UNIT 1:

History of Aerodynamic Car Design

These antiques cars demonstrate how little was known about vehicle aerodynamics in the
early part of the 20th century.
While scientists have more or less been aware of what it takes to create aerodynamic
shapes for a long time, it took a while for those principles to be applied to automobile
design.

There was nothing aerodynamic about the earliest cars. Take a look at Ford's seminal
Model T -- it looks more like a horse carriage minus the horses -- a very boxy design,
indeed. Many of these early cars didn't need to worry about aerodynamics because they
were relatively slow. However, some racing cars of the early 1900s incorporated tapering
and aerodynamic features to one degree or another.

In 1921, German inventor Edmund Rumpler created the Rumpler-Tropfenauto, which

translates into "tear-drop car." Based on the most aerodynamic shape in nature, the
teardrop, it had a Cd of just .27, but its unique looks never caught on with the public.
Only about 100 were made [source: Price].

On the American side, one of the biggest leaps ahead in aerodynamic design came in the
1930s with the Chrysler Airflow. Inspired by birds in flight, the Airflow was one of the
first cars designed with aerodynamics in mind. Though it used some unique construction
techniques and had a nearly 50-50-weight distribution (equal weight distribution between
the front and rear axles for improved handling), a Great Depression-weary public never
fell in love with its unconventional looks, and the car was considered a flop. Still, its
streamlined design was far ahead of its time.

As the 1950s and '60s came about, some of the biggest advancements in automobile
aerodynamics came from racing. Originally, engineers experimented with different
designs, knowing that streamlined shapes could help their cars go faster and handle better
at high speeds. That eventually evolved into a very precise science of crafting the most
aerodynamic race car possible. Front and rear spoilers, shovel-shaped noses, and aero kits
became more and more common to keep air flowing over the top of the car and to create
necessary downforce on the front and rear wheels

On the consumer side, companies like Lotus, Citroën and Porsche developed some very
streamlined designs, but these were mostly applied to high-performance sports cars and
not everyday vehicles for the common driver. That began to change in the 1980s with the
Audi 100, a passenger sedan with a then-unheard-of Cd of .30. Today, nearly all cars are
designed with aerodynamics in mind in some way

Fundamentals:
It's unpleasant to think about, but imagine what would happen if you drove your
car into a brick wall at 65 miles per hour (104.6 kilometers per hour). Metal would twist
and tear. Glass would shatter. Airbags would burst forth to protect you. But even with all
the advancements in safety we have on our modern automobiles, this would likely be a
tough accident to walk away from. A car simply isn't designed to go through a brick wall.

But there is another type of "wall" that cars are designed to move through, and have been
for a long time -- the wall of air that pushes against a vehicle at high speeds.

Most of us don't think of air or wind as a wall. At low speeds and on days when it's not
very windy outside, it's hard to notice the way air interacts with our vehicles. But at high
speeds, and on exceptionally windy days, air resistance (the forces acted upon a moving
object by the air -- also defined as drag) has a tremendous effect on the way a car
accelerates, handles and achieves fuel mileage.

This where the science of aerodynamics comes into play. Aerodynamics is the study of
forces and the resulting motion of objects through the air. For several decades, cars have
been designed with aerodynamics in mind, and carmakers have come up with a variety of
innovations that make cutting through that "wall" of air easier and less of an impact on
daily driving.

Essentially, having a car designed with airflow in mind means it has less difficulty
accelerating and can achieve better fuel economy numbers because the engine doesn't
have to work nearly as hard to push the car through the wall of air.
Engineers have developed several ways of doing this. For instance, more rounded designs
and shapes on the exterior of the vehicle are crafted to channel air in a way so that it
flows around the car with the least resistance possible. Some high-performance cars even
have parts that move air smoothly across the underside of the car. Many also include a
spoiler -- also known as a rear wing -- to keep the air from lifting the car's wheels and
making it unstable at high speeds. Although, as you'll read later, most of the spoilers that
you see on cars are simply for decoration more than anything else.

In this article, we'll look at the physics of aerodynamics and air resistance, the history of
how cars have been designed with these factors in mind and how with the trend toward
"greener" cars, aerodynamics is now more important than ever.

Fundamentals of fluid mechanics:

The foundational axioms of fluid dynamics are the conservation laws,

specifically, conservation of mass, conservation of linear momentum (also known as
Newton's Second Law of Motion), and conservation of energy (also known as First Law
of Thermodynamics). These are based on classical mechanics and are modified in
quantum mechanics and general relativity. They are expressed using the Reynolds
Transport Theorem.

In addition to the above, fluids are assumed to obey the continuum assumption. Fluids are
composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects. However, the
continuum assumption considers fluids to be continuous, rather than discrete.
Consequently, properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken to
be well-defined at infinitesimally small points, and are assumed to vary continuously
from one point to another. The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete molecules is
ignored.

For fluids which are sufficiently dense to be a continuum, do not contain ionized species,
and have velocities small in relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for
Newtonian fluids are the Navier-Stokes equations, which is a non-linear set of differential
equations that describes the flow of a fluid whose stress depends linearly on velocity
gradients and pressure. The unsimplified equations do not have a general closed-form
solution, so they are primarily of use in Computational Fluid Dynamics. The equations
can be simplified in a number of ways, all of which make them easier to solve. Some of
them allow appropriate fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form.

In addition to the mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations, a

thermodynamical equation of state giving the pressure as a function of other
thermodynamic variables for the fluid is required to completely specify the problem. An
example of this would be the perfect gas equation of state:

where p is pressure, ρ is density, Ru is the gas constant, M is the molar mass and T is
temperature.

Compressible vs incompressible flow

All fluids are compressible to some extent, that is changes in pressure or temperature will
result in changes in density. However, in many situations the changes in pressure and
temperature are sufficiently small that the changes in density are negligible. In this case
the flow can be modeled as an incompressible flow. Otherwise the more general
compressible flow equations must be used.

Mathematically, incompressibility is expressed by saying that the density ρ of a fluid

parcel does not change as it moves in the flow field, i.e.,

where D / Dt is the substantial derivative, which is the sum of local and convective
derivatives. This additional constraint simplifies the governing equations, especially in
the case when the fluid has a uniform density.

For flow of gases, to determine whether to use compressible or incompressible fluid

dynamics, the Mach number of the flow is to be evaluated. As a rough guide,
compressible effects can be ignored at Mach numbers below approximately 0.3. For
liquids, whether the incompressible assumption is valid depends on the fluid properties
(specifically the critical pressure and temperature of the fluid) and the flow conditions
(how close to the critical pressure the actual flow pressure becomes). Acoustic problems
always require allowing compressibility, since sound waves are compression waves
involving changes in pressure and density of the medium through which they propagate.
Viscous vs inviscid flow
Viscous problems are those in which fluid friction has significant effects on the fluid
motion.

The Reynolds number can be used to evaluate whether viscous or inviscid equations are
appropriate to the problem.

Stokes flow is flow at very low Reynolds numbers, such that inertial forces can be
neglected compared to viscous forces.

On the contrary, high Reynolds numbers indicate that the inertial forces are more
significant than the viscous (friction) forces. Therefore, we may assume the flow to be an
inviscid flow, an approximation in which we neglect viscosity at all, compared to inertial
terms.

This idea can work fairly well when the Reynolds number is high. However, certain
problems such as those involving solid boundaries, may require that the viscosity be
included. Viscosity often cannot be neglected near solid boundaries because the no-slip
condition can generate a thin region of large strain rate (known as Boundary layer) which
enhances the effect of even a small amount of viscosity, and thus generating vorticity.
Therefore, to calculate net forces on bodies (such as wings) we should use viscous flow
equations. As illustrated by d'Alembert's paradox, a body in an inviscid fluid will
experience no drag force. The standard equations of inviscid flow are the Euler equations.
Another often used model, especially in computational fluid dynamics, is to use the Euler
equations away from the body and the boundary layer equations, which incorporates
viscosity, in a region close to the body.

The Euler equations can be integrated along a streamline to get Bernoulli's equation.
When the flow is everywhere irrotational and inviscid, Bernoulli's equation can be used
throughout the flow field. Such flows are called potential flows.
Steady vs unsteady flow

Hydrodynamics simulation of the Rayleigh–Taylor instability [2]

When all the time derivatives of a flow field vanish, the flow is considered to be a steady
flow. Otherwise, it is called unsteady. Whether a particular flow is steady or unsteady,
can depend on the chosen frame of reference. For instance, laminar flow over a sphere is
steady in the frame of reference that is stationary with respect to the sphere. In a frame of
reference that is stationary than the governing equations of the same problem without
taking advantage of the steadiness of the flow field.

Although strictly unsteady flows, time-periodic problems can often be solved by the same
techniques as steady flows. For this reason, they can be considered to be somewhere
between steady and unsteady.

Laminar versus turbulent flow

Turbulence is flow characterized by recirculation, eddies, and apparent randomness. Flow
in which turbulence is not exhibited is called laminar. It should be noted, however, that
the presence of eddies or recirculation alone does not necessarily indicate turbulent flow
—these phenomena may be present in laminar flow as well. Mathematically, turbulent
flow is often represented via a Reynolds decomposition, in which the flow is broken
down into the sum of an average component and a perturbation component.
It is believed that turbulent flows can be described well through the use of the Navier–
Stokes equations. Direct numerical simulation (DNS), based on the Navier–Stokes
equations, makes it possible to simulate turbulent flows at moderate Reynolds numbers.
Restrictions depend on the power of the computer used and the efficiency of the solution
algorithm. The results of DNS agree with the experimental data.

Most flows of interest have Reynolds numbers much too high for DNS to be a viable
option[3], given the state of computational power for the next few decades. Any flight
vehicle large enough to carry a human (L > 3 m), moving faster than 72 km/h (20 m/s) is
well beyond the limit of DNS simulation (Re = 4 million). Transport aircraft wings (such
as on an Airbus A300 or Boeing 747) have Reynolds numbers of 40 million (based on the
wing chord). In order to solve these real-life flow problems, turbulence models will be a
necessity for the foreseeable future. Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations
(RANS) combined with turbulence modeling provides a model of the effects of the
turbulent flow. Such a modeling mainly provides the additional momentum transfer by
the Reynolds stresses, although the turbulence also enhances the heat and mass transfer.
Another promising methodology is large eddy simulation (LES), especially in the guise
of detached eddy simulation (DES)—which is a combination of RANS turbulence
modeling and large eddy simulation.

Newtonian vs non-Newtonian fluids

Sir Isaac Newton showed how stress and the rate of strain are very close to linearly
related for many familiar fluids, such as water and air. These Newtonian fluids are
modeled by a coefficient called viscosity, which depends on the specific fluid.

However, some of the other materials, such as emulsions and slurries and some visco-
elastic materials (eg. blood, some polymers), have more complicated non-Newtonian
stress-strain behaviours. These materials include sticky liquids such as latex, honey, and
lubricants which are studied in the sub-discipline of rheology.

Subsonic vs transonic, supersonic and hypersonic flows

While many terrestrial flows (e.g. flow of water through a pipe) occur at low mach
numbers, many flows of practical interest (e.g. in aerodynamics) occur at high fractions
of the Mach Number M=1 or in excess of it (supersonic flows). New phenomena occur at
these Mach number regimes (e.g. shock waves for supersonic flow, transonic instability
in a regime of flows with M nearly equal to 1, non-equilibrium chemical behavior due to
ionization in hypersonic flows) and it is necessary to treat each of these flow regimes
separately.

Non-relativistic vs relativistic flows

Classical fluid dynamics is derived based on Newtonian mechanics, which is adequate for
most applications. However, at speeds comparable to the speed of light, c, Newtonian
mechanics is inaccurate and a relativistic framework has to be used instead.

External flow around a car:

External Flow around a Closed-Cabin Sports Car

The geometry consists of the external surfaces including underbody

components of the Jaguar XK8 sports car in the “closed”
configuration.
The Harpoon mesh contains 2.26M cells of all four cell types and
required 112 seconds to mesh on an AMD Opteron-based PC.
A steady flow simulation was performed on the same computer,
requiring 2 hours to converge.
The cell skew histogram is shown in figure 1. The plot of solution
residuals is shown in figure 2. Details of the geometry, surface
pressure and flow streamlines are shown in figures 3 (a)-(d)
(geometry courtesy Jaguar)

External Flow around a Open-Cabin Sports Car

The geometry consists of the external surfaces including underbody

components of the Jaguar XK8 sports car in the “open”
configuration.
The Harpoon mesh contains 2.3M cells of all four cell types and
required 90 seconds to mesh on an AMD Opteron-based PC.
A steady flow simulation was performed on the same computer,
requiring 2 hours to converge.
The cell skew histogram is shown in figure 1. The plot of solution
residuals is shown in figure 2. Details of the geometry, surface
pressure and flow streamlines are shown in figures 3 (a)-(d).
(geometry courtesy Jaguar)
Engine cooling:

The cooling system in most cars consists of the radiator and water pump. Water circulates
through passages around the cylinders and then travels through the radiator to cool it off.
In a few cars (most notably Volkswagen Beetles), as well as most motorcycles and lawn
mowers, the engine is air-cooled instead (You can tell an air-cooled engine by the fins
adorning the outside of each cylinder to help dissipate heat.). Air-cooling makes the
engine lighter but hotter, generally decreasing engine life and overall performance. See
How Car Cooling Systems Work for details.

Diagram of a cooling system showing how all the plumbing is connected

So now you know how and why your engine stays cool. But why is air circulation so
important? Most cars are normally aspirated, which means that air flows through an air
filter and directly into the cylinders. High-performance engines are either turbocharged or
supercharged, which means that air coming into the engine is first pressurized (so that
more air/fuel mixture can be squeezed into each cylinder) to increase performance. The
amount of pressurization is called boost. A turbocharger uses a small turbine attached to
the exhaust pipe to spin a compressing turbine in the incoming air stream. A supercharger
is attached directly to the engine to spin the compressor.
UNIT 2:

In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance or fluid resistance)

refers to forces that oppose the relative motion of an object through a fluid (a liquid or
gas). Drag forces act in a direction opposite to the oncoming flow velocity.[ Unlike other
resistive forces such as dry friction, which is nearly independent of velocity, drag forces
depend on velocity

For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the net
aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force acting opposite to the direction of the movement.
The component perpendicular to this direction is considered lift. Therefore drag opposes
the motion of the object, and in a powered vehicle it is overcome by thrust.

In astrodynamics, depending on the situation, atmospheric drag can be regarded as an

inefficiency requiring expense of additional energy during launch of the space object or
as a bonus simplifying return from orbit.

The drag equation calculates the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid at
relatively large velocity (i.e. high Reynolds number, Re > ~1000), also called quadratic
drag. The equation is attributed to Lord Rayleigh, who originally used L2 in place of A (L
being some length). The force on a moving object due to a fluid is:

Lift-induced drag (also called induced drag) is drag which occurs as the result of the
creation of lift on a three-dimensional lifting body, such as the wing or fuselage of an
airplane. Induced drag consists of two primary components, including drag due to the
creation of vortices (vortex drag) and the presence of additional viscous drag (lift-
induced viscous drag). The vortices in the flow-field, present in the wake of a lifting
body, derive from the turbulent mixing of air of varying pressure on the upper and lower
surfaces of the body, which is a necessary condition for the creation of lift.

With other parameters remaining the same, as the lift generated by a body increases, so
does the lift-induced drag. For an aircraft in flight, this means that as the angle of attack,
and therefore the lift, of the lifting body increases to the point of stall, so does the lift-
induced drag. At the onset of stall, lift is abruptly decreased, as is lift-induced drag, but
viscous pressure drag, a component of parasite drag, increases due to the formation of
turbulent unattached flow on the surface of the body.

The reference area A is often defined as the area of the orthographic projection of the
object — on a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion — e.g. for objects with a
simple shape, such as a sphere, this is the cross sectional area. Sometimes different
reference areas are given for the same object in which case a drag coefficient
corresponding to each of these different areas must be given.

In case of a wing, comparison of the drag to the lift force is easiest when the reference
areas are the same, since then the ratio of drag to lift force is just the ratio of drag to lift
coefficient.[4] Therefore, the reference for a wing often is the planform (or wing) area
rather than the frontal area.[5]

For an object with a smooth surface, and non-fixed separation points — like a sphere or
circular cylinder — the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re, even up to
very high values (Re of the order 107). [6] [7]
For an object with well-defined fixed
separation points, like a circular disk with its plane normal to the flow direction, the drag
coefficient is constant for Re > 3,500.[7] Further the drag coefficient Cd is, in general, a
function of the orientation of the flow with respect to the object (apart from symmetrical
objects like a sphere).

Power
The power required to overcome the aerodynamic drag is given by:

Note that the power needed to push an object through a fluid increases as the cube of the
velocity. A car cruising on a highway at 50 mph (80 km/h) may require only
10 horsepower (7.5 kW) to overcome air drag, but that same car at 100 mph (160 km/h)
requires 80 hp (60 kW). With a doubling of speed the drag (force) quadruples per the
formula. Exerting four times the force over a fixed distance produces four times as much
work. At twice the speed the work (resulting in displacement over a fixed distance) is
done twice as fast. Since power is the rate of doing work, four times the work done in
half the time requires eight times the power.
The Science of Aerodynamics

Before we look at how aerodynamics is applied to automobiles, here's a little physics

refresher course so that you can understand the basic idea.

As an object moves through the atmosphere, it displaces the air that surrounds it. The
object is also subjected to gravity and drag. Drag is generated when a solid object moves
through a fluid medium such as water or air. Drag increases with velocity -- the faster the
object travels, the more drag it experiences.

We measure an object's motion using the factors described in Newton's laws. These
include mass, velocity, weight, external force, and acceleration.

Drag has a direct effect on acceleration. The acceleration (a) of an object is its weight
(W) minus drag (D) divided by its mass (m). Remember, weight is an object's mass times
the force of gravity acting on it. Your weight would change on the moon because of
lesser gravity, but your mass stays the same. To put it more simply:

a = (W - D) / m

(source: NASA)

As an object accelerates, its velocity and drag increase, eventually to the point where drag
becomes equal to weight -- in which case no further acceleration can occur. Let's say our
object in this equation is a car. This means that as the car travels faster and faster, more
and more air pushes against it, limiting how much more it can accelerate and restricting it
to a certain speed.

How does all of this apply to car design? Well, it's useful for figuring out an important
number -- drag coefficient. This is one of the primary factors that determine how easily
an object moves through the air. The drag coefficient (Cd) is equal to the drag (D),
divided by the quantity of the density (r), times half the velocity (V) squared times the
area (A). To make that more readable:

Cd = D / (A * .5 * r * V^2)
The Coefficient of Drag

The Toyota Prius' unique shape is one factor that helps it get incredible fuel economy.
We've just learned that the coefficient of drag (Cd) is a figure that measures the force of
air resistance on an object, such as a car. Now, imagine the force of air pushing against
the car as it moves down the road. At 70 miles per hour (112.7 kilometers per hour),
there's four times more force working against the car than at 35 miles per hour (56.3
kilometers per hour) [source: Elliott-Sink].

The aerodynamic abilities of a car are measured using the vehicle's coefficient of drag.
Essentially, the lower the Cd, the more aerodynamic a car is, and the easier it can move
through the wall of air pushing against it.

Let's look at a few Cd numbers. Remember the boxy old Volvo cars of the 1970s and
'80s? An old Volvo 960 sedan achieves a Cd of .36. The newer Volvos are much more
sleek and curvy, and an S80 sedan achieves a Cd of .28 [source: Elliott-Sink]. This
proves something that you may have been able to guess already -- smoother, more
streamlined shapes are more aerodynamic than boxy ones. Why is that exactly?

Let's look at the most aerodynamic thing in nature -- a teardrop. The teardrop is smooth
and round on all sides and tapers off at the top. Air flows around it smoothly as it falls to
the ground. It's the same with cars -- smooth, rounded surfaces allow the air to flow in a
stream over the vehicle, reducing the "push" of air against the body.
Today, most cars achieve a Cd of about .30. SUVs, which tend to be more boxy than cars
because they're larger, accommodate more people, and often need bigger grilles to help
cool the engine down, have a Cd of anywhere from .30 to .40 or more. Pickup trucks -- a
purposefully boxy design -- typically get around .40 [source: Siuru].

Many have questioned the "unique" looks of the Toyota Prius hybrid, but it has an
extremely aerodynamic shape for a good reason. Among other efficient characteristics, its
Cd of .26 helps it achieve very high mileage. In fact, reducing the Cd of a car by just 0.01
can result in a 0.2 miles per gallon (.09 kilometers per liter) increase in fuel economy

The drag equation

Fd = cd 1/2 ρ v2 A

is essentially a statement that the drag force on any object is proportional to the density of
the fluid, and proportional to the square of the relative speed between the object and the
fluid.

Cd is not a constant but varies as a function of speed, flow direction, object shape, fluid
density and fluid viscosity. Speed, kinematic viscosity and a characteristic length scale of
the object are incorporated into a dimensionless quantity called the Reynolds number or
Re. Cd is thus a function of Re. In compressible flow, the speed of sound is relevant and
Cd is also a function of Mach number Ma.

For a certain body shape the drag coefficient Cd only depends on the Reynolds number
Re, Mach number Ma and the direction of the flow. For low Mach number Ma, as usual
for automobiles and sports planes, the drag coefficient is independent of Mach number.
Also the variation with Reynolds number Re within a practical range of interest is usually
small, while for cars at highway speed and aircraft at cruising speed the incoming flow
direction is as well more-or-less the same. So the drag coefficient Cd can often be treated
as a constant. [8]

For a streamlined body to achieve a low drag coefficient the boundary layer around the
body must remain attached to the surface of the body for as long as possible, causing the
wake to be narrow. A broad wake results in high form drag. The boundary layer will
remain attached longer if it is turbulent than if it is laminar. The boundary layer will
transition from laminar to turbulent providing the Reynolds number of the flow around
the body is high enough. Larger velocities, larger objects, and lower viscosities contribute
to larger Reynolds numbers.[9]

For other objects, such as small particles, one can no longer consider that the drag
[10][11] [12]
coefficient Cd is constant, but certainly is a function of Reynolds number. At a
low Reynolds number, the flow around the object does not transition to turbulent but
remains laminar, even up to the point at which it separates from the surface of the object.
At very low Reynolds numbers, without flow separation, the drag force Fd is proportional
to v instead of v2; for a sphere this is known as Stokes law. Reynolds number will be low
for small objects, low velocities, and high viscosity fluids.[9]

A Cd equal to 1 would be obtained in a case where all of the fluid approaching the object
is brought to rest, building up stagnation pressure over the whole front surface. The top
figure shows a flat plate with the fluid coming from the right and stopping at the plate.
The graph to the left of it shows equal pressure across the surface. In a real flat plate the
fluid must turn around the sides, and full stagnation pressure is found only at the center,
dropping off toward the edges as in the lower figure and graph. Only considering the
front size, the Cd of a real flat plate would be less than 1; except that there will be suction
on the back side: a negative pressure (relative to ambient). The overall C d of a real square
flat plate perpendicular to the flow is often given as 1.17. Flow patterns and therefore Cd
for some shapes can change with the Reynolds number and the roughness of the surfaces.

General
In general, Cd is not an absolute constant for a given body shape. It varies with the speed
of airflow (or more generally with Reynolds number). A smooth sphere, for example, has
a Cd that varies from about 0.47 for laminar (slow) flow to 0.1 for turbulent (faster) flow.

Shapes [1]
Cd Item
0.9 a typical bicycle plus cyclist
0.4 rough sphere (Re = 106)
0.1 smooth sphere (Re = 106)
0.001 laminar flat plate parallel to the flow (Re = 106)
0.005 turbulent flat plate parallel to the flow (Re = 106)
0.26 modern car (e.g. Toyota Prius[13])
0.295 bullet (not ogive, at subsonic velocity)
1.0–1.3 man (upright position)
1.28 flat plate perpendicular to flow
1.0–1.1 skier
1.0–1.3 wires and cables
1.1-1.3 ski jumper[13]
1.3–1.5 Empire State Building
1.8–2.0 Eiffel Tower
2.1 a smooth brick
>2.5 spacecraft in LEO
 Production cars
Cd Automobile Year
typical values for a Formula 1 car (downforce settings change for each
0.7 to 1.1
circuit)
0.74 Legends Car
0.7 Caterham Seven
0.6 + a typical truck
0.57 Hummer H2 2003
0.51 Citroën 2CV 1948
0.48 Volkswagen Beetle (newer models) [1] [2]
0.47 Lancia Aprilia 1937
0.46 Ford Mustang (coupe) 1979
0.45 Dodge Viper RT/10 1996
0.44 Ford Mustang (fastback) 1979
0.44 Peugeot 305 1978
0.44 Peugeot 504 1968
0.44 Toyota Truck 1990
Duple 425 coach
0.425 c.1985
(named for its low Cd by coach standards)
0.42 Lamborghini Countach 1974
0.42 Triumph Spitfire Mk IV 1971
0.42 Plymouth Duster 1994
0.41 Volvo 740 (sedan) 1982
0.40 Ford Escape Hybrid 2005
0.40 Nissan Skyline GT-R R32 1989
0.39 Dodge Durango 2004
0.39 Chevrolet Tahoe 2006
0.39 Triumph Spitfire 1964
0.38 Volkswagen Beetle (original design)[3] 1938
VW NewBeetle[4]
0.38 2003
without wing or spoiler 0.39[5]
0.385 Nissan 280ZX 1978
0.38 Mazda Miata 1989
0.374 Ford Capri Mk III 1978
0.372 Ferrari F50 1996
0.37 Renault Twingo
0.37 BMW Z3 M coupe 1999
0.37 Volkswagen Tiguan 2008
0.36 Cadillac Escalade hybrid 2008
0.36 Cadillac Fleetwood 1996
0.36 Citroën CX (named after the term for Cd) 1974
0.36 Citroën DS 1955
0.36 Chrysler Sebring 1996
0.36 Ferrari Testarossa 1986
0.36 Ford Mustang 1999
0.36 Honda Civic 2001
0.36 Opel GT 1969
0.355 NSU Ro 80 1967
0.35 Aston Martin Vanquish 2004
0.35 BMW Z4 M coupe 2006
0.35 Dodge Viper GTS 1996
0.35 Jaguar XKR 2005
0.35 Lexus RX 2003-2009
0.35 MINI Cooper 2008
0.35 Tesla Roadster[6] 2008
0.35 Toyota MR-2 1998
0.35 Toyota Sequoia 2007
0.35 Volvo 940 (sedan) 1990
0.35 SSC Ultimate Aero 2007-Present
0.34 Aston Martin DB9 2004
0.34 Chevrolet Caprice 1994
0.34 Chevrolet Tahoe hybrid 2008
0.34 Ferrari F40 1987
0.34 Ferrari 360 Modena 1999
0.34 Ferrari F430 F1 2004
0.34 Ford Sierra 1982
0.34 Ford Puma 1997
0.34 Honda Prelude 1988
0.34 Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Down) 2001
0.34 Peugeot 106 1991
0.34 Toyota Supra (with factory 3 piece turbo wing) 1989-1990
0.338 Chevrolet Camaro 1995
0.33 Audi A3 2006
0.33 Citroën SM 1970
0.33 Dodge Charger 2006
0.33 Ford Crown Victoria 1992
0.33 Honda Accord Sedan 2002
0.33 Lamborghini Murcielago 2001
0.33 Lexus RX 2009
0.33 Mazda RX-7 FC3C 1987
0.33 Peugeot 206 1998
0.33 Peugeot 309 1986
0.33 Renault Modus 2004
0.33 Subaru Impreza WRX STi 2004
0.33 Toyota Supra (without wing) 1989-1990
0.324 Cobalt SS Supercharged 2005
0.32 AMC Pacer 1975-1980
0.32 Buick Riviera 1995
0.32 Dodge Avenger 1995
0.32 Honda Accord Coupe 2002
0.32 Honda NSX 1990
0.32 Mazdaspeed3 2007
0.32 McLaren F1 1992
0.32 Mercedes-Benz 190E 2.5-16/2.3-16
0.32 Nissan 300ZX 1989
0.32 Nissan Maxima 1997
0.32 Porsche 997 GT2
0.32 Peugeot 406 1995
0.32 Peugeot 806 1994
0.32 Scion xB 2008
0.32 Suzuki Swift 1991
0.32 Toyota Celica 1994
0.32 Toyota Supra (N/A with wing and turbo models) 1993
0.32 Toyota Supra (with factory turbo wing) 1987-1988
0.32 Volkswagen GTI Mk V 2006
0.31 Audi A4 B5 1995
0.31 BMW 7-series 2009
0.31 Buick Park Avenue 1996
0.31 Cadillac CTS-V 2005
0.31 Chevrolet C6 Corvette Z06
0.31 Citroën AX 1986
0.31 Citroën GS 1970
0.31 Eagle Vision 1995
0.31 Ford Falcon 1995
0.31 Holden Commodore 1998
0.31 Honda Civic (Sedan) 2006
0.310 Lamborghini Diablo 1990
0.31 Mazda RX-7 FC3S 1986
0.31 Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2) 1993
0.31 Mazda RX-8 2004
0.31 Nissan Tiida / Versa 2004
0.31 Peugeot 307 2001
0.31 Porsche 997 Turbo/GT3 2006
0.31 Renault 25 1984
0.31 Saab Sonett III 1970
0.31 Scion xA 2004
0.31 Toyota Avalon 1995-2000
0.31 Toyota RAV4 2006
0.31 Toyota Supra (N/A; without factory wing) 1993
0.31 Volkswagen GTI Mk IV 1997
0.30 Honda NSX 2002
0.30 Audi 100 1983
0.30 BMW E90 2006
0.30 Hyundai Sonata 2006
0.30 Honda Accord Sedan 2003, 2005-2007
0.30 Honda Odyssey 2005
0.30 Koenigsegg CCX 2006
0.30 Mitsubishi Eclipse 2000
0.30 Nissan 180SX 1989
0.30 Nissan 300ZX 1983
0.30 Nissan 350Z Coupe Base and Enthusiast models 2003-2008
 Nissan 370Z Coupe
0.30 2008
(0.29 with sport package)
0.30 Renault 19 16V 1991
0.30 Saab 92 1947
0.30 Toyota Sienna 2003-2009
0.295 Ford Falcon 1998
0.29 Alfa Romeo 155 1992
0.29 BMW 8-Series 1989
0.29 Chevrolet Corvette 2005
0.29 Chevrolet Corvette C5 Z06 2002
0.29 Daewoo Espero 1990
0.29 Dodge Charger Daytona 1969
0.29 Eagle Talon 1990s [2]
0.29 Honda Accord Hybrid 2005, 2007
0.29 Honda Accord Coupe 2003, 2005-2007
0.29 Honda CRX HF 1988
0.29 Infiniti G35 Sedan 2008
0.29 Lancia Dedra 1990
0.29 Lexus LS 400 1990
0.29 Lotus Elite 1958
0.29 Lotus Europa 1966
0.29 Mazda Millenia 1995
0.29 Mazda RX-7 FC3S Aero Package 1986
0.29 Mazda 3 2010
0.29 Mazda RX-7 FD 1993
0.29 Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Up) 2001
0.29 Mercedes-Benz W203 C-Class Coupe 2001
0.29 Nissan 350Z Coupe Track and Grand Touring 2007-2008
0.29 Nissan Versa 2007-2008
0.29 Peugeot 308 2007
0.29 Peugeot 407 2004
0.29 Peugeot 607 1999
0.29 Porsche Boxster 2005
0.29 Subaru XT 1985
0.29 Subaru SVX 1992
0.29 Toyota Camry 1996-2001
0.291 Toyota Avalon 2005
0.29 Toyota Prius 2001
0.28 Chevrolet Corvette C6 2006
0.28 Citroën XM 1989
0.28 Citroën C4 2004
0.28 Lexus IS 2006
0.28 Mitsubishi Diamante 1995
0.28 Porsche 997 Carrera 2004
(with optional automatic spoiler, PDK transmission 0.30)
0.28 Renault 25 TS 1984
0.28 Rumpler-Tropfenwagen 1921
0.28 Saab 9-3 2003
0.28 Toyota Camry / Lexus ES 2001
0.28 Volkswagen NewBeetle with custom, hand-crafted wing[7] 2003
0.28 Opel Astra Coupe Turbo 2003
0.27 Honda Civic Hybrid 2006
0.27 Hyundai Genesis 2009
Infiniti G35
0.27 2002
(0.26 with "aero package")
0.27 Lexus GS 2005
0.27 Mazda6 (sedan and hatchback) [8] 2008
0.27 Mercedes-Benz W203 C-Class Sedan 2001
0.27 Nissan GT-R 2008
0.27 Toyota Camry Hybrid 2007
0.27 Tucker Torpedo 1948
0.27 Volkswagen Passat B5 (sedan) 1997
0.27 Mercedes-Benz S Class 2000-2005
(0.268 with Sport Package)
0.26 Hotchkiss Gregoire[citation needed] 1951
Lexus LS 430
0.26 2001-2006
(0.25 with air suspension)
0.26 Lexus LS 460 2006
0.26 Mercedes-Benz W221 S-Class 2006
Opel Calibra
0.26 1989
(8 valve version)
0.26 Toyota Prius 2004-2009
0.25 Audi A2 1.2 TDI 2001
0.25 Honda Insight 1999, 2003, 2005
0.25 Toyota Prius 2010
Mercedes E-class coupe
0.24 2009
(0.25 sedan)
0.212 Tatra T77 1935
0.195 General Motors EV1 1996
UNIT 3:

Windshield angle:

Recall the aerodynamic data presented in Chapter 2, Fig. 2.22, on two basic ellipsoid
shapes with dimensions reminiscent of the ratios used on road vehicles. The important
conclusion to be drawn from this Figure is that both positive and negative lift can be
generated by bodies when placed close to the ground. Drag, however, is primarily a result
of the blunt rear-end shape, which creates local flow separation, as shown in Fig. 2.3
(note that skin-friction drag is usually small, as indicated in Table 2.4). While the first
type of design in Fig. 2.22 will focus on highly streamlined shapes, with minimum rear-
end flow separations, flow separations may appear in different locations on vehicles with
more angular geometries, and vortex dominated flows can exist on a variety of road

vehicles. In order to reintroduce this concept of vortex-dominated flows, let us return to

the discussion of a flat-plate lifting surface (described in Chapter 3, and shown again in
Fig. 6.4). In this case, a thin, low-aspect-ratio flat plate is placed in a free stream at an
angle of attack larger than 10°. The main aspect of this flow field, relevant to the present
discussion, is the formation of two concentrated side edge vortices which dominate the
nearby flow field. Those two vortices induce a large velocity on the plate (under the
vortices), creating strong suction forces which considerably increase the lift of the flat-
plate wing.

Interestingly, a similar situation develops when slanting the rear, upper surface of a
generic body (Fig. 6.4B). This vortex-dominated flow is present in a slant-angle range of
10°< ? < 30°, as indicated by the lift and drag data in Fig. 6.5 (region I). At larger angles
? , the flow over the whole rear base area is separated, as on a typical bluff body.
This fully separated case is indicated as region II, and Fig. 6.5B shows that the
corresponding pressure distribution (along a lateral line AA) is evenly distributed. In
region I, the two concentrated side vortices attach the flow near the body’s longitudinal
centerline (Fig. 6.5C), effectively creating a lifting flow. The pressure distribution for this
case shows the large negative pressure peaks created by the vortices at the side of the
slanted rear surface (Fig. 6.5B, region I) resulting in a force acting normal to the slanted
surface (which can be resolved into lift and drag).

As the slant angle is increased from zero, a positive lift will develop, which increases up
to ? = 30°. At slant angles larger than 10° the rearward projection of this negative
pressure causes quite a large increase in drag, as shown in this Figure. The most
interesting feature of this data is that above a critical angle (close to ? = 30°) the vortex
structure breaks down and the drag and lift contribution of the slanted surface is much
smaller. This fact has an effect on hatchback automobile design, where rear window
inclination angle should be more than 35° or less than, say, 25°. Also, note that in this
case, the basic body (with ? = 0°) has negative lift due to ground effect, similar to the
case with the ellipsoid, shown in Fig. 2.22.

Another typical pattern of flow-separation frequently found on three-box-type sedans is

depicted in Fig. 6.4C. In this case a separated bubble, with locally recirculating flow, is
observed in the front, at the break point between the bonnet and the windshield. The large
angle created between the rear windshield and trunk area results in a second, similar
flow-
recirculation area. Data on the effect of those parameters on the drag can be found in Ref.
2.6, Chapter 5.

When inverting the body so that now the lower surface of the body is slanted (Fig. 6.4D),
a similar trend can be expected. This principle can be utilized for race cars since for
moderate angles (usually less than ? = 15°) an increase in the downforce is observed (see
also Ref. 2.6, pp. 143-144). However, a far more interesting case is when two side plates
are added to create an underbody tunnel, sometimes called venturi (Fig. 6.4E). This
geometry can generate very large values of negative lift, with only a moderate increase in
drag, as shown in Fig. 6.6 (after Ref. 6.2). Furthermore, the downforce created by this
geometry increases with smaller ground clearances (and probably larger values can be f
ined by adding skirts along the sides of this particular body).

Car Oriented Basic Aerodynamic Shapes

The previous section dealt with some aerodynamic features of boxy shapes in ground
proximity, whereas in this section the target is to present basic body shapes that can
create downforce without creating large drag force. With these earlier basic shapes in
mind it is possible to define a limited number of conceptual race car configurations, and
some are presented

The first generic shape in Fig.

6.7A is aimed at a very low-drag
configuration, and such
configurations were studied
by Morelli, in Ref. 2.4, pp. 70-98.
The basic intention is to create a
vehicle body with very low drag,
and at the same time to be able
to generate lift or downforce
with the body. The above cited
article indicates that with such
configurations, drag
coefficient values of less than C
D = 0.1 are obtainable,
while lift can be varied by
slightly pitching the body. The
lift coefficient can range from C L
= 0.25 at a positive pitch of 6°,
down to about C L = -0.75 for a
negative pitch of 6°. Such low-drag configurations are usually applicable to speed-record
cars that run along long straightaways, without any turns. Such vehicles usually require
low levels of downforce, primarily to improve their high-speed stability, and usually do
not have additional lifting surfaces (wings). An example is presented in Fig. 6.8, the
Oldsmobile Aerotech Aurora V-8, which broke 47 speed-endurance records in December
1992.

On most
racing circuits with medium- to high-speed turns, vehicles with high downforce can run
faster lap times (see Chapter 5). If an aerodynamicist is asked to recommend a
configuration for such a circuit with high downforce and relatively low drag, then very
likely his choice will be based on an inverted wing in ground effect, as shown in Fig.
6.7B. (Recall the large increase in the lift or downforce of a wing when placed near the
ground--ground effect.) The addition of side fins to seal the airflow from the sides
considerably increases the downforce (since the lift of a two-dimensional airfoil is larger
than that of a low-span wing).

Applications of this principle were incorporated into the "skirt era" race cars, and an
example is shown in Fig. 6.9. In this Lotus 79 F-1 car the lower surface of the side pods
resembled an inverted airfoil, while the side skirts (sliding on the road) effectively
created the high downforce (more information on this important concept is presented later
in this chapter and in Chapter 7).

A more realistic shape that can be related to prototype race cars is the "catamaran"
concept (Fig. 6.7C.) The need to cover the wheels at the two sides of the vehicle resulted
in a shape with a fairly high central tunnel ending with a moderate upward, rear slope
(venturi). The ability to channel the momentum of the undisturbed free stream under the
car reduces the area of flow separation on the back of the central body, creating an ideal
high-downforce and low-drag configuration. Some modern prototype race cars are
partially utilizing this principle. As an example, a generic model for such a vehicle is
depicted in Fig. 6.10, with which L/D values of over 6 were obtained.

A far more popular concept is the "vacuum cleaner" car (Fig. 6.7D). In this case every
effort is made to seal the gap between the front and the two sides of the vehicle and the
ground, to minimize or entirely eliminate any airflow there. Because of the flow
separation at the base, the base pressure p b is very low, and by leaving the rear section of
the car open so that this pressure prevails under the car, a strong suction force
(downforce) is created. The suction force can be increased by a small spoiler, and the
lift/drag ratio (due to this pressure) can be fairly well approximated by the length/height
ratio (e.g., L/D ~ L/h ). A logical improvement on this concept is the addition of a fan that
on one hand creates vacuum under the car, and on the other hand blows the air out at the
base, filling
the

separated flow bubble behind the car and reducing drag.

This idea was discovered very early, and the Chaparral 2J, shown in Fig. 6.11, was the
first race car to utilize this principle. The success of this concept led quickly to the
banning of active aerodynamic devices, such as fans or variable
angle wings, on race cars. The remaining alternative is to reduce the base pressure by
using a wing, while at the same time reducing the height of the rear bodywork h for drag-
saving considerations. The prototype race car shown in Fig. 6.12 can be used as an
example for this design philosophy; however, the high rear deck in this case probably
resulted in an undesirable increase in drag.

The principle of vortex lift (see Chapter 3) on slender wings can also be used to create
downforce. In the particular case depicted in Fig. 6.7E, the inverted delta wing shown can
create downforce on the order of C L ~ -1.3 (based on wing surface area) at a negative
pitch of about 30°, with a downforce/drag ratio of about 1.7. This principle was tested on
a generic open-wheel race car, shown in Fig. 6.13, where the drag of the open wheels
reduced the downforce/drag ratio to about 1. One of the disadvantages of this concept is
that the side edge vortex-wake of the delta planform considerably reduces the
effectiveness of a conventional rear wing when placed behind it, so when using a rear
wing, the main delta-wing plane must be set at a much smaller angle of attack. Of course,
numerous applications of this principle can be seen in the form of the small dive plates (at
an angle of attack) which are attached to the nose or aft sections of many race cars (as
shown later).
AERODYNAMICS OF THE COMPLETE VEHICLE
In the preceding section the influence of the vehicle shape on aerodynamics was
investigated; in this section it is assumed that the vehicle geometry has already been
fixed. The typical parameters affecting the aerodynamic performance of existing vehicles
are usually side-slip angle, body’s incidence, and ride height. The effect of these
parameters on vehicle aerodynamics will be demonstrated on two types of vehicles: a
sports sedan and an open-wheel race car. The aerodynamic coefficients depend strongly
on a vehicle’s shape, and can change considerably from one configuration to another.
Therefore, the following two examples demonstrate the generic trends, but are not
necessarily accurate for any particular vehicle.

For the first example, let us examine a generic sports sedan. Its top view is shown in Fig.
6.14 (this data is for a 20% scale model, at Re L = 3.0 x 10 6 , with smooth underbody).
The graph depicts the effect of wind side-slip angle ß W on the aerodynamic coefficients.
In order to explain the source of these aerodynamic loads let us observe the generic flow
field depicted in Fig. 6.15. Basically, for the small, near-zero side-slip conditions the flow
is attached on the vehicle’s sides, and the pressure distribution (from a top view)
resembles the pressure distribution on a thick airfoil.
The pressure distribution data of Fig. 6.16 (after SAE paper 73-0232) reinforces this
comparison. This analogy to the airfoil case explains the almost linear increase of side

force, C Y , with side-slip angle

ß W , which eventually stalls at
about ß W ~ 25° (see also Fig.
5.16).

Returning to Fig. 6.15, you can

see that at the larger side-slip
angles the flow separates at the side of the
vehicle, and when combined with the separation at the back, creates a much larger
separation bubble. Because of the low pressure inside this separated zone, and the
increase of the frontal area with increasing ß W , the drag coefficient increases sharply, as
shown in Fig. 6.14. Usually, the larger separation bubble created by the side slip
increases the velocity above the vehicle, resulting in a smaller increase in the lift. At very
large side-slip angles (of over 35°), the separated area behind the rear window is reduced
by the momentum of the side flow, causing a reversal of this trend in the lift (e.g., a local
reduction in the lift).
Another important parameter that has a strong aerodynamic influence is the incidence of
the complete vehicle. This effect is demonstrated in Fig. 6.17. Most vehicles will react to
a change in their attitude in a manner similar to wings, that is, the lift will increase with
increased angle of attack. The lift slope is very large for this particular vehicle, which has
a smooth underbody, but in principle, for most road vehicles the pitch sensitivity is
clearly noticeable and follows the same trends presented in Fig. 5.28. The drag
coefficient usually increases slightly when the vehicle’s lower surface angle is changed
from zero, due to possible increase in the boundary layer thickness.

The effect of ground proximity was shown to have a strong influence on the aerodynamic
coefficients of generic bodies (Fig. 2.22). For enclosed-wheel vehicles, with reasonably
clean underbody flow, drag and lift usually decreases with decreasing ground clearance,
as shown in Fig. 6.18 (see also Fig. 3.38). The increase in the downforce can be attributed
to the higher speeds under the car, with decreased ground clearance, as shown in Fig.
2.22 (for the ellipsoid). The drag reduction in automobile shapes with major rear flow
separations is

partially a result of this faster airstream emerging from under the vehicle, which reduces
the size of the rear flow separation.
Another effect that causes this trend is the reduction in the frontal exposed area of the
wheels (as they slide into the body), which decreases drag with the reduced ground
clearance. In regard to lift, the interesting observation is that the trend (that less ground
clearance equals less drag and less lift) is reversed at a certain small distance. This is a
result of the viscous effects (thick boundary layer) of the too-small ground clearance
blocking the flow between the road and the vehicle underpanel. Thus, in this case of very
small ground clearance the flow resembles the case of the semi-ellipsoid and not that of
the ellipsoid (Fig. 2.22). In Fig. 6.18 the critical distance for the lift reversal is close to
3.5 cm, but for full-scale race cars with smooth underbody, moving on the track, this
distance can be as small as 0-5 cm.

Similar data for race cars is sparse in the open literature. Therefore, the following set of
data presented for an open-wheel, flat-bottom race car (which was collected from the
scattered data in various publications) is not representative of all race car configurations.
In the case shown in Fig. 6.19 for a flat-bottom car, the drag increases with side slip, too,
but since the flow is not blocked between the wheels, the increase in the separation areas
is far less than in the case of the sports sedan (Fig. 6.14).
The lift for this vehicle, without side fins, is actually reduced with increased side-slip
angle. This is probably a result of the increased flow rate under the vehicle, which is
boosted by the flow coming from the side. The importance of this data is in indicating
that for such vehicles the effect of side slip is not very large. (For open-wheel race cars
with underbody tunnels and large side fins on the rear wing, the downforce is slightly
reduced with increased side slip. Because of the reduced downforce the drag may
decrease, resulting in behavior opposite to that shown in Fig. 6.19.)

The effect of pitch and ground clearance was obtained from a different source (Ref. 6.3--
an open-wheel race car with underbody tunnels) and the first effect, shown in Fig. 6.20, is
similar to the data of Fig. 6.17. Because of the low ground clearance of this vehicle, for
incidence of less than -1°, the viscous effects block the underbody flow and stop the
increase in downforce (usually a small negative incidence is desirable to compensate for
the boundary layer growth, but such that no part of the body will be too close to the
ground). Note that this is an early ground effect vehicle (circa 1980) with side skirts.

The effect of ride height in Fig. 6.21 is similar to the previously presented data. That is,
the ground effect will increase the downforce with reduced clearance, until a critical limit
is obtained. Usually, a race car with underbody tunnels can be lowered more than a car
with a flat bottom. Therefore, the

ground clearance limit for the former is probably near 0-5 cms, while for the latter, near
0-10 cms.

The important conclusion to be drawn from these two figures is that downforce reaches a
maximum level at a certain ground clearance (which depends on vehicle pitch, as well).
Also, note that the C L scale on Fig. 6.20 and 6.21 was changed compared to the scale in
Ref. 6.3. This was done since the original data was reduced by using the planview area
(of 7.53m 2 ) and not the frontal area (of 1.68m 2 ), which is the practice followed in this
text.
UNIT 3:

World-fixed coordinate frame (X, Y, Z) is a right-hand orthogonal axis system fixed on

the earth. The trajectory of the vehicle is described with respect to this earth-fixed axis
system. The X and Y-axis are in a horizontal plane and the Z-axis is directed downward.
The figure below shows the world coordinate frame relative to the Earth's North
direction. It also shows the Rocky 7 and Rocky 8 vehicle frames relative to the world
coordinate frame
Vehicle Coordinate Frame

Figure 1: Vehicle Coordinate Frames

Axis System (x, y, z)
This system is a right-hand orthogonal axis system fixed in a vehicle. The direction of the
axes are as follows:

• +x axis forward
• +y axis to the right
• +z axis down

Axis Origin
The origin for this coordinate system changes from one vehicle to another.

• x-y origin is in the center of the middle wheels (for 6-wheeled vehicles)
• x-y origin is in the centroid of all non-steerable wheels configuration
• z origin is on the center of rotation of the wheels when the vehicle is on flat
ground.

Angular Orientation (yaw, pitch, roll)

The orientation of the vehicle axis system (x, y, z) with respect to the earth-fixed axis
system (X, Y, Z) is given by a sequence of three angular rotations. The following
sequence of rotations (see Note 6), starting from a condition in which the two sets of axis
are initially aligned, is defined to be the standard:

1. A yaw rotation, Y, about the aligned z and Z-axis.

2. A pitch rotation, q, about the vehicle y-axis.
3. A roll rotation, f, about the vehicle x-axis.

Angle Definitions

Figure 2: Driving and Heading Change Directions

Absolute Heading Angle (Y) - The angle between the trace on the X-Y plane of the
vehicle x-axis and the X-axis of the earth-fixed axis system. (See Figure 2.)

Sideslip Angle (Attitude Angle) (b) is the angle between the traces on the X-Y plane of
the vehicle x-axis and the vehicle velocity vector at some specified point in the vehicle.
Sideslip angle is shown in Figure 2 as a negative angle.
Course Angle (n) is the angle between the trace of the vehicle velocity vector on the X-Y
plane and X-axis of the earth-fixed axis system. A positive course angle is shown in
Figure 2. Course angle is the sum of heading angle and sideslip angle (v = 41 + 0).

Vehicle Roll Angle: The angle between the vehicle y-axis and the ground plane.

Vehicle Pitch Angle: The angle between the vehicle x-axis and the ground plane.

Figure 3: Wheel coordinate frames

Wheel Rotations
For drive wheels, a positive wheel rotation results in a clockwise rotation along the motor
shaft (right-hand rule) or a counter- clockwise motion when facing the wheel (mirror
image)

For steering, a positive steering angle results in a clockwise rotation when looking from
the top
UNIT 5:

Wind Tunnel Schematic

The wind tunnel has a six-component sting balance, a two-dimensional traverse with
probe mounts, and a computer station to control and measure wind velocity, probes, and
model parameters. The tunnel is used for both research and instruction and is available
for industrial research needs.
Types:

Small conventional type boundary layer wind tunnel

• wind speed 0 ... 10 m/s

• 3D probe positioning system

• conventional boundary layer modeling

large conventional type boundary layer wind tunnel

• wind speed 0 ... 15 m/s

• 3D probe positioning system
• conventional boundary layer modeling
Gottingen type:

• wind speed 0 ... 40 m/s

• 2m long test section
• 1m jet diameter
• used mainly for calibration

Strartification type:

• 9 wind layers
• wind speed 0 ... 4 m/s
• up to 80°C air temperature
• floor cooling to approx. -40°C
• 3 axis probe positioning system