A Report on In-Plant Training

AT

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED

ELECTRONIC DIVISION, BANGALORE

Submitted by
Rishikesh G
16BEE0242

BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

VIT UNIVERSITY,

VELLORE.

JUNE -2018

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the In-plant training report at Bharat Heavy

Electricals Limited Electronic Division, Bangalore submitted to
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in VIT
University, Vellore for awarding the degree of Bachelor in Electrical
and Electronics Engineering is a record of original work done by us
under the guidance of MINI CHHABRA, DGM/HR-HRD, Bharat
Heavy Electricals Limited Electronic Division, Bangalore. This In-
plant training report is only for reference and no part of the report will
be published or copied anywhere without the written permission from
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited Electronics Division, Bangalore.

Signature

Rishikesh G

Place: Bangalore

Date: 07.06.2018

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere thanks to Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited

Electronics Division, Bangalore for providing the opportunity to carry
out the In-plant training.

I hereby take this moment of opportunity to express my deep sense of

gratitude to MINI CHHABRA, DGM/HR-HRD for her unstinted
support and encouragement to me. Her wonderful style of mentoring
has surely made my In-plant Training period a great learning
experience. I would also like to thank all the members of the human
resource department who have been wonderful teachers and made it
possible for us to complete our training successfully in the due time
period.

I extend our whole hearted thanks to MRS. SUDHA Deputy General

Manager (Centre Of Excellence), MRS. POONGUZHALI Deputy
General Manager (PCB Design) MRS. BAGHYASHREE General
Manager (Design) and all other BHEL executives and personalities,
without whose co-operation we would have never succeeded in
completing our task.

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 ABSTRACT

I underwent an in-plant training to acquaint myself for a period of four

weeks from May 14st to June 6th, 2018 to get an industrial exposure in
a practical aspect of technical implementations and to get a deep sense
of the working of an enterprise. During the course of study, I was able
to interact with the officials and other employees in the plant and fetch
maximum relevant information from them. I also got an opportunity to
visit the work area and get a ‘hands on’ experience on various industrial
devices.

The training helped me to get an idea about the various manufacturing

processes and the technical instruments and automated machines which
are used in various areas in the plant. I also got familiarized with the
various large scale central distributed control systems and soft wares
which play the most crucial role in monitoring and controlling various
processes and maintain the redundancy of data in a power generation
equipment industry.

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 LIST OF CONTENTS

Contents
Company’s Profile............................................................................................... 6
Introduction to BHEL ........................................................................................ 6
Main manufacturing facilities ............................................................................ 7
About the EDN Unit ........................................................................................ 10
PCB Design ........................................................................................................ 13
Design .............................................................................................................. 13
Production ........................................................................................................ 15
Fabrication ......................................................................................................... 21
How they are categorized ................................................................................ 21
CNC Turret Punching ...................................................................................... 22
Solar Photovoltaic Technology ................................................................. 24
Raw Materials .................................................................................................. 24
Manufacturing .................................................................................................. 25
Railway Traction Systems ......................................................................... 31
The role of Power Electronics ......................................................................... 31
How the Compartments get the Power Supply ................................................ 34
Controllers and Processors ........................................................................ 36
Controllers Used in Boilers.............................................................................. 36
Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition (SCADA) ......................... 37
High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)................................................... 39
Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 44

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 Company’s Profile

Introduction to BHEL

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) majority-owned and founded by the

Government of India, is an engineering and manufacturing company based
in New Delhi, India. Established in 1964, BHEL is India's largest power plant
equipment manufacturer. The company has been earning profits continuously
since 1971-72, except in FY 2015-2016, and paying dividends uninterruptedly
since 1976-77.

It has been granted the prestigious Maharatna (big gem) status in 2013 by Govt
of India for its outstanding performance and vast scale. The elite list of Maharatna
companies contains a total of 7 behemoth Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) of
India. Maharatna status affords the Boards of these companies enhanced financial
and operational autonomy.

BHEL was established in 1964 Heavy Electricals (India) Limited was merged
with BHEL in 1974.[2] It developed the capability to produce a variety of
electrical, electronic and mechanical equipments for all sectors, including
transmission, transportation, oil and gas and other allied industries. However, the
bulk of the revenue of the company is derived from the manufacture and erection
of equipment for power generation. As of 2016, BHEL supplied equipment
contributed to about 55% of the total installed capacity of India.] In 1991, BHEL
was converted into a public limited company. By the end of 1996, the company
had handed over 100 Electric Locomotives to Indian Railway and installed 250
Hydro-sets across India.

BHEL is engaged in the design, engineering, manufacturing, construction,

testing, commissioning and servicing of a wide range of products, systems and

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services for the core sectors of the economy, viz. power, transmission, industry,
transportation, renewable energy, oil & gas and defence.

It has a network of 17 manufacturing units, 2 repair units, 4 regional offices, 8

service centres, 8 overseas offices, 15 regional centres, 7 joint ventures, and
infrastructure allowing it to execute more than 150 projects at sites across India
and abroad. The company has established the capability to deliver 20,000 MW
p.a. of power equipment to address the growing demand for power generation
equipment.

BHEL has retained its market leadership position during 2015-16 with 74%
market share in the Power Sector. An improved focus on project execution
enabled BHEL record its highest ever commissioning/synchronization of 15059
MW of power plants in domestic and international markets in 2015-16, marking
a 59% increase over 2014-15. With the all-time high commissioning of 15000
MW in a single year FY2015-16, BHEL has exceeded 170 GW installed base of
power generating equipments.

It also has been exporting its power and industry segment products and services
for over 40 years. BHEL's global references are spread across over 76 countries
across all the six continents of the world. The cumulative overseas installed
capacity of BHEL manufactured power plants exceeds 9,000 MW across 21-22
countries within various parts of the world
including Malaysia, Oman, Iraq, UAE, Bhutan, Egypt and New Zealand.
Their physical exports range from turnkey projects to after sales services.

Main manufacturing facilities

 Centralized Stamping Unit & Fabrication Plant (CSU & FP), Jagdishpur
 Insulator Plant (IP), Jagdishpur
 Electronics Division (EDN), Bangalore
 Electronic System Division (ESD), Bangalore

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 Electro-Porcelains Division (EPD), Bangalore
 Heavy Electrical Plant (HEP), Bhopal
 Heavy Electrical Equipment Plant (HEEP), Ranipur (Haridwar)
 Central Foundry Forge Plant (CFFP), Ranipur (Haridwar)
 Heavy Power Equipment Plant (HPEP), Hyderabad
 Transformer Plant (TP), Jhansi
 Boiler Auxiliaries Plant (BAP), Ranipet
 Component Fabrication Plant (CFP), Rudrapur
 High Pressure Boiler Plant (HPBP), Tiruchirappalli
 Seamless Steel Tube Plant (SSTP), Tiruchirappalli

The company is also setting up a new Greenfield Power Equipment Fabrication

Plant (GPEFP) at Bhandara, Maharashtra, the foundation stone for which was
laid on 14 May 2013. Further, BHEL is planning to enter solar manufacturing in
a big scale, as it has announced its plans for a 600 MW Solar Module Factory.

BHEL’s vision is to become a world-class engineering enterprise, committed to

enhance stakeholder value. The company is striving to give shape to its
aspirations and fulfill the expectation as a ‘Navaratna’ Company.
BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the
energy-related/infrastructure sector, today. BHEL was established more than 40
years ago, ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in
India - a dream that has been more than realized with a well-recognized track
record of performance. The company has been earning profits continuously since
1971-72 and paying dividends since 1976-77.
BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product groups and caters
to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power Generation & Transmission,
Industry, Transportation, Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, etc. The wide
network of BHEL's 14 manufacturing divisions, four Power Sector regional
centers, over 100 project sites, eight service centers and 18 regional offices,

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enables the Company to promptly serve its customers and provide them with
suitable products, systems and services -- efficiently and at competitive prices.
The high level of quality & reliability of its products is due to the emphasis on
design, engineering and manufacturing to international standards by acquiring
and adapting some of the best technologies from leading companies in the world,
together with technologies developed in its own R&D centers.
BHEL has acquired certifications to Quality Management Systems (ISO 9001),
Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001) and Occupational Health &
Safety Management Systems (OHSAS 18001) and is also well on its journey
towards Total Quality Management

BHEL’s operations are organized around three business sectors, namely:

 Power Industry including Transmission, Transportation,

 Telecommunication & Renewable Energy and
 Overseas Business.

This enables BHEL to have a strong customer orientation, to be sensitive to his

needs & to respond quickly to the changes in the market.

The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed 43,500
employees. Every employee is given an equal opportunity to develop himself and
grow in his career. Continuous training and retraining, career planning, a positive
work culture and participative style of management – all these have engendered
development of a committed and motivated workforce setting new benchmarks
in terms of productivity, quality and responsiveness

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 About the EDN Unit

The Electronics Division (EDN) of BHEL was formed in the year 1976, which
was mainly to establish a strong base in the areas of power and control electronics,
to supplement the Company’s pioneering efforts in power generation and
transmission equipment manufacturing. Making a modest beginning with a
turnover of Rs. 3 crores in 1976-77, the unit is poised to record a turnover of over
Rs. 500 crores. This growth is amply reflected in the fact that most of the power
plants and process industries in the country today are equipped with products and
systems made by BHEL-EDN.

Its quick progress is aided by the collaborations with international leaders in the
field. But it was BHEL-EDN’s relentless efforts and unwavering commitment to
in-house solutions that have really contributed to its rapid growth and success.
Even in the midst of stiff competition posed by the world leaders and domestic
private manufacturers, BHEL-EDN has successfully maintained its growth rate
and become a major force to reckon with in power and industrial electronics.
In recognition of its commitment to the quality systems and procedures, the unit
is certified for ISO 9001 since July 1993. To fulfill its role of a responsible
corporate citizen envisaging protection and conservation of the environment and
ensuring that it’s products and systems are also environmental friendly, BHEL
has finalised a Corporate Environment Management Policy. Accordingly, the
Electronics Division has become the first Electronics Industry in Bangalore to get
ISO 14001 Environment Management System Certification.

BHEL’s vision envisages further growth for EDN, transforming it into a world
class enterprise providing comprehensive solutions to customers, while exploring
new frontiers in software and hardware applications to fulfill the growing needs
and expectations of the global market.

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 Product Profile Of BHEL(EDN)

Automation and Power Electronic Systems

 Unified Automation for Power Plants (Distributed Control Systems
 (DCS) for Steam Turbines, Steam Generators and Balance of
Plant Systems)
 Gas Turbine and Hydro Power Plant Control Systems
 Excitation Systems
 Industrial Automation
 Sub-station Automation and Supervisory Control and
 Data Acquisition Systems (SCADA)
 DC and AC Drive Systems
 Power Supplies
 Traction Drive Systems for locos and Electrical Multiple
 Units (EMUs)
 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Systems
 Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
 Custom Power Controllers
 Static VAR Compensation (SVC) Systems
 Controlled Shunt Reactor (CSR)

Semiconductors and Photovoltaic Systems

 Power Semiconductor Devices
 Solar Photovoltaic Cells and Modules
 PV Systems: Grid interactive, Hybrid and Stand alone PV Power Plants

Space
 Space Grade Solar Panels

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  Space Quality Batteries
Defense Electronics
 Simfire Tactical Gunnery Simulator
 Infantry Weapon Effects Simulator for Tactical Gunnery training
 Small Arms Training Simulator for Marksmanship Training
 Integrated Platform Management Systems
 Machinery Control Room Simulator
 Training Simulators for vehicles, platforms, radars, weapons, missiles and
CBT for all defense and para-military forces
 Weapon Fire Control Systems, Avionics, Radio Communication Products,
Electronic Warfare Systems and Early Warning Systems
 Radars and associated Systems

Software System Solutions

 Performance Analysis, Diagnostics and Optimization (PADO)
 Performance Calculation and Optimization

Services Offered
 Harmonic Measurement and Analysis
 System study for Reactive Power Compensation Erection and
Commissioning by highly experienced team of Engineers
 In- house expertise for efficient Service- After-Sales
 Assured Supply of Spares
 A highly competent team to respond to Customers’ emergency needs
 Total Solutions to Renovation and Modernization requirements
 Concept to Commissioning solutions for large size
 Solar Power Plants

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 PCB Design
A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically
connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
Components (e.g. capacitors, resistors or active devices) are
generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components
embedded in the substrate.

PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided (two copper layers)
or multi-layer (outer and inner layers). Conductors on different layers are
connected with via. Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density.

Design

To select the components in the PCB Boards we require the following details

1. Specifications
2. Block Diagram
3. Environmental Conditions.
4. Applications

SPECIFICATION

1.Number of inputs and outputs.

2. Current and Voltage ratings.
3. Output should be of analog or digital.

Block Diagram

Overview of the functions that are to be take place.

Environmental Conditions

1. Temperature
2. Vibrations
3. Pressure
4. Humidity Etc. to be considered.
PCB schematic design is done using Zuken Cadstar 13.0 software (Design

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Editor). Schematic diagram design will convert into components diagram into
the PCB.

Procedures
To select the components, choose Symbol by Parts button. We have two search
options Search by Symbol or by Parts.

Type the respective element name in the Part Name Box.

For example

1. Resistor - RSMD…….
2. Capacitor - CSMD…....
3. Inductor - IND_SMD…
4. Transistors - TRANS PNP/NPN (symbols)
5. Switches - SWITCH 2PN LINK, SWITCH 3PN LINK
ETC
6. Diodes - DSMD…
7. Zener - ZSMD…
8. OP-AMP - OP…
9.Pot meter - POT….

+15v, -15v and Ground are selected by extending the connecting wires
and by right clicking the mouse and by choosing the GOLBAL
SIGNAL.
 Connecting wires are selected by overlapping the red triangles or
by clicking the Add Connections Button.
 If any components are not there then select the Library, and include
the library by Trial and Error method.
 We can name the components in the Component Name Box.
Example R1, R2 etc.
 Local out is select by right clicking the mouse and choosing the
Reference Signal and selectin the library.
 Connector is selected by clicking the Select Connector and selecting
the Symbol Library.
File extension: ‘. scm’
Grid – 50. Which means we can move the components 50/1000 inch on the
PCB board.

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 Production
Here there are two types of technology one is THT and other is SMT.
In Through-Hole Technology, the component leads are inserted in holes
surrounded by conductive pads; the holes keep the components in place.
In surface-mount technology (SMT), the component is placed on the PCB so that
the pins line up with the conductive pads or lands on the surfaces of the PCB;
solder paste, which was previously applied to the pads, holds the components in
place; if surface-mount components are applied to both sides of the board, the
bottom-side components are glued to the board. In both through hole and surface
mount, the components are then soldered.

Component Placing

At such a large scale "Pick and place machine" or SMT placement machine are
used. These are used for high speed, high precision placing of broad range of
electronic components, like capacitors, resistors, integrated circuits onto the
PCBs which are in turn used in computers, consumer electronics as well as
industrial, medical, automotive, military and telecommunications equipment. The
placement equipment is part of a larger overall machine that carries out specific
programmed steps to create a PCB Assembly. Several sub-systems work together
to pick up and correctly place the components onto the PCB. These systems
normally use pneumatic suction cups, attached to a plotter-like device to allow
the cup to be accurately manipulated in three dimensions. Additionally, each
nozzle can be rotated independently. Component feeds.
Surface mount components are placed along the front (and often back) faces of
the machine. Most components are supplied on paper or plastic tape, in tape reels
that are loaded onto feeders mounted to the machine. Larger integrated
circuits (ICs) are sometimes supplied arranged in trays which are stacked in a
compartment. More commonly ICs will be provided in tapes rather than trays or
sticks. Improvements in feeder technology mean that tape format is becoming the
preferred method of presenting parts on an SMT machine.
Early feeder heads were much bulkier, and as a result it was not designed to be
the mobile part of the system. Rather, the PCB itself was mounted on a moving
platform that aligned the areas of the board to be populated with the feeder head
above.

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Conveyor Belt
Through the middle of the machine there is a conveyor belt, along which blank
PCBs travel, and a PCB clamp in the centre of the machine. The PCB is clamped,
and the nozzles pick up individual components from the feeders/trays, rotate them
to the correct orientation and then place them on the appropriate pads on the PCB
with high precision. High end machines can have multiple conveyors to produce
multiple same or different kind of products simultaneously.

Inspection Methodology
As the part is carried from the part feeders on either side of the conveyor belt to
the PCB, it is photographed from below. Its silhouette is inspected to see if it is
damaged or missing (was not picked up), and the inevitable registration errors in
pickup are measured and compensated for when the part is placed.. Some
machines have these optical systems on the robot arm and can carry out the optical
calculations without losing time, thereby achieving a lower derating factor. The
high-end optical systems mounted on the heads can also be used to capture details
of the non-standard type components and save them to a database for future use.
In addition to this, advanced software is available for monitoring the production
and interconnect database — of the production floor to that of supply chain — in
real time.
A separate camera on the pick-and-place head photographs fiducial marks on the
PCB to measure its position on the conveyor belt accurately. Two fiducial marks,
measured in two dimensions each, usually placed diagonally, let the PCB's
orientation and thermal expansion be measured and compensated for as well.
Some machines are also able to measure the PCB shear by measuring a third
fiducial mark on the PCB.
There are various methods by which PCB inspection can be achieved:

 Manual PCB inspection:

As the name implies, manual inspection involves individual inspectors

looking at boards or other assemblies to inspect them for problems. This
approach has been proved to be costly, and yielding poor results. Before
automation, it was the only way that inspection could be performed.

 AOI PCB inspection:

Automatic or automated optical inspection is the preferred method of PCB

inspection. It utilizes an optical system that takes an image of a good assembly
and compares the two images to detect any faults or other issues.

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 This form of PCB inspection is widely used and has been perfected so that it
operates very reliably.

 AXI PCB inspection:

With density on PCBs increasing and new IC mounting technologies being

used, not all solder joints may be visible. Particularly when new boards are
being manufactured and new set-ups being used, it is very important to check
that solder joints on packages such as BGAs (Ball Grid Arrays) are being
correctly soldered. Optical inspection cannot achieve this because the solder
joints are not visible. The only option is to use an X-Ray system - Automated
X-Ray Inspection, AXI, that is able to look under the chips to view the solder
joints. Although expensive and only used for a small proportion of the solder
joints, etc, they are necessary in many instances.
For high volume production these days most manufacturers use AOI systems for
their PCB inspection functions. With the increase in the number of BGAs and
BGA associated packages being used, AXI is also being increasingly used.

PCB INSPECTION IN MANUFACTURING PROCESS

There are two main uses for a PCB inspection system:

 High light manufacturing defects: The obvious function of a PCB

inspection system is to highlight any defects so that they can be corrected
before they are passed on to the next stage in the production process.
Finding faults as early as possible in the production process is essential
because fault finding and fixing costs rise by approximately a factor of ten
as each stage in the production process is passed.
 Provide process feedback: An equally important function of a PCB
inspection system is to provide feedback into the manufacturing process.
Using a PCB inspection system on the output of the soldering process can
enable any pattern faults to be seen and the process corrected almost
immediately to reduce or eliminate the occurrence of a given problem.

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 MANUFACTURED PCB PRODUCTION FLOW CHART

It can be seen from the diagram, that the PCB inspection process allows boards
with failures to be detected as well as feedback to assist the production process
to be gained.
Some production processes may also place a PCB inspection stage after the pick
and place operation - indeed, some pick and place machines include an optical
PCB inspection system. This allows PCBs to be corrected before being soldered.

Variations
To minimize the distance the pickup gantry must travel, it is common to have
multiple nozzles with separate vertical motion on a single gantry. This can pick
up multiple parts with one trip to the feeders. Also, advanced software in the
newer generation machines allows different robotic heads to work independently
of each other to further increase the throughput.
The components may be temporarily adhered to the PCB using the wet solder
paste itself, or by using small blobs of a separate adhesive, applied by a glue-
dispensing machine.

Soldering
There are a variety of soldering techniques used to attach components to a PCB
like reflow and wave soldering.

Reflow Soldering
Is a process in which a solder paste (a sticky mixture of
powdered solder and flux) is used to temporarily attach one or several electrical
components to their contact pads, after which the entire assembly is subjected to

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controlled heat, which melts the solder, permanently connecting the joint. Heating
may be accomplished by passing the assembly through a reflow oven or under
an infrared lamp or by soldering individual joints with a hot air pencil.
Reflow soldering is the most common method of attaching surface
mount components to a circuit board, although it can also be used for through-
hole components by filling the holes with solder paste and inserting the
component leads through the paste. Because wave soldering can be simpler and
cheaper, reflow is not generally used on pure through-hole boards. When used on
boards containing a mix of SMT and THT components, through-hole reflow
allows the wave soldering step to be eliminated from the assembly process,
potentially reducing assembly costs.
The goal of the reflow process is to melt the solder and heat the adjoining
surfaces, without overheating and damaging the electrical components. In the
conventional reflow soldering process, there are usually four stages, called
"zones", each having a distinct thermal profile: preheat, thermal soak (often
shortened to just soak), reflow, and cooling.

Wave Soldering
The circuit board is passed over a pan of molten solder in which a pump produces
an upwelling of solder that looks like a standing wave. As the circuit board
contacts this wave, the components become soldered to the board. Wave
soldering is used for both through-hole printed circuit assemblies, and surface
mount. In the latter case, the components are glued onto the surface of a printed
circuit board (PCB) by placement equipment, before being run through the
molten solder wave.
As through-hole components have been largely replaced by surface
mount components, wave soldering has been supplanted by reflow
soldering methods in many large-scale electronics applications. However, there
is still significant wave soldering where surface-mount technology (SMT) is not
suitable (e.g., large power devices and high pin count connectors), or where
simple through-hole technology prevails (certain major appliances).

After the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways:

 While the power is off, visual inspection, automated optical

inspection. JEDEC guidelines for PCB component placement, soldering, and
inspection are commonly used to maintain quality control in this stage of PCB
manufacturing.

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 While the power is off, analog signature analysis, power-off testing.
 While the power is on, in-circuit test, where physical measurements (for
example, voltage) can be done.
 While the power is on, functional test, just checking if the PCB does what it
had been designed to do.

To facilitate these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make
temporary connections. Sometimes these pads must be isolated with resistors.
The in-circuit test may also exercise boundary scan test features of some
components. In-circuit test systems may also be used to program nonvolatile
memory components on the board.
In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated into various ICs on the board
form temporary connections between the PCB traces to test that the ICs are
mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all the ICs to be tested use
a standard test configuration procedure, the most common one being the Joint
When boards fail the test, technicians may desolder and replace failed
components, a task known as rework.

Precautions

In SMT productions we should wear coat and shoes Because the components are
static voltage sensitive. This is reason why we are wearing the coats in the
electrical labs it for the protection of the components and not for us. Usually our
body produces 10kv.It may damage the IC. For solder wave the temperature 250
degrees Celsius.

In THT we have periodically clean the flux bath.

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 Fabrication

How they are categorized

They are generally categorized into

 Cutting Machine
 Bending Machine
 Punching Machine

1. Hydraulic Bending, Cutting and Punching machines

2. Milling Machines
a. Horizontal Milling Machines
b. Vertical Milling Machines
3. Slandering Machines
4. CNC Milling Machines
5. Centre Lathe Machines
6. CNC Lathe Machines
7. Bandsaw cutting Machines
8. Spindle Drilling Machines
9. Radial Drilling Machines
10.CNC Bending Machine
11.Resistance Spot Welding
12.Guillotine Machine
13.CNC Guillotine Machine
14.Press Brake
15.CNC Turret Punch

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 CNC TURRET PUNCHING
A turret punch or turret press is a type of punch press used for metal
forming by punching.

Punching, and press work in general, is a process well suited to mass production.
However, the initial tooling costs, of both the machine and the job-specific press
tool, are high. This limits punch work from being used for much small-volume
and prototype work. A turret punch is one way of addressing this cost. The tooling
of a turret punch uses a large number of standard punch tools: holes of varying
sizes, straight edges, commonly-used notches or mounting holes. By using a large
number of strokes, with several different tools in turn, a turret press may make a
wide variety of parts without having to first make a specialised press tool for that
task. This saves both time and money, allowing rapid prototyping or for low
volume production to start without tooling delays.

A typical CNC turret punch has a choice of up to 60 tools in a "turret" that can be
rotated to bring any tool to the punching position. A simple shape (e.g., a square,
circle, or hexagon) is cut directly from the sheet. A complex shape can be cut out
by making many square or rounded cuts around the perimeter. As a press tool
requires a matching punch and die set, there are two corresponding turrets, above
and below the bed, for punch and die. These two turrets must rotate in precise
synchronisation and with their alignment carefully maintained. Several punches
of identical shape may be used in the turret, each one turned to a different angle,
as there is usually no feature to rotate the sheet workpiece relative to the tool.

A punch is less flexible than a laser for cutting compound shapes, but faster for
repetitive shapes (for example, the grille of an air-conditioning unit). Some units
combine both laser and punch features in one machine.

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Most turret punches are CNC-controlled, with automatic positioning of the metal
sheet beneath the tool and programmed selection of particular tools.
A CAM process first converts the CAD design for the finished item into the
number of individual punch operations needed, depending on the tools available
in the turret.

The precise load-out of tools may change according to a particular job's needs.
The CAD stage is also optimised for turret punching: an operation such as
rounding a corner may be much quicker with a single chamfered cut than a fully
rounded corner requiring several strokes. Changing an unimportant dimension
such as the width of a ventilation slot may match an available tool, requiring a
single cut, rather than cutting each side separately. CAD support may also
manage the selection of tools to be loaded into the turret before starting work.

As each tool in a turret press is relatively small, the press requires little power
compared to a press manufacturing similar parts with a single press stroke. This
allows the tool to be lighter and sometimes cheaper, although this is offset by the
increased complexity of the turret and sheet positioning. Turret punches can
operate faster per stroke than a heavier tool press, although of course many
strokes are required. A turret punch can achieve 600 strokes per minute.

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 Solar Photovoltaic Technology

Raw Materials

The basic component of a solar cell is pure silicon, which is not pure in its natural
state. To make solar cells, the raw materials—silicon dioxide of either quartzite
gravel or crushed quartz—are first placed into an electric arc furnace, where a
carbon arc is applied to release the oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and
molten silicon. At this point, the silicon is still not pure enough to be used for
solar cells and requires further purification.

To make solar cells, the raw materials—silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel
or crushed quartz—are first placed into an electric arc furnace, where a carbon
arc is applied to release the oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and molten
silicon. At this point, the silicon is still not pure enough to be used for solor cells
and requires further purification.

Pure silicon is derived from such silicon dioxides as quartzite gravel (the purest
silica) or crushed quartz. The resulting pure silicon is then doped (treated with)
with phosphorous and boron to produce an excess of electrons and a deficiency
of electrons respectively to make a semiconductor capable of conducting
electricity. The silicon disks are shiny and require an anti-reflective coating,
usually titanium dioxide.
The solar module consists of the silicon semiconductor surrounded by protective
material in a metal frame. The protective material consists of an encapsulant of
transparent silicon rubber or butyryl plastic (commonly used in automobile
windshields) bonded around the cells, which are then embedded in ethylene vinyl
acetate. A polyester film (such as mylar or tedlar) makes up the backing. A glass
cover is found on terrestrial arrays, a lightweight plastic cover on satellite arrays.

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The electronic parts are standard and consist mostly of copper. The frame is either
steel or aluminum. Silicon is used as the cement to put it all together.

Manufacturing

A schematic Diagram that the describes the whole process of PV cell and
module manufacturing

Purifying the silicon

1.The silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz is placed into an
electric arc furnace. A carbon arc is then applied to release the oxygen. The
products are carbon dioxide and molten silicon. This simple process yields silicon

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with one percent impurity, useful in many industries but not the solar cell
industry.
2 The 99 percent pure silicon is purified even further using the floating zone
technique. A rod of impure silicon is passed through a heated zone several times
in the same direction. This procedure "drags" the impurities toward one end with
each pass. At a specific point, the silicon is deemed pure, and the impure end is
removed.Making single crystal silicon.
3. Solar cells are made from silicon boules, polycrystalline structures that have
the atomic structure of a single crystal. The most commonly used process for
creating the boule is called the Czochralski method. In this process, a seed crystal
of silicon is dipped into melted polycrystalline silicon. As the seed crystal is
withdrawn and rotated, a cylindrical ingot or "boule" of silicon is formed. The
ingot withdrawn is unusually pure, because impurities tend to remain in the
liquid.

Making silicon wafers

4. From the boule, silicon wafers are sliced one at a time using a circular saw
whose inner diameter cuts into the rod, or many at once with a multiwire saw. (A
diamond saw produces cuts that are as wide as the wafer—. 5 millimeter thick.)
Only about one-half of the silicon is lost from the boule to the finished circular
wafer—more if the wafer is then cut to be rectangular or hexagonal. Rectangular
or hexagonal wafers are sometimes used in solar cells because they can be fitted
together perfectly, thereby utilizing all available space on the front surface of the
solar cell. After the initial purification, the silicon is further refined in a floating
zone process. In this process, a silicon rod is passed through a heated zone several
times, which serves to 'drag" the impurities toward one end of the rod. The impure
end can then be removed. Next, a silicon seed crystal is put into a Czochralski
growth apparatus, where it is dipped into melted polycrystalline silicon. The seed
crystal rotates as it is withdrawn, forming a cylindrical ingot of very pure silicon.

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Wafers are then sliced out of the ingot.
After the initial purification, the silicon is further refined in a floating zone
process. In this process, a silicon rod is passed through a heated zone several
times, which serves to 'drag" the impurities toward one end of the rod. The impure
end can then be removed.
Next, a silicon seed crystal is put into a Czochralski growth apparatus, where it is
dipped into melted polycrystalline silicon. The seed crystal rotates as it is
withdrawn, forming a cylindrical ingot of very pure silicon. Wafers are then
sliced out of the ingot.
5. The wafers are then polished to remove saw marks. (It has recently been found
that rougher cells absorb light more effectively, therefore some manufacturers
have chosen not to polish the wafer.)

Doping
6. The traditional way of doping (adding impurities to) silicon wafers with boron
and phosphorous is to introduce a small amount of boron during the Czochralski
process in step #3 above. The wafers are then sealed back to back and placed in
a furnace to be heated to slightly below the melting point of silicon (2,570 degrees
Fahrenheit or 1,410 degrees Celsius) in the presence of phosphorous gas. The
phosphorous atoms "burrow" into the silicon, which is more porous because it is
close to becoming a liquid. The temperature and time given to the process is
carefully controlled to ensure a uniform junction of proper depth.
A more recent way of doping silicon with phosphorous is to use a small particle
accelerator to shoot phosphorous ions into the ingot. By controlling the speed of
the ions, it is possible to control their penetrating depth. This new process,
however, has generally not been accepted by commercial manufacturers.

Placing electrical contacts

7.Electrical contacts connect each solar cell to another and to the receiver of

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produced current. The contacts must be very thin (at least in the front) so as not
to block sunlight to the cell. Metals such as palladium/silver, nickel, or copper
are vacuum-evaporating This illustration shows the makeup of a typical solar cell.
The cells are encapsulated in ethylene vinyl acetate and placed in a metal frame
that has a mylar back sheet and glass cover.
This illustration shows the makeup of a typical solar cell. The cells are
encapsulated in ethylene vinyl acetate and placed in a metal frame that has a mylar
back sheet and glass cover. Through a photoresist, silkscreened, or merely
deposited on the exposed portion of cells that have been partially covered with
wax. All three methods involve a system in which the part of the cell on which a
contact is not desired is protected, while the rest of the cell is exposed to the metal.
8 After the contacts are in place, thin strips ("fingers") are placed between cells.
The most commonly used strips are tin-coated copper.

The anti-reflective coating

9 Because pure silicon is shiny, it can reflect up to 35 percent of the sunlight. To
reduce the amount of sunlight lost, an anti-reflective coating is put on the silicon
wafer. The most commonly used coatings are titanium dioxide and silicon oxide,
though others are used. The material used for coating is either heated until its
molecules boil off and travel to the silicon and condense, or the material
undergoes sputtering. In this process, a high voltage knocks molecules off the
material and deposits them onto the silicon at the opposite electrode. Yet another
method is to allow the silicon itself to react with oxygen- or nitrogen-containing
gases to form silicon dioxide or silicon nitride. Commercial solar cell
manufacturers use silicon nitride.

Encapsulating the cell

10 The finished solar cells are then encapsulated; that is, sealed into silicon rubber
or ethylene vinyl acetate. The encapsulated solar cells are then placed into an

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aluminum frame that has a mylar or tedlar back sheet and a glass or plastic cover.

Quality Control
Quality control is important in solar cell manufacture because discrepancy in the
many processes and factors can adversely affect the overall efficiency of the cells.
The primary research goal is to find ways to improve the efficiency of each solar
cell over a longer lifetime. The Low-Cost Solar Array Project (initiated by the
United States Department of Energy in the late 1970s) sponsored private research
that aimed to lower the cost of solar cells. The silicon itself is tested for purity,
crystal orientation, and resistivity. Manufacturers also test for the presence of
oxygen (which affects its strength and resistance to warp) and carbon (which
causes defects). Finished silicon disks are inspected for any damage, flaking, or
bending that might have occurred during sawing, polishing, and etching.

During the entire silicon disk manufacturing process, the temperature, pressure,
speed, and quantities of dopants are continuously monitored. Steps are also taken
to ensure that impurities in the air and on working surfaces are kept to a minimum.

The completed semiconductors must then undergo electrical tests to see that the
current, voltage, and resistance for each meet appropriate standards. An earlier
problem with solar cells was a tendency to stop working when partially shaded.
This problem has been alleviated by providing shunt diodes that reduce
dangerously high voltages to the cell. Shunt resistance must then be tested using
partially shaded junctions.
An important test of solar modules involves providing test cells with conditions
and intensity of light that they will encounter under normal conditions and then
checking to see that they perform well. The final test for solar modules is field
site testing, in which finished modules are placed where they will actually be
used. This provides the researcher with the best data for determining the

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efficiency of a solar cell under ambient conditions and the solar cell's effective
lifetime, the most important factors of all.

Installed & Supplied

The following are some of the various applications for which BHEL has provided
Photovoltaic systems-
 Power plants for community lighting at remote islands (Lakshadweep,
Sundarbans and Andaman n Nicobar Islands) in the Arabian sea and Bay
of Bengal.
 Power supply for equipment on offshore oil platforms at Bombay, high.
 PV systems for railway panel interlocking and signaling at Tavargatti,
Naghavi, Sulehelli and other installations.
 Solar cell modules
 PV grid interactive power plants
 PV system for rural radiophones
 PV water pumping systems for drinking water in remote villages in
Karnataka and Punjab.

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 Railway Traction Systems

The role of Power Electronics

The system which use electrical power for traction system i.e. for railways, trams,
trolleys, etc. is called electrical traction. The track electrification refers to the type
of source supply system that is used while powering the electric locomotive
systems. It can be AC or DC or a composite supply.
Selecting the type of electrification depends on several factors like availability of
supply, type of an application area, or on the services like urban, suburban and
main line services, etc.
The three main types of electric traction systems that exist are as follows:

1. Direct Current (DC) electrification system

2. Alternating Current (AC) electrification system
3. Composite system.

1- DC Electrification System
The choice of selecting DC electrification system encompasses many advantages,
such as space and weight considerations, rapid acceleration and braking of DC
electric motors, less cost compared to AC systems, less energy consumption and
so on.
In this type of system, three-phase power received from the power grids is de-
escalated to low voltage and converted into DC by the rectifiers and power-
electronic converters.

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 This type of DC supply is supplied to the vehicle through two different ways:
a. 3rd and 4 the rail system operate at low voltages (600-1200V)
b. Overhead rail systems use high voltages (1500-3000V)
The supply systems of DC electrification include;
a. 300-500V supply for the special systems like battery systems.
b. 600-1200V for urban railways like tramways and light metro trains.
c. 1500-3000V for suburban and mainline services like light metros and heavy
metro trains.
Due to high starting torque and moderate speed control, the DC series motors are
extensively employed in the DC traction systems. They provide high torque at
low speeds and low torque at high speeds.
Advantages;
a. In case of heavy trains that require frequent and rapid accelerations, DC traction
motors are better choice as compared AC motors.
b. DC train consumes less energy compared to AC unit for operating same service
conditions.
c. The equipment in DC traction system is less costly, lighter and more efficient
than AC traction system.
d. It causes no electrical interference with nearby communication lines.
Disadvantages;
1. Expensive substations are required at frequent intervals.
2. The overhead wire or third rail must be relatively large and heavy.
3. Voltage goes on decreasing with increase in length.

2- AC Electrification System
An AC traction system has become very popular nowadays, and it is more often
used in most of the traction systems due to several advantages, such as quick
availability and generation of AC that can be easily stepped up or down, easy
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 controlling of AC motors, less number of substations requirement, and the
presence of light overhead catenaries that transfer low currents at high voltages,
and so on.
The supply systems of AC electrification include single, three phase, and
composite systems. The Single phase systems consist of 11 to 15 KV supply at
16.7Hz, and 25Hz to facilitate variable speed to AC commutation motors. It uses
step down transformer and frequency converters to convert from the high voltages
and fixed industrial frequency.
The Single phase 25KV at 50Hz is the most commonly used configuration for
AC electrification. It is used for heavy haul systems and main line services since
it doesn’t require frequency conversion. This is one of the widely used types of
composite systems wherein the supply is converted to DC to drive DC traction
motors.

Three phase system uses three phase induction motor to drive the locomotive, and
it is rated at 3.3.KV, 16.7Hz. The high-voltage distribution system at 50 Hz
supply is converted to this electric motor rating by transformers and frequency
converters. This system employs two overhead lines, and the track rail forms
another phase, but this raises many problems at crossings and junctions.
Advantages;
1. Fewer substations are required.
2. Lighter overhead current supply wire can be used.
3. Reduced weight of support structure.
4. Reduced capital cost of electrification.
Disadvantages;
1. Significant cost of electrification.
2. Increased maintainance cost of lines.
3. Overhead wires further limit clearance in tunnels.
4. Upgrading needs additional cost especially in case there are brigdes and tunnels.
5. Railway traction needs immune power with no cuts.

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3- Composite System
Composite System (or multi-system) trains are used to provide continuous
journeys along routes that are electrified using more than one system. One way
to accomplish this is by changing locomotives at the switching stations. These
stations have overhead wires that can be switched from one voltage to another.
Another way is to use multi-system locomotives that can operate under several
different voltages and current types. In Europe, it is common to use four-system
locomotives. (1.5 kV DC, 3 kV DC, 15 kV 16⅔ Hz AC, 25 kV 50 Hz AC).

How the Compartments get the Power Supply

Self-Generating

2×25 kW alternators for AC coach and 1×4.5 kW for non-AC coach is mounted
underslung, driven by a pulley-belt arrangement when driving pulley is mounted
on coach axle. Output is rectified and charges 110V DC battery for continuous
power supply to AC and non-AC coaches. AC load of roof mounted packaged
units is supplied by converting DC into 2×25 kVA inverters. This system is
followed over trains having a combination of AC and non-AC coaches.

End-on-Generation (EOG)

Two power cars each equipped with 2×750 kVA DG sets, one at each end of the
train, supplies 3 phase power at 750 V AC power to each electrically
interconnected air-conditioned coach. The voltage is stepped down to 3 phase 400
V and supplied to standard voltage equipment on each coach. EOG system is
followed for fully air-conditioned train like Rajdhani, Shatabdi, Duranto, Garib
Rath, Premium special trains. Import of LHB class of coaches from Germany is
provided with the EOG system with a promise to provide SG system design for
indigenous manufacturing. SG technology given was a complete failure and IR is
still struggling to develop designs for the last 15 years.

Head-on-Generation (HOG)

Power is supplied from the train locomotive at the head of the train. The single
phase 25 kV transformer of the electric locomotive is provided with hotel load
winding which is converted to three phase AC at 750 V using 2×500 kVA inverter
and supplied to the same system as that of EOG. In case of Diesel Locomotive,
three phase alternators are mounted on the traction alternator and feeds the hotel
load. This is the most efficient system as the cost of power is about 25% less as

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compared to EOG, but the system is still under development for the last 30 years.
The other class of trains namely Electrical Multiple Unit and Main Line Electrical
Multiple Units employs the same system for coach lighting. The system is similar
to what is followed in train-set composition of train having a power unit at head
as well as on tail and power the entire load of the coach for comfort.

Running of mixed LHB design AC and non-AC coach

There is a need for running a mix of AC and non-AC coaches with LHB coach
design to improve passenger satisfactory, higher capacity and improved riding
with less maintenance. RCF has already started manufacturing Non-AC LHB and
276 such coaches have gone into service till 31 st March 2014 and working on
Northern Railway, North Western Railway, Western Railway, East Central
Railway and Eastern Railway. The only way to power these coaches is by EOG
system as the SG design not yet successful.

Cardon Shaft Arrangement

In this arrangement, 25KW alternator was of conventional type except belt

transmission replaced with a cardon shaft which was driven by a gear box
mounted on the axle. The alternator was mounted on the coach underframe to
take care of space constraints in the bogie. This design was given by LHB to RCF
as per the contractual condition.

The rake turned out by RCF worked between NDLS & JAT for few days but
design lapses surfaced out within a short period. The design lapse was non-
damping of vibrations emerging from the track irregularities resulting failure on
account of breakage of gear box & Cardon shaft, failures of fasteners provided
for coupling of Cardon & gear box, shearing of flange for coupling, jamming of
Cardon shaft arrangement, development of gap between torque limiter plates,
breakage of gear box torque arm pin cap locking stud in Cardon shaft system and
damage of fork arm bolt provided in Cardon shaft arrangement.

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 Controllers and Processors

Controllers Used in Boilers

Role of control system in boilers

1.SADC - Controls the air flow in the boiler.

2.APRDS (auxiliary PRDS CONTROL SYSTEMS)

It is used to control pressure and DE superheating.

3.HPBYPASS (High Pressure Bypass Control) in case of emergency to open the

valve in order to protect the equipment’s.

4.FSA - it is used to measure the intensity of heat

To start the power production using the generator it needs 8 to 9 hours.

5.Distributed Control system- Centralized distribution will put the

In case of any trip happen to restart the generator, it requires 30 minutes.

Three controllers are operated parallelly on the same logic. To increase the
accuracy and mini the error.

The main difference between the FPGA AND DSP is

1. FPGA input and output are digital. In case of analog input or output is required
we can use Analog Digital Converter.

2. DSP input and output can be both analog and digital.

In general

FPGA is used for protection

DSP is used in controller circuits.

We have to preheat the coal before combustion.

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 Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition (SCADA)

In a distribution network, computerization helps in managing load profiles,

maintaining power quality and remote control of widely spread sub stations.
SCADA enables the distribution company (DISCOM) to monitor, coordinate,
control and operate distribution components from a remote-control center. The
distribution management system (DCS) involves IT enabled solutions for ease in
management of the distribution system which includes energy billing, consumer
information, network outage and load management, asset and facilities
management.
SCADA and DCS have the following major functions-
 Acquisition of status/alarm data from the various switchgear
 Enable the operator to give control commands for circuit breaker, isolator
and tap changer.
 Measurement of parameters like V,I,P,Q, energy, power factor, frequency
of 33/11KV substations and distribution transformers.
 Communication of information from various substations to the master
control center and other offices through various media.

Advantages:
The SCADA system is leveraging technology for
 Reduction in costs of operation
 Increase in profitability
 Improvement in efficiency
 Increase in quality of customer service
 Prevention of commercial losses of the utility
 Achievement of technical excellence
 Easily handling required

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Applications
The SCADA system is used in sub transmission and distribution system for
achieving
 Quality power with limited losses
 Quick restoration following disruption
 Excellent information service, remote metering
 Efficient billing and realization

SCADA Features
1. Human machine interface system: The HMI consists of servers and
operators’ workstations along with peripherals. The man machine interface
(MMI) displays a variety of graphics for the operator about the status of
the distribution network through powerful HMI software. These include:
 Single line diagrams
 Report generation and display
 Alarm and event management
 Trend display
 Operation of equipment, fault indication
 Historical storage and retrieval

2. Communication networks: Different media like PSTN, Fibre Optic, Radio,

VSAT, GSM/GPRS, PLCC, wireless Ethernet for data communication
from remote locations to a master control center can be chosen based on
the individual project requirements.
3. Remote terminal units: These units are located at pole top / ring main units
/ substations / distribution transformers etc. and performs data acquisition,
control functions, alarm and event management functions.

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 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system (also
called a power super highway or an electrical super highway) uses direct
current for the bulk transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more
common alternating current (AC) systems. For long-distance transmission,
HVDC systems may be less expensive and suffer lower electrical losses.
For underwater power cables, HVDC avoids the heavy currents required to
charge and discharge the cable capacitance each cycle. For shorter distances, the
higher cost of DC conversion equipment compared to an AC system may still be
justified, due to other benefits of direct current links. HVDC projects for long-
distance transmission have two (or rarely, more) converter stations and a
transmission line interconnecting them. Generally overhead lines are used for
interconnection, but an important class of HVDC projects use submarine power
cables. A back-to-back station has no transmission line and connects two AC
grids at different frequencies or phase counts.
The first such commercial transmission line in India is from Rehant to Daadri
which is 800km long and carries a capacity of 500kV. Next came India's
1,450km-long Talcher-Kolar transmission link is the world's fifth longest
transmission line. The 500kV HVDC transmission line, also known as the East-
South transmission link, has a rated capacity of 2,500MW and is owned by
Power Grid Corporation of India. It was the world's second longest transmission
link at the time of commissioning in February 2003.

DISADVANTAGES OF HIGH VOLTAGE ALTERNATING CURRENT

 In AC line, the size of conductor is greater than DC Line.

 The Cost of AC Transmission lines are greater than DC Transmission lines.
 Due to Skin effect, the losses in AC system are more.
 In AC Lines, there is Capacitance, so continuously power loss when no
load on lines or Line is open.
 Other line losses are due to inductance.
 More insulation required in AC System
 Also corona Losses occur In AC System.
 There is telecommunication interference in AC System.
 There are stability and synchronizing problems in AC System.
 There are also re-active power controlling problems in AC System.

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ADAVNTAGES OF HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT

 There are two conductors used in DC transmission while three conductors

required in AC transmission.
 There are no Inductance and Surges (High Voltage waves for very short
time) in DC transmission.
 Due to absence of inductance, there are very low voltage drop in DC
transmission lines comparing with AC (if both Load and sending end
voltage is same)
 There is no concept of Skin effect in DC transmission. Therefore, small
cross-sectional area conductor required.
 A DC System has a less potential stress over AC system for same Voltage
level. Therefore, a DC line requires less insulation.
 In DC System, there is no interference with communication system.
 In High Voltage DC Transmission lines, there are no Dielectric losses.
 In DC Transmission system, there are no difficulties in synchronizing and
stability problems, and corona losses are very low.
 DC system is more efficient than AC, therefore, the rate of price of
Towers, Poles, Insulators, and conductor are low so the system is
economical.
 In DC System, the speed control range is greater than AC System.
 There is low insulation required in DC system (about 70%).
 The price of DC cables is low (Due to Low insulation)
 In DC Supply System, the Sheath losses in underground cables are low.
 DC system is suitable for High Power Transmission based on High
Current transmission.
 In DC System, The Value of charging current is quite low, therefore, the
length DC Transmission lines is greater than AC lines.

HVDC SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS

There are multiple HVDC configurations that can be chosen when designing new
HVDC links. Factors like location, power and voltage capability of the link,
chosen cable technology and so on, are used to decide which configuration to use.

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MONOPOLAR

A monopolar link consists of a single conductor and a return path through the
ground or the sea by the use of electrodes. Many subsea cables are installed as a
monopolar scheme to reduce costs. However, the use of return path through the
sea or earth leads to questions of corrosion on metallic objects and other
environmental concerns. In some areas, conditions are not conductive enough for
earth or sea return, such as fresh water cable crossings, or areas with high earth
resistivity. In such cases, a metallic neutral- or low-voltage cable is used for the
return path, and the DC circuit uses a simple local ground connection for potential
reference.

BIPOLAR

A bipolar HVDC system configuration consists of two poles, one with positive
polarity and one with negative polarity, each with their neutral points grounded.
In steady state, the current flows in a loop, causing no current to go through the
grounded return, and creating no corrosion concerns. In case of a fault on one of
the two poles, the other can function as a monopolar link with ground return. The
amount of transmitted power in a bipolar configuration is double that of a
monopolar system. Reversal of the power flow can be controlled by changing the
polarities of the two poles [2]. Skagerrak 3 and Skagerrak 4 are connected
together in a bipolar configuration, but has an interesting twist to the way they
are operated, due to the two different technologies. Hence, a switching scheme at
the VSC pole has to be applied in order for constant current direction in the two
links.

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BACK-TO-BACK

A back-to-back HVDC system is used as an interconnection of asynchronous AC

networks, or between two systems with different frequencies. In such systems,
the power transfer is limited to the relative capacities of the connected AC
systems. The two converters are located close to each other, often at the same
station.

MULTI-TERMINAL

A multiterminal system is referred to as a HVDC system consisting of three or

more converter stations. The objective of the multiterminal configuration is to
save costs and conversion losses, while providing enhanced reliability and
functionality. One of the potentials for multiterminal HVDC activity is offshore
interconnections of windfarms or oil and gas rigs.

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DISADVANTAGES OF HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT

 Due to commutation problem, Electric power can’t be produced at High

(DC) Voltage.
 For High Voltage transmission, we cannot step the level of DC Voltage
(As Transformer cannot work on DC)
 There is a limit of DC Switches and Circuit breakers (and costly too)
 Motor generator set is used for step down the level of DC voltage and the
efficiency of Motor-generator set is low than transformer so the system
makes complex and costly.
 The level of DC Voltage cannot be change easily. So we cannot get desire
voltage for Electrical and electronics appliances (such as 5 Volts, 9 Volts
15 Volts, 20 and 22 Volts etc.) directly from Transmission system.

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 Conclusion
This In-plant training allowed me to experience the role Electrical and Electronics
Engineering in an industry. I have also the Engineers are responsible in nation
building, commercializing the commodity and to make the life easier. And this
technical experience is a valuable one for my further placement interviews and
later part of my carrier. I will be grateful to the Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited,
EDN, Bangalore for giving me this wonderful opportunity.

THANK YOU

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