Wear, 131 (1989) 135 - 150 135

EROSION OF A CHROMIUM-PLATED TANK GUN BARREL

D. M. TURLEY

Materials Research Laboratory, Defence Science and Technology Organisation, P.0

Box 50, Ascot Vale 3032, Victoria (Australia)

(Received August 16, 1988; accepted November 25, 1988)

Summary

A chromium-plated tank gun barrel condemned because of erosive wear

in the commencement of rifling region of the bore was metallurgically
examined. Localized spalling of the chromium coating at the 6 o’clock
position produced severe erosion and initiated fatigue cracks. Spalling
resulted from the propagation of microcracks originally present in the
coating to form craze cracks which penetrated through the coating into the
steel substrate. Copper, which originated from the driving bands of certain
rounds, penetrated these craze cracks and assisted removal of the coating.
Calculation showed that during heating of the bore, the stress exerted on
the chromium coating by the copper in the craze cracks, due to the differ-
ence in the coefficients of thermal expansion of copper and iron, was of
the order of the tensile strength of the coating.

1. Introduction

The service life of tank gun barrels is currently not limited by fatigue
but by erosion of the bore [l] which at the time of condemnation results in
an unacceptable decrease in muzzle velocity and firing accuracy. Chromium
plating is a method commonly used to protect the surface of the bore [2,3]
as it provides a thermal barrier and thus retards the onset of erosion. It has
been reported that the chromium plating of large calibre guns leads to an
approximate doubling of barrel life [4, 51.
The procedures for the chromium plating of gun bores were essentially
developed during the Second World War. Hammond [3] has given an excel-
lent account of these procedures and the current practices for plating gun
bores with high contractile chromium remain virtually unchanged. It has also
been reported [6] that the chromium plate does not fail by wear and/or
erosion but by the fracture and spalling of pieces of chromium plate expos-
ing the substrate to the hot erosive gases. Mechanical testing of chromium
plate has shown that fracture can occur either in the chromium plate [7] or
the steel substrate [8] immediately adjacent to the chromium-steel interface

0043-1648/89/$3.50 @ Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands

136

indicating that if correct plating procedures are used the adhesion of the
chromium to the steel is generally very good.
The present paper is an account of a metallurgical examination of a
chromium-plated rifled tank gun barrel which was condemned because of
erosive wear. The barrel had fired a total of 322 EFCs. (Effective full charge,
a system used to equate the erosive effects of different types of ammuni-
tion.) For the high energy rounds, high energy double-base propellants had
been used and as a result propellant flame temperat~es exceeded 3000 Ii.
Heat transfer to the barrel was also enhanced by the high firing pressures, up
to about 620 MPa (40 tons in2) which also produced high muzzle velocities
of approximately 1370 m so ’ [l, 9, lo]. (For information regarding charge
weight and propellant type for different types of 120 mm ammunition see
ref. 10.) After condemnation, a section of the barrel from the forcing cone
region was subjected to fatigue testing to failure to determine the residual
fatigue life. It was part of this eroded section of the barrel that is the subject
of this paper. This examination provided further information on the mecha-
nisms by which chromium plate is removed from the bore.

2, ~et~lu~c~ exudation
2.1. Visual inspection
The erosion of the barrel was not uniform and was concentrated at the
six o’clock position in the vicinity of the commencement of rifling (C of R).
Fatigue failure was initiated within this badly eroded position. A macro-
photo~aph of the badly eroded section of the barrel adjacent to the fatigue
failure is shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen that the badly eroded region starts

Fig. 1. Macrophotograph of the badly eroded region of the barrel adjacent to the fatigue
failure (arrowed).
 137

GROOVE 3

WLAND 2 I GROOVE 2

e LAND 1

; GROOVE 1

TRANSVERSE/
SECTION - FRACTURE

-\j_,_

Fig. 2. Schematic sketch of Fig. 1: for identification purposes the relevant grooves and
lands are labelled.

at the C of R region and extends up the barrel towards the muzzle end for a
distance of approximately 120 mm. It is also apparent from Fig. 1 that
erosion of the lands commences along the leading edge with respect to the
rotation of the projectile within the barrel. For purposes of identification,
the groove in which fatigue failure occurred was designated as groove 1, the
first land next to the fracture as land 1, followed by groove 2, land 2 and
groove 3. A schematic sketch of the badly eroded region in Fig. 1, where
the metallurgical examinations were carried out, is shown in Fig. 2 and the
designated grooves and lands are labelled.

2.2. Scanning electron microscopy

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examination of groove 1 adjacent
to the fatigue failure revealed that there was a network of fine cracks which
generally ran along and across the groove. Some areas in this groove were
covered with a slag whereas in others there were parallel arrays of slag
rivulets which generally ran along the groove (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrograph of groove 1 showing a region covered in slag and
below this a region of parallel arrays of slag rivulets; a fine crack is also present.
Fig. 4. Scanning electron micrograph of land 1 showing a small area of chromium plating
on top of the remaining land.

Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrograph of the same region as in Fig. 4 at higher magnifica-
tion showing abrasion grooves in the chromium coating running in the direction of the
rifling; craze cracks are also present.

The term slag refers to a fused mass of material derived from the bore
surface, the projectile driving band and propellant debris, which after firing
has subsequently solidified on the bore surface.
From Fig. 1 it is apparent that in the badly eroded region most of
land 1 has been eroded away. Some remnants remain however, and Fig. 4 is a
scanning electron micrograph of such a region with a small area of chromium
plating on top of the remaining land. Examination of the chromium plating
at higher magnification revealed abrasion grooves, presumably caused by the
driving bands of the projectiles, running in the direction of the rifling
together with craze cracks (Fig. 5). Craze cracking will be discussed in more
detail subsequently (land 2).
SEM examination of groove 2 revealed that it was criss-crossed with
cracks which ran along and across the groove. The groove was covered with
a layer of slag and it was apparent that the cracks ran through into the base
metal.
SEM examination of the top of land 2 revealed that it was covered with
a regular pattern of craze cracks (Fig. 6). The craze cracking at higher
magnification is shown in Fig. 7(a) where it is apparent that the cracks have
been filled and the regions between the craze cracks are largely covered with
slag. X-ray scans for copper and chromium of the area shown in Fig. 7(a) are
given in Figs. 7(b) and 7(c) respectively. It is apparent that the filing ma-
terial in the cracks is copper. The region between the two cracks where they
run into a single crack and which is not covered with slag was shown to
consist of chromium. The X-ray area scan for chromium (Fig. 7(c)) also
shows chromium adjacent to the copper in the craze cracks; presumably in
this region the slag layer is thinner and X-rays from the chromium plating on
top of the land can be detected.
 139

Fig. 6. Scanning electron micrograph of the

cracks is present.

(a)

Fig. 7. (a) Scanning electron micrograph of the craze cracks at higher magnification: these
are filled with material and the regions between the craze cracks are largely covered with
slag; (b) X-ray area scan for copper and (c) X-ray area scan for chromium.

The phenomenon illustrated in Fig. 7 was not unique, but was charac-
teristic of the structure at the top of land 2. X-ray area scans were also
carried out for the elements lead, iron, aluminium, potassium, silicon,
phosphorus and titanium as they were identified from energy-dispersive
Fig. 8. Scanning electron micrograph of the leading edge of land 2 showing that in places
the chromium coating has broken away; the fracture in the coating occurs through the
craze cracks.

analysis of the slag on the land tops (similar results were obtained from
analysis of slag in the groove). With the exception of lead, none of these
elements were present in the craze cracks.
SEM examination of the leading edge of land 2 revealed that in places
the chromium coating had broken away. Furthermore, it was apparent that
the coating had been removed en masse and the boundaries of the fracture
surface through the chromium followed the craze cracks (Fig. 8). This effect
is even more clearly seen in stereo pairs, Groove 3 had suffered much less
erosion than grooves 1 and 2; however, SEM examination revealed that it
was also craze cracked.
A transverse section through grooves 1 - 3 was prepared in the region
dotted in Fig. 2 (a badly eroded region of the barrel). A small remnant of
chromium plate was located in groove 2 adjacent to land 1 (see Fig. 10).
SEM examination identified a slag layer on top of the chromium plate and
X-ray area scans showed that the slag was rich in chromium and iron. This
observation shows that chromium can be present in the slag.

2.3. Optical metallography

A macrophotograph of the transverse section through grooves 1 - 3 (see
Fig. 2) gives a good indication of the magnitude of the erosion (Fig. 9). In
Fig. 9, lands 1 and 2 are only 1 mm (0.04 in) and 2.5 mm (0.10 in) wide
respectively, whereas the as-plated width of the lands was 4 mm (0.16 in).
The as-plated grooves were all 1.5 mm (0.06 in deep), whereas grooves 1 and
2 are 4.25 mm (0.17 in) and 4 mm (0.16 in) deep respectively. The original
width of the lands and depth of the grooves is shown in Fig. 9 to indicate the
magnitude of the erosion in grooves 1 and 2.
The grooves and lands of the transverse section etched in 2% Nital were
examined in more detail. Land 1 and the adjacent sides of grooves 1 and 2
are shown in Fig. 10. The large white region surrounding the chromium plat-
ing and grooves 1 and 2 was nickel electrodeposited subsequently, to aid
 141

Fig. 9. Macrophoto~aph of a transverse section through grooves 1 - 3, which shows the

magnitude of the erosion; the original profile is shown dotted schematically.

Fig. 10. Optical micrograph of a transverse section through land 1 showing a heat-affected
zone: in grooves 1 and 2 the heat-affected zone is cracked; there is a small region of
chromium coating in groove 2; a large pit in the chromium plating is labelled P.

edge retention during metallographic preparation. This nickel layer is also

present in other optical micrographs.
A heat-affected zone in the gun steel can clearly be seen in grooves 1
and 2, where the chromium coating has been removed, and there are trans-
verse cracks in this zone. (The remaining coating on the narrow land top was
still (at least to some extent) providing a thermal barrier, since the depth of
the heat-affected zone was at a maximum beneath the land corners and
progressively decreased towards the centre of the land until it disappeared
altogether. It is apparent from Fig. 10 that when erosion reaches this ad-
vanced stage most of the heat is conducted into the barrel via the eroded
grooves. Deep craze cracks are present in the chromium and extend into the
underlying steel. Some copper is also present in these cracks, but this effect
142

is seen more clearly in land 2. The dark region labelled P in Fig. 10 is a large
pit in the chromium plating.
A montage of land 2 and part of groove 3 is shown in Fig. 11. This land
has not been as badly eroded as land 1 and the effectiveness of the chro-
mium coating as a thermal barrier can be clearly seen. As for land 1, the
craze cracks in the chromium are normal to the surface and extend down
into the underlying steel. Moreover, there appears to be a regular periodicity
of the spacing of the craze cracks. The thickness of the chromium on the
land top was approximately 0.2 mm (0.008 in) whereas at the bottom of
groove 3 it was approximately 0.075 mm (0.003 in).
There is no heat-affected zone beneath the chromium except to a slight
extent at the corner of the land adjacent to groove 3. Here adhesion of the
coating was poor and the erosive gases have penetrated through some craze
cracks and then along the chromium-steel interface. Figure 12, taken at
higher magnification, shows more clearly the poor adherence and a small
heat-affected zone. At the other corner of the land, adjacent to groove 2, the
chromium has broken away and appreciable erosion has occurred, The width
of the land has been considerably reduced and a heat-affected zone is present
along the groove attaining its maximum thickness at the corner of the
eroded land. A point of considerable interest is that a piece of the coating
closest to groove 2 was in the process of breaking away from the land when
 143

Fig. 12. Optical micrograph showing more clearly the poor adherence of the chromium
coating and a small heat-affected zone at the corner of the land adjacent to groove 3.

Fig. 13. Optical micrograph of the land adjacent to groove 2: copper (arrowed) in the
craze cracks appears to be acting as a wedge causing a crack (labelled A) to develop;
crack A occurs within the chromium coating rather than at the interface.

the barrel was condemned (Fig. 11). Furthermore, the craze crack between
this end-piece and the remaining coating on the land top is filled with copper
(Fig. 13). The copper appears to be acting as a wedge and is causing the
coating to separate from the steel. Moreover, adjacent to the craze crack,
separation is taking place within the chromium coating rather than at the
interface. Such behaviour indicates good coating adherence (Fig. 13).
The transverse section (Fig. 9) was then etched to show up the struc-
ture within the coating (the etchant was 8.9 g NaOH, 2.5 g K,Fe(CN), in
350 ml distilled H20). It was then apparent that the surface regions of the
chromium on the land tops and on the bottom of groove 3 had recrystallized.
It was apparent that the chromium at the edges of the remaining land had
undergone most recrystallization and correspondingly these are the regions
where the heat-affected zone is deepest (Fig. 10). Both these factors indicate
that the edges of the land are regions of maximum heat transfer.
The nature of the recrystallized chromium at the edge of land 1 is
shown in Fig. 14; new grains can be clearly distinguished; they are quite
small and tend to be elongated with their long axis normal to the surface.
Moreover, it is also evident from Fig. 14 that the depth of the recrystallized
region reaches a maximum at the land corner and there are many micro-
cracks within the chromium plating.

3. Discussion

Metallurgist examination of the eroded regions of the bore has shown

that when the barrel was condemned, very significant localized erosion near
the C of R had occurred. One of the lands in the badly eroded region near
the 6 o’clock position had all but disappeared and others nearby were badly
Fig. 14. Optical micrograph of the corner of land 1 showing that the recrystallized grains
are small and elongated.

eroded. In addition, the grooves were badly eroded to a depth of approxi-

mately 4 mm (0.16 in). Metallurgical examination indicates that erosion
commences on the leading edge of the lands and the land corners are also
the region where heat transfer from the erosive gases to the bore is greatest.
Conventional chromium plating is always microcracked in the as-plated
condition and the small microcracks shown in Fig. 14 originated in this way.
During repeated firing, the bore surface undergoes rapid heating and cooling
and under these conditions of rapid expansion and contraction the thermally
induced stresses in the brittle chromium coating cause the fine microcracks
to link up and form large craze cracks.
The results show that the chromium breaks away en masse initially
from the leading edge of the lands and separation occurs along craze cracks.
Copper from the driving bands used in certain rounds penetrates deep into
these cracks and in effect acts as a wedge, causing large pieces of chromium
to spa11 off. It is apparent from these results that if the craze cracking could
be prevented, the effectiveness of the chromium plating and hence the
erosion life of the barrel would be significantly increased. Some chromium
was apparently removed by erosion, as evidenced by the pronounced pitting
which occurred in a small region of the chromium plate (Fig. lo), but as a
metal removal mechanism it appears to be minor compared with spalling.
Chromium was also removed by alloying with iron to form a slag. The
presence of iron in the slag indicates that this is a secondary mechanism of
chromium removal, since the iron must come from exposed steel substrate,
and this could only have occurred after previous spalling of the chromium.
It was also apparent that some chromium was removed by mechanical
abrasion effects caused by the driving band. Abrasion scratches were present
on the land tops, but again this mechanism of chromium removal also
appears to be a minor one. Moreover, the thickness of the chromium plating
on the land tops of the eroded barrel was 0.2 mm (0.008 in) which is the
nominal as-plated coating thickness, indicating that very little chromium
has been removed by these mechanisms.
 145

An important observation is that copper from the driving bands of

rounds may be deleterious to chromium plating. The removal of chromium
by a wedging action of the copper in the craze cracks can be attributed to
two effects. Firstly, there is simply a mechanical action caused by copper
being forced into the cracks, and secondly, copper exerts expansion stresses
on the chromium plate. During the rapid heating cycle each time a round is
fired, the steel barrel and chromium coating expand. Since the coefficient
of thermal expansion of iron (12.5 X lop6 K-i) is much greater than the
value for chromium (6.5 X lop6 K-‘) [ll] the width of the craze cracks
increases. Therefore, to a first approximation, since copper expands at a
greater rate than iron, it is the difference between the thermal expansion of
copper (17 X 1O-6 K-‘) [ll] and iron which results in copper exerting
expansion stresses on the chromium plate. Once a piece of chromium plate is
removed, simple calculations show (Appends A) that for a 300 “C rise in
temperature of the coating and substrate the copper in the craze crack exerts
on the chromium plate a tensile stress, normal to the interface, similar in
magnitude to the tensile strength of the chromium. Thus the stresses exerted
on the chromium plate by the thermal expansion of the copper in the craze
cracks is sufficient to cause fracture and spalling of the coating. Initial
removal of a piece of chromium plate required to initiate these processes
may occur by the mechanism depicted in Fig. 12 whereby hot erosive gases
have penetrated down the craze cracks producing a heat-affected zone and
exacerbating the poor adhesion of the chromium plate to the steel in this
region.
The fact that copper from driving bands of rounds can penetrate craze
cracks has been known for some time [12,13]. More recently however,
Fisher et al. 1141 have concluded from studies of unplated fired barrels
that copper present in the craze cracks can have a very deleterious effect
on barrel life. They attributed the detrimental effect of copper to liquid
metal embrittlement of the steel which aids crack propagation. From hot
tensile tests on lopper-plaid test pieces they found by electron probe
microanalysis that copper had diffused ahead of the cracks along prior
austenite grain boundaries, but they found no evidence of copper diffusing
ahead of the crack tips in the gun barrels they examined and no evidence
of this was found in the present study. However, liquid metal embrittle-
ment by copper may be an important mechanism of crack propagation and
if so could affect the life of chromium-plated barrels.
To elucidate further the effect of copper on gun barrel life it would be
interesting to compare the lives of gun barrels which fired at least some
rounds with copper driving bands with those that only fired rounds with
Nylon-based driving bands. In this regard it has been reported [15,16] that
the barrel life of the chromium-plated 30 mm GAUS/A Gatling gun has
been sign~icantly increased by firing rounds with Nylon-based driving bands.
Much longer retention of the chromium coating occurred. The improvement
in life using Nylon-based driving bands is usually attributed [17 ] to such
factors as lower obturating pressures, enhanced ability to flow into flaws,
146

more effective sealing at high pressures and reduction in engraving forces

and frictional heating. It now appears from the present study that an addi-
tional impo~~t property of the Nylon-based material may be that it has
no detrimental effect on craze cracking.
Apart from the effect of copper from the driving bands it is apparent
that it would be very beneficial if the thermally induced craze cracking could
be prevented. In general there are a number of coating material properties
which are expected to affect the incidence of craze cracking, i.e. coefficient
of thermal expansion, volumetric heat capacity, thermal conductivity, tensile
strength and ductility; Furthermore, with regard to the present investigation
of electroplated chromium as the protective coating there are two other
aspects which appear worthy of further consideration. Firstly, there are
two sources of residual stresses in the chromium plating and both of these
would contribute to craze cracking. The as-plated chromium would be
expected to have high tensile residual stresses because of the co-deposition
of hydrogen, and the thermal cycling during firing would also generate high
tensile stresses. As-plated residual stresses are relieved to some extent by
baking the barrel after plating (4 h at 200 “C) to remove hydrogen. However,
it is possible that this treatment is not adequate and post-treatments such as
laser glazing of the chromium plating may be more effective. Secondly,
coatings which are not microcracked in the plated condition and which have
inherently low residual tensile stresses would be expected to have better
resistance to craze cracking. Coatings produced by vapour deposition tech-
niques would be expected to fall into this category.
Finally, since the present work indicates that craze cracking of the
plating during firing of the gun is undesirable it would be useful if laboratory
scale assessment techniques could be developed to determine the suscepti-
bility of coatings to craze cracking.

4. Conclusions

(1) Removal of the chromium coating occurred en masse by spalling

of small areas bounded by craze cracks.
(2) For correctly plated barrels spalling is not solely due to lack of
coating adhesion but may also occur within the chromium plate.
(3) Removal of the chromium plate led to rapid erosion of the underly-
ing gun steel by the hot erosive gases and the formation of a cracked heat-
affected zone at the surface of the bore.
(4) The spalling process was aided by the action of copper from the
driving bands of certain rounds which penetrated the craze cracks. The
detrimental effect of copper was attributed to its large coefficient of thermal
expansion compared with iron which resulted in it exerting high stresses on
the chromium plate during a firing cycle.
 147

Acknowledgments

This work was done while the author was attached to the Royal Arma-
ment Research and Development Establishment, Fort Halstead, Kent U.K.
The author would like to thank Mr. A. J. Sheward for his support of this
work, Mr. M. Baker for his assistance with the scanning electron microscopy
and Dr. R. L. Woodward of the Materials Research Laboratory for his
helpful comments concerning the appendix. This paper is published by
permission of the Controller HMSO London and is Crown Copyright.

References

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for gun bore surfaces, RARDE Tech. Rep. l/81, June 1981 (Royal Armament
Research and Development Establishment, U.K.).
2 A. Oolbekkink, The chrome plating of gun barrels, Paper presented to Akademie
fur Wehrverwaltung und Wehmechnik, Mannheim, May 9, 1974, Van der Horst
Europe BV, Holland (in English).
3 R. A. F. Hammond, The chromium plating of gun barrels, Trans. Inst. Met. Finish.,
34 (1957) 83.
4 D. C. A. Izod and R. G. Baker, Gun wear: an account of recent UK research and
new wear mechanisms, Proc. Tri-service Gun Tube Wear and Erosion Symp., Dover,
NJ, October 25 - 27, 1982, Section III, p. 221.
5 V. P. Greco, G. D’Andrea and J. Walden, Recent findings and developments in
chromium plated gun tubes, Proc. Tri-service Gun Tube Wear and Erosion Symp.,
Dover, NJ, October 25 - 27, 1982, Section IV, p. 323.
6 R. S. Montgomery and F. K. Sautter, Erosion control in chromium plated cannon
tubes, Tech. Rep. ARLCB-TR-83025, June 1983.
7 C. Williams and R. A. F. Hammond, A quantative adhesion test for electrodeposited
chromium, Trans. Inst. Met. Finish., 31 (1954) 124.
8 R. S. Montgomery and F. K. Sautter, Factors influencing the durability of chrome
plate, Wear, 60 (1980) 141.
9 L. J. Amos and J. A. Sheward, A study of the mechanism and simulation of white
layer formation in high pressure tank gun barrels, RARDE Rep. 10/83, October 1983
(Royal Armament Research and Development Establishment, U.K.).
10 C. F. Foss (ed.), JANE’S Armour and Artillery, Janes, 1986 - 1987, 7th edn., p. 822.
11 E. A. Brands (ed.), Smithells Metals Reference Book, Butterworth, 6th edn., p. 14 - 1.
12 W. T. Ebihara, Investigation of erosion in 7.62 mm machine gun barrels, Proc. Inter-
service Tech. Meet. on Gun Tube Erosion and Control, Wate~~~et, NY, February 25 -
26, 1970, p. 1.4.
13 R. S. Montgomery, Friction and wear at the projectile-tube interface, Proc. Tri-
service Gun Tube Wear and Erosion Symp., Dover NJ, March 29 31, 1977, Section
III, p. 446.
14 R. M. Fisher, A. Sziermae and M. H. Kamdar, Embrittlement of gun steel by copper,
Benet Weapons Laboratory, Rep. ARLCB-TR-84022, June 1984 (US Army Arma-
ment Research and Development Center).
15 M. D. Dale, Review of the Air Force program in gun barrel life, Proc. T&service Gun
Tube Wear and Erosion Symp., Dover, NJ, March 29 - 31 1977, Section I, p. 100.
16 D. Perrin and S. Duke, Barrel life in high rate of fire Gatling guns, Proc. Tri-service,
Gun Tube Wear and Erosion Symp., Dover, NJ, March 29 - 31, 1977, Section V,
p. 596.
148

17 J. Jenus, An evaluation of gun-tube wear and erosion in the GAV-8/A CAS gun
system, Proc. Tri-service Gun Tube Wear and Erosion Symp., Dover, NJ, March 29 -
31, 1977, Section V, p. 619.

Appendix A: Calculation of stress exerted on chromium plate by thermal

expansion of copper in the craze cracks

Consider Fig. 13 where copper in the craze crack appears to be aiding

the “spalling-off” of chromium plate from the top of the land. Figure 13 is
represented schematically in Fig. A l(a); the piece of chromium plate at the
end is designated A, the copper in the craze crack is designated by a region of
rectangular cross-section B and the chromium plate on the other side by C.
During firing of a round the elements A, B. C and the substrate will heat up
and expand and this is shown schematically in Fig. A l(b).
By considering the differences in thermal expansion between the
copper and the substrate the stress exerted by the copper on the piece of
chromium plate A can be calculated. This stress us must be balanced in A
by a tensile stress or normal to the interface and a shear stress S parallel to
the interface. By taking moments, the magnitude of (Tr can be estimated.
Stresses parallel to the interface will also be generated in A owing to the
differences in thermal expansion between chromium and iron. These stresses
are associated with the formation of craze cracks.
For the purposes of calculation it is assumed that when a round is fired
the coating (elements, A, B and C) and the substrates are heated uniformly
and during the initial stages of the heating cycle attain a temperature of
325 “C. Above about 325 “C copper would begin to lose its strength and its
ability to exert stress on A would decrease [Al].
Considering Fig. A l(b) the strain suppresion of the copper at the inter-
face is given by

(a) * \
SUBSTRAE
,’ : I

Fig. Al. Schematic sketch of Fig. 13: the chromium plate is designated by A and C, and
the copper in the craze crack by B : (a) before and (b) after heating.
 149

Al,
EB=-= (%I - ale) AT (Al)
lB
where (lIcUand (XFeare the coefficients of thermal expansion of copper and
iron respectively and AT is the increase in temperature.
However, the strain suppression of B generates a stress (TBwhich acts
on A.
GB= E,E, (-1
where EB is Young’s modulus for copper. Substituting eqn. (Al) into eqn.
(A2)
oB=E~(aCu -%e) AT (A3)
Substituting

E,=Ecu = 130 X 10gN rnp2 [A21

olcU = 17 X 1O-6 K-l [A31
ore = 12.5 X lo+ K-’ [A31
AT = 300 ‘=C
OB= 175 MPa
This is an estimate of the stress exerted by the copper B on the piece
of chromium plate A. The tensile strength of cold drawn copper is of the
order of 300 MPa [A4]; hence 175 MPa is a feasible stress for the copper
to exert on the chromium plate.
Furthermore, this stress must be balanced by a tensile stress acting
normal to the interface and a shear stress parallel to the interface (see Fig.
A l(b)). The forces acting on the piece of chromium plate A which after
heating to 325 “C is designated as being of height h,*, length ZA*and of unit
width, are shown in Fig. A2.
Taking moments about P as a first approximation we can write

SUBSTRATE

=N LA*

Fig. A2. Forces acting on pieces of chromium plate A after heating.

150

kk* =
@ahA*) - 2 wA*,g (A41

From Fig. 13
h A = lA h,* = 1,”

Hence
o,=uN (A5)
The force o,lA* must be balanced by an equal and opposite force
(aTIA*) tending to lift A from the substrate.
Therefore
GT=CiN = 175 MPa (A6)
or would however be expected to be a maximum at 0 and from Fig. 13 it
is apparent that the crack originates in the chromium plate, parallel to the
substrate, in this region.
McCormick and Dobson [A51 have determined the tensile strength of
chromium electrodeposited at 20 and 30 amp dcm-* to be 64 MPa and 155
MPa respectively. It has also been reported ]A61 that the tensile strength of
chromium at 200 “C is 234 MPa. Thus, the tensile stress estimated to act
on the chromium plate, due to the thermal expansion of copper in the craze
cracks, is of the correct order to cause tensile failure in the chromium plate
adjacent to the substrate. That the failure of the chromium is initiated
within the chromium plate parallel to the substrate (see Fig. 13), and not
at the c~omium-substra~ interface, is not unexpected. Wi~iamson and
Hammond fA7] have carried out adhesion tests on chromium plate de-
posited on gun steel substrates and found that in most cases failure occurred
parallel to the interface within the chromium plate, indicating that the
adhesion strength at the interface is often greater than the tensile strength of
the chromium.

References for Appendix A

Al Metals Handbook, Vol. 2, 9th edn., p. 277.
A2 E. A. Brands (ed.), Smithells Metals Reference Book, Butterworths, 6th edn., p.
15 - 2.
A3 E. A. Brands (ed.), Smithe~~ Metals Reference Book, Butte~orths, 6th edn., p.
14 - 1.
A4 Metals Handbook, Vol. 2,9th edn., Table 2, p. 263.
A5 M. McCormick and S. J. Dobson, Characteristics and properties of electrodeposited
chromium from solutions with varying sulphate ratios, Proc. Ann, Tech. Conf.,
Institute of Metal Finishing, Bournemouth, April 15 - 19, 1986, p. 184.
A6 Metab Handbook, Vol. 2,9th edn., p. 724.
A7 C. Wi~Ii~son and R. A. F. Hammond, A quantitative adhesion test for electro-
deposited chromium, Trans. Inst. Met. Finish., 31 (1954) 124.