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D. M. TURLEY
Summary
1. Introduction
The service life of tank gun barrels is currently not limited by fatigue
but by erosion of the bore [l] which at the time of condemnation results in
an unacceptable decrease in muzzle velocity and firing accuracy. Chromium
plating is a method commonly used to protect the surface of the bore [2,3]
as it provides a thermal barrier and thus retards the onset of erosion. It has
been reported that the chromium plating of large calibre guns leads to an
approximate doubling of barrel life [4, 51.
The procedures for the chromium plating of gun bores were essentially
developed during the Second World War. Hammond [3] has given an excel-
lent account of these procedures and the current practices for plating gun
bores with high contractile chromium remain virtually unchanged. It has also
been reported [6] that the chromium plate does not fail by wear and/or
erosion but by the fracture and spalling of pieces of chromium plate expos-
ing the substrate to the hot erosive gases. Mechanical testing of chromium
plate has shown that fracture can occur either in the chromium plate [7] or
the steel substrate [8] immediately adjacent to the chromium-steel interface
indicating that if correct plating procedures are used the adhesion of the
chromium to the steel is generally very good.
The present paper is an account of a metallurgical examination of a
chromium-plated rifled tank gun barrel which was condemned because of
erosive wear. The barrel had fired a total of 322 EFCs. (Effective full charge,
a system used to equate the erosive effects of different types of ammuni-
tion.) For the high energy rounds, high energy double-base propellants had
been used and as a result propellant flame temperat~es exceeded 3000 Ii.
Heat transfer to the barrel was also enhanced by the high firing pressures, up
to about 620 MPa (40 tons in2) which also produced high muzzle velocities
of approximately 1370 m so ’ [l, 9, lo]. (For information regarding charge
weight and propellant type for different types of 120 mm ammunition see
ref. 10.) After condemnation, a section of the barrel from the forcing cone
region was subjected to fatigue testing to failure to determine the residual
fatigue life. It was part of this eroded section of the barrel that is the subject
of this paper. This examination provided further information on the mecha-
nisms by which chromium plate is removed from the bore.
2, ~et~lu~c~ exudation
2.1. Visual inspection
The erosion of the barrel was not uniform and was concentrated at the
six o’clock position in the vicinity of the commencement of rifling (C of R).
Fatigue failure was initiated within this badly eroded position. A macro-
photo~aph of the badly eroded section of the barrel adjacent to the fatigue
failure is shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen that the badly eroded region starts
Fig. 1. Macrophotograph of the badly eroded region of the barrel adjacent to the fatigue
failure (arrowed).
137
GROOVE 3
WLAND 2 I GROOVE 2
e LAND 1
; GROOVE 1
TRANSVERSE/
SECTION - FRACTURE
-\j_,_
Fig. 2. Schematic sketch of Fig. 1: for identification purposes the relevant grooves and
lands are labelled.
at the C of R region and extends up the barrel towards the muzzle end for a
distance of approximately 120 mm. It is also apparent from Fig. 1 that
erosion of the lands commences along the leading edge with respect to the
rotation of the projectile within the barrel. For purposes of identification,
the groove in which fatigue failure occurred was designated as groove 1, the
first land next to the fracture as land 1, followed by groove 2, land 2 and
groove 3. A schematic sketch of the badly eroded region in Fig. 1, where
the metallurgical examinations were carried out, is shown in Fig. 2 and the
designated grooves and lands are labelled.
Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrograph of groove 1 showing a region covered in slag and
below this a region of parallel arrays of slag rivulets; a fine crack is also present.
Fig. 4. Scanning electron micrograph of land 1 showing a small area of chromium plating
on top of the remaining land.
Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrograph of the same region as in Fig. 4 at higher magnifica-
tion showing abrasion grooves in the chromium coating running in the direction of the
rifling; craze cracks are also present.
The term slag refers to a fused mass of material derived from the bore
surface, the projectile driving band and propellant debris, which after firing
has subsequently solidified on the bore surface.
From Fig. 1 it is apparent that in the badly eroded region most of
land 1 has been eroded away. Some remnants remain however, and Fig. 4 is a
scanning electron micrograph of such a region with a small area of chromium
plating on top of the remaining land. Examination of the chromium plating
at higher magnification revealed abrasion grooves, presumably caused by the
driving bands of the projectiles, running in the direction of the rifling
together with craze cracks (Fig. 5). Craze cracking will be discussed in more
detail subsequently (land 2).
SEM examination of groove 2 revealed that it was criss-crossed with
cracks which ran along and across the groove. The groove was covered with
a layer of slag and it was apparent that the cracks ran through into the base
metal.
SEM examination of the top of land 2 revealed that it was covered with
a regular pattern of craze cracks (Fig. 6). The craze cracking at higher
magnification is shown in Fig. 7(a) where it is apparent that the cracks have
been filled and the regions between the craze cracks are largely covered with
slag. X-ray scans for copper and chromium of the area shown in Fig. 7(a) are
given in Figs. 7(b) and 7(c) respectively. It is apparent that the filing ma-
terial in the cracks is copper. The region between the two cracks where they
run into a single crack and which is not covered with slag was shown to
consist of chromium. The X-ray area scan for chromium (Fig. 7(c)) also
shows chromium adjacent to the copper in the craze cracks; presumably in
this region the slag layer is thinner and X-rays from the chromium plating on
top of the land can be detected.
139
(a)
Fig. 7. (a) Scanning electron micrograph of the craze cracks at higher magnification: these
are filled with material and the regions between the craze cracks are largely covered with
slag; (b) X-ray area scan for copper and (c) X-ray area scan for chromium.
The phenomenon illustrated in Fig. 7 was not unique, but was charac-
teristic of the structure at the top of land 2. X-ray area scans were also
carried out for the elements lead, iron, aluminium, potassium, silicon,
phosphorus and titanium as they were identified from energy-dispersive
Fig. 8. Scanning electron micrograph of the leading edge of land 2 showing that in places
the chromium coating has broken away; the fracture in the coating occurs through the
craze cracks.
analysis of the slag on the land tops (similar results were obtained from
analysis of slag in the groove). With the exception of lead, none of these
elements were present in the craze cracks.
SEM examination of the leading edge of land 2 revealed that in places
the chromium coating had broken away. Furthermore, it was apparent that
the coating had been removed en masse and the boundaries of the fracture
surface through the chromium followed the craze cracks (Fig. 8). This effect
is even more clearly seen in stereo pairs, Groove 3 had suffered much less
erosion than grooves 1 and 2; however, SEM examination revealed that it
was also craze cracked.
A transverse section through grooves 1 - 3 was prepared in the region
dotted in Fig. 2 (a badly eroded region of the barrel). A small remnant of
chromium plate was located in groove 2 adjacent to land 1 (see Fig. 10).
SEM examination identified a slag layer on top of the chromium plate and
X-ray area scans showed that the slag was rich in chromium and iron. This
observation shows that chromium can be present in the slag.
Fig. 10. Optical micrograph of a transverse section through land 1 showing a heat-affected
zone: in grooves 1 and 2 the heat-affected zone is cracked; there is a small region of
chromium coating in groove 2; a large pit in the chromium plating is labelled P.
is seen more clearly in land 2. The dark region labelled P in Fig. 10 is a large
pit in the chromium plating.
A montage of land 2 and part of groove 3 is shown in Fig. 11. This land
has not been as badly eroded as land 1 and the effectiveness of the chro-
mium coating as a thermal barrier can be clearly seen. As for land 1, the
craze cracks in the chromium are normal to the surface and extend down
into the underlying steel. Moreover, there appears to be a regular periodicity
of the spacing of the craze cracks. The thickness of the chromium on the
land top was approximately 0.2 mm (0.008 in) whereas at the bottom of
groove 3 it was approximately 0.075 mm (0.003 in).
There is no heat-affected zone beneath the chromium except to a slight
extent at the corner of the land adjacent to groove 3. Here adhesion of the
coating was poor and the erosive gases have penetrated through some craze
cracks and then along the chromium-steel interface. Figure 12, taken at
higher magnification, shows more clearly the poor adherence and a small
heat-affected zone. At the other corner of the land, adjacent to groove 2, the
chromium has broken away and appreciable erosion has occurred, The width
of the land has been considerably reduced and a heat-affected zone is present
along the groove attaining its maximum thickness at the corner of the
eroded land. A point of considerable interest is that a piece of the coating
closest to groove 2 was in the process of breaking away from the land when
143
Fig. 12. Optical micrograph showing more clearly the poor adherence of the chromium
coating and a small heat-affected zone at the corner of the land adjacent to groove 3.
Fig. 13. Optical micrograph of the land adjacent to groove 2: copper (arrowed) in the
craze cracks appears to be acting as a wedge causing a crack (labelled A) to develop;
crack A occurs within the chromium coating rather than at the interface.
the barrel was condemned (Fig. 11). Furthermore, the craze crack between
this end-piece and the remaining coating on the land top is filled with copper
(Fig. 13). The copper appears to be acting as a wedge and is causing the
coating to separate from the steel. Moreover, adjacent to the craze crack,
separation is taking place within the chromium coating rather than at the
interface. Such behaviour indicates good coating adherence (Fig. 13).
The transverse section (Fig. 9) was then etched to show up the struc-
ture within the coating (the etchant was 8.9 g NaOH, 2.5 g K,Fe(CN), in
350 ml distilled H20). It was then apparent that the surface regions of the
chromium on the land tops and on the bottom of groove 3 had recrystallized.
It was apparent that the chromium at the edges of the remaining land had
undergone most recrystallization and correspondingly these are the regions
where the heat-affected zone is deepest (Fig. 10). Both these factors indicate
that the edges of the land are regions of maximum heat transfer.
The nature of the recrystallized chromium at the edge of land 1 is
shown in Fig. 14; new grains can be clearly distinguished; they are quite
small and tend to be elongated with their long axis normal to the surface.
Moreover, it is also evident from Fig. 14 that the depth of the recrystallized
region reaches a maximum at the land corner and there are many micro-
cracks within the chromium plating.
3. Discussion
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
This work was done while the author was attached to the Royal Arma-
ment Research and Development Establishment, Fort Halstead, Kent U.K.
The author would like to thank Mr. A. J. Sheward for his support of this
work, Mr. M. Baker for his assistance with the scanning electron microscopy
and Dr. R. L. Woodward of the Materials Research Laboratory for his
helpful comments concerning the appendix. This paper is published by
permission of the Controller HMSO London and is Crown Copyright.
References
17 J. Jenus, An evaluation of gun-tube wear and erosion in the GAV-8/A CAS gun
system, Proc. Tri-service Gun Tube Wear and Erosion Symp., Dover, NJ, March 29 -
31, 1977, Section V, p. 619.
(a) * \
SUBSTRAE
,’ : I
Fig. Al. Schematic sketch of Fig. 13: the chromium plate is designated by A and C, and
the copper in the craze crack by B : (a) before and (b) after heating.
149
Al,
EB=-= (%I - ale) AT (Al)
lB
where (lIcUand (XFeare the coefficients of thermal expansion of copper and
iron respectively and AT is the increase in temperature.
However, the strain suppression of B generates a stress (TBwhich acts
on A.
GB= E,E, (-1
where EB is Young’s modulus for copper. Substituting eqn. (Al) into eqn.
(A2)
oB=E~(aCu -%e) AT (A3)
Substituting
SUBSTRATE
=N LA*
kk* =
@ahA*) - 2 wA*,g (A41
From Fig. 13
h A = lA h,* = 1,”
Hence
o,=uN (A5)
The force o,lA* must be balanced by an equal and opposite force
(aTIA*) tending to lift A from the substrate.
Therefore
GT=CiN = 175 MPa (A6)
or would however be expected to be a maximum at 0 and from Fig. 13 it
is apparent that the crack originates in the chromium plate, parallel to the
substrate, in this region.
McCormick and Dobson [A51 have determined the tensile strength of
chromium electrodeposited at 20 and 30 amp dcm-* to be 64 MPa and 155
MPa respectively. It has also been reported ]A61 that the tensile strength of
chromium at 200 “C is 234 MPa. Thus, the tensile stress estimated to act
on the chromium plate, due to the thermal expansion of copper in the craze
cracks, is of the correct order to cause tensile failure in the chromium plate
adjacent to the substrate. That the failure of the chromium is initiated
within the chromium plate parallel to the substrate (see Fig. 13), and not
at the c~omium-substra~ interface, is not unexpected. Wi~iamson and
Hammond fA7] have carried out adhesion tests on chromium plate de-
posited on gun steel substrates and found that in most cases failure occurred
parallel to the interface within the chromium plate, indicating that the
adhesion strength at the interface is often greater than the tensile strength of
the chromium.