Welding Parameters and Techniques their Effects.

The Weld After having selected the wire and gas for a weld, operating conditions must be chosen.
The four important parameters are the welding current, wire electrode extension, welding
voltage and arc travel speed. These parameters will affect the weld characteristics to a great
extent. Because these factors can be varied over a large range, they are considered the primary
adjustments in any welding operation. Their values should be recorded for every different type
of weld to permit reproducibility.

WELDING CURRENT:
The welding current is the electrical amperage in the power system as the weld is being made. It
is usually read from the power source meter, but a separate ammeter is often used. In the mig
process, welding current is directly related to wire- feed speed (if the wire extension beyond the
guide tip is constant). As the wire-feed speed is varied, the welding current will vary in the same
direction. In other words, an increase (or decrease) in the wire-feed speed will cause an increase
(or decrease) of the current. Figure 7-1 shows the typical wire-feed speed vs. welding current
relationship for various diameter E70S-3 wires. This relationship is commonly called the ”burn-
off’ characteristic. The graph also shows that when the diameter of the wire electrode is
increased (or decreased) at any wire-feed speed, the welding current is higher (or lower). Each
type of wire (steel, aluminum, etc.) has a different burn-off characteristic. One important fact
that should be noticed in Figure 7-1 is the shape of each burn-off curve. In the lower current
range for each wire size, the curve is nearly linear. In other words, for every addition to the
current, there is a proportional (and constant) increase in the melt off. However, at higher
welding currents, particularly with small diameter wires, the burn-off curve becomes non-linear.
In this region, higher welding currents cause larger increases in the burn-off. This is due to
resistance heating of the wire extension beyond the guide tube. This resistance heating is known
at PR heat where I = welding current and R = resistance. The greater the welding current, the
greater the PR heating.

Figure 7- 1 – Burn-Off Characteristics

WIRE ELECTRODE EXTENSION :

Wire extension or ”stick-out” is the distance between the last point of electrical contact, usually the end
of the contact tip, and the end of the wire electrode. Figure 7-2 schematically shows wire extension. It
is in this area that PR preheating effect occurs.
Figure 7-2 - Tip-To-Work Distance

The contact tip-to-work distance, because of its effect on the wire extension, affects the welding
current required to melt the wire at a given feed speed. Fig. 7-3 shows the extent to which the welding
current requirement can vary with tip-to-work distance. Basically, as the tip-to-work distance is
increased, the amount of I2R heating increases and the welding current required to melt the wire is
decreased. The converse is also true.

Figure 7-3 – Effect of Tip-To-Work Distance on Welding Current

Controlling tip-to-work distance is important. Long extensions result in excess weld metal being
deposited with low arc heat. This can cause poor bead shape and low penetration. In addition, as the
tip-to-work distance increases, the arc becomes less stable. For short arc welding 3/8 in. (9.6mm) tip-
to-work distance is recommended. It is very important that the wire extension be kept as constant as
possible during the welding operation. In view of the substantial effect on the welding operation, it is
always wise to record not only current and voltage, but also the wire-feed speed.

WELDING VOLTAGE:

Although discussed in Chapter 3, it should be re-emphasized that the voltage setting directly controls
the arc length. In addition, a certain range is required to maintain arc stability at any given welding
current level. ARC TRAVEL SPEED The arc travel speed is the linear rate that the arc moves along the
workpiece. This parameter is usually expressed as inches or meters per minute. Three general
statements can be made regard ing the arc travel speed: 1) As the material thickness increases, the
travel speed must be lowered. 2) For a given material thickness and joint design, as the welding
current is increased, so is the arc travel speed. The converse is also true. 3) Higher welding speeds are
attainable by using the forehand welding technique. WELDING TECHNIQUES The first general
welding technique that affects weld characteristics is torch position. This refers to the manner in which
the torch is held with respect to the weld joint. The position is usually described from two directions –
the angle relative to the length of the weld and the angle relative to the plates as illustrated in 7-4 and
7-5 respectively. Both backhand and forehand welding techniques are shown in 7-4. The backhand
method means the torch is positioned so that the wire is feeding opposite to the direction of arc travel.
Filler metal is being fed into the weld metal previously deposited. For the forehand method, the torch
is angled so that the electrode wire is fed in the same direction as arc travel. Now the filler metal is
being deposited, for the most part, directly on the workpiece. It should be noted that a change in
welding direction is not required to facilitate forehand or backhand welding, only a reversal in the
longitudinal torch positioning. Generally, operators find that the backhand technique yields a more
stable arc and less spatter on the workpiece

Figure 7-4 - Longitudinal Torch Positions Figure 7-5 – Transverse Torch

Positions

The angle relative to the plate for the fillet weld shown in Figure 7-5 is usually 45 deg. However, for a
beveled butt joint, this angle may only be a few degrees from the vertical to allow for proper wetting of
the weld metal to the side wall. The second general welding technique that should be considered is that
of arc travel direction when the welding must be performed in the vertical position. As Figure 7-6
illustrates, there are two methods with which this welding can be done – vertical up and vertical down.
Here the torch positioning is extremely important and welding should be performed only as shown. In
either case, the arc must be kept on the puddle’s leading edge so as to insure complete weld
penetration. This completes a definition of the factors which make up the controllable welding
parameters and techniques. We shall now turn our attention to the manner in which each of these affect
certain weld characteristics.
Figure 7-6 - Welding in the Vertical Position Up Travel and Down Travel
Weld Bead Characteristics PENETRATION Weld penetration is the distance that the fusion line
extends below the surface of the material being welded. Welding current is of primary importance to
penetration. As Figure 7-7 illustrates, weld penetration is directly related to welding current. An
increase or decrease in the current will increase or decrease the weld penetration respectively.
However, we have seen that welding current can be varied without changing the wire feed speed;
namely, through the variation of the tip-to-work distance. The effect of tip-to-work distance on weld
penetration is opposite in nature to that of welding current. An increase in the tip-to-work distance will
decrease welding current and penetration. Of course, the converse is also true. In some applications,
many operators have found it helpful to use this property to control penetration. Changing the tip-to-
work distance while welding prevents burnthrough when there are discontinuities in material
thicknesses or joint gap

Figure 7-7 - Effect of Welding Current on Weld Penetration Carbon Steel-Short Arc C-25
Shielding

The remaining factors have comparatively little effect on pene- tration and do not provide a good
means of control. Figure 7-8 illustrates the effect of welding voltage. In this example, penetration is
greatest at 24 volts and decreases as the voltage is either increased or decreased. Twenty-four volts is
the optimum voltage for the amperage used and yields the most stable arc. Arc instability decreases
penetration.

Figure 7-8 – Effect of Welding Voltage on Weld Penetration Aluminum-Spray Arc-Argon

Shielding
Effects of arc travel speed are similar to that of welding voltage – penetration is a maximum at a
certain value and decreases as the arc travel speed is varied. Figure 7-9 shows that at 12 inches per
minute (30.5 cm/min) travel speed, penetration is at a maximum. At either 7 ipm (17.8 cm/min) or 17
ipm (43.2 cm/min) it is decreased. With the lower speeds, too much metal is deposited in an area and
the molten weld tends to roll in front of the arc and ”cushions” the base plate. This prevents further
penetration. At high speeds, the heat generated by the arc hasn’t sufficient time to substantially melt the
area of base material. Torch position has a slightly greater effect than does welding voltage or arc
travel speed. The effect of changing the longitudinal torch angle, or switching from a forehand to
backhand welding technique is shown in Figure 7-10. It can be seen that generally the forehand
welding technique yields shallower penetration than does the backhand technique. Maximum weld
penetration is achieved with a torch angle of 25 deg. and the backhand welding technique. However,
beyond this degree of torch angle, arc instability and spatter will increase. For very thin materials or
where low penetration is required, a forehand technique is generally used.

Figure 7-10 - Effect of Longitudinal Torch Position on Weld Penetration

DEPOSITION RATE The deposition rate describes how much usable weld metal will be deposited in
one hour of actual arc-on time. Because the mig process is very efficient, only a very small amount of
weld metal is lost as spatter. The deposition rate for any wire is calculated by the equation: (m/min)
deposition rate(lbs./hr.) = wire feed speed (in./min.) x 60 min./hr. (kg/hr) inches of wire per lb.
(m/kg)
Table 7-1 gives the inches of wire per pound (m/kg) for various wire electrodes in a variety of sizes.
Deposition rate is synonymous with wire feed speed. Figure 7-11 gives deposition rate versus wire feed
speed. The current to achieve a given deposition rate can also be varied by changing the tip-to-work
distance. As Figure 7-12 shows, the wire feed speed can be increased with increasing tip-to-work
distance to maintain a constant welding current. This results in a higher deposition rate than usually
associated with a given current level. Long tip-to-work distances and high wire-feed speeds are used
for high speed welding of thin materials, as the welding current can be kept low. Usually the forehand
welding technique is employed. Increasing the deposition rate in this manner will also have an effect
on weld penetration. Because more metal is being deposited at a given welding current, the penetration
will be reduced. This results from a ”cushioning” of the arc force by the extra weld metal deposited.

Figure 7-11 - Deposition Rate vs. Welding Current

Figure 7-12 - Effect of Tip-To-Work Distance on Deposition Rate

Weld Bead Appearance Two characteristics of the weld bead are the bead height and width, as shown
in Figure 7-13. These characteristics are important to assure that the weld joint is properly filled, with a
minimum of defects, particularly in multi-pass weldments. In this case, if the bead height is too great,
it becomes very difficult to make subsequent weld passes that will have good fusion. The more peaked
and narrow the weld bead, the greater the chance that poor fusion may occur. The weld bead
characteristics may be altered via both size and shape. In order to change weld bead size, the lbs. (kg)
of weld metal deposited per linear foot (m) of the weldment must be changed. Welding current and
travel speed are the welding parameters primarily used to control weld bead size. For instance, when
the current is decreased, the weld bead will become smaller. The converse is also true. This
relationship can be seen by referring to Figure 7-7. Weld bead size can also be changed by varying the
arc travel speed. As seen in Figure 7-9, bead size and travel speed are inversely related. A decrease in
travel speed will result in an increase in the weld bead height and width. An increase in travel speed
will result in a decrease in the weld bead height and width. Again, the pounds (kgs) of filler metal
deposited in a linear foot (m) of weld are increased (or decreased).

Figure 7-13 – Weld Bead Characteristics

Both welding current and travel speed have little effect on weld bead shape. The bead width and height
increase or decrease together.
Arc voltage is used to control the shape of the weld bead. As can be seen in Figure 7-8, as the arc
voltage (arc length) increases, the bead height decreases and bead width increases. Here the overall
size of the weld bead remains constant. Only the shape or contour of the bead is changed. By
increasing the bead width, the bead height becomes flatter and the weld metal is said to ”wet” the base
materials more efficiently. Fusion to the base plate is improved. Wire extension and the welding
technique employed (backhand or forehand welding) also affects these characteristics, but only to a
limited extent. When long extensions are used to increase deposition rates, bead height will increase to
a greater extent than bead width. Although larger, the weld bead becomes more peaked as shown in
Figure 7-14. A backhand welding technique will also produce a high, narrow weld bead. Decreasing
the lagging torch angle will decrease the bead height and increase the width. The forehand technique
yields the flattest, widest weld bead. This section has discussed the various effects of several welding
parameters and techniques. As a summary, Table 7-2 outlines these parameters and the changes
necessary to alter a variety of weld characteristics.
Figure 7-14 – Effect of Electrode Extensions on Weld Bead Characteristics

Table 7-2 – Adjustments in Welding Parameters & Techniques

Torch Manipulations No discussion of welding techniques would be complete without some reference
to the methods of torch manipulation. The recommendations which follow are only to serve as a guide
to be used during welder training. As the individual welders become more proficient with the Mig
process, they will adapt their torch manipulations to best suit the job at hand. FLAT POSITION
Recommended weaving patterns, torch positions and bead sequence are shown in Figure 7-15. For the
single-pass, butted joint, a slight back-stepping motion is used. Gapped root passes are made with a
small, back-and-forth weave pattern. For fill and cover passes, the same weave, with an adjustment for
the desired width, is used, with care taken to pause at the sidewalls to obtain adquate fill in these areas.

CAUSES AND REMEDIES FOR FUSION WELD DISCONTINUTIES

CAUSES CORRECTIVE ACTION

A. POROSITY
1. Contamination of work piece Clean joint area
2. Excessive moisture pickup in electrode Follow manufacturers recommended rebaking procedure.
covering
3. Moisture on work surfaces Use preheating/warm up work piece.
4. High Sulphur content of Use basic coated base metal electrodes.
5. a) A long arc length Change welding parameters and technique.
b) Excessive current
c)Higher travel speed
6. High solidification rate Use preheat
Increase heat input.
B. INCLUSIONS
1. Improper cleaning procedure Clean work surfaces and each weld run throughly. Whereever necessary use
power wire brush, grinders, chisel to ensure through removal of slag.
2. Improper welding technique
a) Long arc length Improve welding technique.
b) High travel speed Reposition work to prevent loss of slag control wherever possible
c) Slag flooding ahead of welding arc. Restrict weaving to minimum
3. Narrow, inaccessible joints Increase groove angle.
C. INCOMPLETE FUSION
1. Improper joint design Increase includes angle of groove joint.
Change the groove design to 'J' or a 'U' type
2. Presence of slag or oxide film Clean weld surfaces prior to welding.
3. Incorrect electrode position and operating Maintain proper electrode position and current.
current
4. Improper manipulation of arc Use correct manipulation techniques to melt the joint faces properly.
D. INADEQUATE PENETRATION
1. Improper joint preparation. Use proper joint geometry.
a) Excessively thick root face. Reduce root face height.
b) Insufficient root opening Use wider root opening.
c) Bridging of root opening
2. Electrode diameter too large Use smaller electrode in root.
Increase root opening.
3. Inadequate current Follow correct welding current and technique.
E. CRACKS
1. High rigidity of joint Use preheating
Relieve residual stresses minimises shrinkage stresses, using backstep or block
welding sequences.
2. Poor joint fit up Adjust root opening all alignment.
3. Higher carbon content of weld metal and/or Use proper electrode.
hardenable base material Use buttering layers wherever necessary.
4. Too small a weld bead Decrease travel speed to increase cross section of bead.
Increase electrode size.
5. High sulphur content in base level of sulphur Use filler with high level of sulphur fixing element like Min.
of weldmetal element like Mn.
6. Hot cracking Reduce the heat input.
Minimum joint restraints.
7. Cracking at the crater Filling up the crater before withdrawing the electrode.
Use taper poer control device.
Use back step welding technique.
8. High hardenablity Preheat the job.
Post weld heat treatment without cooling to room temperature.
9. Hydrogen induced cracking/Delayed Use low hydrogen welding electrode.
cracking Use suitable preheat and post weldheat treatment.
10. Presence of brittle phases in the micro- Soften the material before welding
structure of the base material
11. Low ductility of the base material Use preheat
Anneal the base metal.
Use ductile weldmetal.
12. High residual stresses Redesign the weldmetal and reduce restraints.
Change welding sequence.
Use intermediate stress-relief heat treatment.
13. Excessive dilution Change welding current.
Use buttering technique wherever possible.