CHAPTER 5.

0
PAVEMENT DESIGN

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Topic Outlines

5.1 Types & Characteristic of flexible and rigid

pavement

5.2 Principles of pavement structural design

5.3 Design of flexible pavement – Arahan Teknik
Jalan
5.4 Pavement materials and properties
5.5 Test for asphaltic materials
5.6 Highway drainage system 4

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Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1.Distinguish between types of road pavement

2.Select the appropriate materials for used in road
construction.
3.Design the flexible pavement according to JKR Arahan
Teknik (Jalan) method.
4.Descibe the pavement materials, properties and the tests.
5.Differentiate and explain the importance of a highway
drainage system.

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INTRODUCTION

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Function of pavement
• Distribute traffic load, stress to the soil at a
magnitude that it will not shear or distort the soil

• Guide the driver

– pavement & shoulder give a visual
perspective of the horizontal and vertical
alignment of the travel path.
Road/Pavement in Malaysia
5 Types of pavement:
i) Soil Road
- Use the natural earth, compacted as
road surface.
- Built in rural area, use laterite soil.

Soil
ii) Gravel road
- Gravel stone spread onto compacted soil
- Form a better and stronger road surface.

Soil
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Road/Pavement in Malaysia (cont..)
5 Types of pavement:
iii) Bituminous road (Flexible pavement)
• Coiffure surface
• Hot mix asphaltic concrete
• Porous mix
Coiffure – road’s arrangement Porous - liquid @ air may pass

iv) Concrete road (Rigid pavement)

- Road structure as same as asphaltic concrete
- Road surface uses reinforced concrete.
Rigid – unable to bend or be forced out of shape or to be change or adapted

v) Interlocking block
- Road structure as same as asphaltic concrete.
- Road surface uses block 7
Bituminous road Concrete road

Interlocking block
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 Topic 5.1

Characteristic of
Flexible and Rigid
Pavement

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Overview
• 2 types of most commonly used pavement in
Malaysia are:
i) Flexible Pavement
- Those which are surfaced with bituminous (or asphalt)
materials.
- Asphaltic Concrete

ii) Rigid Pavement

- Those which are surfaced with Portland Cement
Concrete.

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 Topic 5.1.1
Flexible Pavement

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Overview
• Called "flexible" since the total pavement structure
"bends" or "deflects" due to traffic loads.

• Distribute loads through layer to subgrade.

• Highest quality materials near surface.

• Guiding Principle
- Enough total thickness to protect subgrade.
- Enough surface thickness to prevent fatigue cracking.

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 Structural Element
Tack coat
Wearing Course
Binder Course

Aggregates
Prime coat

Sand

Soil

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Load Distribution
• Uses more flexible surface course and distributes
loads over a smaller area.

• Relies on a combination of layers for transmitting load

to the subgrade

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 Structural Components of Flexible
Pavements
Subgrade (Prepared Road Bed)
• Natural material located along the horizontal
alignment of the pavement
• Serves as the foundation of the pavement
structure
• May also consists of a layer of selected borrow
materials, well compacted.
• It may be necessary to treat the subgrade
material to achieve certain strength properties.
Subbase Course
• Above the subgrade
• Consists of material of a superior quality than
subgrade.
• May be omitted if subgrade material meets the
requirements of the subbase material.
• Can be treated to achieve necessary properties
– gradation, plastic chac & strength.
• The process known as stabilization – treating
soils to improve their engineering properties.
Base Course
• Above the subbase or subgrade if a subbase
course is not used.
• Consists of granular materials such as crushed
stone, crushed/uncrushed slag,
crushed/uncrushed gravel and sand.
• Specs usually higher than subbase material in
terms of plasticity, gradation & strength.
• Material that are properly stabilized with
Portland cement, asphalt or lime can be used.
Surface Course
• Upper course of the road pavement.
• Consists of a mixture of mineral aggregates and
asphaltic materials.
• Should be capable:
a) withstanding high tire pressures
b) resisting the abrasive forces due to traffic
c) providing a skid-resistant driving surface
d) preventing the penetration of surface
water into the underlying layers.
• Thickness can vary from 3 inch to more than 6
inch, depending on the expected traffic on the
pavement.
Design of Flexible Pavements
 Traffic analysis
– know present traffic
– predict future traffic volume – growth
rate during the design periods

 Evaluate subgrade & construction materials used

 Using JKR Standard (Manual Arahan Teknik)

3 Types of Flexible Pavement
i) Dense-Graded Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
• Refers to a gradation that is near the FHWA’s 0.45
power curve for maximum density.
• A well-graded HMA intended for general use. When properly
designed and constructed, a dense-graded mix is relatively
impermeable.
• Suitable for all pavement layers and for all traffic conditions.
They work well for structural, friction, leveling and patching
needs.
• Materials: Well-graded aggregate, asphalt binder (with or
without modifiers),
• Mix Design: Superpave, Marshall or Hveem procedures.
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3 Types of Flexible Pavement (cont..)
ii) Stone-Mastic Asphalt (SMA)
• Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) is a gap-graded HMA.
• Gap- graded: Gradation that contains only a small percentage
of aggregate particles in the mid-size range.
• Requires more durable aggregates, higher asphalt content
and, typically, a modified asphalt binder and fibers.
• Materials: Gap-graded aggregate (usually from coarse
aggregate, manufactured sands and mineral filler all combined
into a final gradation), asphalt binder (typically with a modifier)
• Mix Design: Superpave or Marshall procedures with
modifications.

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Type of Flexible Pavement (cont..)

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Type of Flexible Pavement (cont..)

Dense-Graded HMA (left) vs. SMA (right).

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Type of Flexible Pavement (cont..)

Dense-Graded HMA (left) vs. SMA (right). (it is a

bit more shiny from the extra asphalt binder)
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3 Types of Flexible Pavement (cont..)
iii) Open-Graded Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
• Refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of
aggregate particles in the small range.

• This results in more air voids because there are not enough
small particles to fill in the voids between the larger particles.

• Is designed to be water permeable (dense-graded and SMA

mixes usually are not permeable).

• Materials: Open-graded mixes use only crushed

stone (or gravel) and a small percentage
of manufactured sands.

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 Topic 5.1.2
Rigid Pavement

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Overview

• These types of pavements are called "rigid"

because they are substantially stiffer (not easily bend)
than flexible pavements due to PCC's high stiffness.
PCC - Portland Cement Concrete

• High modulus of elasticity, E.

Elastic – able to resume normal shape after being stretched

• Must consider strength of concrete.

• Usually come together with reinforce. If no reinforce,

put joint, spacing of 10m.

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Structural Element

(Optional)

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Load Distribution
• Distributes heavy traffic axle loads over a large area
of subgrade by concrete slab through bending action.
• Less sensitive to the subgrade support and do not require
the thick subbase layers like asphalt concrete pavements.

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Materials Requirement
• Cement
- Shall be Portland cement or its blends with
supplementary cementitious materials.
• Aggregates
- Shall be naturally occurring sand, gravel or stone, crushed
or uncrushed.
• Reinforcing Steel
- It is used in concrete pavement to reduce the amount of
cracking that occurs, (temperature steel).
- As a load transfer mechanism at joint (dowel bars)
- To tie two slabs together (tie bars)
• Dowel - A headless peg or bolt used for holding together components

- To transfer load across transverse joints

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Type of Rigid Pavement
i) Jointed Plain Concrete Longitudinal Joint
Pavement (JPCP)
• No steel mesh
• 12-30’ joint spacing
• 6-10’’ slab
• Stabilized base
• No dowels Transverse Joint
• Problems
- Pumping & faulting
Base / Subbase
Subgrade

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Type of Rigid Pavement (cont..)
ii) Jointed Reinforced Longitudinal Joint
Concrete Pavement
(JRCP)
• Steel mesh (0.1-0.2%)
• 30-100’ joint spacing
• 6-10’’ slab
• Granular / stabilized base Transverse Joint
• Got dowels Dowel Steel Mesh
• Problems
- Load transfer failure Base / Subbase
- Large tensile strentgh Subgrade

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Type of Rigid Pavement (cont..)
iii) Continuously Longitudinal Joint
Reinforced Concrete
Pavement (CRCP)
• Steel mesh (0.5-0.7%)
• 7-9’’ slab
• Granular / stabilized base
• Problems
- Punchout Steel Mesh

Base / Subbase
Subgrade

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Sawed Contraction Joint Dowel Bars in Place at Construction
Joint

Reinforced Steel In Place

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Flexible vs Rigid
Flexible Pavement
1. Lower cost of building
2. Require frequent maintenance
3. Shorter lifespan (10-15years)
4. Can be opened to traffic few
hours after construction.
5. Problems: Rutting, fatigue,
stripping (more in Chapter 5)
6. Less noise as sufficient void
occur to absorb noise from the tire
friction.
Rigid Pavement
1. Higher cost of building (3x
flexible
2. Require seldom maintenance
3. Longer lifespan (3x longer)
4. Longer period before opening to
traffic due to curing.
5. Problems: Pumping, faulting
6. Noisier as less void to absorb
noise.
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 The Differences Between Flexible and Rigid Pavement
Flexible Pavement
• Asphaltic cement & aggregates
• Last for 20 years
• Low initial cost
• Cheap & easy to get material
• High cost & scheduled
maintenance
• Less economic for long duration
• Easy to upgrade
• Rutting, potholes
• Can be used once ready
Rigid Pavement
• Portland cement concrete &
aggregates.
• Last for 40 years
• High initial cost
• Material shortage problem
• More economic maintenance, no
schedule
• More economic for long duration
• Cannot upgrade
• Free from rutting, potholes
•Traffic disturbance – wait 28 days for
max strength
 FLEXIBLE VS RIGID PAVEMENT

Deterioration due to
Environmental
climatic effects, Ease of
recycling & Noise

Engineering Social

Selection of
pavement type:
Traffic loading, Materials, Road user cost
Soils, Pavement
Performance, Safety

Construction Maintenance

Cost
Contractor’s capability, paving equipment
 Portland cement concrete
Asphaltic concrete Contraction
joint

Load
Base course transfer Base course
device

Subbase course
Subgrade

Subgrade

a) Flexible pavement b) Rigid Pavement

Typical structural layer arrangement for

each pavement type
 Flexible
1) Surfacing course • Forms impermeable n
flexible lining – high elastic
modulus
a) wearing – resist abrasion,
prevent skidding, waterproof
b) binder – support & disperse
traffic, resist shear
• Crushed aggregate – higher
2) Base Course
strength than used for
subbase – reduce comp
stress
• Rock – bearing capacity
higher than subgrade,
3) Subbase Course disperse load from base
course before transmitting it
to subgrade, as drainage
layer
• Supporting the load
4) Subgrade transmitted from the
overlying layers
Rigid
• Wearing surface – Portland
cement concrete slab
• Contraction joints – control
cracking due to shrinkage of
concrete during curing
• Load transfer device – dowel
bars – minimize deflection
and reduce stresses near the
edges of the slab
• Optional, depend on
subgrade’s eng properties – if
subgrade soil poor – use this
layer – if subgrade ok and
drain well, this layer is not
necessary
• Compacted to maximum
density
 Flexible Pavement

• depend on material strength &

STRUCTURAL STRENGTH
AND PERFORMANCE
layer thickness
• some deflection within the elastic
limit is allowed
• surface rideability good but less
durable to high temp - cracking

Rigid Pavement
• high flexural strength slab & reinforcement
• slab performance good under high loading –
expansion and contraction joints should be
allowed
• rough surface – skid resistance – resulting to
bumpy n noise
 Topic 5.2
Principles of
Pavement Design

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 Principles of Pavement Design

1. Design Entities

i) Structural Design
- Structural layer composition
- Layer thickness

ii) Design Mix

- Type of mix
- Aggregates gradation
- Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC)
- Marshall Properties

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 Principles of Pavement Design

2. Structural Design Considerations

i) Traffic Loading
- Tire loads and pressures
- Axle and wheel configurations
- Load repetition
- Traffic distribution
- Vehicle speed
- Equivalent Standard Axle (ESA): Convert wheel load
of various magnitudes and repetitions to an equivalent
number of “standard” loads based on the amount of
damage they do to the pavement. The commonly used
standard load is 80KN (8160kg).

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 Principles of Pavement Design

2. Structural Design Considerations

ii) Strength Characteristics of Paving Materials

and Subgrade Supporting Capacity
- CBR
- Marshall Sample Test

iii) Environmental Factor

- Climatic condition
- High & low temperature
- Heavy rainfall (higher moisture)

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 Principles of Pavement Design

3. Design Approach
 Design Catalog
 Emphirical: Based on physical properties or
strength parameter of the subgrade
 Semi-emphirical or semi-theoretical: Based on
stress-strain function and modified based on
experienced
 Mechanistic-emphirical
 Theoretical: based on theoretical analysis and
mathematical computation

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 Topic 5.3
Design of Flexible
Pavement:
Arahan Teknik Jalan
5/85 (PINDAAN 2013)
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Topic 5.3.1
Overview

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Pavement layers

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49
Flexible Pavement structures:
Minor Road

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Major Road - Single Carriageway

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Major Road - Dual Carriageway

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 Topic 5.3.2
Design Input

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Pavement Design Methodology

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55
1.Determination of Design Traffic

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2. Material Properties
 Subgrade properties

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 Sub-grade strength is important factors in determining
pavement thickness, composition of layers and overall
pavement performance.

 A minimum CBR of 5% is recommended for T1 – T5

 If the subgrade (cut or fill) does not meet this

minimum CBR requirement, at least 300mm of
unsuitable subgrade soil shall be replaced or stabilised
to ensure that the selected minimum CBR value is
obtained.

 For large traffic volume (T4 and T5), minimum CBR of

12 % is recommended.
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 Properties of Paving Materials
 The choice of materials shall be based on considerations of
regional experience and availability of materials, and on
costs.
 Categories of paving materials:
Bituminous wearing and binder courses
Bituminous road base
Unbound granular road base: crushed aggregate/wet-mix road
base
Cemented or otherwise stabilized road base: aggregates
stabilised with cement or lime (STB 1)/aggregates stabilised with
combination of bituminous emulsion/foamed bitumen and
cementitious material (STB 2)
Unbound granular sub-base
As summarised in Figure 2.3:
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Figure 2.3: Summary of Materials used in
pavement structure in Malaysia

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69
3. Environmental Effects
 Temperature

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 Moisture

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 Design period and Reliability

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 For T3 to T5 - a design life of 20 years is recommended

 For low volume roads and rural roads (T1 and T2) - 10
years may be adequate

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 Topic 5.3.3
Design of
standardised
pavement structure

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Design of standardised pavement
structure

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76
77
Catalogue of Pavement structure

 These pavement cross sections have been designed for roads and highways
that are typical for conditions in Malaysia.

 For pavements with unusually severe loading conditions, such as container

terminals or other areas where pavements are exposed to high loads and
long loading times, the use of a mechanistic design procedure and of special
high-performance paving materials are recommended.

 Layer thickness in Figures 3.1- 3.6 are shown in mm.

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 Topic 5.3.4
Design of special
pavement structure

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PAVEMENTS DESIGN FOR LOW-
VOLUME ROADS

 Low volume road pavements can be designed using

pavement cross sections shown in the catalogue under
Traffic Category T1 (<1.0 million ESALs over the design life
of the pavement) or using Table 4.1 below.

 Table 4.1 include 3 sub-categories of traffic and 3 types of

material:
 Bituminous surface course (BSC)
 Crushed aggregate base course (CAB)
 Granular sub-base course (GSB)

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Heavy duty pavements for special
applications

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 Topic 5.3.5
Worked Examples

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DESIGN PROCEDURES:

Step 1: Development of Design Input

-ADT?, PCV?, L?, T?, n?, r?

Step 2: Determine Design Traffic (Traffic

Category)
Step 3: Determine Sub-Grade Strength
(Sub-Grade Category)

Step 4: Select one of the pavement

structures from Figure 3.3 (T?, SG?)
EXAMPLE 1
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EXAMPLE 2

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EXAMPLE 3
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Design Procedures -ATJ 5/85 (cont..)
 STEP 4 : Calculate the volume of daily traffic
after n years (1 direction)
n
Vn = Vi (1 + r ) Design period
(year)
Initial daily traffic
(1 direction)

 STEP 5 : Calculate the maximum 1 way hourly

capacity (veh/h)

c = I × R ×T Traffic reduction
Ideal hourly Factor (T3.4)
capacity (T3.2)
Roadway factor (T3.3)
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Design Procedures -ATJ 5/85 (cont..)

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Design Procedures -ATJ 5/85 (cont..)

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Design Procedures -ATJ 5/85 (cont..)
 STEP 6 : Calculate 24 hours one - way traffic
capacity (veh/day/lane)

C= 10 x c
 STEP 7: Make sure C>Vn
If traffic estimate for the design period exceeds the daily
capacity (C) , then calculate number of year (n) required to
reach daily capacity using formula.

24hours oneway

traffic capacity
Period required
c = 10C
to reach capacity
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Example
Question:
Check highway capacity based on these data:
Carriageway width = 7.5m
Shoulder width = 2.0m
ADT, both ways = 6600
% of commercial vehicles = 15%
Traffic growth rate = 7%
Subgrade CBR = 5%
Terrain = Rolling

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Example (cont..)
Solution:
Step 1: 6600(1 + 0.07) 10
Vn = Suggest from JKR
= 6490 veh/day/lane
2

Step 2: With I=1000 (T3.2), R= 1.0 (T3.3), T =0.77 (T3.4)

c = 1000 x 1.0 x 0.77 = 770 veh/h

Step 3: C = 770 x 10 = 7700 veh/day/lane

Step 4: C = 7700 > Vn= 6490 Capacity have not been

reached after 10 years..OK!

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 Topic 5.4

Pavement Materials
and Properties

64
 Topic 5.4.1

Pavement Materials

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1. Aggregates
• Function as an important role in providing
interlocking structure to cater traffic load and
distribute to underlying layer.
• Acquired from natural sources or processed one.

• Classified into 3 different sizes:

- Coarse aggregates : Retained at sieve of size 2.36mm.
- Fine aggregates: Passing sieve of size 2.36mm, retained
at sieve of size 75μm.
- Filler: Dust that passing sieve 75μm; i.e aggregates dust,
hydrated lime, Portland Cement.
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1. Aggregates (cont..)
• Important characteristics of the aggregates are:
i) Strength – To endure the action of construction machine and traffic load.

ii) Durable – Hardly break, crack under adverse weather.

iii) Good surface texture and shape – To provide strength and stability
through interlocking feature.

iv) Cleanliness and purity - To preserve uniformity and quality of mixing.

Purity - pure

v) Affinity towards bitumen - To ensure the good ties with the binder.
Affinity – tends to combine

vi) Low water absorption - To ease drying and mixing task and to avoid
binder from taken off.

vii) Good grade – Appropriate size to provide good and strong pavement.
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1. Aggregates (cont..)
• Several tests shall be conducted to ensure the
aggregates have desirable characteristic:
- Aggregates Crushing Value (ACV)
- Ten Percent Fine Value (TPFV)
- Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
- Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAAV)
- Soundness Test
- Flakiness Index Test
- Elongation Index Test
- Specific Gravity and Water Absorption
- Coating and Stripping
- Polished Stone Value
- Sieve Analysis
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2. Bitumen

• Bituminous material – bitumen@asphalt cement and tar

• Bitumen – Waste product from refinery processing crude oil.
Tar – By product of coal production
crude – in a natural or raw state; not yet processed or refined

• Function as binder, to bind aggregates resulting to

a stable firm and strong mix.
• UK; bitumen, mix of bitumen + aggregates called asphalt
US; asphalt, mix of bitumen + aggregate called asphaltic
concrete
• 2 main sources:
i) Natural – From geologic effect; e.g. Trinidad Lake, Canada
ii) Processed – Crude oil refinery process.
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2. Bitumen (cont..)
• 3 Types of bitumen:
i) Penetration (asphalt cement)
- The pure crude oil refinery produced material.
- Black color, sticky, semi-solid and highly viscous at
room temperature.
- Become liquid at high temperature, easily mixed with
aggregates to form Hot Mix Asphalt.
ii) Cutback
- Liquid bitumen; Mixture of bitumen (50-80%) and
petroleum solvent.
- Reduce bitumen viscosity, used at lower temperature.
iii) Emulsion
- Liquid bitumen; Mixture of bitumen (55-65%), water
and emulsifying agent.
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2. Bitumen (cont..)
• Several tests shall be conducted to ensure the
bitumen complies to the specification of usage:
- Penetration Test
- Softening Point Test
- Ductility Test
- Flash and Fire Point Test
- Viscosity Test
- Loss on Heating
- Thin Film Oven Test
- Specific Gravity Test
- Solubility Test

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Asphalt cement and tar are considered bituminous
materials.

However, asphalt cement and tar are two distinctly

different materials with different origins, chemical and
physical characteristics.

Asphalt cement is used in paving applications but tar is

hardly ever used because some undesirable physical
characteristics and significant health hazards.
Sources of Asphaltic Materials

Two
 sources: natural deposits and crude
petroleum distillation
1. Natural deposits – occur as native or rock
asphalts.
 Native asphalt - Properties vary depends
on location
 Rock asphalt – sandstone or limestone
rocks filled with asphalt.
2. Crude petroleum – asphalt cement, asphalt
cutback & asphalt emulsion
 Asphalts
ASPHALT commonly
TYPES used
AND USES in flexible
pavement construction can be divided into
three types:

1. Asphalt cements
2. Emulsified asphalts
3. Cutback asphalts
 Description and uses of bituminous binders
Types of bituminous binders used in flexible pavement construction

1.Asphalt cements
 At ambient temperature – black, sticky, semisolid and highly viscous
material
 Strong, durable cement with excellent adhesive and waterproofing
characteristics
 Highly resistant to the action of most acids, alkalies and salts
 Largest use is in Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) –flexible pavements.
 HMA – asphalt cement + aggregates (heat both prior to mixing)
 Five standard penetration graded: 40-50, 60-70, 85-100, 120-150 and
200-300.
2. Cutback Asphalts
 Liquid asphalts which manufactured by adding
(cutting back) petroleum solvents to asphalt cements.
 Made to reduce the asphalt viscosity for lower
application temperatures.
 Three types:
i) Rapid Curing (RC) – add light diluent of high volatility
(gasoline) to asphalt cement. Used: tack coat & surface
treatments.
ii) Medium Curing (MC) – add medium diluent of
intermediate volatility (kerosene) to asphalt
cement. Used: prime coat
iii) Slow Curing (SC) – add oils of low volatility
(diesel) to asphalt cement. Used: prime coat
3. Emulsified Asphalt
 Mixture of asphalt cement + water + emulsifying
agents
 Liquid at ambient temperatures.

 Two types: anionic (-ve asphalt droplets) & cationic

(+ve asphalt droplets)
 When mix with aggregates, it sets or breaks.

 Use of emulsified asphalt:

i) Rapid-setting (RS) – surface treatments

ii) Medium-setting (MS) – open graded cold asphalt-
aggregate mixtures
iii) Slow-setting (SS) – tack coat, fog seal & slurry seal
 Properties of Asphaltic Materials
 Can be classified into four (4) main categories:
1. Consistency
2. Durability
3. Rate of curing
4. Resistance to water action

Consistency
a) With temperature
- asphalt material changes as the temperature changes
- different asphaltic materials may change differently for the
same amount of temperature change.
- ex: blown semisolid & paving-grade semisolid if heated
at same high temperature, paving-grade will be much
softer.
b) At a specified temperature
- consistency of an asphaltic material will vary from solid to
liquid depending on the temperature of the material

Durability
� ability of an asphaltic material to resist weathering
� Factors that influence weathering:-
a) Oxidation – chemical reaction between asphaltic
material and oxygen
b) Volatilization – evaporation of the lighter hydrocarbons
from asphaltic materials (loss of the plastic
characteristics).
c) Temperature -  temperature, oxidation,
 volatilization
d) Surface area – influences its rate of oxidation &
volatilization
e) Age hardening – continuous hardening of the asphalt
over time
Rate of curing

� process through which an asphaltic material increases

its consistency as it loses solvent by evaporation.
� Cutback asphalt: Important factors in rate of curing:-
a) Volatility of solvent
b) Quantity of solvent in the cutback
c) Consistency of the base material
� External Factors that affect curing rate:-
a) Temperature
b) Ratio of surface area to volume
c) Wind velocity across exposed surface
Resistance of water action

� It is important that the asphalt continues to adhere to

the aggregates even when the presence of water.
� If the bond between the asphalt and the aggregates
is lost – asphalt will strip from the aggregate, results
in pavement deterioration.
� In hot-mix, hot laid asphaltic concrete – stripping
does not normally occur because the aggregates are
thoroughly dried before mixing.
� In hot-mix, cold laid asphaltic concrete – water is
added so commercial antistrip additives are usually
added to improve the asphalts’s ability to adhere to
the aggregates.
ASPHALT CEMENT PHYSICAL TESTS
Physical testing of asphalt cements can be
categorized as follows:

1. Consistency tests
2. Durability tests
3. Purity tests
4. Safety tests
5. Other tests – specific gravity and spot test.
Consistency Tests
Describes the degree of fluidity of asphalt cement at any
particular temperature.

Asphalt cement is a thermoplastic material, its consistency

varies with the temperature.

Consistency test performed on asphalt cements as follows:

1. Absolute and kinematic viscosity

2. Penetration
3. Softening point
Viscosity – resistance to flow of asphalt cement.

Penetration test – to determine the depth of

penetration needle can penetrate the asphalt
cement in 5 seconds (100g). Units of 0.1mm = 1
PEN.

Ring-and-Ball Softening Point Test – to

determine the temperature at which asphalt
cement cannot support the weight of a steel ball
and start flowing (phase change).
Durability Tests
Asphalt cements undergo short-term aging
(hardening) when mixed with hot mineral aggregate
in a HMA mixing facility.

The long-term aging continues during the life of

HMA pavements which are subjected to
environmental and other factors.

The following tests are generally used to

approximate the short-term hardening conditions:

1. Thin Film Oven test (TFO)

2. Rolling Thin Film Oven test (RTFO)
Purity Tests

Refined asphalt cements consist of almost

pure bitumen, entirely soluble in carbon
disulfide.

Only very little amounts of impurities are

generally present in refined asphalt
cements.

Solubility test is conducted to determine the

purity of asphalt cement.
Safety Tests

Asphalt cement gives off enough vapor to flash in

the presence of a spark or open flame when
heated to a high enough temperature.

Flash point indicates the temperature to which

asphalt cement may be safely heated.

The Cleveland Open Cup method is generally

used for determining the flash point of paving
asphalt cements.
Other tests
Specific Gravity.
- asphalt cement specific gravity changes when expands on heating.
- useful in making temperature-volume corrections or determining
the weight per unit volume of asphalt cement heated to its application
temperature.

Spot Test.
- to determine whether an asphalt cement has been damaged during
processing due to overheating, resulting in cracking.
Asphaltic Concrete
Combination of asphalt cement, coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate and other materials (such as fibers, rubber etc).
Types of asphaltic concretes commonly used in pavement
construction:-

1. Hot mix, hot-laid asphaltic concrete

2. Hot mix, cold-laid asphaltic concrete
3. Cold mix, cold-laid asphaltic concrete
 Hot mix, hot-laid asphaltic concrete

� Blending asphalt cement, coarse and fine

aggregate and filler(dust) at temperatures
ranging 80°C to 163°C.
� Suitable types of asphalt cement:
60-70, 85-100, 120-150 and 200-300 PEN.
� Used for high type pavement construction
whether open-graded, coarse-graded,
dense graded or fine graded.
� Refer to Marshall method mix design
 Hot mix, cold-laid asphaltic concrete

 Manufactured hot, shipped & immediately laid

or can be stockpiled
 Suitable for small job and patching high type
pavements
 Marshall method of mix design but used high
penetration asphalt.
 Cold mix, cold-laid asphaltic concrete

 Used emulsified asphalts and low viscosity

cutback asphalts
 Mixing is done at normal temperatures
 Can be used immediately or stockpiled
 Asphaltic concrete must fulfill:-
1. resist deformation from imposed loads
2. be skid resistant even when wet
3. not be easily affected by weathering forces

Asphaltic material applications:-

1. Seal coats
2. Prime coats
3. Tack coats
4. Surface treatments
 Seal coats

 applications of asphaltic material that may or

may not contain aggregates.
 Three types of seal coats used in pavement
maintenance are:
i) Fog seal
- Thin application of emulsified asphalt, no
aggregates added
- Slow setting emulsions normally used
- Mainly for reduce the infiltration of air & water
into the pavement, prevent raveling and bring
the surface to its original state.
ii) Slurry seal
- Slow setting asphalt emulsions + fine aggregate +
mineral filler + water.
- Used as a low-cost maintenance material for light
traffic pavement.
iii) Aggregate seal
- Spraying asphalt, then cover immediately with
aggregates, rolls the aggregates into the asphalt.
- Used to restore the surface of old pavements.
Prime coats
• spraying asphalt binder onto non asphalt base
courses.
• Mainly used to:-
1. Provide a waterproof surface on the base
2. Fill capillary voids in the base
3. Facilitate the bonding of loose mineral particles
4. Facilitate the adhesion of the surface treatment
to the base
 Tack coats

• thin layer of asphaltic material sprayed over

an old pavement before placed a new course
to facilitate the bonding of the old pavement
and a new course.

Surface treatments

• applying asphaltic material and aggregates

on a base course to provide a suitable
wearing surface for traffic.
 Topic 5.4.2

Pavement Properties

98
Road Layer

99
Road Layer (cont..)
• Subgrade
- An embankment on natural earth below the
subbase of pavement.
- Function to cater the load from upper layer or the
pavement.
- Subgrade is classified as good when:
i) It is stable under any traffic load and weather.
ii) Having a sustainable strength over its lifespan.
iii) It is able to channel water.
- The common used test for subgrade is
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

100
Road Layer (cont..)
• Subbase Course
- The secondary load spreading layer underlying the base.
- Consist of lower grade granular material as compared to
base; i.e sand.
- Function of subbase are:
i) To aid the base distributing load and transmitting to the
subgrade.
ii) To aid as drainage layer.
iii) As temporary path during construction work.
iv) To protect the subgrade from damage
caused by weather.
v) As a separator to avoid the mixing of
subgrade and base material.
101
Road Layer (cont..)
• Base Course
- The main pavement structural layer to cater load.
- Function to cater and spread the load from heavy vehicles
and protect the underlying weaker layer.
- Materials; Aggregates of size 50mm to the dust.
- All materials for road base must pass the test below:
i) CBR test
ii) Plastics Index Test
iii) Aggregate Crushing Test
iv) Flakiness Index Test
v) Sound Analysis Test
vi) Sieve Analysis
102
Road Layer (cont..)
• Surface Course
- The upper layer of the pavement.
- Functions of surface course:
i) Provide non-skidding and good riding quality surface
ii) Prevent or reduce water from penetrating into underlying
layer.
iii) Withstand adverse environmental condition.
iv) Resist abrasive forces of traffic.
- Materials can be bituminous or Portland
cement concrete.

103
104
 Topic 5.5
Highway Drainage
System

105
Overview
 Process of removing and controlling excess
surface and subsoil water within the right of way.

 Important for protection of highway structure and

safety of road user.
i) Highway Structure
- Moisture accumulation leads to the development of soft
spots, resulting to surface break-up.
- Moisture in subgrade and subbase can weaken the
material strength.
- Moisture in HMA layer can cause aggregate stripping.
ii) Road Users
- Water ponding on the roadway will reduce the skid
resistance of the surface. May cause vehicles to hydroplane
at high speed. Hydroplane – become light
106
Overview (cont..)
 Moisture sources – Rainwater,
surface runoff, natural groundwater.

 Entrance
of water into the pavement structure or accumulation in the
subgrade are prevented through surface drainage and sub-surface
drainage.

107
Surface Drainage
 The function of surface drainage is to remove all
water that is present on the pavement surface


108
Surface Drainage (cont..)

109
Surface Drainage (cont..)

110
 Subsurface Drainage
 Toremove water that percolates through or remain in the
underlying subgrade to ensure the uniform bearing value and strength of the
subgrade is maintained.

 Reducethe soil moisture by keeping the ground water table well below the
paved surface.

111
Subsurface Drainage (cont..)

112
Subsurface Drainage (cont..)

113
 Highway Drainage
 Adequate drainage is important in the location &
geometric design of highways.
 Inadequate drainage will results:

1. serious damage to the highway structure

2. traffic may be slowed by accumulated water on the
pavement.
3. accidents occur as a result of hydroplanning & loss
of visibility from splash & spray.
4. erosion of soil/slopes of embankment.
 Highway engineer is concerned primarily with two sources
of water.
 a) Surface water ─ occurs as rain or snow
─ drainage referred as
surface drainage

 b) Ground water ─ flows in

underground stream.
─ important in highway cuts or
locations where high water table
exists near the pavement
structure.
─ drainage is referred as
subsurface drainage
Surface drainage
 All means by which surface water is removed from
the pavement.
 A properly designed should effectively intercept all
surface & watershed runoff & direct this water into
adequately designed channels & gutters for discharge
into natural waterways.
 Consists of:

a) transverse & longitudinal slopes – positive runoff

b) longitudinal channel – collect the surface water
c) curbs & gutters – control street runoff
Subsurface drainage
 Provided to drain water from
a) permeated through cracks & joints in the
pavement to the underlying strata.
b) moved upward through the underlying soil
strata as a results of capillary action.
c) exists in the natural ground below the water
table, referred as ground water.
 Effect of inadequate subdrainage:

a) Pavement performance
b) Slope stability
 Subsurface drainage system are usually classified
into five general categories:-
a) Longitudinal drains
b) Transverse drains
c) Horizontal drains
d) Drainage blankets
e) Well systems