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IMPORTANCE OF FOREST AND TREES IN SUSTAINING WATER SUPPLY AND

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 Nigeria Journal of Education, Health and Technology Research (NJEHETR)

NIGERIA JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, HEALTH

AND TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH (NJEHETR)

VOL. 8, MARCH, 2016

ISSN: 2251-0087

PUBLISHED BY
Association for the Promotion of Education,
Health, Environment and Technology Research
(APREHET)
 Nigeria Journal of Education, Health and Technology Research (NJEHETR)

IMPORTANCE OF FOREST AND TREES IN SUSTAINING

WATER SUPPLY AND RAINFALL
Ekhuemelo, D.O., Amonum, J.I. and Usman, I. A.
Department of Forest Production and Products,
University of Agriculture Makurdi,
Benue State, Nigeria.

*Corresponding Author: davidekhuemelo@gmail.com Phone: 08150738538

Abstract
Humans and other living things depend on water for life and health. Forests have long been seen as
important sources of clean drinking water. Forested catchments supply a large proportion of all
water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial needs. Trees and forests recycle moisture in the
atmosphere through the process of transpiration to increase rainfall. The importance of forest and
trees to rainfall and water supply include: improvement of water cycle, reduction of runoff,
improving the replenishment of the water table, filtration of water pollutants, control of floods and
regulation of stormwater. Despite their importance, forests face enormous threats due to over
exploitation. Therefore recommendations were made for sustainable water supply and rainfall
through natural regeneration by land protection, aggressive afforestation, forest conservation and
sound management as well as policy formation and implementation. Conclusion was drawn on
efforts toward tree planting campaign, to ensure ready water supply for the ever increasing human
population and mitigating hostile environmental condition resulting from drought and
desertification.

Keywords: Forest, trees, water, rainfall, evapotranspiration.

Introduction
The availability and especially the quality of water are strongly influenced by forests. Forested
catchments serve as guarantors of high value surface and drinking water (Carina, 2008). Tropical
rainforests play a vital role in the functioning of the planet's natural systems. The forests regulate local
and global weather through their absorption and creation of rainfall and their exchange of
atmospheric gases. Trees and shrubs play a vital role in maintaining an ecological balance and
improving the livelihood of people in the arid regions. Clear felling the rainforests changes the
reflectivity of the earth's surface, which affects global weather by altering wind and ocean current
patterns, and changes rainfall distribution. If the forests continue to be destroyed, global weather
patterns may become more unstable and extreme ( Rhett, 2012). The availability and quality of water
in many regions of the world are more and more threatened by overuse, misuse and pollution, and it
is increasingly recognized that both are strongly influenced by forests.
Moreover, climate change is altering forest’ the availability of water resources (Bergkamp et
al. 2003). Therefore, the relationship betweenforests and water is a critical issue that must be
accorded high priority (Calder et al. 2007). Forested catchments supply a high proportion of the water
for domestic, agricultural, industrial and ecological needs in both upstream and downstream areas
(Calder et al. 2007). This paper reviews the importance of forest and trees in influencing rainfall and
water supply with the aim of conserving forest and encouraging tree planting.

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Ekhuemelo, D. O., Amonum, J.I. and Usman, I. A. Importance of Forest and Trees in Sustaining
Water Supply and Rainfall

Function of Trees and Shrubs in Rainfall and Water Supply

Much of the world’s drinking water comes from c
There appears to be a clear link between forests and the quality of water coming out of a catchment,
a much more sporadic link between forests and the quantity of water available and a variable link
between forests depending on type, age and the constancy of flow. Forests therefore often provide
the basis for integrated management of water resources, although precise effects vary from place to
place and have been the subject of dispute among hydrologists. Knowledge of the type and age of
trees, soil conditions and user needs can help determine what kind of forest management policies will
be most beneficial. The loss of forest cover and conversion to other land uses can adversely affect
freshwater supplies, threatening the survival of millions of people and damaging the environment
(FAO, 2003).

Roles of Forest in Maintaining Water Cycle

The role of rainforests in the water cycle is to add water to the atmosphere through the
process of transpiration (in which plants release water from their leaves during photosynthesis).This
moisture contributes to the formation of rain clouds, which release the water back into the rainforest.
In the Amazon, 50-80 percent of moisture remains in the ecosystem’s water cycle. When forests are
cut down, less moisture goes into the atmosphere and rainfall declines, sometimes leading to
drought. These have been made worse by deforestation, moisture generated by rainforests travel
around the world. Distant rainforests are therefore important to man everywhere according to Clare
and Janet (2013). Forests are a vital constituent of the global water cycle, as they have a high
evaporation rate, contributing to atmospheric moisture circulation. Aragão (2012) reported that the
forest canopy recycles water more efficiently through evapotranspiration than sparsely vegetated
surfaces such as crop fields. Evapotranspiration is the combination of evaporation and transpiration
from vegetation to the atmosphere.

Figure 1. Effect of Trees on Hydrologic cycle

Source: Jerry and Javier 2011.
Deforestation weakens the local hydrological cycle, and a new pattern of heat release occurs
due to the changed land cover (Werth and Avissar, 2005). Deforestation can reduce
evapotranspiration due to loss of vegetation. This results in reduced moisture circulation and
decreased rainfall (Spracklen et al., 2012). Deforestation also impacts local thermodynamics, resulting
in a decrease in heat released to the atmosphere. This impacts atmospheric circulation and its
associated rainfall (Werth and Avissar 2005). Models suggest that deforested regions have

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 Nigeria Journal of Education, Health and Technology Research (NJEHETR)

reduced annual rainfall of up to 80%, with regions outside of the deforested area also impacted by
rainfall changes (Hasler et al., 2009). Spracklen et al. (2012) suggested that large-scale land-use
change could alter rainfall patterns hundreds to thousands of kilometres away from the region of
deforestation. Changes in rainfall patterns could result in droughts, especially in the dry season,
negatively impacting agriculture and water availability.
Figure 1 shows how the intact tropical rainforest (A) recycles moisture and results to low run-off. It
also shows regional impacts of tropical deforestation (B) include human health issues associated with
smoke from fire clearance, spread of disease (for example, malaria), increased run-off and flood risk,
increased temperatures, and reduced rainfall due to decreased moisture recycling. These changes
alter atmospheric circulation.

Figure 2: Intact tropical rainforest (A) recycles moisture and has low run-off. B) Regional impacts of
tropical deforestation.
Source: Aragão, 2012.

Well Managed Natural Forests Provide Benefits to Urban Populations in terms of High Quality
Drinking Water
Water is, in theory, a typically renewable r water and over much of the world it falls, unbidden
and with great regularity, from the skies. Yet, the carelessness and profligacy with which water
resources have been used, the speed of human population growth and the increasing per capita
demands for water together mean that provision of adequate, safe supplies of water is now a major
source of concern, expense and even international tension (Nigel and Sue 2003). The demand for
water, along with increasing pressures on water from pollution, urbanisation and over exploitation of
aquatic resources, is also creating a biodiversity crisis in freshwaters (Abramovitz, 1996).
According to Nigel and Sue (2003), well managed natural forests almost always provide higher
quality water, with less sediment and fewer pollutants, than water from other catchments. Some
natural forests (particularly tropical montane cloud forests and some older forests) also increase total
water flow, although in other cases this is not true and under young forests and some exotic
plantations net water flow can decrease. Impacts of forests on security of supply or mitigating
flooding are less certain although forests can reduce floods at a local headwater scale. As a result of
these various benefits, natural forests are being protected to maintain high quality water supplies to
cities.

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Ekhuemelo, D. O., Amonum, J.I. and Usman, I. A. Importance of Forest and Trees in Sustaining
Water Supply and Rainfall

Filtering of Water Pollutants by Riparian Vegetation

A riparian zone, strictly defined, comprises only the vegetation in a stream channel and along
the river banks. However, the term has recently been used more broadly to include the part of the
landscape adjacent to a stream that exerts a direct influence on stream and lake margins and the
water and aquatic ecosystems associated with them (Karssies and Prosser, 1999).
In the landscape, riparian habitats are corridors located at the interface of terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems. They act as conduits, filters or barriers controlling flow of water, sediments and
nutrients Vigiak et al. (2007). Ensuring riparian ecological functions such as filtering of polluted
overland and subsurface flows, stabilization of stream banks and control of in-stream habitats is an
important part of sound natural resource management (Mander and Hayakawa, 2005).

Protected Forests Control Floods

There is still a fairly widespread but erroneous belief that forest that cover upper watersheds
will prevent floods on the mainstream, downstream reaches of major rivers (Hamilton, 1991). Forests
are still visualized by many as times of excess (a storm event) and then release it gradually during the
post-storm or post-monsoon season to augment dry-season flow. According to Nigel and Sue (2003),
cutting the forest therefore usually increases the dry-season flow, but it also somewhat increases
flood flows. The water storage on a piece of upland landscape is in the soil, and the amount that can
be stored to reduce flooding from single storm events depends on the soil depth, its infiltration
capacity (lack of compaction), texture, structure and degree of previous saturation with water.
Forests influence some of the characteristics such as antecedent soil moisture, infiltration capacity
and structure. These are usually the hydrological best bet for reducing storm flow volumes, lowering
peak flows and delaying peaks in watercourses emanating from the watershed (Hamilton and
Bruijnzeel 1997).
The forest vegetation also protects the soil’s exposed soil may have enough energy to break
up soil aggregates. Individual soil particles are then easily eroded and washed into soil pores, clogging
them and preventing rainwater absorption. When such conditions occur, water tends to flow over the
soil surface, increasing the chance of erosion. However, in forest, rain is intercepted by forest canopy,
by the leaves of shrubs or small trees in the understorey, and by the organic litter layer covering the
forest floor, reducing the force with which rain falls on the soil. Soil pores remain unclogged, allowing
infiltration (Vincent, 2008).

Forests Protect Soils and Reduce Erosion Rates

Forests protect soils and reduce erosion rates and sediment delivery to rivers. Forestry
operations such as cultivation, drainage, road construction and timber harvesting may increase
sediment losses, but best management practices can control this risk. Planting forest on erosion-
prone soils and runoff pathways can reduce and intercept sediment (IUFRO, 2007).
Woody vegetation protects the soil better and lasts longer than annual plants. Its roots
deepen and improve the soil, and the shade it provides facilitates ecosystem metabolism. These
functions are essential for ensuring the soil stability and the continuity of agricultural activities. By
intercepting rain, a forest canopy reduces the impact of heavy rainfall on the forest floor, reducing soil
disturbance. Leaves and natural debris on the forest floor can slow the rate of water runoff and trap
soil washing away from nearby fields. Tree roots can hold soil in place and stabilize stream banks. In
addition, coastal forests and forested wetlands protect coastlines by absorbing some of the energy
and impact of storm surges, thus reducing erosion and other in-shore impacts (TVA, 2003).
Trees reduce the rate of erosion by protecting the soil from the impact of rain, transpiring
large amounts of water, which counteracts very wet soil and binding soil to sloping land with their
roots. Riparian strip is a strip (10 or more metres wide) near a stream or river, which is fenced to
exclude farm animals. It may be planted with a mix of trees, shrubs and pasture. The aim is to trap
sediment, and nitrogen and phosphorus in water run-off, from nearby slopes before it enters
waterways.

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 Nigeria Journal of Education, Health and Technology Research (NJEHETR)

Woody biomass plantations reduce water erosion by improving water infiltration, reducing
impacts by water droplets, intercepting rain and snow and physically stabilizing soil by their roots and
leaf litter. Shelterbelts reduce wind erosion when planted as shelterbelts and improve soil organic
matter, soil structure and soil moisture in their leeward zone, reducing soil erodibility. Harvesting of
woody biomass plantations may be accompanied by increased erosion. Forest clear-cutting, especially
on steep slopes often results in a large increase in water erosion (John et al. 1998).

The Role of Trees and Forests in Healthy Watersheds

Trees are the oldest and largest living things on the earth, and they are a good measure of the
health and quality of our environment (USDA, 2008). Forests and forestry practices protect, restore,
and sustain water quality, water flows, and watershed health and condition (USDA, 2013).Trees and
forests play an incredible role in reducing storm water in several ways and removing or filtering
pollutants that would otherwise wind up in our waterways. Forests filter and regulate the flow of
water, in large part due to their leafy canopy that intercepts rainfall, slowing its fall to the ground and
the forest floor, which acts like an enormous sponge, typically absorbing up to 45.72 cm of
precipitation (depending on soil composition) before gradually releasing it to natural channels and
recharging ground water (Wikipedia, 2013).
Average interception of rainfall by a forest canopy ranges from 10-40% depending on species,
time of the year, and precipitation rates per storm event. In urban and sub-urban settings a single
deciduous tree can intercept from1, 892.7 to 2,876.91 litres per year; and a mature evergreen can
intercept more than 15,141.6 litres per year. In a recent Forest Service study a single small tree
(callery pear) that was only 9 years old, was able to intercept 219.554 litres of storm water from a
1.2700 cm rain event (67% of the rain that fell within the canopy) (Vincent, 2008).
A forest buffer strip planted along streams and lakes can help filter out pollutants before they
enter waterways. Research studies have shown that forest buffers can actually reduce fertilizer,
pesticide, and sediment runoff into our streams by as much as 90%.Trees and forests absorb and use
tremendous amounts of water for growth, thereby consuming storm water. A single mature oak tree
can consume (transpire) over 151,416 litres of water in a year. Evapo-transpiration serves to cool and
modify surrounding summer temperatures. If the forest is removed or harvested, evaporation drops
to 35.56 cm and stream flow increases to receive 66.04 cm of the annual 101.6 cm of precipitation.
So, just the removal of forests can have an impact on streams in the watershed.
(www.fs.fed.us/cooperativeforestry/programs/wf/wf_environment.pdf).
Microorganisms, insects, small animals, and growing tree roots also contribute to soil
aggregation (and consequently more pore space) by moving and mixing soil. These actions put soil
particles in contact with each other, increasing the likelihood that soil particles will clump together,
resulting in large pores through which water can easily drain. The litter layer, which consists of leaves
and bits of wood in various stages of decay on the forest floor, helps maintain healthy populations of
soil organisms. Litter layer also shields the soil from elements thereby providing soil organisms with a
less hostile and more stable environment (Vincent, 2008).

Trees and Forest Help to Regulate Stormwater

Stormwater runoff is water from rain or melt of seeping into the ground
(www.ncstormwater.org/pages/stormwater_faqspage.html). Stormwater s created when rain falls on
roads, driveways, parking lots, rooftops and other paved surfaces that do not allow water to soak into
the ground. Stormwater runoff is the number one cause of stream impairment in urban areas. The
presence of trees in a streetscape, neighborhood, and community can decrease the amount of
stormwater runoff and pollutants that reach local waters. Trees reduce stormwater runoff by
capturing and storing rainfall in their canopy and releasing water into the atmosphere. Tree roots and
leaf litter create soil conditions that promote the infiltration of
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Ekhuemelo, D. O., Amonum, J.I. and Usman, I. A. Importance of Forest and Trees in Sustaining
Water Supply and Rainfall

rainwater into the soil. Trees help slow down and temporarily store runoff and reduce pollutants by
taking up nutrients and other pollutants from soils and water through their roots. Trees, acting as
mini-reservoirs, control stormwater at the source (www.forestsforwatersheds.org/reduce-
stormwater/).
According to Heart Lands Conservancy (2010 a healthy urban forest can reduce runoff in the
following ways: Transpiration: Trees draw large quantities of water from the soil for use in
photosynthesis. The water is eventually released into the atmosphere as vapour from the canopy, a
process termed transpiration. Interception: Leaves, branches, and trunk surfaces intercept and
absorb rainfall, reducing the amount of water that reaches the ground, delaying the onset and
reducing the volume of peak flows.
Reduced throughfall: Tree canopies reduce soil erosion by diminishing the volume and velocity of
rainfall as it falls through the canopy, lessening the impact of raindrops on barren surfaces.
Increased infiltration: Root growth and decomposition increase soil infiltration capacity and rate.
Phytoremediation: Along with water, trees take up trace amounts of harmful chemicals, including
metals, organic compounds, fuels, and solvents from the soil. Inside the tree, these chemicals may be
transformed into less harmful substances, used as nutrients and/or stored in roots, stems, and leaves.

Recommendations for Sustainable Water and Rainfall

1. Natural Regeneration through Land Protection
Natural forests and tree plantations improve the water cycle in diminishing runoff and
improving the replenishment of the water table. The most evident way to restore vegetative cover is
to protect it from the causes of degradation: mostly exploitation (harvesting and grazing) and fires.
Vegetation can spread naturally, even on bare lands, but the process is often slow. Protection is not
always easy as it has to be maintained carefully over a long period. Planting trees, bushes and grass
will speed up the process. Then, the restored lands need to be sustainably managed. The African
Union launched a “Green Wall for the Sahara” p contribute to halting and reversing desertification at
the southern and northern fringes of the Sahara
(Malagnoux, et al. 2007).
2. Aggressive Afforestation
The major global indirect impacts projected from deforestation are changes to rainfall
patterns and surface temperatures. African forests have the lowest average rainfall out of all forests,
so are expected to be highly impacted by changes in rainfall due to deforestation (Clare and Janet
2013). Afforestation through tree plantation can be a good tool for environmental restoration. Tree
planting has often been proposed as a way to increase rainfall. It has been estimated that 60% of
rainfall over the moist evergreen Amazon forest comes from the forest itself through
evapotranspiration (TheAmazon.org, 2007).
Planting trees will produce tangible results in increasing rainfall on neighbouring areas only
when very large areas are converted to forest (Avissar and Otte 2007). Afforestation of an upland
environment such as the development area has the potential to impact surface water runoff rates
through both the impacts of ploughing and planting and the subsequent impacts of the established
forest canopy.
3. Forest Conservation and Sound Management
Forests offer a range of options for water provision, depending on their type, location and age
and on what users need. Cities may choose a number of different forest management options,
including protection, sustainable management and, where necessary, restoration (Stolton and Dudley
2007). The sound and sustainable management of land, vegetative cover, water resources and
biodiversity means that only that part which is renewable, i.e. their effective production, is used,
ensuring maintenance of the capital and its productive capacity (Malagnoux, et.al., 2007). Of prime
importance is the participation of the local people and communities, capitalizing on their traditional
knowledge and practices. Clear land-use rights are essential to sound land management. Reinforcing

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 Nigeria Journal of Education, Health and Technology Research (NJEHETR)

people’s control over resources and guaranteein-term commitment to resource conservation.

4. Policy Formation and Implementation

Since forest influences water quantity and especially quality, managing the forest for water
conservation is an appropriate goal. Forestry decision-makers need to promote the incorporation of
forest management in national and regional strategies, plans and programmes related to river,
watershed and groundwater management; and to work with international and national organizations
and institutions to increase understanding of hydrological and environmental services of forests.

Priority should be given to preventing forest degradation –including by limiting grazing in

forest lands –and promoting afforestation and reforestation (including trees outside forests) for
environmental protection and local wood supply, especially fuelwood. Owing to the critical condition
of the forest and some people’s dependence on it for their livelihoods, other economic depend
functions of forest besides wood production need to be highlighted; Nonwood Forest Products
(NWFPs) and ecotourism should be promoted through appropriate policies. Devolving forest
management responsibilities to the local level can give communities the rights and incentive to
manage and use forest resources sustainably (Kangarani and Shamekhi 2007).
Countries should prepare source protection plans based on catchment reforestation,
including measures to control potential sources of contamination such as septic systems and fuel
tanks and identifying alternative drinking-water sources in the event of contamination. This would
entail mapping of the recharge area of the water sources and identification of appropriate fast
growing species (Kangarani and Shamekhi 2007).

Conclusion
Forests and trees are very important tools in enhancing rainfall, recharging ground water and
preventing erosion and flooding. Since changes in land cover, including deforestation, can lead to
reduced evapotranspiration and enhanced surface temperatures, disrupts hydrological cycle and
decrease in moisture circulation, efforts therefore should be geared toward aggressive afforestation,
conservation of the natural forest through strong policy formulation and implementation to ensure
ready water supply for the ever increasing human population and mitigating hostile environmental
condition resulting from drought and dissertation.

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