post-Waterberg thrust faults. At Paraburdoo, the
ores were tilted in southern direction by the post-Wyloo
Capricorn orogeny at 1.7 - 1.8 Ga (Taylor et al, 2001).
The only significant difference between the two areas appears
to be the depth of post-Gondwana late Mesozoic to Tertiary
weathering. At Thabazimbi, significant weathering to depths of
50 m to 100 m along the Late Cretaceous – Early Tertiary
African Land Surface was associated with karstification of the
underlying dolomites and solution collapse of ore into the karst
cavities. The present day weathering surface appears to have very
little effect on the ores (Figure 5). In contrast, the depth of
weathering in the Hamersley Province is commonly between
100 m and 200 m deep (Taylor et al, 2001).
With reference to the mineralogical composition of the ores it
is important to note that an early phase of magnetite and hematite
mineralisation, intimately associated with metasomatic carbonate
formation, has been identified at Mount Tom Price (Taylor et al,
2001). Similar carbonate-bearing ores are developed at
Thabazimbi (Figure 5) (Netshiozwi, 2002). REE patterns in
hydrothermal ores from Thabazimbi and the Hamersley Province
differ from those in ancient supergene Sishen-type deposits in
that they display slight negative to no Ce anomalies. Overall, the
patterns remain very similar to that in parent iron-formations,
strongly suggesting that no significant preferential concentration
or introduction of REE took place during ore formation.
Iron Ore Conference
 THE GEOLOGY AND GENESIS OF HIGH-GRADE HEMATITE IRON ORE DEPOSITS

Carbon and oxygen isotope signatures of hydrothermal Apart from bring characterised by the abundance of friable
dolomite associated with iron ores at Thabazimbi in comparison (soft) hematite ores in very deep (>100 - 500 m) lateritic
with diagenetic carbonates in the iron-formation protore, indicate weathering profiles (Figures 6, 7 and 8), the supergene-modified
rock-buffered conditions for δC13 and δO18. Sparitic calcite, on iron ores of Brazil and India display many features that are
the other hand, appears to have formed at significantly greater similar to those of less altered hydrothermal iron ore deposits in
fluid-rock ratios with highly depleted δO18 values relative to that Western Australia and at Thabazimbi, South Africa. The friable
of diagenetic carbonates in parent iron-formations (Gutzmer to powdery saprolitic hematite ores, usually composed of
et al, 2002). microplaty hematite, specularite and martite, are invariably
Oxygen isotopic compositions of hematite in the Thabazimbi associated with bodies of hard hematite ore. These hard ores
and Hamersley ores are marked by δO18SMOW values as low as often occur as large tabular bodies in the lower part of the
-7‰. Fluid inclusion studies on carbonates and quartz associated
with hematite ores at Thabazimbi indicate the presence of two
distinct hydrothermal fluids, namely a high-salinity fluid that
resulted in deposition of early dolomite at temperatures around
150 - 160°C, and a low salinity fluid that led to precipitation of
quartz at temperatures of between 120 and 140°C (Netshiozwi,
2002). Fluid inclusions in calcite have compositions ranging in
composition between the two end members in both salinity and
temperature. It is thus suggested that the calcite was deposited
during mixing of the two fluid end members. These results are in
excellent agreement with homogenisation temperatures and
salinities of fluid inclusions from quartz veins associated with
hematite mineralisation at the Mount Tom Price deposit (Taylor
et al, 2001). At 160°C the oxygen isotopic composition of the
hydrothermal fluid from which hematite and calcite precipitated
at Thabazimbi can be estimated at -2‰ (relative to SMOW).
Fluids of such light oxygen composition can only be meteoric
water, ie water-rich fluids of shallow crustal origin that have not
interacted with silicate rocks (Netshiozwi, 2002).

SUPERGENE-MODIFIED HYDROTHERMAL ORES

Supergene-modified hydrothermal hematite ores occur in the FIG 7 - Schematic cross-section illustrating the general setting of
Quadrilátero Ferrífero in Brazil and are hosted in the Caué Iron supergene modified hematite ore at the Noamundi deposit, India.
Formation of the 2.1 - 2.6 Ga Minas Supergroup, a sedimentary
unit which unconformably overlies greenstones of the 2.7 -
2.8 Ga Nova Lima Supergroup. Supergene-modified iron ores of
Carajas and India are developed in iron-formations of Archean
greenstone belts.

FIG 6 - Schematic cross-section illustrating the general setting of

supergene modified hematite ores at the N4E deposit, Carajas, FIG 8 - Schematic cross-section illustrating the general setting of
Brazil. Aguas Claras deposit, Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Brazil.

Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002 27

N J BEUKES, J GUTZMER and J MUKHOPADHYAY
iron-formation successions with smaller, lenticular bodies higher
up in the stratigraphy. In certain cases, tabular orebodies are also
developed below impermeable roof rocks such as dolerite sills,
lava and/or shale. The hard orebodies are typically surrounded by
highly porous friable ores and/or friable hematite-rich banded
iron-formation (itabirite) (Figures 6, 7 and 8). The friable
itabirite (best described as iron-formation saprolite) is widely
utilised as low-grade ore in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero because
hematite can easily be concentrated from the closely associated
quartz by dense media separation. Near surface, the orebodies
are typically capped by a veneer of hydrated goethitic ore below
a cover of laterite and canga that has been incised by streams in
geologically recent times.
The origin of the highly porous soft ores in the deposits is a
matter of contention at present. They have always been
considered the result of leaching of silica from banded
iron-formation under deep lateritic weathering conditions
(Dardenne and Shobbenhaus, 2000). However, in recent years
through deep drilling and mining in Brazil, it has become
obvious that banded carbonate-hematite rocks are preserved at
depth below friable hematite ores at Carajas and the Aguas
Claras mine in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero (Figures 6 and 7).
These rocks obviously developed from the replacement of chert
bands in iron-formation by carbonate. Aguas Claras is the best
example, where original chert bands in the lower part of the Caué
Iron Formation have been completely replaced by ferroan
dolomite. In the deepest levels of this mine there are excellent
exposures illustrating how leaching of dolomite from the banded
dolomite-hematite rock gives rise to saprolitic friable hematite
ore (Figure 7). How much of this applies to other deposits in the
Quadrilátero Ferrífero is unknown at present, but it is certainly
applicable to the Carajas district, where rather similar
carbonate-replaced hematite-rich iron-formation has been
intersected in drill core at depth. Another argument in favor of
leaching of carbonate rather than silica to form friable ores is the
fact that large volumes of friable itabirite are preserved close to
surface in many of the mines in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero and at
Carajas. At Aguas Claras lenticular bodies of itabirite are
preserved in soft ore close to surface (Figure 7). Rather than
representing iron-formation corestones in the ore from which
silica has not been leached, they may well represent pockets of
iron-formation that were not affected by carbonate
metasomatism.
The Indian deposits that we have investigated thus far
(Mukhopadhyay et al, 2002) have only been explored and mined
to depths of 50 m - 100 m so and there is virtually no information
available on the precursor rock for the friable ores. However, in
mines around Noamundi, bodies of hard unaltered chert-rich
iron-formation are commonly preserved in friable saprolitic
hematite ore. Contacts between the friable ores and
iron-formation bodies are sharp and difficult to explain by
supergene leaching of silica. Rather, it would appear that the
iron-formation was replaced by hematite and perhaps carbonate
prior to lateritic weathering. Similarly, in the Dalli-Rajhara area,
there are abundant examples of unreplaced hard and friable
(saprolitic) siliceous iron-formation bodies preserved in soft
hematite ore.
Massive and laminated hard orebodies are present in both the
Brazilian and Indian deposits. The massive ores are typically
very dense and often magnetic. They are rather reminiscent of
magnetite-rich ores described by Taylor et al (2001) at depth at
Mount Tom Price in Australia. The massive martite-rich ores are
less abundant than surrounding laminated hematite ores that tend
to form the bulk of hard ore reserves.
In all of these deposits hematite mineralisation appears to have
developed late in the geologic history of the successions after
earlier folding, faulting and/or intrusion of dolerite sills. At the
Pico de Itabirito Mine in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero it was
28 Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
observed that ore formation postdated intrusion and folding of
dolerite sills. These sills could be related to volcanic activity that
took place around 2.12 Ga (Alkmim and Marshak, 1998) during
deposition of the Sabara Group. Dykes that crosscut the ore have
been dated at 1.75 Ga (Alkmim and Marshak, 1998) and iron ore
formation may thus have taken place during or shortly after a
period of extensional tectonics described by Alkmim and
Marshak (1998). In the Dalli-Rajhara deposits of India excellent
exposures of crosscutting relationships between orebodies and
bedding in intensely folded iron-formation can be observed.
Unfortunately the age of folding is not known at present.
GENETIC MODEL FOR HYDROTHERMAL ORES
AND THEIR SUPERGENE MODIFICATION
Information available at present strongly suggests that all major
high-grade hematite iron ore deposits of Western Australia,
Thabazimbi in South Africa, the Quadrilátero Ferrífero and
Carajas in Brazil, and eastern and central India are very similar
in character and may thus share a very similar mode of origin.
Differences between the ores are largely the result of varying
intensities of supergene modification in late Cretaceous to
Tertiary times, after the breakup of Gondwana.
All indications are that primary orebodies owe their origin to
the interaction of iron-formation with a hydrothermal fluid of
meteoric origin at temperatures of not more than 160°C to
200°C. Ore formation was essentially a process of silica
dissolution and transformation of ferrous iron minerals, including
siderite, ankerite and iron silicates into microplaty hematite and
magnetite, the latter of which was later transformed into martite.
An early phase of magnetite + carbonate mineralisation is
present in some deposits and could have formed at elevated
temperatures and very low oxygen fugacity under the influence
of an alkaline hydrothermal fluid that carried Ca++ and Mg++, an
environment also most suitable for the leaching of silica. Cooling
of this hydrothermal fluid would have favored the formation of
hematite, a process that does not necessarily require higher
oxygen fugacity than magnetite formation.
A simple system of meteoric fluid circulation along
extensional fault-controlled aquifers is envisaged for formation
of the iron ore deposits. Some faults acted as aquifers for
meteoric water recharge and others for discharge. Deep seated
iron ore deposits formed in the vicinity of normal faults that
acted as channels for fluid escape. Meteoric water flow was most
probably topographically driven with recharge taking place in
areas of uplift related to either rise of basement domes, like in
the Quadrilátero Ferrífero, or areas of extensional tectonics. It is
quite possible that lateritic supergene ores formed in areas of
recharge but because of uplift they would have had a small
preservation potential.
Following breakup of Gondwanaland the ore deposits were
subjected to different degrees of supergene alteration, determined
by climatic evolution on the various continents, and timing of
exposure of deposits. At present, the deposits are mainly
preserved at high elevations below old lateritised land surfaces.
These old land surfaces are preserved at high elevations because
fluvial erosion takes place by pediplenation (back-cutting) rather
than peneplenation (down-cutting).
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Iron Ore Conference
 THE GEOLOGY AND GENESIS OF HIGH-GRADE HEMATITE IRON ORE DEPOSITS
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Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
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