IJEEE, Volume 3, Issue 1 (February 2016)
ESTIMATION OF BREAKDOWN
STRENGTH OF SOLID INSULATING
MATERIALS
A. Masood1, M.U. Zuberi2
1,2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
2
mu.zuber.ee@amu.ac.in
Abstract-The objective of this research was to correlate
dielectric strength (E) of electrical insulating materials
with other properties like volume resistivity (v),
relative permittivity (r), loss tangent (tan) and
thickness (t) on an empirical basis. A simple equation
of the form E=A + Blog (v /rtan) to predict the
dielectric strength of a solid insulating material in the
ambient medium has been proposed. The constant ‘B’
has been obtained as a function of thickness (t) of solid
insulating materials. The values of electric strength
calculated using this equation for Polyethylene, Nomex,
Leatheroid, Trivoltherm, Clasefleece and Polyethylene
coated Leatheroid are quite in agreement with the
experimentally measured values. The proposed
equation is subsequently verified by calculating the
electric strength of Kraft paper, Mica, Empire cloth
and Fiber glass and is found to be quite in agreement
with earlier reported results. It is expected that the
equation obtained will help the designers as a handy
tool for quick estimation of breakdown strength of
solid dielectrics.
Index Terms- Breakdown Strength, Loss Tangent,
Relative Permittivity, Solid Dielectrics, Volume
Resistivity
I. INTRODUCTION
Solid insulating materials form an integral part of
all electrical equipment especially when the operating
voltages are high. The design of any electrical apparatus is
based on the dielectric strength of the electrical insulation
used and the design cannot be completely relied upon
unless an assessment of the dielectric strength of
insulation against applied voltages is made using high
voltage testing.
When high voltage testing is done on component
parts, elaborate insulation assemblies, and complete full-
scale prototype apparatus, it is possible to build up a
considerable stock of design information. Such test data,
although expensive, can be very useful, but it can never
really be complete to cover all future designs and
necessitates use of large factors of safety. A different
approach to the problem is the estimation of dielectric
strength of the insulation arrangement.
The theory behind dielectric breakdown has not
been fully understood. The interaction of fields, particles
and atoms on a microscopic level is so complex that exact
quantum mechanical solution is simply not possible [1,2].
International Journal of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
e-ISSN: 1694-2310 | p-ISSN: 1694-2426
A number of factors affecting dielectric strength, could be
listed and evaluated [3-5]. These include intrinsic material
properties, external environmental factors and test
conditions that may exist.However, the list can be
shortened considerablyif the environmental factors and
test conditions are kept constant. If this were the case, then
a list of intrinsic material properties which might affect the
dielectric strength such as relative permittivity (r), loss
tangent (tan),sample thickness (t), mobility of charge
carriers (), numberof charge carriers (n), ionization
energy (Ei),free path among molecules () and free
volume of the material (Vf) would result [6,7].
Out of the above parameters r, tan and t can be
measured in a relatively straight forward manner. Mobility
of charge carriers is very difficult to define [8]. However,
if the number of charge carriers are known, the volume
resistivity (v) measurement can be used to determine 
through the equation v=1/ne.
Since the mean free path of a free electron in a
material is dependent upon the free volume and the
molecular agitation within the material, which are
themselves temperature dependent, the increase in free
volume with temperature leads to an increase in the mean
free path. However, the increased molecular agitation at
high temperatures tends to decrease this path. Thus, the
measurement and calculation of this parameter is most
difficult.
Furthermore, from the energy considerations, the
kinetic energy which an electron acquires when subjected
to an electric field is dependent upon the mean free path
between collisions, which in turn should be equal to the
cube root of the free volume Vf.
With these constraints in measuring the above listed
intrinsic properties, Swanson et al [6] suggested a
relationship given by equation (1) to correlate the E with
v,r and tan.
Dielectric Strength, E=A+Blog (v /rtan) ----- (1)
This is based on the assumption of performing
experiments on the test samples of same thickness, which
is again an approximation to eliminate thickness ‘t’ from
the above equation.
Though Eq. (1) holds good for the evaluation of
dielectric strength of a number of solid insulating
materials, it suffers from the disadvantage that it is valid
for a particular large thickness of 1.397 mm and cannot be
used for dielectrics of smaller thickness. However it is
well established that the thickness affects the dielectric
strength of solid insulating material. To overcome this
8 www.ijeee-apm.com
deficiency of Eq. (1), the breakdown strength (BDS),
relative permittivity (r), loss tangent (tan) and thickness
(t) of different solid insulating materials in the ambient
medium have been measured and correlated incorporating
the thickness of the samples in the constant ‘B’to estimate
the BDS of solid insulants. The results obtained by the
proposed equation for Polyethylene, Nomex, Leatheroid,
Trivoltherm, Clasefleece and Polyethylene coated
Leatheroid were quite in agreement with the
experimentally measured values [9] and the results are
reproduced. Subsequently, the breakdown strength of
earlier reported samples [10] for Kraft paper, Mica,
Empire cloth and Fiber glass has been estimated using the (a) PE-ACDF-1Front Panel
proposed equation and compared with the experimental
values.

II. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

A. Measurement of Relative Permittivity and Loss
Tangent of Solid Dielectrics
Figure 1 shows the three-electrode system as described
in [11] to measure the relative permittivity and loss
tangent of various dielectrics. Measurements were made
using Automatic Capacitance & Dissipation Factor test
systemPE-ACDF-1 as shown in Figures 2. Its user-
friendly GUI, along with its settings allows display of
results on the same back-lighted colored LCD display and
printed by an integrated panel printer.Measurement of r
and tan were carried on Polyethylene, Nomex,
(b) Experimental Test Cell with PE-ACDF-1
Leatheroid, Trivoltherm, Clasefleeceand Polyethylene
Figure 2

B. Breakdown Strength Of Solid Dielectrics

The electrode assembly for obtaining the electric
strength is as per IS: 2584-1963[12]. Five samples of
equal thickness were tested with this arrangement. Taking
the ratio of average breakdown voltage to average
thickness of the sample, electric strength was determined.
Figure 3 shows the experimental setup to obtain the
electric strength.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
coated Leatheroid.
(a) Schematic of three electrode system

(b) Three electrode system Experimental Setup

Figure1. Three-electrode system used to investigate the relative Figure 3 Electrode assembly with high voltage transformer used for
permittivity and loss tangent breakdown voltage of insulation used in the high voltage laboratory

C. Sample Preparation
No special efforts were made to clean or modify the test
samples i.e. Polyethylene, Nomex, Leatheroid,

www.ijeee-apm.com International Journal of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 9

9/25/2019 Dielectric constant | physics | Britannica.com

  

Dielectric constant
PHYSICS

WRITTEN BY: The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

See Article History

Alternative Titles: relative permittivity, speci c inductive capacity

Dielectric constant, property of an electrical insulating material (a dielectric) equal to

the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor lled with the given material to the
capacitance of an identical capacitor in a vacuum without the dielectric material. The
insertion of a dielectric between the plates of, say, a parallel-plate capacitor always
increases its capacitance, or ability to store opposite charges on each plate, compared
with this ability when the plates are separated by a vacuum. If C is the value of the
capacitance of a capacitor lled with a given dielectric and C0 is the capacitance of an
identical capacitor in a vacuum, the dielectric constant, symbolized by the Greek letter
kappa, κ, is simply expressed as κ = C/C0. The dielectric constant is a number without
dimensions. It denotes a large-scale property of dielectrics without specifying the
electrical behaviour on the atomic scale.

The value of the static dielectric constant of any material is always greater than one, its
value for a vacuum. The value of the dielectric constant at room temperature (25° C, or
77° F) is 1.00059 for air, 2.25 for paraf n, 78.2 for water, and about 2,000 for barium
titanate (BaTiO3) when the electric eld is applied perpendicularly to the principal axis
of the crystal. Because the value of the dielectric constant for air is nearly the same as
that for a vacuum, for all practical purposes air does not increase the capacitance of a
capacitor. Dielectric constants of liquids and solids may be determined by comparing
the value of the capacitance when the dielectric is in place to its value when the
capacitor is lled with air.

https://www.britannica.com/science/dielectric-constant 1/10
9/25/2019 Dielectric Strength of Insulating Materials - Peak Demand Inc

PEAK DEMAND KNOWLEDGE CENTER

The Dielectric Strength of Insulating Materials

By Jon Rennie

Electrical
insulators are
used
throughout
transmission
and
distribution
circuits to
separate
voltage from
ground. The
materials used
in the design and production of electrical insulators have very unique
characteristics. These materials prevent internal electric charges from flowing
freely in the material which make it nearly impossible to conduct electrical
current.

Not all insulating materials are the same though. Some perform the task of
isolating electrical current better than others. In fact, the way to understand the
capability of material to prevent electrical conductivity is to look at its Dielectric
Strength.

Dielectric Strength is simply the maximum electric field that a material can
withstand without experiencing failure of its insulating properties. It’s measured
in megavolts per meter (MV/m). The higher the Dielectric Strength, the better a
material is to prevent electrical conductivity.

So what material has the highest Dielectric Strength? It might surprise you to
know that a perfect vacuum is actually the best electrical insulator. A perfect
vacuum has the highest dielectric strength, rated at 1×1012 MV/m. A perfect
vacuum contains no material to breakdown and is, therefore, the perfect
electrical insulator. In reality, a perfect vacuum is nearly impossible to achieve 
but a high vacuum is also a great insulator, rated at 30 MV/m. High vacuums are
used as an insulation method in equipment like vacuum circuit breakers.

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9/25/2019 Dielectric Strength of Insulating Materials - Peak Demand Inc

So, how do other insulating materials rank? The following is a partial list of the
Dielectric Strengths of various materials, including those used in transmission
and distribution applications:

Material Dielectric Strength

Perfect Vacuum 1×1012 MV/m

Mica 118 MV/m

Teflon 60 MV/m

High Vacuum 30 MV/m

Transformer Oil 24 MV/m

HDPE Insulator 20 MV/m

Silicon Insulator 20 MV/m

Glass Insulator 14 MV/m

Nylon 14 MV/m

Rubber 12 MV/m

Porcelain Insulator 12 MV/m

Air 3 MV/m

HDPE, Silicon, Glass, and Porcelain are all very close in terms of dielectric
strength. Each of these materials are used extensively in transmission and
distribution insulator applications.

Dielectric Strength a critical characteristic for materials used to design

insulators. Preventing electrical conductivity and maintaining a gap between
voltage and ground is an important function of all insulators. Choosing the right
material will ensure your insulator performs at the highest level.

Related Products
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9/25/2019 Insulation Resistance of a Cable | Why Cables are insulated?

WHY CABLES ARE INSULATED? An INTRODUCTION

With the exception of power transmission cables that are on electric

poles, almost all the cables that are in use today are insulated. The
level or degree of insulation resistance of a cable depends on the
purpose for which the cable was designed for. Apart from saving
energy from being lost or dissipated to the surrounding, one paramount
reason why cables are insulated is to save us from the danger of
being electrocuted.

Electricity is very dangerous. The first touch can be the last touch
and it never gives even a single chance. A slight touch of a cable
carrying electric current can lead to a fatal accident . Our body
conducts electricity partially. When our body comes in contact with a
current carrying conductor, the electric current will tend to flow from the
conductor then to our body. Our body being a partial conductor will not
be able to conduct away the electric current. When the current too
much than our body can contain, it then kills the person is question.

In order to avoid this kind of accident in our homes, it became

necessary that cables be insulated. The insulation prevents current
leakage as well as from reaching us thereby preventing us from being
electrocuted.

WHAT IS AN INSULATOR?
An Insulator is a material or a substance that do not conduct heat or
electricity. Insulators do not conduct heat or electricity because they
have no free moving electrons. Conductors are said to be insulated
when they are covered with an insulating materials such PVC etc. The

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9/25/2019 Insulation Resistance of a Cable | Why Cables are insulated?

process is called insulation. The insulator around the conductor

prevents electrical energy and signals from escaping to the
surrounding.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON INSULATED

MATERIALS
Increase in temperature increases resistance in conductors while
resistance decreases with increase in temperature in semiconductors
as well as insulators. Increase in temperature can make a
semiconductor a good conductor, an insulator a semiconductor.

INSULATION RESISTANCE OF A CABLE

Cable conductor is provided with an insulation of suitable thickness to
avoid the leakage of current. The thickness of any cable depends on
the purpose of its design. The path of current leakage in such cable is
radial. The resistance or opposition offered by the insulation to the flow
of current is also radial throughout its length.

For a single core cable conductor of radius r1, internal sheath radius r2,
length l and insulation material resistivity ρ, the perimeter of the
conductor is 2πrl. The thickness of the insulation will be given as dr.

Rins = ρdr/2πrl

When integrated, we will have:

Rins = ρ/2πl[loge r2 /r2 ]

Rins is inversely proportional to 1/l contrary to R = ρl. Where ρ (rho) is

a constant known as resistivity.
There are some cables that have more than one insulating layers and
more than one core. The main wire being at the center, serve as the
main conductor. The other core serves the purpose of grounding and
preventing the electromagnetic waves and radiations from escaping
from the cabled. It serve as a shield. Cables under this category is the
Coaxial cables.

Coaxial cable conducts electrical signal using an inner conductor (the

inner or main conductor could be any good conductor but copper is
mostly preferred because of it’s low resistivity, the copper could also be
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9/25/2019 Insulation Resistance of a Cable | Why Cables are insulated?

plated) is contained in mostly PVC case. Before the outer PVC case,
there are two or more other insulators with either aluminum foil or
copper strand between them. The cables are protected from external
environment by the outermost PVC case. While voltage is passed
through the inner conductor, the shield or case has little or no voltage
passing through it.

The advantage of coaxial design is that electric and magnetic fields are
confined to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield. Due to
the level of insulation in the cables which prevents outside
electromagnetic fields and radiations from penetrating into it,
interference is avoided. Since conductors with large diameter have less
resistance, less electromagnetic field will be leaked. The same goes for
cables with more insulation. Knowing that weaker signals are easily
interrupted by little interference, cables with more layers of insulation
are always good choice for conveying such signals.

FEATURES of an INSULATED CABLE

Having noted that cable insulation resistance is determined by its
purpose of design, there are some factors that an engineer would have
to consider before designing a cable. Coaxial cables would require
more insulation because the cable will not only prevent power leakage,
it trap the electromagnetic radiations. The insulation ranging from one
layer to two, three or four. Cables are engineered for different
purposes.

Below are some features that insulated cables have;

Heat resistant cables

High insulation resistance
High resistance to cuts, tears and abrasion
Better mechanical and electrical properties
Resistance to oil, solvent and chemicals
Resistant to ozone and weather.

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9/25/2019 Task Note: Definition of Flashover and Sparkover

Task Note
Thursday, 3 November 2016 Blog Archive

▼
▼ 2016 (3)
Definition of Flashover and Sparkover ▼
▼ November (3)
This causes tinnitus, Sound buzz in the
Flashover
ears Noisy...
Flashover is a disorder that occurs in the form of sparks that occur between kompenen
Definition of Flashover and Sparkover
insulator or high voltage electricity. This can occur due to failure of the insulation of the high
voltage system.The failure of the electrical insulator can be caused by the presence of small CHARGE AND DISCHARGE BATTERY
cavities in solid dielectric (porcelain) or due to the occurrence of flashover along the insulator CONTROLLER IN PHOTOVO...
surface. Small cavities in the insulator caused by isolator is made less than perfect at the time of
manufacture, thereby insulating the electrical characteristics of the poor. A small cavity in the
isolator will eventually cause mechanical damage to the insulator. The occurrence of flashover
causes damage to the insulator by heat generated due to arc along the insulator surface.
Therefore, the insulator must be made such that the voltage on a small cavity is higher than the
voltage that causes flashover.
Failure flashover (flashover)
began with the formation of a dry
band (dry band). As previously
explained, that the formation of
conductive layer on the surface of the
insulator caused by the presence of
pollutants that stick. Layer formed on
the insulator surface is causing the
flow of leakage current (leakage
current). With the flow of leakage
current, the heating occurs in the
layer. This layer can form a ribbon of
dry (dry band) due to leakage current
flowing continuously. At a certain
voltage, this condition can cause
discharge across the dry band. A
discharge can be elongated to form an electric arc (arc) and occur flashover (flashover) through
the entire surface of the insulator.

Sparkover
Sparkover is a disorder that occurs between the insulator due to the isolation factor less
than the maximum. It usually occurs due to insulation failure in the air, solid and liquid. This
disruption will cause a spark. Dry band formation is causing interference electric field along the
surface of the resulting voltage spark (spark over) and cause discharge in the area certain. Dry
band formation mechanism can be seen in Figure 6. Ribbon dry resistance, creep currents larger
than the area that is still wet. Therefore, voltage drops that occur in arid regions (ΔV) is greater
than the voltage falls in wet areas (ΔV '). At a distance d1 is equal to d2, this raises the voltage
falls Great field strength so that air including not hold the terrain and happened discharge
(discharge).

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9/25/2019 Tesla coil - Wikipedia

Operation
A Tesla coil is a radio frequency oscillator that drives an air-
core double-tuned resonant transformer to produce high
voltages at low currents.[10][15][16][17][18][19] Tesla's original
circuits as well as most modern coils use a simple spark gap to
excite oscillations in the tuned transformer. More sophisticated
designs use transistor or thyristor[15] switches or vacuum tube
electronic oscillators to drive the resonant transformer.

Tesla coils can produce output voltages from 50 kilovolts to

several million volts for large coils.[15][17][19] The alternating
current output is in the low radio frequency range, usually
between 50 kHz and 1 MHz.[17][19] Although some oscillator-
driven coils generate a continuous alternating current, most Homemade Tesla coil in operation, showing
Tesla coils have a pulsed output;[15] the high voltage consists of brush discharges from the toroid. The high
a rapid string of pulses of radio frequency alternating current. electric field causes the air around the high
voltage terminal to ionize and conduct electricity,
The common spark-excited Tesla coil circuit, shown below, allowing electricity to leak into the air in colorful
consists of these components:[16][20] corona discharges, brush discharges and
streamer arcs. Tesla coils are used for
A high voltage supply transformer (T), to step the AC entertainment at science museums and public
mains voltage up to a high enough voltage to jump the events, and for special effects in movies and
spark gap. Typical voltages are between 5 and 30 kilovolts television.
(kV).[20]
A capacitor (C1) that forms a tuned circuit with the primary
winding L1 of the Tesla transformer
A spark gap (SG) that acts as a switch in the primary circuit
The Tesla coil (L1, L2), an air-core double-tuned resonant transformer, which generates the high output voltage.
Optionally, a capacitive electrode (top load) (E) in the form of a smooth metal sphere or torus attached to the
secondary terminal of the coil. Its large surface area suppresses premature air breakdown and arc discharges,
increasing the Q factor and output voltage.

Resonant transformer
The specialized transformer used in the Tesla
coil circuit, called a resonant transformer,
oscillation transformer or radio-frequency
(RF) transformer, functions differently from
an ordinary transformer used in AC power
circuits.[21][22][23] While an ordinary
transformer is designed to transfer energy
efficiently from primary to secondary winding,
the resonant transformer is also designed to
temporarily store electrical energy. Each Unipolar Tesla coil circuit. C2 is not an A more detailed
winding has a capacitance across it and actual capacitor but represents the equivalent circuit of
functions as an LC circuit (resonant circuit, parasitic capacitance of the secondary the secondary
windings L2, plus the capacitance to showing the
tuned circuit), storing oscillating electrical
ground of the toroid electrode E. contributions of
energy, analogously to a tuning fork. The various stray
primary coil (L1) consisting of a relatively few capacitances.
turns of heavy copper wire or tubing, is
connected to a capacitor (C1) through the
spark gap (SG).[15][16] The secondary coil (L2) consists of many turns (hundreds to thousands) of fine wire on a hollow
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9/25/2019 Tesla coil - Wikipedia

cylindrical form inside the primary. The secondary is not connected to an actual capacitor, but it also functions as an
LC circuit, the inductance of (L2) resonates with stray capacitance (C2), the sum of the stray parasitic capacitance
between the windings of the coil, and the capacitance of the toroidal metal electrode attached to the high voltage
terminal. The primary and secondary circuits are tuned so they resonate at the same frequency, they have the same
resonant frequency. This allows them to exchange energy, so the oscillating current alternates back and forth between
the primary and secondary coils.

The peculiar design of the coil is dictated by the need to achieve low resistive energy losses (high Q factor) at high
frequencies,[17] which results in the largest secondary voltages:

Ordinary power transformers have an iron core to increase the magnetic coupling between the coils. However at
high frequencies an iron core causes energy losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis, so it is not used in the
Tesla coil.[23]
Ordinary transformers are designed to be "tightly coupled". Due to the iron core and close proximity of the
windings, they have a high mutual inductance (M), the coupling coefficient is close to unity 0.95 - 1.0, which
means almost all the magnetic field of the primary winding passes through the secondary.[21][23] The Tesla
transformer in contrast is "loosely coupled",[15][23] the primary winding is larger in diameter and spaced apart from
the secondary,[16] so the mutual inductance is lower and the coupling coefficient is only 0.05 to 0.2.[24] This
means that only 5% to 20% of the magnetic field of the primary coil passes through the secondary when it is open
circuited.[15][20] The loose coupling slows the exchange of energy between the primary and secondary coils,
which allows the oscillating energy to stay in the secondary circuit longer before it returns to the primary and
begins dissipating in the spark.
Each winding is also limited to a single layer of wire, which reduces proximity effect losses. The primary carries
very high currents. Since high frequency current mostly flows on the surface of conductors due to skin effect, it is
often made of copper tubing or strip with a large surface area to reduce resistance, and its turns are spaced apart,
which reduces proximity effect losses and arcing between turns.[25][26]
The output circuit can have two forms:

Unipolar - One end of the secondary winding is

connected to a single high voltage terminal, the
other end is grounded. This type is used in
modern coils designed for entertainment. The
primary winding is located near the bottom, low
potential end of the secondary, to minimize arcs
between the windings. Since the ground (Earth)
serves as the return path for the high voltage,
streamer arcs from the terminal tend to jump to
any nearby grounded object.
Bipolar - Neither end of the secondary winding
is grounded, and both are brought out to high
voltage terminals. The primary winding is
located at the center of the secondary coil,
equidistant between the two high potential
terminals, to discourage arcing. Unipolar coil design Bipolar coil, used in the early
widely used in modern 20th century. There are two high
coils. The primary is the voltage output terminals, each
Operation cycle flat red spiral winding at connected to one end of the
bottom, the secondary is secondary, with a spark gap
The circuit operates in a rapid, repeating cycle in
the vertical cylindrical between them. The primary is
which the supply transformer (T) charges the
coil wound with fine red 12 turns of heavy wire, which is
primary capacitor (C1) up, which then discharges in wire. The high voltage located at the midpoint of the
a spark through the spark gap, creating a brief pulse terminal is the aluminum secondary to discourage arcs
of oscillating current in the primary circuit which torus at the top of the between the coils.
excites a high oscillating voltage across the secondary coil.
secondary:[18][20][23][27]

1. Current from the supply transformer (T) charges the capacitor (C1) to a high voltage.
2. When the voltage across the capacitor reaches the breakdown voltage of the spark gap (SG) a spark starts,
reducing the spark gap resistance to a very low value. This completes the primary circuit and current from the
capacitor flows through the primary coil (L1). The current flows rapidly back and forth between the plates of the

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9/25/2019 Tesla coil - Wikipedia

capacitor through the coil, generating radio frequency oscillating current in the primary circuit at the circuit's
resonant frequency.
3. The oscillating magnetic field of the primary winding induces an oscillating current in the secondary winding (L2),
by Faraday's law of induction. Over a number of cycles, the energy in the primary circuit is transferred to the
secondary. The total energy in the tuned circuits is limited to the energy originally stored in the capacitor C1, so as
the oscillating voltage in the secondary increases in amplitude ("ring up") the oscillations in the primary decrease
to zero ("ring down"). Although the ends of the secondary coil are open, it also acts as a tuned circuit due to the
capacitance (C2), the sum of the parasitic capacitance between the turns of the coil plus the capacitance of the
toroid electrode E. Current flows rapidly back and forth through the secondary coil between its ends. Because of
the small capacitance, the oscillating voltage across the secondary coil which appears on the output terminal is
much larger than the primary voltage.
4. The secondary current creates a magnetic field that induces voltage back in the primary coil, and over a number
of additional cycles the energy is transferred back to the primary. This process repeats, the energy shifting rapidly
back and forth between the primary and secondary tuned circuits. The oscillating currents in the primary and
secondary gradually die out ("ring down") due to energy dissipated as heat in the spark gap and resistance of the
coil.
5. When the current through the spark gap is no longer sufficient to keep the air in the gap ionized, the spark stops
("quenches"), terminating the current in the primary circuit. The oscillating current in the secondary may continue
for some time.
6. The current from the supply transformer begins charging the capacitor C1 again and the cycle repeats.
This entire cycle takes place very rapidly, the oscillations dying out in a time of the order of a millisecond. Each spark
across the spark gap produces a pulse of damped sinusoidal high voltage at the output terminal of the coil. Each pulse
dies out before the next spark occurs, so the coil generates a string of damped waves, not a continuous sinusoidal
voltage.[18] The high voltage from the supply transformer that charges the capacitor is a 50 or 60 Hz sine wave.
Depending on how the spark gap is set, usually one or two sparks occur at the peak of each half-cycle of the mains
current, so there are more than a hundred sparks per second. Thus the spark at the spark gap appears continuous, as
do the high voltage streamers from the top of the coil.

The supply transformer (T) secondary winding is connected across the primary tuned circuit. It might seem that the
transformer would be a leakage path for the RF current, damping the oscillations. However its large inductance gives
it a very high impedance at the resonant frequency, so it acts as an open circuit to the oscillating current. If the supply
transformer has inadequate leakage inductance, radio frequency chokes are placed in its secondary leads to block the
RF current.

Oscillation frequency
To produce the largest output voltage, the primary and secondary tuned circuits are adjusted to resonance with each
other.[17][18][21] The resonant frequencies of the primary and secondary circuits, and , are determined by the
inductance and capacitance in each circuit[17][18][21]

Generally the secondary is not adjustable, so the primary circuit is tuned, usually by a moveable tap on the primary
coil L1, until it resonates at the same frequency as the secondary

Thus the condition for resonance between primary and secondary is

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A more detailed analysis of the circuit shows that resonance occurs, and the highest voltage is produced when the
resonant frequencies of the primary and secondary are slightly different.[28][29] So a more precise condition for
resonance is

where is the coupling coefficient of the transformer. However the Tesla transformer is very loosely coupled, and is
small, in the range 0.05 to 0.4. So the factor is close to unity, 0.917 to 0.999, so the two resonant frequencies
differ by 8% at most. Therefore, most sources[17][18][21] state the transformer is resonant when the resonant
frequencies of primary and secondary are equal.

The resonant frequency of Tesla coils is in the low radio frequency (RF) range, usually between 50 kHz and 1 MHz.
However, because of the impulsive nature of the spark they produce broadband radio noise, and without shielding can
be a significant source of RFI, interfering with nearby radio and television reception.

Output voltage
In a resonant transformer the high voltage is produced
by resonance; the output voltage is not proportional to
the turns ratio, as in an ordinary transformer.[23][30] It
can be calculated approximately from conservation of
energy. At the beginning of the cycle, when the spark
starts, all of the energy in the primary circuit is
stored in the primary capacitor . If is the voltage
at which the spark gap breaks down, which is usually
close to the peak output voltage of the supply
transformer T, this energy is

Large coil producing 3.5 meter (10 foot) streamer arcs,

indicating a potential of millions of volts.
During the "ring up" this energy is transferred to the
secondary circuit. Although some is lost as heat in the
spark and other resistances, in modern coils, over 85% of the energy ends up in the secondary.[18] At the peak ( ) of
the secondary sinusoidal voltage waveform, all the energy in the secondary is stored in the capacitance
between the ends of the secondary coil

Assuming no energy losses, . Substituting into this equation and simplifying, the peak secondary voltage
is[17][18][23]

The second formula above is derived from the first using the resonance condition .[23] Since the
capacitance of the secondary coil is very small compared to the primary capacitor, the primary voltage is stepped up to
a high value.[18]

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The above peak voltage is only achieved in coils in which air discharges do not occur; in coils which produce sparks,
like entertainment coils, the peak voltage on the terminal is limited to the voltage at which the air breaks down and
becomes conductive.[18][23][25] As the output voltage increases during each voltage pulse, it reaches the point where
the air next to the high voltage terminal ionizes and coronas, brush discharges and streamer arcs, break out from the
terminal. This happens when the electric field strength exceeds the dielectric strength of the air, about 30 kV per
centimeter. Since the electric field is greatest at sharp points and edges, air discharges start at these points on the high
voltage terminal. The voltage on the high voltage terminal cannot increase above the air breakdown voltage, because
additional electric charge pumped into the terminal from the secondary winding just escapes into the air. The output
voltage of open-air Tesla coils is limited to around several million volts by air breakdown, but higher voltages can be
achieved by coils immersed in pressurized tanks of insulating oil.

The top load or "toroid" electrode

Most Tesla coil designs have a smooth spherical or toroidal shaped metal
electrode on the high voltage terminal. The electrode serves as one plate of
a capacitor, with the Earth as the other plate, forming the tuned circuit
with the secondary winding. Although the "toroid" increases the secondary
capacitance, which tends to reduce the peak voltage, its main effect is that
its large diameter curved surface reduces the potential gradient (electric
field) at the high voltage terminal; it functions similarly to a corona ring,
increasing the voltage threshold at which air discharges such as corona and
brush discharges occur.[31] Suppressing premature air breakdown and
energy loss allows the voltage to build to higher values on the peaks of the
waveform, creating longer, more spectacular streamers when air Solid state DRSSTC Tesla coil with
pointed wire attached to toroid to
discharges finally occur.[23]
produce brush discharge
If the top electrode is large and smooth enough, the electric field at its
surface may never get high enough even at the peak voltage to cause air
breakdown, and air discharges will not occur. Some entertainment coils have a sharp "spark point" projecting from the
torus to start discharges.[31]

Types
The term "Tesla coil" is applied to a number of high voltage resonant
transformer circuits.

Tesla coil circuits can be classified by the type of "excitation" they use, what
type of circuit is used to apply current to the primary winding of the
resonant transformer:[32][33]

Spark-excited or Spark Gap Tesla Coil (SGTC) - This type uses a

spark gap to switch pulses of current through the primary, exciting
oscillation in the transformer. This pulsed (disruptive) drive creates a
pulsed high voltage output. Spark gaps have disadvantages due to the
high primary currents they must handle. They produce a very loud
noise while operating, noxious ozone gas, and high temperatures
Insides of a modern solid-state
which often require a cooling system. The energy dissipated in the
spark also reduces the Q factor and the output voltage. Tesla coil, featuring single-board
construction.
Static spark gap - This is the most common type, which was
described in detail in the previous section. It is used in most
entertainment coils. An AC voltage from a high voltage supply
transformer charges a capacitor, which discharges through the spark gap. The spark rate is not adjustable but
is determined by the line frequency. Multiple sparks may occur on each half-cycle, so the pulses of output
voltage may not be equally-spaced.

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Static triggered spark gap - Commercial and industrial circuits

often apply a DC voltage from a power supply to charge the
capacitor, and use high voltage pulses generated by an oscillator
applied to a triggering electrode to trigger the spark.[15] This allows
control of the spark rate and exciting voltage. Commercial spark
gaps are often enclosed in an insulating gas atmosphere such as
sulfur hexafluoride, reducing the length and thus the energy loss in
the spark.
Rotary spark gap - These use a spark gap consisting of
electrodes around the periphery of a wheel rotated at high speed
by a motor, which create sparks when they pass by a stationary Bottom side of the PCB, containing
electrode. Tesla used this type on his big coils, and they are used
today on large entertainment coils. The rapid separation speed of digital electronic components such
the electrodes quenches the spark quickly, allowing "first notch" as MCU and Bluetooth module to
quenching, making possible higher voltages. The wheel is usually provide wireless MIDI-compatibility.
driven by a synchronous motor, so the sparks are synchronized Also contains IGBT drivers, analog
with the AC line frequency, the spark occurring at the same point comparators, and 7400-series glue
on the AC waveform on each cycle, so the primary pulses are
repeatable. logic.

Switched or Solid State Tesla

Coil (SSTC) - These use power
semiconductor devices, usually
thyristors or transistors such as
MOSFETs or IGBTs,[15] to switch
pulses of current from a DC power
supply through the primary
winding. They provide pulsed
(disruptive) excitation without the
disadvantages of a spark gap: the
loud noise, high temperatures, and
poor efficiency. The voltage,
frequency, and excitation
waveform can be finely
controllable. SSTCs are used in
A simple single resonant solid This block diagram explains the
most commercial, industrial, and
state Tesla coil circuit in which principle of Tesla coil current
research applications[15] as well as
higher quality entertainment coils. the ground end of the secondary resonance type driving circuit.
supplies the feedback current
Single resonant solid state phase to the transistor oscillator.
Tesla coil (SRSSTC) - In this
circuit the primary does not
have a capacitor and so is not
a tuned circuit; only the secondary is. The pulses of current to the primary from the switching transistors excite
resonance in the secondary tuned circuit. Single tuned SSTCs are simpler, but don't have as high a Q and
cannot produce as high voltage from a given input power as the DRSSTC.
Dual Resonant Solid State Tesla Coil (DRSSTC) - The circuit is similar to the double tuned spark excited
circuit, except in place of the spark gap semiconductor switches are used. This functions similarly to the
double tuned spark-excited circuit. Since both primary and secondary are resonant it has higher Q and can
generate higher voltage for a given input power than the SRSSTC.
Singing Tesla coil or musical Tesla coil - This is a Tesla coil which can be played like a musical instrument,
with its high voltage discharges reproducing simple musical tones. The drive current pulses applied to the
primary are modulated at an audio rate by a solid state "interrupter" circuit, causing the arc discharge from the
high voltage terminal to emit sounds. Only tones and simple chords have been produced so far; the coil
cannot function as a loudspeaker, reproducing complex music or voice sounds. The sound output is controlled
by a keyboard or MIDI file applied to the circuit through a MIDI interface. Two modulation techniques have
been used: AM (amplitude modulation of the exciting voltage) and PFM (pulse-frequency modulation). These
are mainly built as novelties for entertainment.
Continuous wave - In these the transformer is driven by a feedback oscillator, which applies a sinusoidal current
to the transformer. The primary tuned circuit serves as the tank circuit of the oscillator, and the circuit resembles a
radio transmitter. Unlike the previous circuits which generate a pulsed output, they generate a continuous sine
wave output. Power vacuum tubes are often used as active devices instead of transistors because they are more
robust and tolerant of overloads. In general, continuous excitation produces lower output voltages from a given
input power than pulsed excitation.
Tesla circuits can also be classified by how many coils (inductors) they contain:[34][35]

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Related
Topics Type Test and
‣  Voltage Routine Test of
Distribution Over
Suspension
Insulator | String
Insulator
Efficiency
‣  Type Test and The different types of insulators must undergoes the
Routine Test of
following tests:
Insulator
‣  Causes of 1. Flash-over tests
failure of 2. Performance tests
insulator 3. Routine test
‣  Insulator in
overhead line
and types of
insulators
1) Flash over Tests:
There are three types of flash over tests which are to be
done before an insulator can be passed the following
Index
Flash over Test.
Symbols
Transformer
i) 50-cycle Dry Flash over Test:
Relay
In this test voltage is applied between the electrode of
Power-System
the insulator which is shown in fig. and the applied
Basic-electrical
voltage is gradually increased upto the certain voltage at
ACSR-Conductor
which the surrounding air breaks down. And that voltage
Circuit-Breaker
is called the flash over voltage. The insulator must be
Interview-
capable of sustaining the rated voltage for one minute.
questions-of-
Basic-Electricity
Interview- 50-cycle Wet Test for 30 seconds:
questions-of-
transformer In this test again the insulator is mounted in the same
Insulator manner as above, and the voltage is applied gradually but
Current- in addi on to this the insulator is sprayed with water at
Transformer
MCQ
an angle of 450 in such a manner that its precipita on
MCQ-
should not be more than 5.08 mm per minute. The
powersystem resistance of the water used for spraying must be
Thermal-power- between 9,000 and 11,000 ohms per cen meter cube at
station
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Interview- normal atmospheric temperature and pressure. The

questions-of-
withstanding the minimum standard voltage for 30
Power-System
seconds.
Power-
Electronics
Interview- ii) 50 cycle Flash-over Test:
questions-of-
Underground- This test is similar to that of wet-test, but in this case, the
Cable
voltage should be noted when the surrounding air breaks
Interview-
questions-of- down. The voltage must be equal to the minimum
Illumination specified value.
Illumination
MCQ-of- iii) Impulse Frequency Flash-over
Electronics
Test:
MCQ-of-Basic-
Electrical
The insulator used in the field, must also be tested against
MCQ-of-
Transformers the high voltage surges caused by lightning etc. For this
MCQ-of-D.C- test the generator developing ligh ng voltage is
motor employed, it develops a very high voltage at the
MCQ-of-D.C- frequency of several hundred thousand cycles per second.
generators
Such a voltage is applied hundred thousand cycles per
second. Such a voltage is applied to the insulator and the
spark over voltage at 50 cycles per second is called as
impulse ra o, i.e.,

This ra o should be approximately 1.4 for pin-type and

1.3 for the suspension-type insulator.

2) Performance Tests:
The following are the performance tests:

i) Temperature Cycle Test:

For this, the insulator is first heated in water at 70⁰C for
one hour than the insulator is immediately cooled in
water at 7⁰ C for another one hour. A er such three
temperature cycles, the insulator is dried. It should be
noted that a er this test the glaze of the insulator should

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not be damaged and later it should not be damaged and

later it should be tested for the rou ne high voltage test.

ii) Puncture voltage Test:

For such a test the insulator is suspended in insula ng oil
a certain minimum voltage is applied. The value of this
poten al in case of suspension voltage is 1.3 mes that of
dry flash over voltage. The good insulator should not
puncture under this test.

iii) Porosity Test:

The porosity of the material can well be determined by
the fuchsine penetra on test. In this test, the insulators
are broken into pieces and are immersed in a 0.5 percent
alcohol solu on of fuchsine dye under the pressure of
about 140.7 kg per sq. cm for about 24 hours. A er that
the same are removed and examined, a slight porosity of
the material is indicated by the deep penetra on of the
dye into it.

iv) Mechanical Strength Test (for

Pin type):
In this test, the insulator is mounted on a steel pin and
21/2 mes the maximum working load is applied for one
minute. This test is also called as the bending test and is
applicable to only pin insulators.

v) Electro-mechanical Test (for

Suspension type):
This test is applied to suspension insulators only, it
consists of the applica on of tensile stress of 21/2 mes
the maximum working tensile strength for about one
minute. Then a er this test the insulator is tested for 75
per cent of the dry spark over voltage.

3) Routine Test:
The following rou ne tests must be done before it can
finally recommend for use in the field.
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i) Proof-load Test:
For this test, all types of insulators are assembled and a
tensile load of 20 percent in excess of the specified load is
applied for about one minute.

ii) Corrosion Test:

The insulators complete with galvanized or steel fi ng
etc. must be tested against corrosion. For this test, its
fi ngs are suspended in a copper sulphate solu on at
15.6⁰ C for one minute. Then the fi ngs are removed,
wiped, cleaned and again put in copper sulphate solu on.
This is repeated for four mes. Then on examina on,
there should not be deposi on of metal over it.

iii) High voltage test:

In this test, the pin insulators are inverted and are put
into water up to the neck. The water is also put into the
spindle hole. Then high voltage is applied for 5 minutes.
Under this, there should be no damage to the insulator.

Related topics :
1. Voltage Distribution Over Suspension Insulator |
String Efficiency
2. Type Test and Routine Test of Insulator
3. Causes of failure of insulator
4. Insulator in overhead line and types of insulators

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