WPE2 Course Notes PDF

EWF/IIW Diploma –
Welding Processes and Equipment (Intermediate)
WPE2
Training & Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Rev 4 February 2013
Contents
Copyright  TWI Ltd 2013
EWF/IIW Diploma -
Welding Processes and Equipment (Intermediate)
Contents
Section Subject
Pre training briefing

1 Objectives
1.1 What the welding processes and equipment module is about
1.2 What does this module cover?
1.3 What is the final outcome I can expect?
1.4 What sort of material and learning methods are used?
1.5 Why is this module important to me?
1.6 My company has fixed ideas, who am I to change them?
1.7 My company just wants me to be IIW/EWF qualified so that I can sign
the paperwork, do I really need this knowledge?
1.8 What will I be able to do at the end of this course that I can’t do now?
1.9 So in a nutshell, what’s in it for me?
2 The History of Welding
2.1 Beginnings
2.2 Manual metal arc
2.3 Oxy-fuel welding
2.4 Semi-automatic welding
2.5 Other processes
3 General Introduction to Welding and Joining
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Joining methods
3.3 Welding processes
3.4 Surfacing or cladding
3.5 Joint configuration
3.6 Types of Weld
3.7 Features of the completed weld
3.8 Weld preparation
3.9 Types of preparation
3.10 Size of butt welds
3.11 Size of fillet welds
3.12 Shape of fillet welds
3.13 Welding position, slope, rotation and weaving
3.14 Standard references
IWS questions on general introduction
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4 Fabrication Standards
4.1 Application standards and codes
4.2 Approval of welding procedures and welders
4.3 Quality acceptance levels for welder procedure and welder approval
tests
4.4 Process reference numbers
Revision questions on standards
5 Weld Symbols
5.1 Standards
5.2 Basic representation
5.3 Edge preparation symbols
5.4 Weld sizing
Questions on weld symbols
6 Fusion Welding Processes
6.1 Creation and protection of weld pool
6.2 Direction of welding
6.3 Bead Shape
6.4 Electrical creation of an Arc
6.5 Creation of a molten pool by resistance heating
6.6 Creation of a molten pool by a power beam
6.7 Heat transfer
6.8 Weld pool shape
Questions on fusion welding Introduction and safety
7 Arc Welding Safety
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Electric shock
7.3 Heat
7.4 Light
7.5 Fumes and gases
7.6 Noise
7.7 Gas handling and storage
7.8 Working at height and in restricted access areas
7.9 Mechanical hazards
8 Gas Welding Processes
8.1 Flame formation
8.2 Oxy-acetylene welding
8.3 Equipment
8.4 Gas bottle identity and safety
8.5 Operating characteristics
8.6 Equipment safety checks
Questions on gas welding
9 Electricity as Applicable to Welding
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Automic structures
9.3 Electricity generation
9.4 Current, voltage, watts and resistance
9.5 Direct and alternating current
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9.6 Transforming electricity

9.7 Phase
9.8 Rectification
9.9 Series and parallel
9.10 Inductance
9.11 Capacitance
9.12 Transistors and thyristors
9.13 Inverters
Questions on electricity
10 Arcs and Plasmas
10.1 Formation and distinction
10.2 Arc and plasma zone
Questions on arcs and plasmas
11 Power Sources
11.1 Types of power source
11.2 Power source characteristics
11.3 Pulsed power
11.4 Slope control and gas purging
11.5 Duty cycle
11.6 Bibliography
Questions on power sources
12 TIG Welding
12.1 Process Characteristics
12.2 Arc Initiation
12.3 Current and polarity
12.4 Preparing the tungsten electrode
12.5 Shielding gas
12.6 Filler wires
12.7 Potential defects
12.8 Tungsten inclusions
12.9 Advantages of the TIG process
12.10 Disadvantages of the TIG process
Questions on TIG
13 MIG/MAG Welding
13.1 Process characteristics
13.2 Transfer modes
13.3 Welding parameters
13.4 Contact tip and nozzle set-up
13.5 Shielding gases
13.6 Solid wire consumables
13.7 Important inspection points/checks when MIG/MAG welding
13.8 Summary of solid wire MIG/MAG GMAW
13.9 Flux-cored arc welding
13.10 Process variants
Questions on MIG/MAG
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14 Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

14.1 History
14.3 MMA basic equipment requirements
14.4 Electrode types
14.5 Setting up for welding
14.7 Practical aspects of MMA
14.8 Manufacture of MMA electrodes
14.9 Storage and handling
14.10 Baking electrodes
14.11 Electrode classification
Questions on MMA
15 Submerged Arc Welding
15.1 History
15.3 Power source
15.4 Equipment
15.5 Consumables
15.7 Increasing productivity
15.8 Constant heat input
15.9 Twin wire
15.10 Hot or cold wire feed
15.11 Core wires
15.12 Metal powder addition
15.13 Increased electrode extension
15.14 DCEN welding
15.16 Classification of consumables
Questions on SAW
16 Electroslag Welding
16.1 History
16.3 ESW materials other than steel
16.4 Current status
16.5 Benefits and disadvantages
17 Thermal cutting and Gouging
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Oxyfuel cutting
17.3 Powder cutting
17.4 Oxyfuel gouging
17.5 MMA gouging
17.6 Air carbon arc gouging
17.7 Plasma arc cutting
17.8 Plasma arc gouging
17.9 Laser cutting
Questions on thermal cutting and gouging
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18 Plasma Arc Welding

18.1 History
18.3 Power source
18.4 Torch
18.5 Plasma and shielding gases
18.6 Backing system
18.7 Applications
Questions on plasma arc welding
19 Welding Consumables
19.1 Consumables for MMA welding
19.2 AWS A 5.1 and AWS 5.5-
19.3 Inspection points for MMA consumables
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Section 1
Objectives
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Objectives
1 Objectives
1.1 What the welding processes and equipment module is
about
Welcome to the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and European
Welding Federation (EWF) approved Diploma course offered by TWI
Training Examination Service (TES). Successful completion of your course
leads to qualification recognised in more than 40 countries. TWI-TES also
offers tuition to those who do not meet the IIW/EWF access criteria. The
syllabus and expected learning outcomes are given in an IIW publication,
IAB-252r8-07, of which a short version may be downloaded from either the
IIW website: www.iiw-iis.org or from the EWF website: www.ewf.be.
This course is designed to cover the syllabus but we emphasise that self-
study should account for at least as much time as the lectures. Larry Jeffus
(Welding – Principles and Applications) is an excellent source for basic
information, with coloured easy to follow diagrams. There are good books
covering the topics in greater depth: AC Davies – The Science and Practice
of Welding is a classic, but now rather dated, reference. Jeffries (Welding
Principles and Application) and Althouse, Turnqist, Bowditch, Bowditch,
Bowditch (Modern Welding) are newer titles with good explanations.
The internet is, of course, a prime source of reference, though care must be
taken as anyone can set up a website and post information, not all of which
is accurate. We strongly suggest that you use the technical information
available from TWI’s website www.twi.co.uk/content/tec_index.html
Others that you may find helpful are:

www.gowelding.com
www.welding-technology-machines.info
www.electronics-tutorials.com
With the changing face of the internet we cannot say that these sites will
remain in place and as useful as they seemed when we looked at them. We
recommend that you use a search engine to explore what is available for
any topic that you to learn more about.
We hope that you enjoy this learning experience. Good luck in the exams!
1.2 What does this module cover?

We will take you from the absolute basics – defining a weld, for instance –
through to quite detailed understanding of the make-up and characteristics
of arcs and plasmas. You will learn the basic electricity functions applicable
to welding and the relationship between such fundamentals as
transformation, rectification, inductance, etc and the behaviour of a welding
process.
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Objectives
We cover all of the commonly used processes and many of those

considered advanced or specialised. The basic principles behind each
process are described together with the equipment and materials necessary
for a quality joint.
Standards applicable to welding and symbols used on drawings to indicate

specific joints are covered and safety aspects are emphasised throughout.
Much of the module concerns fusion welding but solid state processes,
brazing, soldering, surfacing and cutting are also dealt with.
1.3 What is the final outcome that I can expect?

We emphasise that we work to an international syllabus, at one of three
levels, to prepare you for examinations that will qualify you to the same level
as welding co-ordinators trained in any of the countries complying with the
International Accreditation Board’s requirements. Your qualification will be
recognised in more than 40 countries around the world.
This module prepares you for specific exams on welding processes and
equipment, one of four modules that you need to achieve the end
qualification. Even if you choose not to be tested in this way, your
involvement in the course will have given you a much greater understanding
of the most influential parameters in welding and how to exert control over
them in order to achieve quality welds.
1.4 What sort of material and learning methods are used?

The rest of this volume contains notes and slides that show you the depth to
which we take each topic. We lecture and expect active participation. This
involvement increases as you progress through the levels - we expect those
at the Engineer Level to be making significant personal input into the
learning process.
We must point out that simply learning the notes is not enough. We make
frequent reference to private study and expect you to use all facilities –
library, reference books and the internet, especially the TWI website with its
Job Knowledge series of articles – to give you a fuller understanding of the
subject.
Our lecturers and course manager are always keen to hear from you. If you
have input to give, ideas for improvement, or you just have a concern over
the learning or examination, please speak to us.
1.5 Why is this module important to me?

All welding engineers, technologists and specialists are expected to know
the fundamentals of the welding processes. There is no-one in the company
with better knowledge, so if the welding operation does not go smoothly
everyone will turn to the specialist, ie you, for advice.
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Objectives
A key decision the welding specialist must make is to determine the best
process for the company to use for any application. This will require an
understanding, not only of the pros and cons of each process, but also any
attendant requirements necessary to make the process work efficiently.
This module will give you an understanding of how each process works and
the differences between them; the equipment, control and operator skill
required for each and the economic factors associated with choosing a
welding process.
1.6 My company has fixed ideas, who am I to change them?

We’re not saying change is necessary, nor always desirable, but WL
Bateman famously said:
"If you keep on doing what you've always done, you'll keep on getting what
you've always got."
Maybe your company has got it right and wants to continue getting what it
always got, but we doubt it. Everyone wants to remain competitive and
seeks to improve productivity. If not, we would still see rows of scribes with
quill pens rather than computers in offices.
Welding is a traditional process, but the equipment and control available

today make even the set-up of ten years ago obsolete. This course will
place recently developed processes and newer equipment types and
controls in context with traditional units. It will teach you how to judge true
advances and their benefit to your company.
1.7 My company just wants me to be IIW/EWF qualified so that

I can sign the paperwork, do I really need this knowledge?
Companies do have short-term goals and getting someone qualified as a
welding co-ordinator is an admirable one, but this shows that it is working on
contracts that demand that welding is taken seriously as a special process.
Having succeeded with the first of such contracts, your company will surely
look to take on more. A welding co-ordinator does far more than sign the
paperwork and will play a big part in determining the success of future
contracts of ever increasing technological and quality demands.
This module will give you the confidence to speak with authority on
fabrication techniques to be used and the cost-effectiveness of welding
processes at your disposal.
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Objectives
1.8 What will I be able to do at the end of this course that I can’t
do now?
This is a tricky one, as everyone has different skills coming into the course
and different requirements that they wish to gain from it. However, even if
you are on top of the game with regard to the applications you see every
day in your job, exposure to the requirements and decisions from other
quarters can only be of benefit. Who knows, maybe laser cutting or friction
stir welding is the next logical step for your company with regard to cost and
quality improvement.
This module will give you details of a wide range of processes available for
many different types of material.
1.9 So, in a nutshell, what’s in it for me?

The acquisition of knowledge about your speciality is never wasted. Even if
you don’t use all that you learn on this course immediately, your awareness
will be raised so that you will remember where to look for information when
circumstances demand it.
If your company develops opportunities in applications and materials

currently unfamiliar, you will be in a position to come to terms rapidly with
any new approaches necessary.
Whilst we recognise that you are likely to be sponsored by your company

against a company objective, we should also point out that your personal
development and the gaining of professional qualifications is of great benefit
to you, the individual, as you follow your career path.
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Section 2
The History of Welding

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2 The History of Welding

2.1 Beginnings
Forge welding, where two metallic items are heated to near melting and are
then hammered together until permanently bonded has been with us at least
since the early Egyptians, so the origin of welding lies back in pre-history.
The invention of the processes seen today is much more recent as it
required the availability of electricity or high temperature portable flames –
neither of which appeared before the latter part of the nineteenth century.
2.2 Manual metal arc (MMA)

The origin of MMA welding is a matter of dispute as a number of workers
had demonstrated that wires could be melted and joined by an electrically
generated arc. An Englishman called Wilde was granted a patent in 1865 for
using electrical power to melt and join small pieces of iron, but it is generally
accepted that the British and Russian patents of Bernados and Olszewaski
in 1885 and 1886 describing carbon arc welding were the start point of arc
welding. In fact Bernados started a company producing equipment for arc
welding and cutting.
In 1892, Coffin in USA and Slavianoff in Russia were granted patents for the
use of metal rods in place of one of the carbons in the Bernados equipment,
but it was not until Kjellberg in 1908 that the coated electrode appeared.
Almost coincidentally, Strohmenger in England found that wrapping a metal

rod with asbestos string stabilised the arc such that it could operate under
the newly available alternating current. This led his physicist friend to term it
a quasi-arc – a name he used for the consumables business he
subsequently set up.
These two systems of coating metal rods produced weld metal without
impurities for the first time and development of the MMA electrode to the
diversity we know today followed quite swiftly. Asbestos winding survived
into the 1950s before awareness was raised of the health and safety issues
and the electrodes were withdrawn.
2.3 Oxy-fuel welding

Acetylene was a laboratory curiosity around the time of Bernados, though
people were experimenting with ways of its high temperature flame. The
main problem was the unstable nature of the gas; it could not be
compressed without exploding. At the turn of the twentieth century, the use
of acetone as a solvent for acetylene was being examined but explosions
could still occur unless the liquid was absorbed into a porous material with
only capillary sized storage. This was perfected by Dalén of the AGA
Company in 1906 and the medium he produced is basically the same as is
used today.
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2.4 Semi-automatic welding

The development of the continuous wire processes took a little longer.
Bernados is credited with inventing the electroslag principle in 1908, but it
was not until the 1950s that the Paton Institute in Kiev developed it as a
viable welding process.
The Fusarc process was the first commercially available continuous feed
welding process. A central wire of maybe 4mm diameter was loosely spirally
wound with two smaller wires, wrapped in opposite directions creating a
diamond pattern of interstices into which electrode paste was squeezed.
The outermost winding wire broke the surface of the paste at the points
where it crossed over the inner thin wire so that electrical contact could be
made through it and the second wire to the core. An arc could therefore by
struck between the core wire and the workpiece and by loading the wire and
welding head on a tractor, a long length of weld could be made. An
improvement was made to the process by adding carbon dioxide shielding
to augment the limited cover from the thin layer of slag formed. The Fusarc
CO2 process was very successful but eventually superseded by submerged
arc welding production continued in Britain until the 1980s and even later in
India.
In 1930 patents were granted in the US for the use of continuous wire with
gas shielding provided through a concentric nozzle birth of Metal Inert Gas
(MIG) welding. The inventors, Hobart and Devers, used helium and argon
for shielding but because of the poor quality of the gases, the process was
not an immediate commercial success. It was not until 1948 that Linde
made a commercial success of the process then called (shielded inert gas
metal arc) SIGMA.
Submerged arc welding (SAW) was also developed in 1930 by Robinoff of

the National Tube Co in the US. The process was sold to Linde who
renamed it Union-Melt. It originally used lengths of metal rod rather than a
continuous wire but by the 1950s, SAW as we know it was available.
Carbon dioxide was introduced as an alternative gas for MIG on steel in

1953 and, in 1958, work at TWI and simultaneously in USSR and the US,
defined the short-circuiting arc under CO2.
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Flux-cored wires were developed in the late 1950s with Bernard

concentrating on gas-shielded ‘Dual-shield’ and Lincoln pioneering the no-
gas option Innershield.
2.5 Other processes

Engineers at the Northrop Aviation Co in the US developed Tungsten Inert
Gas (TIG) welding, gaining a patent in 1942 under the name Heliarc. They
needed a process to weld magnesium and stainless steel with precision so
used a non-consumable electrode (tungsten) and inert gas (helium)
shielding, hence the derivation of the name. Helium was more readily
available in the US so in the UK the process used argon and was originally
known as Argonarc.
Resistance welding was first used to create spot welds in the early part of
the twentieth century. It quickly found use in the automobile industry where it
is still used today, albeit now on the end of robot arms.
Thermit welding is also more than 100 years old, being the application of a
reaction between powdered aluminium and iron oxide first noted
Goldschmidt in 1903. It continues as the most popular method of joining rail
on-site.
The 1950s and 60s saw a rush of new welding processes (FSW) As well, as
those mentioned above, friction welding was invented in the USSR; electron
beam was developed in France; the CO2 laser appeared with enough power
to be used for cutting and welding; explosive welding and plasma welding
were developed in the US; cold pressure welding was invented at GEC, in
the UK and pulsed power was tried in several countries for MIG and TIG.
Since then, the pace of new process development has slowed with only the
invention of friction stir welding at TWI in 1991 as commercially significant in
last 40 years. The process was developed on aluminium but with
improvement in the design of refractory metal and ceramic tools, FSW of
steel has been demonstrated to be possible. Commercially, welding of
aluminium alloys for space vehicles, aircraft, trains and boats remains its
main application.
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Section 3
General Introduction to Welding

and Joining
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General Introduction to Welding and Joining
3 General Introduction to Welding and Joining

3.1 Introduction
Welding and joining, have their own terminology with abbreviations and
acronyms, but these soon become familiar. In this section we give the
definitions of basic terms.
3.2 Joining methods

Joining is the most general term used to refer to any process or procedure
by which two or more separate pieces of material are physically attached to
each other so as to create a single larger piece.
Joining covers welding, soldering, brazing, adhesive bonding, diffusion

bonding, riveting, clinching and non-engineering processes such as sewing
that will not be dealt with in these notes.
3.2.1 Welding
Welding is defined as an operation in which two or more parts are united by
means of heat or pressure or both, in such a way that there is continuity in
the nature of the metal between these parts.
Many materials such as metals, plastics and ceramics may be welded

though some require the use of specific processes and techniques and a
number are considered unweldable, a term not usually found in dictionaries
but useful and descriptive in engineering.
The parts that are joined are termed parent material and any material
added to help form the joint is called filler or Consumable. The form of
these materials may see them referred to as parent plate or pipe filler
wire, consumable electrode (for arc welding) etc. Consumables are
usually chosen to be similar in composition to the parent material thus
forming an homogenous weld but there are occasions, such as when
welding brittle cast irons, when a filler with very different composition and
therefore properties is used. Such welds are called heterogeneous.
The completed welded joint may be referred to as a weldment.
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3.2.2 Brazing
A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during or after
heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or retained in the space between
closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary attraction. In
general, the melting point of the filler metal is above 450C but always below
the melting temperature of the parent material.
The composition of the filler for brazing is often very different from parent
material; for instance, steel may be brazed with copper alloy filler.
3.2.3 Soldering
A similar process to brazing, relying on capillary attraction to draw molten
filler into a gap between parts that remain solid throughout. Solders melt at
low temperatures – less than 450ºC. For steel and copper, solders are
usually alloys of tin.
3.2.4 Braze welding

The joining of metals using a technique similar to fusion welding and a filler
metal with a lower melting point than the parent metal, but neither using
capillary action as in brazing nor intentionally melting the parent metal.
Basically, bulk addition of filler is made in a manner similar to welding but

the aim is to melt only this consumable leaving the parent material wetted by
the molten braze metal but not melted.
3.2.5 Diffusion bonding

Component parts are held together with force and are heated to a
temperature at which easy atomic movement makes possible the diffusion
of material from one part to the other. Sometimes assisted by an interlayer
placed between the two parent parts but during the process this layer is fully
absorbed into the parent material.
3.2.6 Adhesive bonding

Sophisticated adhesives are now available that can achieve very good joint
strength in most materials. Adhesives may be single component material
dissolved in a solvent for ease of application or may be two parts that
interact chemically when mixed. They may set or cure at room temperature
or require holding at temperature to create full bond strength.
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3.2.7 Mechanical bonding

Rivets, bolts, nails, etc have all been used to join materials. Merely forcing
one material into another to form a bonding point, Clinching, is used for
more malleable materials. These processes are not explicitly covered in the
course but should not be forgotten as viable joining methods. Rivets are
commonly seen in bridges and aircraft wings.
Occasionally, hybrid bonding consisting of both adhesive and mechanical

bonding is used for an application. An example is the creation of an
aluminium alloy chassis for a sports car using adhesive and rivets.
3.3 Welding processes

Welding processes fall into two groups – those in which fusion takes place
and those that achieve solid state bonding.
Fusion welding includes

 Oxy-fuel gas welding (OFW).
 Manual metal (LIC) arc (MMA).
 Metal inert/active gas (MIG/MAG).
 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW).
 Tungsten inert gas (TIG).
 Submerged arc welding (saw).
 Electroslag welding (ESW).
 Laser welding (LASER is itself an acronym: light amplification by
stimulated Emission of radiation).
 Electron beam (EB or EBW).
 Resistance; magnetically impelled arc butt (MIAB) and others.
American codes and standards use different terminology and abbreviations

for these processes:
 MMA – Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW).

 MIG/MAG – Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW).
 TIG – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).
 Laser - Laser Beam Welding (LBW).
Solid state processes do not involve melting because some materials can
be permanently welded together by pressure if in a suitably malleable state.
This may require the application of some heat, eg forge welding as carried
out by blacksmiths, and friction welding in its many forms. Explosive cold
pressure and ultrasonic welding are examples of processes in which heat is
not deliberately generated.
The most common of the abovementioned welding processes are described

in these notes and some further ones are given in the Advanced Processes
notes, but neither attempts to give an exhaustive listing of all of the welding
processes that have been demonstrated.
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3.4 Surfacing or cladding

Surfacing uses welding processes, not to join together two pieces of parent
material, but to coat one with a second material that may be similar in
composition is more usually different with particular properties, eg corrosion,
wear or heat resistance, not possessed by the base material.
Often mild steel is surfaced with stainless steel or a nickel alloy to give a
layered material that has the benefit of corrosion performance on one side
but at a lower cost than if the component were to be fully from the corrosion
resistant alloy.
There are more extreme examples of the possibilities presented by

surfacing, often involving a mix of metals and ceramics. High performance
internal combustion engine pistons can be produced from an aluminium
alloy for lightness but coated with ceramic aluminium oxide for high
temperature corrosion/erosion resistance. Glass reflectors may have a
metal coating applied to one side to produce the reflective surface.
These coatings may be applied by what are basically welding processes, eg

SAW, ESW, MIG/MAG and friction, but may also be created by the
projection of metallic or ceramic particles through high-speed flame or
plasma guns. This process often referred to as spraying thinly coats to
components without melting the base material.
Cladding is a more general term that covers the surfacing techniques but
also includes explosive and roll bonding of one plate or tube to another to
create a duplex structure.
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3.5 Joint configuration

The table below defines some of the more common joint configurations:
Type of joint Sketch Definition

A connection between the ends or edges of two
Butt joint parts making an angle to one another of 135 to 180
inclusive in the region of the joint.
A connection between the end or edge of one part
and the face of the other part, the parts making an
T joint angle to one another of more than 5 up to and
including 90 in the region of the joint
A connection between the ends or edges of two

parts making an angle to one another of more than
Corner joint 30 but less than 135 in the region of the joint
A connection between the edges of two parts

making an angle to one another of 0 to 30 inclusive
Edge joint
in the region of the joint
A connection in which two flat plates or two bars are

welded to another flat plate at right angles and on
the same axis
Cruciform joint
A connection between two overlapping parts making

Lap joint an angle to one another of 0 to 5 inclusive in the
region of the weld or welds
3.6 Types of weld

3.6.1 Based on configuration
Butt weld Fillet weld
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In a butt joint
Butt In a T joint
In a corner joint
Slot weld
Joint between two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet weld
round the periphery of a hole in one component so as to join it to the surface
of the other component exposed through the hole.
Plug weld
Weld made by filling a hole in one component of a workpiece with filler metal
so as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed through
the hole (the hole can be circular or oval).
3.6.2 Based on penetration

Full penetration weld
Welded joint where the weld metal fully penetrates the joint with complete
root fusion. In US the preferred term is complete joint penetration weld
(CJP, see AWS D1.1).
Partial penetration weld:

Weld in which the fusion penetration is intentionally less than full
penetration. In US the preferred term is partial joint penetration weld (PJP).
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3.6.3 Based on composition

Autogenous
Fusion weld made without filler metal which can be achieved by TIG,
plasma, electron beam, laser or oxy-fuel gas welding.
Homogeneous
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have no significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example:
two carbon steel plates welded with a matching carbon steel filler metal.
Heterogeneous
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example:
a repair weld of a cast iron item performed with a nickel-based electrode.
Dissimilar
Welded joint in which the parent materials have significant differences in
mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example: a carbon
steel lifting lug welded onto an austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel.
3.6.4 Based on accessibility
Single side weld Double side weld
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3.7 Features of the completed weld
Butt weld
Fillet weld
Parent metal
Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazing.
Filler metal
Metal added during welding; braze welding, brazing or surfacing.
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Weld metal
All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld.
Heat-affected zone (HAZ)

The part of the parent metal that is metallurgically affected by the heat of
welding or thermal cutting, but not melted.
Fusion line
The boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld. This is
a non-standard term for weld junction.
Weld zone
Zone containing the weld metal and HAZ.
Weld face
Surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld has been
made.
Weld root
Zone on the side of the first run furthest from the welder.
Weld toe
Boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or between runs. A
very important feature of a weld since toes are points of high stress
concentration and often are initiation points for different types of cracks (eg
fatigue cracks, cold cracks). To reduce the stress concentration, toes must
blend smoothly into the parent metal surface.
Excess weld metal

Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes. Other non-standard
terms for this feature: reinforcement, overfill. Note: the term reinforcement,
although commonly used, is inappropriate because any excess weld metal
over and above the surface of the parent metal does not make the joint
stronger. In fact, the thickness considered when designing a welded
component is the ‘design throat thickness’ (see Section 10), which does not
include the excess weld metal.
Run (pass)
Metal melted or deposited during one passage of an electrode, torch or
blowpipe.
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Single run weld Multirun weld
Layer
Stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more runs.
3.8 Weld preparation

A preparation for making a connection where the individual components,
suitably prepared and assembled, are joined by welding or brazing.
Features of weld preparation:
Angle of bevel
Angle at which the edge of a component is prepared for making a weld.
For an MMA weld on carbon steel plates, the angle is typically:
 25-30 for a V preparation.

 8-12o for a U preparation.
 40-50o for a single bevel preparation.
 10-20o for a J preparation.
Included angle
Angle between the planes of the fusion faces of parts to be welded. In the
case of single V or U and double V or U this angle is twice the bevel angle.
In the case of single or double bevel, single or double J bevel, the included
angle is equal to the bevel angle.
Root face
Portion of a fusion face at the root that is not bevelled or grooved. Its value
depends on the welding process used, parent material to be welded and
application; for a full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it typically is
around 1-2mm (for the common welding processes).
Gap
Minimum distance at any cross section between edges ends or surfaces to
be joined. Its value depends on the welding process used and application;
for a full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it is usually 1-4mm.
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Root radius
Radius of the curved portion of the fusion face in a component prepared for
a single J or U, double J or U weld. In MMA, MIG/MAG and oxy-fuel gas
welding on carbon steel plates, typical root radii are 6mm for single and
double U preparations and 8mm for single and double J preparations.
Land
Straight portion of a fusion face between the root face and the curved part of
a J or U preparation. It is not essential to have a land but it is usually
present in weld preparations for MIG welding of aluminium alloys.
3.9 Types of preparation

Open square butt preparation
Used for welding thin components, from one or both sides. If the root gap is
zero (ie if components are in contact), this preparation becomes a closed
square butt preparation (not recommended due to the lack of penetration
problems)!
Single V preparation
The V preparation is one of the most common preparations used in welding;

can be produced using flame or plasma cutting (cheap and fast).
Double V preparation
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For thicker plates a double V preparation is preferred since it requires less

filler material to complete the joint and the residual stresses can be
balanced on both sides of the joint resulting in lower angular distortion.
The depth of preparation can be the same on both sides (symmetric double
V preparation) or can be deeper on one side compared with the opposite
side (asymmetric double V preparation). Usually, in this situation the depth
of preparation is distributed as 2/3 of the thickness of the plate on the first
side with the remaining 1/3 on the backside. This asymmetric preparation
allows for a balanced welding sequence with root back gouging, giving lower
angular distortions. Whilst single V preparation allows welding from one
side, double V preparation requires access to both sides (the same applies
for all double side preparations).
Single U preparation
U preparation can be produced only by machining (slow and expensive).
Tighter tolerances provide a better fit-up than in the case of V preparations.
Usually applied to thicker plates as it requires less filler material to complete
the joint compared with single V preparation and this leads to lower residual
stresses and distortions.
Double U preparation
As with V preparation, for very thick sections a double U preparation can be

used. Usually this type of preparation does not require a land, except for
aluminium alloys.
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Single V preparation with backing strip
Backing strips allow the production of full penetration welds with increased
current and hence increased deposition rates/productivity without the
danger of burn-through. Backing strips can be permanent or temporary.
Permanent types are made of the same material as being joined and are
tack welded in place. The main problems related to this type of weld are
poor fatigue resistance and the probability of crevice corrosion between the
parent metal and the backing strip. It is also difficult to examine by NDT due
to the built-in crevice at the root of the joint. Temporary types include copper
strips, ceramic tiles and fluxes.
3.9.1 Single plate and T joint preparations

All the following preparations (single/double bevel and J) can be used on T
joints as well as plate butts. Double preparations are recommended for thick
sections. The main advantage of these preparations is that only one
component is prepared (cheap, can allow for small misalignments).
Single bevel preparation
Double bevel preparation (also referred to as K-preparation)
Single J preparation
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Double J preparation
3.10 Size of butt welds

Full penetration butt weld
Partial penetration butt weld
As a general rule:
Actual throat thickness = design throat thickness + excess weld metal.
Full penetration butt weld ground flush
Actual throat thickness

= design throat
thickness
Butt weld between two plates of different thickness
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3.11 Size of fillet welds
3.12 Shape of fillet welds

Mitre fillet weld
Flat face fillet weld in which the leg lengths are equal within the agreed
tolerance. The cross section area of this type of weld can be considered to
be a right angle isosceles triangle with a design throat thickness a and leg
length z. The relation between design throat thickness and leg length is:
a = 0.707  z
or
z = 1.41  a.
Convex fillet weld
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Fillet weld in which the weld face is convex. The above relation between the
leg length and the design throat thickness written for mitre fillet welds is also
valid for this type of weld. Since there is excess weld metal present in this
case, the actual throat thickness is greater than the design throat thickness.
Concave fillet weld

Fillet weld in which the weld face is concave. The relation between the leg
length and design throat thickness specified for mitre fillet welds is not valid
the design throat thickness is equal to the actual throat thickness. Due to the
smooth blending between the weld face and the surrounding parent
material, the stress concentration effect at the toes of the weld is reduced
compared with the previous type. This is why this type of weld is highly
desired in case of applications subjected to cyclic loads where fatigue
phenomena might be a major cause for failure.
Asymmetrical fillet weld

Fillet weld in which the vertical leg length is not equal to the horizontal leg
length. The relation between the leg length and design throat thickness is no
longer valid for this type of weld because the cross section is not an
isosceles triangle.
Horizontal
leg size
Vertical leg
size
Throat size
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Deep penetration fillet weld

Fillet weld with a deeper than normal penetration produced using high heat
input welding processes (ie SAW or MAG with spray transfer). This type of
weld uses the benefits of greater arc penetration to obtain the required
throat thickness whilst reducing the amount of deposited metal needed, thus
leading to a reduction in residual stress level. To produce a consistent and
constant penetration, the travel speed must be kept constant, at a high
value. As a consequence, this type of weld is usually produced using
mechanised or automatic welding processes. Also, the high depth-to-width
ratio increases the probability of solidification centreline cracking. In order to
differentiate this type of weld from the previous types, the throat thickness is
symbolised with s instead of a.
Double bevel compound weld

A combination of butt and fillet welds used for T joints with full or partial
penetration or butt joints between two plates with different thickness. Fillet
welds added on top of the groove welds improve the blending of the weld
face towards the parent metal surface and reduce the stress concentration
at the toes of the weld.
Bevel
weld
Fillet
weld
3.13 Welding position, slope, rotation and weaving

Welding position
The orientation of a weld expressed in terms of working position, weld slope
and weld rotation (for further details, see BS EN ISO 6947).
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The following table gives the commonly used terminology:

Welding Sketch Definition and symbol
position according to
BS EN ISO 6947
A welding position in which
the welding is horizontal, with
Flat the centreline of the weld
vertical. PA.
the welding is horizontal
Horizontal- (applicable in case of fillet
vertical welds). PB

the welding is horizontal, with
the centreline of the weld
horizontal. PC
Horizontal

the welding is upwards. PF.
Vertical-up

the welding is downwards. PG
Vertical-
down

the welding is horizontal and
Overhead overhead, with the centreline
of the weld vertical. PE.

the welding is horizontal and
Horizontal- overhead (applicable in case
overhead of fillet welds). PD.
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3.13.1 Tolerances for welding position
Weld slope
The angle between root line and the positive X axis of the horizontal
reference plane, measured in mathematically positive direction (ie counter-
clockwise).
Weld rotation
The angle between the centreline of the weld and the positive Z axis or a
line parallel to the Y axis, measured in the mathematically positive direction
(ie counter-clockwise) in the plane of the transverse cross-section of the
weld in question.
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Weaving
Weave
This is the transverse oscillation of an electrode or blowpipe nozzle during

the deposition of weld metal and this technique is generally used in vertical-
up welds.
Stringer bead
A run of weld metal made with little or no weaving motion.
3.14 Standard references

BS 499-1:2009 Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding, brazing
and thermal cutting
BS 499-2C:1999 Welding terms and symbols. European arc welding

symbols in chart form
BS EN 14610:2004 Welding and allied processes. Definitions of metal

welding processes
PD CEN/TR 14599:2005 Terms and definitions for welding purposes in

relation with EN 1792
BS EN ISO 17659:2004 Welding. Multilingual terms for welded joints with

illustrations
BS EN ISO 6947:1997 Welds. Working positions. Definitions of angles of

slope and rotation
Note: This list includes the main European standards concerning welding
terms and symbols but is not intended to be exhaustive. In general, national
and international codes (eg ASME, ASTM, AWS, DNV) comprise specific
sections or standards for definitions and abbreviations.
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IWS Revision Questions on General Introduction
1. Sketch a double bevel Tee butt weld with full penetration and superimposed mitre
fillet welds.
2. Sketch a single Vee butt weld and indicate the features.
3. Sketch a double J butt weld.
4. Indicate the typical excess weld metal dimension on a butt weld in 6mm thickness
material.
5. For which is MMA a abbreviation?
6. Sketch actual throat thickness compared with design throat thickness.
IWT Revision Questions on General Introduction

1. Define weld slope and weld rotation.
2. What are the positions PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF and PG?
3. Deduce the relationship between leg length and throat mathematically.
4. Draw a cross-section of a double V butt joint and label:

a Fusion line
b Toes
c Root run
d Reheated region of an underlying weld bead
5. Sketch a slot weld in section and in plan.
6. Define an edge joint.
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Section 4
Fabrication Standards
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4 Fabrication Standards
Application standards and codes of practice ensure that a structure or
component will have an acceptable level of quality and be fit for the
intended purpose.
The requirements for standards on welding procedure and welder

approval are explained below. The term approval is used in European
standards in the context of both testing and documentation; the
equivalent term in the ASME standard is qualification.
A standard has also been constructed that gives a unique number to a

welding process, described below. An overview of the European
(international) standards used in fusion welding is given in the Appendix
4.1 Application standards and codes

There are essentially three types of standards that are referenced in
fabrication:
 Application and design.

 Specification and approval of welding procedures.
 Approval of welders.
There are also specific standards covering material specifications,

consumables, welding equipment and health and safety. British
Standards are used to specify the requirements, for example, in
approving a welding procedure, they are not a legal requirement but may
be cited by the Regulatory Authority as a means of satisfying the law.
Health and Safety guidance documents and codes of practice may also
recommend standards.
Codes of practice differ from standards in that they are intended to give
recommendations and guidance, for example, on the validation of power
sources for welding. It is not intended that they should be used as a
mandatory or contractual documents.
Most fabricators will be working to one of the following:
 Company or industry specific standards.

 National BS (British Standard).
 European BS EN (British Standard European Standard).
 US AWS (American Welding Society) and ASME (American Society of
Mechanical Engineers).
 International ISO (International Standards Organisation).
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In European countries, national standards are being replaced by EN and

ISO standards. When there is no equivalent EN standard, the National
standard can be used for example, the BS EN 287 and BS EN ISO 9606
series replaced BS 4871 and 4872, but BS 4871 Part 3 and 4872 Part 1
remains a valid standard.
Examples of application codes and standards and related welding

procedure and welder approval standards are listed below:
Application Welding procedure

Application Welder approval
code/standard approval
BS 5276 BS EN 287
Pressure BS EN ISO 15614
BS PD 5500 BS EN ISO 9606
vessels ASME Section IX
ASME Section VIII ASME Section IX
BS 2633 BS EN 287
BS EN ISO 15614
Process BS 2971 BS 4872
ASME IX
pipework BS 4677 BS EN ISO 9606
ASME B31.1/B31.3 ASME IX
BS EN 1090 BS EN 287
Structural BS 8118 BS EN ISO 15614 BS 4872
fabrication AWS D1.1/ D1.2/ D1.6 AWS D1.1/ D1.2/ D1.6 BS EN ISO 9606
AWS D1.1/ D1.2/ D1.6
BS EN 12285 BS EN 287
Storage BS EN ISO 15614
BS EN 14015 BS EN ISO 9606
tanks ASME IX
API 620/650 ASME IX
4.2 Approval of welding procedures and welders

An application standard or code of practice will include requirements or
guidelines on material, design of joint, welding process, welding
procedure, welder qualification and inspection or may invoke other
standards, for example for welding procedure and welder approval tests.
The requirements for approvals are determined by the relevant
application standard or as a condition of contract. The manufacturer will
normally be required to approve the welding procedure and welder
qualification or to have it witnessed by an independent inspection
authority.
Welding procedure approval test

Carried out by a competent welder the quality of the weld is assessed
using non-destructive and mechanical testing techniques. The intention is
to demonstrate that the proposed welding procedure will produce a
welded joint that will satisfy the specified requirements of weld quality and
mechanical properties.
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As shown in the table above, welding procedure approval is carried out

according to the BS EN 15614 series (different parts correspond to
different fusion welding processes), Section IX of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, other codes such as AWS D1.1 for structural
welding, DNV-OS-F101 (offshore structures) include requirements for
welding procedure qualification.
Welder approval test

Examines a welder's skill and ability in producing a satisfactory test weld.
The test may be performed with or without a qualified welding procedure.
Note: Without an approved welding procedure the welding parameters
must be recorded.
BS EN 287, BS ISO EN 9606 and ASME Section IX would be appropriate

for welders on high quality work such as pressure vessels, pressure
vessel piping and offshore structures. They are also used for other
products where the consequences of failure, stress levels or complexity
mean that a high level of welded joint integrity is essential. In less
demanding situations, such as small to medium building frames and
general light structural and non-structural work, an approved welding
procedure may not be necessary. However, to ensure an adequate level
of skill, welders are often approved to a less stringent standard, eg BS
4872.
Coded welder is an expression often used to denote an approved welder

but the term is not recognised in any of the standards. It is used in the
workplace to describe those welders whose skill and technical
competence have been approved to the requirements of an appropriate
standard.
4.3 Quality acceptance levels for welding procedure and

welder approval tests
When welding to application standards and codes consideration must be
given to the imperfection acceptance criteria that must be satisfied. Some
standards contain an appropriate section relating to the acceptance levels
while others make use of a separate standard. For example, in welding
procedure and welder approval tests to BS EN ISO 15614-1 and BS EN
ISO 287 Pt1, reference is made to BS EN ISO 5817. The application
standard may specify more stringent imperfection acceptance levels,
however, and/or require additional tests to be carried out as part of the
welding procedure approval test. For example, for joints that must operate
at high temperatures, elevated temperature tensile testing may be
required whereas for low temperature applications, impact or CTOD tests
may be specified.
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Guidance on permissible levels of imperfections in arc welded joints in

steel is given in BS EN ISO 5817. Production quality, but not fitness-for-
purpose, is defined in terms of three levels of quality for imperfections:
 Moderate Level D.
 Intermediate Level C.
 Stringent Level B.
The standard applies to most arc welding processes and covers

imperfections such as cracks, porosity, inclusions, poor bead geometry,
lack of penetration and misalignment.
As the quality levels are related to the types of welded joint and not to a
particular component, they can be applied to most applications for
procedure and welder approval. The quality levels which are the most
appropriate for production joints will be determined by the relevant
application standard which may cover design considerations, mode of
stressing (eg static, dynamic), service conditions (eg temperature,
environment) and consequences of failure.
When working to the European Standards, the welding procedure, or the

welder will be qualified if the imperfections in the test piece are within the
specified limits of Level B except for excess weld metal, convexity, throat
thickness and penetration type imperfections when Level C will apply.
Guidance levels for aluminium joints are given in BS EN ISO 10042.
For the American standards ASME Section IX and AWS D1.1, the
acceptance levels are contained in the standard itself. Application codes
may specify more stringent imperfection acceptance levels and/or
additional tests.
4.4 Process reference numbers

Identify welding processes with a numerical sequence the European
standard BS EN ISO 4063:2000 ‘Welding and allied processes -
Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers’, assigns a unique
number to each of the main welding processes. The reference numbers
are used as a convenient way of identifying the welding process in
documentation such as welding procedure (BS EN ISO 15614) and
welder qualification (BS EN 287 and BS EN 9606) records.
However, full process names (or both numerical ID and process name)
are often used for clarity.
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The main arc welding process reference numbers are:
1 Arc welding
11 Metal arc with gas
12 Submerged arc
13 Gas-shielded metal arc
14 Gas-shielded with tungsten electrode
15 Plasma
2 Resistance welding
21 Resistance spot
22 Resistance seam
23 Projection
24 Flash
25 Resistance butt upset
26 Resistance stud
27 HF resistance
29 Other resistance welding processes
3 Gas welding
31 Oxy-fuel gas
4 Welding with pressure

41 Ultrasonic
42 Friction
43 Friction stir
44 High mechanical energy
45 Diffusion
47 Oxy-fuel gas pressure
48 Cold pressure
49 Hot pressure
5 Beam welding
51 Electron beam
52 Laser
6 Not used
7 Other welding processes

71 Aluminothermic
72 Electroslag
73 Electrogas
74 Induction seam
75 Light radiation
78 Arc stud
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8 Cutting and gouging

81 Flame cutting
82 Arc cutting
83 Plasma cutting
84 Laser cutting
86 Flame gouging
87 Arc gouging
88 Plasma gouging
9 Brazing, soldering and braze welding

91 Brazing with local heat
92 Brazing with global heat
93 Other brazing processes
94 Soldering with local heat
95 Soldering with global heat
96 Other soldering processes
97 Weld brazing
The actual processes are depicted by a third digit, eg:

111 Manual metal arc welding
114 Self-shielded tubular-cored arc welding
121 Submerged arc welding with one wire electrode
125 Submerged arc welding with tubular cored electrode
131 Metal inert gas welding (MIG)
135 Metal active gas welding (MAG)
136 Tubular cored metal arc welding with active gas shield
141 Tungsten inert gas arc welding (TIG)
There is then the possibility to add additional information on transfer

mode, number of electrodes, added filler or hybrid processes.
Transfer mode
D short-circuit
G Globular
S Spray
P Pulsed
So MIG welding might be described as:

BS EN ISO 4063 – 131-S
Number of electrodes
If multiple wires are used the number may be appended, as in twin wire
MAG welding:
BS EN ISO 4063 – 135-2
Additional wire
C Cold wire addition
H Hot wire addition
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So submerged arc with cold wire addition is:

BS EN ISO 4063 – 121-C
Hybrid welding
Where more than one process is used a plus sign joins the two. So fibre
laser/MAG might be:
BS EN ISO 4063 – 521+135-S
Appendix a - European (International) standards for fusion welding
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IWS Revision Questions on Standards

1 What is the purpose of a welding procedure approval test?
2 What is the purpose of a welder approval test?
3 What is the difference between a Standard and a Code of Practice?
IWT Revision Questions on Standards

4 Describe the BS EN ISO 4063 system of nomenclature for welding processes.
Include some examples.
5 Describe how application standards and codes of practice are used to improve
weld quality and the performance of the fabrication.
6 Explain how BS EN ISO 5817 is used in approval testing.
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Section 5
Weld Symbols
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Weld Symbols
5 Weld Symbols
Weld symbols are a simple way of communicating design office details to
variety of shop floor personnel eg welders, supervisors and inspectors, in a
consistent manner. Non-company staff such as sub-contractors and insurers
may also need to interpret the engineering drawings. It is essential therefore
that everyone should have a full understanding of the system of weld
symbols in use to ensure that the design requirement is met.
5.1 Standards
The most common international standards for weld symbols are ISO 2553 /
European EN 22553, published in the UK as BS EN 22553 and the
American AWS/ANSI A2.4. Most of the details are the same, but it is
essential that everyone concerned knows the standard to be used.
The UK traditionally used BS 499-2 to define weld symbols which was

superseded by BS EN 22553. Confusingly, the BSI still publishes BS 499-1
containing weld symbols as well as other terminology for welding and a
chart, BS 499-2C that shows the symbols pictorially.
5.2 Basic representation

All the standards use a reference line plus an arrow line and head placed at
an angle to the reference line:
The V-shaped tail is optional as in Europe it shows the welding process with
the reference numbers defined in BS EN ISO 4093. If only one process is to
be used throughout the construction, this can be shown once on the drawing
rather than repeated for each weld.
The reference line has a parallel dotted line to show the other side. This is a
refinement introduced in the European standard that is not present in the
American one. In AWS A2.4, the top of the line is always the near side and
information attached to the underside represents the far side. On these two
lines (or two sides if a single line is used) symbols are placed representing
the weld preparation on the near and, if appropriate, far side of the joint line.
The arrow line can be at any angle (except 180O) and can point up or down.
The arrow head must touch the drawn surfaces of the components to be
joined at the location of the weld.
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Weld Symbols
5.3 Edge preparation symbols

To the basic set-up of arrow and reference line, the design draughtsperson
can apply the appropriate symbols for more complex situations.
The symbols, in particular for arc and gas welding, are shown as simplified
cross sectional representations of either a joint design or a completed weld,
as shown below:
Supplementary symbols are added to the edge preparation to show the

shape of the finished bead profile:
Aspects of welding not immediately apparent from the basic symbols can be
added as complementary symbols:
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Weld Symbols
5.4 Weld sizing

The correct size of weld can be applied so it is common to find numbers to
the left or right of the symbol.
For fillet welds numbers to the left of the symbol indicate design throat
thickness, leg length, or both. Numbers to the right of the symbol show the
length of the weld and where the welding is intermittent, the number of
welds to be made in the location:
As per ISO 2553/EN 22553:
a = Design throat thickness

z = Leg length
s = Penetration throat thickness
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Weld Symbols
The large Z symbol through the reference line to shows that intermittent
weld beads are placed in a staggered arrangement on either side of the
component.
When there are no specific dimensional requirements specified on the weld

symbol, it assumed that the requirement is for a full penetration, full length
weld.
Summary of information on symbols
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Weld Symbols
IWS Revision Questions on Weld Symbols

1 What is the symbol for:
a Weld all round
b Single bevel butt weld
c Site weld.
2 Draw an indication for a fillet on the near side.
IWT Revisions Questions on Weld Symbols
3 What is the symbol for:

a Plug weld
b Concave on far side
c Backing run
4 Draw an indication for intermittent concave fillets on both sides - 10 off, each
100mm long and staggered with 100mm between the weld elements.
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Section 6
Fusion Welding Principles

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6 Fusion Welding Principles

6.1 Creation and protection of weld pool
Fusion welding requires a source of heat sufficient to melt both parent plate
and filler and a means of protecting the molten material from unwanted
chemical reactions with the atmosphere.
Heat may be provided by a flame, electric arc resistance power beam.

Protection from reactions with oxygen and nitrogen in air may be by placing
the pieces in a vacuum or controlled atmosphere or more usually by
providing local cover from a shielding gas or flux. In some processes, such
as flux-cored wire welding a combination of gas and flux may be used.
TIG welding.
MMA welding.
Welding flux operates in two ways to protect weld metal: It forms a gas
around the arc that keeps air away from the pool and creates a slag that
freezes (usually at a similar temperature to the metal) and protects the
solidified, but still hot and reactive, metal from oxidation.
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Gas shielding is usually provided by an inert gas, argon or helium,

protecting the pool and adjacent hot metal from oxidation, but there is no
protection for the still hot solid metal beyond the range of the gas flowing
from the nozzle. A thin layer of oxide therefore often tarnishes MIG and TIG
welds. Some metals, notably titanium, cannot accept exposure to air whilst
hot, even if solidified, so require extra, trailing shields to provide gas
coverage until the metal has dropped temperature considerably.
Carbon and Carbon Manganese (C-Mn) steels do not oxidise rapidly so the
protective gas can be active rather than inert, usually carbon dioxide or an
Ar-CO2 mixture and the process is then referred to metal active gas (MAG).
6.2 Direction of welding

When annual welding the torch is rarely held upright over the weld pool, it is
usually inclined in the line of the welding direction, with the tip either pointing
away from the previously deposited weld metal or towards it. For a right
handed person, the usual method is to move the torch or electrode from
right to left, with the torch/electrode pointing in the direction of travel. This is
often referred to as the pushing technique and results in a fairly smooth
weld profile. There are occasions where it is advantageous to weld in the
opposite direction using a dragging technique, which gives deeper
penetration but at the expense of a more convex weld profile.
When using the oxy-acetylene process the movement is usually similar and
is referred to as the leftward technique. However for oxy-acetylene pipe
welding a technique known as all positional rightward may sometimes be
used where the filler wire is fed into the weld behind the weld pool, allowing
greater deposition (compared with leftward) but again at the expense of
weld appearance, which will be coarser than a leftward weld.
Leftward and rightward welding (from BS 499-1:2009).
6.3 Bead shape

If welding progresses directly in a straight line with no sideways movement,
a stringer bead is laid.
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The weld bead is the same width as the molten weld pool. If travel speed
increases the weld pool will become elongated in the direction of travel and
narrower in width and the resultant stringer bead will also be narrower. If the
current is insufficient for the travel speed adopted, there may be only limited
melting of the parent plate resulting in a bulbous cross-section bead and, in
the extreme, lack of fusion.
Conversely, excessive current will lead to the pool being pushed into the
surface of the plate and on freezing; grooves will be left at either side of the
bead, termed undercut.
The welder can deliberately move the torch from side to side during the
laying of a bead, called weaving
This has the advantage of dwelling at the edges of the bead giving more
time to melt the parent plate. It can also achieve a better blend of the bead
shape to the surface of the parent plate and can be used by a skilled welder
to bridge larger than expected root gaps. It is for vertical up welding but care
must be taken to keep the depth of bead to only a few millimetres. It is
possible to use a wide, triangular weave technique when working in the
vertical position; this should be exercised with caution as the very high heat
input associated can cause deterioration of the mechanical properties of the
parent material. It is often thought that blocking out is faster than using a
stringer bead technique but this is incorrect. Deposition rate is controlled by
the welding current or wire feed speed, not the movement of the torch.
It is important to attempt to achieve a smooth profile change from the weld

bead to the surface of the parent plate as sharp discontinuities create stress
raisers from which defects such as hydrogen or fatigue cracks may initiate.
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6.4 Electrical creation of an arc

An electrically conductive path is required between the welding electrode
which is connected to one pole of the power source and the parent plate
connected to the other. In arc welding it is the establishment of a plasma
between the two that allows the transfer of high current suitable for welding.
The plasma is generated in TIG, MIG and plasma by ionisation of a
shielding gas by the action of the arc. In the fluxed processes the arc first
melts then ionises components of the flux to create a plasma.
Welding arcs are sustained by direct current (DC) at around 20-30V

transmitting currents of 80-400A. Depending on the process, operation
outside of these ranges is possible, eg submerged arc may work with
current up to 1000A but microplasma may use only 5A. It is also possible to
stabilise an arc to run with alternating current (AC), useful for some MMA
welding and for TIG welding of aluminium.
The generation of these electrical characteristics will be dealt with in the

section on power sources.
A DC arc has a fixed anode (positive pole) and cathode (negative pole). In
TIG welding, the tungsten electrode is normally the cathode, termed DC
electrode negative or DCEN, as more heat is generated at the anode giving
more efficient melting of the weld pool. It is generally accepted that during
current flow, the emission of electrons from the cathode has a cooling effect
that helps to preserve the fine point of the tungsten electrode.
For MIG welding the critical aspect is to melt and burn off the metal filler
wire as efficiently as possible. Thus this process normally runs with DC
electrode positive (DCEP) such that the wire is anodic and receives the
greater proportion of heat.
When TIG welding aluminium, DCEN is not successful as aluminium is very

reactive and forms a tenacious, solid oxide over the molten pool. To disrupt
this film current flow in the opposite direction is necessary such that
electrons are emitted from the plate surface. This electron flow is sufficient
to break up the oxide and is often referred to as a cleaning effect. However,
continuous use of DCEP on TIG causes the tungsten to overheat and melt
so AC current is used to give half cycle cleaning and half cycle cathodic
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cooling of the tungsten. Thus the anode and cathode continuously exchange
between the electrode and the parent plate.
The ease of generation and maintenance of the arc depends on the

ionisation potential of the shielding gas and on the work function (the ease
with which ions can be produced) of the material (see section on arcs and
plasmas).
For fluxed processes, the composition of the flux is important in determining

ease of arc initiation and subsequent arc stability. In MMA welding the core
wire is brought into contact with the parent plate and the resultant spark
starts to melt and ionise the flux thus giving a conductive path for welding
current. Once commenced, the continuing dissociation of the flux
components due to the very high temperature keeps the arc running in a
stable manner.
In submerged arc welding a small plug of wire wool held between the end of
the filler wire and the parent metal is used to create a zone of high
resistance. Flux is then poured over the assembly and current passed
through the wire. The fusing of the wire wool commences melting and
ionisation of the flux, after which progress is similar to MMA.
6.5 Creation of a molten pool by resistance heating

Processes known as resistance welding, eg spot, seam and projection
welding rely on the high resistance created at a metal interface for the
generation of heat. When two sheets of steel are pressed together they
touch only at microscopically fine points. If left with low pressure holding
them together there are extremely few of these points. Application of an
electric current through the sheets results in extremely high current density
attempting to cross these very narrow bridges of contact. As heat is
generated proportional to the square of current, very rapid melting of these
points occurs and metal is ejected as spatter, or weld splash.
If the sheets are pressed together with excessive force, deformation can
occur that spreads the surface into a very wide area of contact. Generation
of resistance by such good contact can be limited leading to little heating
effect and poor bonding. The aim is to hold parts together with force
sufficient to allow significant melting of the interface without melting through
to the top surface and without expelling quantities of metal in weld splash.
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Electroslag welding also relies on resistance heating to create a weld pool,

but in this case a flux bath is heated by the action of the welding current. A
current-carrying filler wire or strip is fed into a flux bath, much as is the case
for submerged arc welding. The initial start is with a wire wool plug as for
SAW but, very soon after the initial ionisation and establishment of a
current-carrying path, the molten flux pool extinguishes the arc. The flux
bath is, however, conducting albeit with considerable resistance, so current
continues to flow between the advancing filler and the parent plate. The heat
in the flux bath melts the filler and effects transfer of the droplets to the weld
pool.
6.6 Creation of a weld pool by a power beam

The two principal power beams used in welding are the electron beam and
the laser beams.
An electron beam is generated at a tungsten cathode according to the same

principles as TIG welding. The EB gun has a surrounding anode with a
small hole in it. Electrons are attracted to the anode but are travelling
sufficiently quickly to pass straight through the hole. The gun and the
column below it are under vacuum to avoid the electrons colliding with air
molecules and electromagnets are positioned around the column to steer
the electron beam onto the work piece placed in an evacuated chamber
beneath the column.
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The power of the beam is sufficient that when it hits the parent plate, it melts
and vaporises the material, punching a hole right through the plate. As the
workpiece is progressed beneath the beam, or the beam is rastered over
the surface by the action of the magnets, the cooling metal condenses to
form a weld pool that then rapidly solidifies.
Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (laser) produces

highly directional beams of photons possessing very high energy. These
beams will pass through air or any other gas without absorption so no
vacuum chamber is necessary. The action is very similar to EB; the impact
with a metal parent plate creates a keyhole through the plate with
condensation and solidification of the metal following as the beam
advances.
6.7 Heat transfer

The concentration of heat at the anode due to electron flow through the arc
is not the only mechanism at work. The thermal conductivity of the shielding
gas is also important and, as helium has greater thermal conductivity than
argon, more heat is transferred to the metal and welders refer to the helium
arc as being hotter.
Hydrogen also has better thermal conductivity but the use of 5%H2 in Ar, for
instance for improving the flow when welding nickel alloys, gives more
energy for melting than would be expected from the conductivity effect
alone. This is because hydrogen is a diatomic molecule (it is written H2 to
show this) which dissociates in the arc and recombines at slightly less
intense temperatures yielding additional energy.
When fluxes are added into the mix the distribution of heat becomes very
complex. very little has been written on the fundamentals of fluxed systems.
Generally those fluxes bound with sodium silicate operate on DCEP and
those with potassium silicate in the binder mix stabilise DCEN or AC but the
heat distribution, and therefore deposition rate, do not follow the simple logic
applied above to TIG and MIG. It would appear that the formulation of the
coating has much to do with the final result. Welders often argue about the
heat transfer merits of DCEN and DCEP for root runs and fill passes, but
this is likely to be based on personal experience of particular electrodes
rather than a general principle.
6.8 Weld pool shape

Determining the factors affecting weld pool shape, studying their effects
quantitatively and modelling the forces involved has kept researchers busy
for years. No-one has yet a clear understanding of all the factors involved.
Most work is conducted on autogenous TIG pools as these have fewer
variables than those with metal transfer and fluxing. We aim to raise
awareness of the complexity of the issues involved.
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The initial melting of the parent plate to form a weld pool depends on the
application of heat. In an arc welding process, this is transferred to the plate
from the arc and plasma (see section on Arcs and Plasmas). Heat
conduction into the metal plays a big part in the formation of a molten pool
but is not the whole story. If it was the only factor, metals with high
conductivity, such as pure aluminium, would always form small shallow
pools whilst those of poor conduction would hold heat locally and create
large molten pools. There is some reality in this effect but others usually
mask it.
Clearly convection is likely to play a part in heat transfer through a weld pool
and the central region will be hotter than the outside of the pool leading to
the creation of a radial, centre to outside convection current. But this is not
the only force at work.
An observation that may be made by the welder is that the surface of a weld
pool is concave beneath the arc. This is evidence of the existence of a force
from the electron bombardment – the arc force. Research work in 1980
measured this at one gram at 200A and found it to be proportional to the
square of the current. So it is not a large force but may well have an effect
on the weld pool shape by pushing the centre downwards. The amount of
depression depends on the surface tension, which can vary.
Likely to be of much greater effect is the magnetic stirring set up because

the pool is a molten conductor carrying current. As noted earlier, flowing
current sets up magnetic fields. Magnetic fields in turn create forces on the
conductor, called Lorentz forces. The magnitude of the force is given by:
F = QvB
Where:
F is the Lorentz force in Newtons
Q is the electrical charge in Coulombs
v is the velocity of the charge in m/sec
B is the magnetic field in Teslas
The direction of the force is given by the right hand rule. For this, you raise
the thumb of your right hand and point the first finger at right angles to it.
You can then hold the second finger bent to point in the third dimension at
right angles to both thumb and first finger. Then, if the thumb is aligned with
the current (+ to -), the first finger aligned with the direction of the magnetic
field, the second finger will give the direction of the force acting on the
conductor.
Lorentz forces generate a through thickness stirring action, out from the
centre and down the pool edges for DCEN operation.
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Another phenomenon affecting weld pool formation is variation in surface

tension. Surface tension normally decreases with increase in temperature
and so the area under the anode spot, being the hottest, has the lowest
surface tension on the weld pool. This creates conditions for the Marangoni
Effect to take place. This is transportation of atoms under the influence of
surface tension and in this case, results in radial, centre to outside
circulatory motion through the thickness. Cut surface tension is affected by
other factors. It has been shown that sulphur can reverse the temperature
effect can create a negative Marangoni effect with the flow towards the
centre. This was proposed as an explanation for cast-to-cast variation in
penetration with autogeneous TIG. A negative Maragoni effect has also
been cited as a contributor to the success of Activated Flux TIG (A-TIG)
where the presence of flux changes the depth of penetration most markedly.
Whilst this may not be the only effect from fluxing, it begins to hint at the
difficulty of considering weld pool shape in a fluxed system. Conventional
wisdom that more heat gives at the anode giving more melting does not
predict weld pool generation accurately in fluxed systems. In MMA, one of
the most noted deep penetration cellulosic electrodes, Lincoln’s Fleetweld
5P+, is recommended for DCEP operation.
Furthermore all processes in which metal transfer takes places introduce a

massive turbulence to the pool as each liquid filler particle arrives at its
surface. There are so many factors in these systems that theory and
modelling have yet to be developed sufficiently to predict behaviour.
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IWS Revision Questions on Fusion Welding
1 What are the essential requirements for the establishment of a successful weld?
2 Describe stringer beads, weaving and blocking.
3 What is the effect of excess current?
4 List the general safety aspects required for welding.
IWT Revision Questions on Fusion Welding
5 How is the weld protected from the atmosphere in:

a. Oxy-fuel gas welding
b. Submerged arc welding
c. MAG welding with CO2?
6 What is the difference between Lorentz force stirring and the Marangoni effect?
7 Describe the formation of a weld pool in electron beam welding.
8 How would you protect other shop floor workers working close to a welder?
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Arc Welding Safety

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Arc Welding Safety
7 Arc Welding Safety

7.1 Introduction
Working in a safe manner, whether in the workshop or on site, is an
important consideration in any welding operation. The responsibility for
safety is on all individuals but especially for welders, not only for their own
safety, but also to avoid endangering other people. The Welding Co-
ordinator has an important function in ensuring that safe working legislation
is in place and safe working practices are implemented.
The Co-ordinator should ensure compliance with all appropriate documents,

for example:
 Government legislation – The Health & Safety at Work Act.

 Health & Safety Executive – COSHH Regulations, Statutory instruments.
 British Standards – OHSAS 18001.
 Company Health and Safety Management Systems.
 Work instructions – permits to work, risk assessment documents, etc.
 Local Authority requirements.
There are many aspects of arc welding safety that the Co-ordinator needs to
consider:
 Electric shock.
 Heat and light.
 Fumes and gases.
 Noise.
 Gas cylinder handling and storage.
 Working at height or in restricted access.
 Mechanical hazards: trips, falls, cuts, impact from heavy objects.
To find out if welders and other operatives are at risk the Co-ordinator needs
to consider the working conditions. The Management of Health and Safety
at Work Regulations 1999 require that employers assess the risks to health
of employees arising from their work. The actions arising from the risk
assessment are dictated by other more detailed regulations, eg the Control
of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2004.
The following sections give guidance on risk avoidance but continuous effort
on improvements to precautions and working conditions is essential for the
wellbeing of the workforce.
7.2 Electric shock

Contact with metal parts which are electrically live can cause injury or death
because of the effect of the shock upon the body or because of a fall as a
result of the reaction to electric shock.
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The electric shock hazard associated with arc welding may be either from
the primary 230 or 460V mains supply or from the output voltage at
60-100V. Primary voltage shock is very hazardous because it is much
greater than the secondary voltage of the welding equipment. Electric shock
from the input voltage can occur by touching a lead inside the welding
equipment with the power to the welder while the body or hand touches the
welding equipment case or other earthed metal. Because of such hazards,
only a qualified electrician should remove the casing of a welding power
source. Residual circuit devices (RCDs) connected to circuit breakers of
sufficient capacity will help protect personnel from the danger of primary
electric shock.
The transformed power is available from terminals on the front of the

welding set. Heavy-duty cables are attached to these terminals to carry the
welding current to the torch or electrode holder and to bring a return path
from the work or metal workbench to the other terminal. This return is often
referred to as the earth or ground and there may be secondary earthing
arranged so that the work is at zero volts. Secondary voltage shock occurs
when touching a part of the electrode circuit – perhaps the jaws of an MMA
electrode holder or a damaged area on the electrode cable – while another
part of the body touches the other side of the welding circuit (the work or
welding earth) at the same time.
Whilst most welding equipment is unlikely to exceed an OCV of 100V,

electric shock, even at this level, can be serious. The welding circuit should
be fitted with low voltage safety devices to minimise the potential of
secondary electric shock.
It is important that the welding cables can carry the maximum possible
output of the welding set without overheating as overheating can damage
the insulation, leading to an increased risk of electrical shock.
TWI Job Knowledge No 29, available from the TWI website (www.twi.co.uk)
gives more guidance on avoiding electric shock during welding.
7.3 Heat
As arc welding relies on melting metal to effect a joint, it follows the metal
will in part be very hot. All metals conduct heat to a greater or lesser degree
so the area heated to a temperature that will cause skin burns is much
larger than the weld bead itself. It is a wise precaution to assume that all
metal on a welding workbench or adjacent to a site weld is hot. Temperature
indicating sticks should be used to check that material is cool enough to
handle. Patting metal with the bare hand to check its temperature is a
surefire way of being burnt!
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The welding arc creates sparks, with the potential to cause flammable
materials near the welding area to ignite and cause fires. The welding area
should be clear of all combustible materials and is good practice for all
personnel working in the vicinity of welding to know where the nearest fire
extinguishers are and the correct type of fire extinguisher to use if a fire
does break out.
Welding may also produce spatter, globules of molten metal expelled from
the weld area. These can cause serious burns, so protective clothing, such
as welding gloves, flame retardant coveralls and leathers must be worn
around any welding operation to protect against heat and sparks. It is most
important that traps in clothing are avoided. Trousers should not have turn-
ups and should not be tucked into boots – very serious injury can occur if
spatter drops into the inside of a work boot.
Radiant heat from welding can be quite intense, particularly when welding at
high current and duty cycle is taking place. Sufficient air movement is
required to keep the welder at a sensible temperature especially important
when working in restricted access areas where reflected heat will intensify
the effect. Welders should also take water regularly to avoid potential
dehydration.
7.4 Light
Light radiation is emitted by the welding arc in three principal ranges:
Type Wavelength,
nanometres
Infra-red (heat) >700
Visible light 400-700
Ultra-violet radiation <400
7.4.1 Ultra-violet radiation (UV)

All arc processes generate UV and excess exposure causes skin
inflammation and possibly skin cancer or permanent eye damage. However,
the main risk amongst welders and Inspectors is inflammation of the cornea
and conjunctiva, commonly known as arc eye or flash.
Arc eye is caused by UV radiation which damages the outmost protective

layer of cells in the cornea. Gradually the damaged cells die and fall off the
cornea exposing highly sensitive nerves in the underlying cornea to the
comparatively rough inner part of the eyelid. This causes intense pain,
usually described as sand in the eye. The pain becomes even more acute if
the eye is then exposed to bright light.
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Arc eye develops some hours after exposure, which may not even have
been noticed. The sand in the eye symptom and pain usually lasts for 12-24
hours, longer in more severe cases. Fortunately, it is almost always a
temporary condition. In the unlikely event of prolonged and frequently
repeated exposures, permanent damage can occur.
Treatment of arc eye is simple: rest in a dark room. A qualified person or

hospital casualty department can administer various soothing anaesthetic
eye drops which can provide almost instantaneous relief. Prevention is
better than cure and wearing safety glasses with side shields will
considerably reduce the risk of this condition. The welder should always
have a full face screen with the approved shade of protective lens for the
process in hand.
7.4.2 Ultra-violet effects upon the skin

The UV from arc processes does not produce the attractive browning effect
of suntan; but results in acute reddening and irritation caused by changes in
the minute surface blood vessels. In extreme cases, the skin may be
severely burned and blisters form. The reddened skin may die and flake off
in a day or so. Where there has been intense prolonged or frequent
exposure, skin cancers can develop.
Visible light
Intense visible light particularly approaching UV or blue light wavelengths
passes through the cornea and lens and can dazzle and, in extreme cases,
damage the network of optically sensitive nerves on the retina. Wavelengths
of visible light approaching the infra-red have slightly different effects but
can produce similar symptoms. Effects depend on the duration and intensity
of exposure and to some extent, upon the individual's natural reflex action to
close the eye and exclude the incident light. Normally this dazzling does not
produce a long-term effect.
Infra-red radiation (IR)

Infra-red radiation is of longer wavelength than the visible light frequencies,
and is perceptible as heat. The main hazard to the eyes is that prolonged
exposure (over a matter of years) causes a gradual but irreversible opacity
of the lens. Fortunately, the IR radiation emitted by normal welding arc
causes damage only within a comparatively short distance from the arc.
There is an immediate burning sensation in the skin surrounding the eyes
should they be exposed to arc heat. The natural human reaction is to move
or cover up to prevent the skin heating, which also reduces eye exposure.
BS EN169 specifies a range of permanent filter shades of gradually

increasing optical density which limit exposure to radiation emitted by
different processes at different currents. Many welders use helmets with
filter glasses that react to light and darken as soon as the arc is struck with
advantage that the welder has clear vision through non-shaded glass at all
times except when the arc is struck and the protective filter is induced.
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7.5 Fumes and gases

Fume is a mixture of particles generated by vaporisation, condensation and
oxidation of substances transferred through the welding arc. The particles
are very small and remain suspended in the air for long periods, where they
may be breathed. Small particles are respirable; they may penetrate the
innermost regions of the lung where they have the most potential to do
harm. If inhaled, welding fume may be hazardous to health and must be
controlled to limits laid down by regulations.
Toxic gases may also be generated during welding and cutting. Gases
encountered in welding may be:
 Fuel gases which, on combustion, form carbon dioxide and, if the flame
is reducing, carbon monoxide.
 Shielding gases such as argon, helium and carbon dioxide, either alone
or in mixtures with oxygen or hydrogen.
 Carbon dioxide and monoxide produced by the action of heat on the
welding flux or slag.
 Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone produced by the action of heat
or radiation on the atmosphere surrounding the welding arc.
 Gases from the degradation of solvent vapours or surface contaminants
on the metal.
The degree of risk to the welder's health from fume/gases will depend on:
 Composition.
 Concentration.
 Length of time the welder is exposed.
It is essential to know the type of parent plate, together with any coating,
and the composition of the fume generated because different fume
components vary in toxicity. The limits to which welding fume and its
component parts must be controlled are provided in Guidance Note EH40
'Workplace Exposure Limits' available from the Health and Safety Executive
(HSE), updated annually.
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Arc Welding Safety
In 2005, a single type of occupational exposure limit known as the

workplace exposure limit or (WEL) was introduced. The underlying principle
is a single criterion for exposure to airborne hazards, but welding fume is an
insufficiently precise term to be given a WEL. Individual components must
be addressed.
7.5.1 What's in the fume?

Exposure to fume may be measured according to the methodology defined
in BS EN ISO 10882-2: 2000. Account must be taken of the exposure limits
of the individual fume constituents, eg iron oxide, limestone and titanium
dioxide have and WEL of 4 or 5mg/m3. They may be taken to be similarly
hazardous to any dust - not specifically causing a medical condition but
needing control to ensure proper lung function.
Some components of fume have lower WEL, manganese, trivalent

chromium and soluble barium are set at 0.5mg/m3, copper at 0.2mg/m3 but
hexavalent chromium compounds and nickel oxide are potential
carcinogens and pose greater health risks at lower concentrations. Nickel
and its water-insoluble compounds have a WEL of 0.5mg/m3and hexavalent
chromium compounds only 0.05mg/m3. These exposures are over a time-
weighted average reference period of 8 hours.
Clearly, welding stainless steel, likely to generate both nickel and chromium
in the fume, poses a very different set of conditions than welding mild steel.
7.5.2 What about gases?

For gas shielded welding processes such as TIG, MIG/MAG, FCAW,
shielding gases may be inert gases, such as argon, helium and nitrogen, or
argon-based mixtures containing C02, oxygen or both. Helium may be
added to argon/ C02 mixtures to improve productivity. CO2 may be used on
its own in MAG and FCAW. With the exception of CO2, these gases are not
defined as hazardous to health under the COSHH Regulations but they are
asphyxiants. None of the gases can be seen and none has a smell - so their
presence in hazardous concentrations is difficult to detect without prior
knowledge or measuring equipment.
The main hazard from exposure to shielding gases is accumulation in

confined spaces. Argon is heavier than air so tends to collect in low areas
such as pits. Inhaling a gas such as pure argon which contains no oxygen,
can cause loss of consciousness in seconds. Fatalities have occurred where
welders have entered vessels or tanks where argon has accumulated.
Workers should not enter an atmosphere that contains less than 18%
oxygen.
Carbon monoxide (CO) and CO2 may be generated in fluxed welding

processes by the action of heat on flux materials such as carbonates and
cellulose. In MAG welding they can both originate from CO2 in the shielding
gas, CO2 undergoing reaction in the vicinity of the arc to form CO. Flame
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Arc Welding Safety
processes also generate CO and CO2. The relative amounts depend on

whether the flame is oxidising or reducing, with CO present in higher
concentrations when the flame is reducing.
CO is the more hazardous of the two gases and can cause a reduction in
the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood that can be fatal. In lower
concentrations it causes headache and dizziness, nausea and weakness.
CO2 acts mainly as an asphyxiant, as indicated above. CO has a WEL of
30ppm and CO2 is listed at 5000ppm (8 hour time-weighted average).
However, the amounts of CO and CO2 generated by welding processes are
small and generally do not present an exposure problem.
Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are known collectively as
nitrous gases (NOx). NO is a severe eye, skin and mucous membrane
irritant. NO2 is a highly toxic, irritating gas. Welding generates only small
amounts of nitrous gases so exposure to NOx does not present a problem.
Exposure problems may arise during cutting activities, particularly if the
cutting is hand-held, as this places the operator closer to the emissions.
Hotter flames generate higher concentrations of nitrous gases, so using
acetylene generates more nitrous gases than using propane or natural gas.
Plasma cutting with air or nitrogen generates higher levels of nitrous gases
than oxy-fuel gas cutting and there is considerable risk of over-exposure.
Ozone can be generated by reaction between UV light from the arc and
oxygen in the air. It has a low WEL of 0.2ppm for a 15 minute reference
period but, in a real work situation, ozone generation is usually well below
the exposure limit. At the levels of exposure to ozone found in welding the
main concern is irritation of the upper airways, characterised by coughing
and tightness in the chest, but uncontrolled exposure may lead to more
severe effects, including lung damage.
7.5.3 Where is the welder's nose?

We need to consider the relationship of the person's breathing zone to the
concentration of fume and gas generated during the process. To reduce the
risk of hazardous fumes and gases, keep the head out of the fume plume.
Incorrect placement of the nose within the plume is a common cause of
fume and gas over-exposure because the concentration of fumes and gases
is greatest in the plume.
Welding position is an important variable as it affects the proximity of the

fume to the welder's breathing zone and has a major effect on exposure.
Welding vertically-up usually results in the welder's head being away from
the path of the fume plume. Positions that place the welder closer to, or
worst of all, above the plume of fume lead to highest exposures, so leaning
over a flat position weld is more hazardous.
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If the welding operation is in a confined workspace accumulation of fume

may be expected to increase exposure. Similarly if the duty cycle is high the
concentration of fume in the vicinity and the time that the welder is exposed
will increase.
Provision of local extraction to suck the fume from the welder's breathing
zone is an obvious remedy and is quite efficacious, but only when used
correctly. It is most useful for fixed welding stations where repetitive jobs are
carried out. here, the extraction nozzles can be placed close to the weld and
need little re-positioning. Even for applications where the welder has
considerable movement, positioning of extraction nozzles will provide
adequate protection if used correctly.
It may be necessary to wear an approved respiratory device if sufficient

ventilation cannot be provided.
As a rule of thumb, if the air is visibly clear and the welder is comfortable,
the ventilation is probably adequate.
7.5.4 Informing the workforce

Instruction must be given to ensure that employees know:
 What they must do, the precautions that must be taken and when they
must take them.
 What cleaning, storage and disposal procedures are in place, why they
are required and when they are to be carried out.
 The procedures to be followed in an emergency.
Training must be provided for the effective application and use of:
 Methods of control.
 Personal protective equipment.
 Emergency measures.
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To keep such records and to inform and train a workforce may seem
onerous but it is the law and it is necessary to plan and implement these
things effectively. Do things correctly and welding is a safe operation. Ignore
the precautions and it can be very costly both for your company and your
welders.
7.6 Noise
Exposure to loud noise can permanently damage hearing, cause stress and
increase blood pressure. Working in a noisy environment for long periods
can contribute to tiredness, nervousness and irritability. If the noise
exposure is greater than 85 decibels averaged over an 8 hour period then
hearing protection must be worn and annual hearing tests carried out. The
employer has the responsibility of ensuring that workers wear the protection.
If noise levels are between 80 and 85dB averaged over 8 hours, hearing
protection must be available and given to workers if they ask for it.
Normal welding operations are not associated with excessive noise level
problems with two exceptions: plasma arc welding and air carbon arc
cutting. If either of these two operations is to be performed then hearing
protectors must be worn. The noise associated with welding is usually due
to ancillary operations such as chipping, grinding and hammering. Hearing
protection must be worn when carrying out, or when working in the vicinity
of, these operations.
7.7 Gas handling and storage

This was mostly covered in the section on gas welding as the same
precautions apply to shielding gas storage and handling as for fuel gas and
oxygen.
The cylinders contain gas at up to 300 bar and care must be exercised that
they cannot fall and sever the valve from the top. The sudden release of
energy turns the cylinder into a high powered missile capable of passing
through block walls, demonstrated most graphically by the Discovery
Channel’s Mythbusters. A video has been posted on YouTube
(www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejEJGNLTo84). A more serious approach to
this potentially lethal hazard is given in a training video clip on the same
website (www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHDAbM09Y1o).
Shielding gas cylinders must be in purpose built cradles with secure

chaining to avoid toppling. A single person should not manipulate them as
they weigh up to 100kg and there is a real risk of loss of control.
Transportation around a fabrication shop should be in a trolley designed for
the purpose.
Pressure regulators must be fitted to gas cylinders to extract the gas at a

usable pressure. These must be appropriate for the job: rated at least as
high as the maximum pressure of the cylinder and designated for the
specific gas.
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Tubes carrying the gas to the welding torch should be pressure hoses
designed for the job. These should be checked for leaks by using diluted
detergent around all fittings. Leakage of shielding gas is not as safety critical
as leakage of fuel gas, but the weld quality can be compromised if leaks
develop. For a similar reason, hoses should be purged for some minutes
prior to starting work to eliminate any moisture adsorbed onto the inner wall.
7.8 Working at height and in restricted access areas

Welding may be used on large civil engineering sites requiring working at
considerable height. All tall buildings have a steel framework and modern
structures are invariably welded. All expected precautions for working at
height must be observed - correctly erected scaffolding, tied ladders,
platforms and walkway boards, kick boards and handrails, etc - but there are
specific aspects for welding that must also be taken into account.
There is a requirement to carry out a thorough risk assessment of any

operation and this is especially required when working at height. It may be
concluded that the risk of mishap when lifting, transporting and fixing gas
cylinders at height is too great to allow MIG or TIG welding to be used.
It is essential to know that if a welder were to receive an electric shock; his

reflex reaction away from the source would not place him at risk of a fall
from height. Guard rails on scaffolding are mandatory but, furthermore,
should take into account the increased hazard associated with welding.
Welding produces spatter and, where positional welding is required, large

drops of molten metal or slag may occur. The area immediately below
welding at height should be cordoned off to prevent other workers straying
into the drop zone.
Similarly, there are standard requirements for health and safety when
working in restricted access areas, not least of which is a risk assessment
and permit to work system. Here again, welding introduces additional
hazards that must be considered when arranging for a person to work in
limited space.
Most dangerous of the hazards are those introduced by the use of gas. If
gas cutting has to be used there is a risk of unburnt fuel gas accumulating
and creating an explosion risk. Increasing the concentration of oxygen in a
limited space is also a risk as it marked increases the flammability of
material.
Shielding gases are, of course, deliberately flooded over the weld area and
will remain in the vicinity in restricted space. Argon is denser than air and
will fill the space from the floor upwards. Helium is less dense than air and
will accumulate in the roof area. Both are asphyxiants that can easily kill an
operator breathing volumes of the gases. Carbon dioxide will also suffocate
a person within a few breaths. Welders working in very confined spaces
should be provided with externally-fed helmets and should always be
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accompanied by a buddy who remains outside the danger area but in close
contact with the welder.
7.9 Mechanical hazards

The environment in which a welder works has a number of hazards not
specific to the welding process itself. Manual handling of heavy awkward
metal components is often required. Thinner, lighter metal sheet may have
sharp edges. Slips, trips and falls may be more likely as welding often
requires thick cables to be spread across the floor. Standard workshop
safety and protection practice should be used to counter these problems.
Welders need training in materials handling, both manual and with
mechanical lifting assistance; protective gloves, helmets, overalls and boots
must be worn; cabling on the floor should be minimised and clearly signed
or marked as a trip hazard.
There are hazards that are a direct result of the joining process, as during
welding, sparks and molten metal can be ejected. These are most common
in arc welding but can also occur in resistance processes. In mechanised
processes, guards should be used to contain the flying particles. This is not
possible in manual welding so personal protective equipment (PPE) must be
worn by the operator. All clothing should be fire resistant and use of leather
aprons, jackets, chaps, etc is recommended.
Grinding is commonly used in preparing metal for welding and during

cleaning and rectification of deposited metal. Wheel and angle grinders are
favourite tools for their speed of removal of material. These create a hazard,
not only for the operator but for adjacent and passing personnel, as the
ejected material may be thrown some distance. Obviously the operator
needs adequate protection with clothing, gloves, full-face shields and
sometimes a dust mask but the whole area also needs screening with
curtains to protect others.
One of the more serious dangers is from the persistent use of vibrating hand
tools: grinders, scaling hammers, pneumatic burrs, etc which can lead to
long-term illness – hand-arm vibration syndrome, also known as ‘white
finger’ or ‘dead hand’. Studies of the incidence of the condition have shown
that action to prevent physical damage may be required when the operator
has as little as 30 minutes per day use of a chipping hammer.
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Section 8
Gas Welding Process

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Gas Welding Process
8 Gas Welding Process

8.1 Flame formation
Oxygen and a fuel gas are mixed in a specially designed torch. The mixture
is burnt and the flame used to generate heat sufficient to melt the parent
material. The flame temperature and calorific value of the flame vary
according to the fuel gas used:
Fuel gas Flame Optimum ratio Inner flame heat, Outer flame
temperature, ºC oxygen to gas Kj/m3 heat, kJ/m3
Acetylene 3160 1.2:1 18,890 35,882
Propane 2810 4.3:1 10,433 85,325
MAPP 2927 3.3:1 15,445 56,431
Propylene 2834 3.7:1 16,000 72,000
Methane 2770 1.8:1 1,490 35,770
These gases are used for brazing, soldering, cutting and preheating flame
processes as well as welding and the above characteristics above make
some more suitable.
Acetylene has the highest temperature, the greatest heat energy in its inner
core and the lowest requirement of oxygen to achieve its maximum
temperature. This makes it ideal for welding high melting point materials
such as steel. It also works well as a cutting flame when extra oxygen is
injected through the centre of the flame.
Propane is particularly useful for preheating with a high heat distribution in

its outer flame area. It will efficiently heat steel to around 900ºC, albeit much
more slowly than acetylene. At this temperature iron will react with the
injected excess oxygen of a cutting torch. Once piercing has been achieved,
a propane flame has a similar cutting speed to acetylene. It is not as
effective for welding steel but may be used for copper or aluminium alloys.
MAPP, mostly a mix of methylacetylene and propadiene, can be

compressed to relatively high pressure, not possible with acetylene. Making
it particularly useful for underwater work at extended depth.
8.2 Oxy-acetylene welding

The most common gas welding process, when mixed together in correct
proportions oxygen and acetylene create a flame with a temperature of
about 3,200ºC. Added to this, the chemical action of the oxy-acetylene
flame can be adjusted by changing the ratio of the volume of oxygen to
acetylene.
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Three distinct flame settings are used, neutral, oxidising and carburising
(also called reducing). Welding is generally carried out using the neutral
flame setting that has 1.2 parts of oxygen to 1 part of acetylene, ie
approximately equal proportions. The oxidising flame is obtained by
increasing the oxygen flow rate while the carburising flame is achieved by
increasing acetylene flow in relation to oxygen flow.
Neutral flame
The neutral flame has three combustion zones. The innermost zone at the
end of the nozzle is called the cone. It has a distinct contoured nucleus with
a slightly rounded shape and glows white. Acetylene burns here to form
carbon monoxide and hydrogen which produce an almost colourless tongue
around the cone. In this second zone metal oxides are reduced keeping the
melt pool clean.
The outer zone has a slightly blue coloration and carbon monoxide and
hydrogen burn with the oxygen from the air to form carbon dioxide and
water vapour. By burning oxygen from the air, this zone prevents oxidation
of the molten metal so acts as a shielding gas.
Overall, the flame is mainly colourless and is characterised by a fizzling

sound. Neutral flames are used for welding carbon, alloy and stainless
steels, non ferrous alloys and for brazing steels. It is also used for
preheating.
Oxidising flame
This flame requires an increased proportion of oxygen over the amount of

acetylene, resulting in the innermost cone being substantially reduced in
length most often described as short and pointed.
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A second zone may be visible, as shown above, but it is the overall small
size and sharp delineation of the flame and the strong blue, almost violet
colour, that are most noticeable.
The oxidising flame is only used where there is a positive benefit to creating
oxide during welding, mostly limited to welding zinc-containing alloys. The
oxidising flame prevents the zinc being vaporised by forming a zinc oxide
layer on the weld pool surface. Zinc oxide melting temperature is higher
than the vaporisation temperature of zinc itself and this oxide forms a
surface layer on the weld pool greatly reducing zinc loss.
Any welding of zinc, commonly encountered as the surface layer on

galvanised steel, is liable to generate zinc or zinc oxide in the fume. This is
hazardous to welder’s health causing metal fume which fever, an
unpleasant rather than dangerous condition with symptoms similar to
influenza combined with vomiting.
Carburising (reducing) flame
The carburising flame requires an increased proportion of acetylene. As

there is insufficient oxygen to burn all the acetylene supplied, the surplus
continues to burn at the outside of the flame where oxygen from the air is
present creating a flame that is very luminous, like the image on the right
above. The image on the left is a reducing flame but has been balanced to
accentuate the appearance of the second zone. Overall the flame usually
has a yellow-white colour with a large inner cone and no sound. As the
amount of acetylene is increased, the length of the second and outer zones
increases and the flame edge becomes more ragged and yellow.
The carburising flame is used for hardsurfacing as it tends to increase the

carbide content in the surface layer. It is also used for welding aluminium to
avoid oxide layer build-up on the surface of the weld pool, because its
reducing action stops aluminium oxide formation.
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8.3 Equipment
Oxy-acetylene equipment is portable and easy to use and comprises

oxygen and acetylene gases stored in steel cylinders. The cylinders are
fitted with regulators and flexible hoses which lead to the blowpipe. The
oxygen is stored under pressure in a cylinder usually painted black with a
standard right-handed thread to the regulator and hose fittings. Acetylene
cannot be stored under pressure as it is liable to explode. It is dissolved in
acetone held in a porous clay/fibre/charcoal mixture within a steel cylinder
painted maroon in the UK. It is fitted with left-handed threads to avoid any
possibility of incorrect assembly. The cylinders must be held in specially
designed stands or carriers to keep them in an upright and stable position
during use and in storage.
Pressure reducing regulators are fitted to both cylinders so that the pressure
and flow of the gases can be regulated to the torch. These are usually two
stage regulators taking the pressure down to a stable, low pressure (ca
3.5bar for oxygen and ca 0.6bar for acetylene) for delivery along the hoses.
Hoses are coloured blue for oxygen and red for acetylene and also have
opposite-handed threads to match those on the regulators.
The torch itself has a flow valve for each gas so that the operator has
control over flame size and composition readily to hand.
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Specially designed safety devices called flashback arrestors are fitted

between the hoses and the cylinder regulators on both lines. These are
flame traps designed to prevent flames generated by a flashback from
reaching the cylinders. Flashbacks can occur if the gas flow is insufficient to
prevent the flame burning back into the torch and may also occur if the
hoses have not been purged before ignition or if the blowpipe nozzle is
overheated. Non-return valves are also fitted in the hose run to avoid any
possibility of back flow due to a blocked nozzle or other flow restriction.
A range of nozzles is available for the welding torch allowing choice of flame
size suited to the material thickness to be welded as described below.
When welding, the operator must wear protective, flameproof clothing and
coloured goggles. As the flame is less intense than an arc and very little UV
light is emitted, general purpose tinted goggles provide sufficient protection.
8.4 Gas cylinder identity and safety

Industrial gases may be supplied in cylinders, bulk tanks of liquefied gas or
directly from a generating plant. The most common supply are cylinders of
various sizes up to 1.6m tall weighing up to 90kg. The gases are
compressed to between 130-300bar. It is essential that the cylinder
pressure is known and that regulators are chosen capable of handling the
maximum pressure. The energy released by suddenly venting a
compressed gas cylinder to air through failure of the valve mechanism is
sufficient to create a 90kg missile capable of demolishing walls. It is
therefore also essential that cylinders are held securely in stands and
chained to an immovable structure.
Acetylene cannot be safely compressed as it begins to dissociate to carbon

and hydrogen at any pressure above 15psi (1bar). This dissociation is
accompanied by the release of considerable amounts of heat making it very
likely to explode spontaneously. Early investigators discovered that
acetylene dissolved well in acetone. At normal temperature and pressure 1
litre of acetone will dissolve 20 litres of acetylene and at 12bar (180psi), 240
litres. Explosions were still possible if the gas was dissolved in bulk liquid in
a cylinder but Dalén of Aga discovered that absorbing the acetone into a
mixture of porous clay and asbestos gave safe storage. Today, cylinders are
loaded at up to 250psi. These cylinders are not as tall as oxygen cylinders,
are of larger diameter can up to 100kg and weigh. They must be kept
upright at all times. Special regulators are used on acetylene as alloys
containing more than 70% copper must not be used. Copper forms an
acetylide that is explosive. It is imperative that copper components are kept
from direct contact with acetylene in the workshop.
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Oxygen is, at first sight, not a dangerous gas – it is non-toxic, non-corrosive

and non-inflammable y et there are safety aspects which must be
considered. Oxygen is a strong supporter of fire and will enhance any
burning. In particular, oil and grease can spontaneously take fire in oxygen,
often with explosive force. No grease or oil must be allowed in any oxygen
equipment.
Gas cylinders must be stored in the upright position in a well-ventilated

room. It is customary to keep empty cylinders separately from full ones.
They should not be lifted by a single person, nor rolled on the floor. When
transported, even for short distances across a workshop, they should be
held in a purpose-built cradle.
The colour of cylinders has been variable across countries and companies,
making it essential to check information on the label to gain a clear
identification of the contents. A European standard, BS EN 1089-3: 2004,
has been published giving colour coding for industrial gases. The actual
body colours may still differ between the various producers but the shoulder
colour on the rounded top of the cylinder is specified by the standard and all
major suppliers now conform to this marking:
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Gas Welding Process
8.5 Operating characteristics

The oxy-acetylene flame can be adjusted to produce a soft or harsh action
on the surface of the material to be welded by varying the gas flow. There
are practical limits to the type of flame that can be used for welding; a harsh
forceful flame will cause the molten weld pool to be blown away, while too
soft a flame will not be stable near the point of application. The blowpipe is
therefore designed to accommodate different sizes of swan neck copper
nozzle which allows the correct intensity of flame to be used.
The relationship between material thickness, blowpipe nozzle size and
welding speed, is shown in the chart.
Typical gas pressures and flow rates for C-Mn steel:

Steel Acetylene Oxygen
thickness, Nozzle size Pressure, Consumption,
mm Consumption, l/min Pressure, bar
bar l/min
0.90 1 0.14 0.50 0.14 0.50
1.20 2 0.14 0.90 0.14 0.90
2.00 3 0.14 1.40 0.14 1.40
2.60 5 0.14 2.40 0.14 2.40
3.20 7 0.14 3.30 0.14 3.30
4.00 10 0.21 4.70 0.21 4.70
5.00 13 0.28 6.00 0.28 6.00
6.50 18 0.28 8.50 0.28 8.50
8.20 25 0.42 12.00 0.42 12.00
10.00 35 0.63 17.00 0.63 17.00
13.00 45 0.63 22.00 0.63 22.00
25.00 90 0.63 42.00 0.63 42.00
When fusion welding the addition of filler metal in the form of a rod can be
made when required. The techniques used in oxy-acetylene welding are
described by the direction of travel of a right-handed operator – leftward,
rightward and all-positional rightward.
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Leftward welding is most commonly used and is ideally suited for butt, fillet
and lap joints in sheet thicknesses up to approximately 5mm. The rightward
technique finds application on plate thicknesses above 5mm for welding in
the flat and horizontal-vertical position. The all-positional rightward method
is a modification of the rightward technique suited to welding steel plate and
pipework where positional welding, (vertical and overhead) has to be carried
out. The rightward and all positional rightward techniques enable the welder
to obtain a uniform penetration bead with added control over the molten
weld pool and weld metal. Moreover, the welder has a clear view of the weld
pool and can work in complete freedom of movement. These techniques are
very highly skilled and are less frequently used than the conventional
leftward technique.
8.6 Equipment safety checks

Before commencing welding it is essential to inspect the condition and
operation of all equipment. As well as normal equipment and workplace
safety checks, there are specific procedures for oxy-acetylene. Operators
should verify that:
 Flashback arrestors and non-return valves are present in each gas line.
 Hoses are the correct colour, blue for oxygen and red for acetylene and
have no sign of wear. They should be as short as possible and not taped
together.
 Regulators are the correct type for the gas.
 A cylinder key is in each cylinder (unless the cylinder has an adjusting
screw).
 All connections are tight and not subject to leaks.
 No oil or grease has been allowed near any part of the oxygen line or
cylinder.
 No copper containing material is in direct contact with acetylene.
The latter two safety checks are necessary because of explosion risk.
A competent inspector should check all oxy-acetylene equipment at least

annually and regulators should be taken out of service after five years.
Flashback arrestors should be checked regularly according to the
manufacturer's instructions and with certain designs, it may be necessary to
replace the arrestor if a flashback has occurred.
For more detailed information the following legislation and codes of practice
should be consulted:
 UK Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.

 Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers Regulations.
 British Compressed Gases Association, Codes of Practice.
 BOC Handbook.
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IWS Revision Questions on Gas Welding Processes

1 State the symptoms of a flashback and the likeliest causes.
2 State the advantages of the rightward technique over the leftward technique.
3 Describe the safety checks that you would use when setting up a gas welding
operation. Include the reasons why they are required.
IWT Revision Questions on Gas Welding Processes

4 Explain how calorific value of the inner and outer flame influence the gas welding
process when different fuel gases are used.
5 Describe the set up of the three oxy-acetylene flame types.
6 Detail the safety aspects to be addressed when storing, handling and using
oxygen and fuel gas.
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Section 9
Electricity as Applicable to Welding

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9 Electricity as Applicable to Welding

These notes do not attempt to give an in-depth account of electricity and
electrical circuits and you are urged to research fundamental theory to
acquaint yourself with those aspects of which you are unsure. There are
websites, eg www.allaboutcircuits.com, that give easily understood
information on fundamentals. A lecture from University of Manchester,
Department of Computer Science is very useful:
www.intranet.cs.man.ac.uk/Study_subweb/Ugrad/coursenotes/CS1222/elect
ricity.pdf.
Some basics about electricity as applicable to welding are described below.
9.1 Introduction
Electricity occurs naturally in a wide range of phenomena: lightning, the
‘sting’ of an electric eel, even the workings of the brain, yet it was only in the
late nineteenth century that scientists began to understand its nature and
how to use it.
Some materials, eg metals, graphite, salt water, allow the passage of

electricity (ie they are conductors) and many, eg wood, rock, rubber, do not
and are considered insulators. Although all materials are made of atoms,
the difference between conductors and insulators lies in the strength of
binding of the orbiting electrons in the atom.
9.2 Atomic structure

Atoms consist of a nucleus (of protons each carrying a positive charge and
neutrons having no charge) and a number of negatively-charged electrons
that orbit the nucleus. The number of protons in the nucleus defines the
element, eg hydrogen has one, helium two, oxygen eight. Neutrons are
usually rather more in number than the protons but variation in the exact
number results in slightly different forms of the same element. These are
termed isotopes. Welding inspectors will be familiar with the term being
applied to the source of gamma rays in portable radiography equipment.
Iridium 192 and cobalt 60 are common gamma source materials. Cobalt has
a stable form with 27 protons and 32 neutrons so its atomic mass is 59. But
cobalt 60 has 33 neutrons and is prone to decomposition releasing gamma
radiation as it does so.
The number of electrons equals that of the protons in a normal atom but in
chemical reactions a few can be transferred to another atom resulting in
positive and negative charges. These are termed ions. An example of this
when common salt, sodium chloride, is dissolved in water. The element
sodium has 11 electrons, circulating in three orbital shells. The innermost
holds only two electrons and the next holds eight, leaving a single electron
in the third shell. Chlorine has 17 electrons so has seven in its outermost
shell. Similar to the second shell, eight is the full, stable number for this third
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orbit. It is therefore attractive for the sodium to release one electron and for
the chlorine to gain it. The transfer of one negatively charged electron
results in a positive charge on the sodium ion, written Na+ and a negative
charge on the chlorine ion, written Cl-.
As ions carry a charge, they will be attracted to opposite charges and

repelled by like charges. The importance of this will become apparent when
we consider the welding arc. Likewise, any free electrons would be attracted
to a positive on account of their negative charge.
Whilst not exactly free, electrons in a conductor are only loosely held in a
shared environment and can therefore be affected by charge. Applying a
differential (+/-) across a conductor will see the electrons travel towards the
positive. This is the basis of electricity.
9.3 Electricity generation

Magnetism is a naturally occurring phenomenon and we are familiar with the
North and South Pole concept with opposites attracting and likes repelling.
There is a link between magnetism and electricity, as a magnet will provide
the positive/negative differential required for electron movement in a
conductor. The North-seeking pole is positive and will attract electrons and
this is used in the dynamo principle, the first practical generation of
electricity.
If a metal wire or any conductor is moved through the magnetic field created
between the two poles of a magnet, the electrons will move within the wire
in an attempt to head towards the positive pole. By winding many loops of
wire and mounting the assembly on an axle, a significant amount of electron
movement can be achieved. As the assembly swings through 180º and
approaches the other pole of the magnet, the electron flow will be reversed.
By connecting the loops of wire to individual strips of metal and contacting
these only as they pass one or other of the magnet poles, we can capture
electron flow as positive on one side and negative on the other. Thus we
have electrical current available at the contacts.
The modern dynamo has many loops of wire, augmented by a soft iron core,
with each loop connected to a copper strip further along the axle. Here
carbon brushes are held against the revolving copper strips, the commutator
and leads attached to the brushes deliver a direct current.
Electricity is no longer generated commercially with dynamos due to the

difficulty of maintaining brushes and commutators on very large machines,
but the principle of inducing a current in a moving conductor is still used in
generators.
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9.4 Current, voltage, watts and resistance

The amount of electrons on the move defines the amount of electricity that
flows termed current, i and measured in amps, A. Electron flow and
therefore electricity, move at the speed of light as, rather than being the
movement of small solid particles, it is a form of electromagnetic wave, but
as this takes us into the realm of relativity we will not offer a proof of that
here. Suffice to say that, for all practical purposes, electricity is
instantaneously available throughout a circuit.
The differential of the positive and negative used to attract the electrons
from one to the other can be regarded as the driving force. This is called the
potential difference or voltage. Because of this potential there is a
tendency for the electrons to move, ie there is a force attempting to move
them from the negative to the positive. This force is called the
electromotive force, (emf) and is measured in volts, V.
Electricity flow has energy and is capable of doing work as passes through a
conductor. This is most easily observed by considering a light bulb. The
passage of current through the conducting filament generates heat, a form
of energy created by the fact that work has been done. This heat is
sufficiently intense to raise the tungsten filament to well over 1000ºC at
which temperature light is evolved.
The amount of work depends on both the voltage and current. If a light bulb
intended for the UK 240V system is instead used on the American 110V
mains, it will glow only dimly. Furthermore, if the current flow to a UK bulb
operating on its normal 240V circuit is restricted by a dimmer switch, less
light is again seen. Thus it is a combination of current and voltage that gives
the power consumption, measured in watts, W.
Watts are the product of amps and volts, ie:
W=AxV
Different materials allow the passage of current to differing degrees. The

wiring around a house between the sockets is pure copper around 2mm in
diameter. All appliances (washing machine, refrigerator, television) run from
this and you give no thought to the passage around your ring main.
However, you may have an electric fire with a wire winding not very different
in diameter and this will heat up and glow red, not what you’d want to be
happening to your ring main! But the nickel-chromium alloy of the fire
element passes current much less easily than does copper and it is this that
causes it to heat whilst the copper does not. This reluctance to pass current
is termed resistance, R and is measured in Ohms, Ω. The greater the
driving force (emf), the more current that is passed through the resisting
material. This is Ohm’s Law, which may be expressed:
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V=ixR
or:
V=AxΩ
In electrical circuitry, resistance is often required to protect components and

small devices are supplied with known resistance. These are called
resistors and are illustrated in circuit diagrams by a rectangular box.
American and some older UK publications may show a resistor as a zig-zag
line.
Preferred symbol (BS EN 81714-2):
American, Japanese and superseded European symbol:
The heating effect seen in the electric fire is important in welding as it plays
a part in raising the temperature of a current-carrying consumable wire
towards melting. By experiment and measurement of the effect of changing
variables, we can show this heating is proportional to the resistance of the
wire and to the square of the current it carries. It is often known as the i2R
effect.
9.5 Direct and alternating current

The electricity from a dynamo always flows in the same direction in the
wires attached to the brushes. This is direct current, DC. The electricity
circulating in the National Grid is alternating current, AC, which means that
it regularly switches direction of flow. The switch is not instantaneous but
builds and decays in sine wave form. A positive flow followed by a negative
one constitutes one cycle.
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The number of times this happens in one second is called frequency and
this is measured in Hertz, Hz. One change of direction per second is 1Hz;
50 such cycles per second is 50Hz. The National Grids of European
countries operate at 50Hz, but the US has a 60Hz supply.
To pass large amounts of electricity along the distribution wires of a Grid, a

high voltage (driving force) is required, usually around 400kV. But to offer
very high voltage supply to households would be dangerous. We have seen
how the capacity for work is a product of both voltage and current, so
drawing only a very small current from such a high voltage supply would still
amount to high energy. The voltage must therefore be changed to a lower
value before the supply is connected to a consumer.
9.6 Transforming electricity

We can change voltage by using a transformer, a device that uses
corollaries to the principle of the dynamo, viz: if a wire moving through a
magnetic field creates electricity, the converse is also true, that a magnetic
field moving past a wire will create electricity. Furthermore, moving
electricity through a wire will create magnetism.
So if a soft iron (a good magnetic medium) in the shape of a square has a

winding of wire on one side through which current is flowing, this will induce
magnetism, termed magnetic flux, flowing around the iron square. Thus, if
a second winding of wire is made on the opposite side of the iron square,
the flow of magnetism will induce electricity in this wire even though it is not
electrically connected to the first.
The voltage generated in the second coil of wire depends on the input
voltage and the ratio of turns in each of the coils. Thus if V1 and n1 are the
voltage and number of turns of the input coil and V2 and n2 are for the output
coil:
V1 n1

V2 n 2
or
n2
V2  x V1
n1
To reduce the voltage from the high level of the Grid to a lower level
requires a high number of turns on the input side and low number on the
output:
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Energy must be conserved in any system so, if we ignore losses through

heat, any reduction in voltage must be accompanied by an increase in
current. This may be expressed:
V1 A 2

V2 A 1
So if an input of 1000V and 2A has 100 turns on the input coil and there are
10 turns on the output coil, the output would be 100V and 20A.
This simple device can transform both DC and AC supplies. Transformers

are sited in the electricity supplier buildings seen in residential
neighbourhoods with the warning signs about danger of electrocution. In
rural areas, they may be mounted on telegraph poles. A large factory will
almost certainly have a high voltage supply to its vicinity and a local
transformer to supply its power needs.
Welding requires relatively low voltage – manual arc welding may run with
only 20-30V maintaining the arc – but needs high current, maybe 100-300A,
to give the power to melt metal. Transformers within the power source itself
generate this from the input voltage and current. Input from domestic supply
(240V and typically 15A from sockets) will limit welding possibilities.
Transformation of domestic mains supply to the 80V typically used for arc
starting gives only 45A maximum current.
Industrial supply is typically 415V with either 63 or 125A maximum. These

can supply around 320A and up to 650A respectively so most welding
workshops and power sources run on this supply.
9.7 Phase
The simple sine wave shows a single supply as might be delivered to a
domestic household. This is referred to as single-phase. In the UK and
most of Europe, the domestic supply is 240V. US uses 110V single-phase
operating at 60Hz.
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Industrial sites consume much greater amounts of electricity and, to deliver

this economically, the National Grid has three-phase 415V AC supply.
In principle three wires, usually coloured red, yellow and blue, each deliver
part of the power with the development of the peak of the cycle being
phased one after another, hence three phase.
As can be seen, each phase commences 1/3 of a cycle after the one before,
referred to as being 120º out-of-phase.
Welding machines have input leads and plugs capable of taking the three
phase supply. Transformation and rectification are applied yielding a power
supply that is smoother than from single phase seen in the next section.
9.8 Rectification
AC power may be used in some welding processes, but most require DC.
To generate DC from the AC supply requires filtering off one half cycles, eg
the negative part, leaving all current in the one direction. This filtering is
called rectification and the simplest form uses diodes, which are devices
that transmit current in one direction but not the other. The semi-conductor,
silicon, is especially useful as sandwiches can be built that have this
property of one-way transmission (see transistors below). Rectifiers are
sometimes referred to as silicon diode rectifiers.
The symbol for a diode is:
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This also shows the direction of permitted current flow – left to right, from
the base of the triangle – and the blocked path – right to left, encountering
the straight line.
Passing a simple single phase supply (upper graph below) through a diode
will cut out the negative part of the cycle leaving the half wave in the positive
direction (middle graph). This is half-wave rectification and is an inefficient
method of creating DC as it uses only half the energy of the input.
It is possible to capture both halves of the cycle as positive output by a

process called full-wave rectification and the input and output curves take
the shape shown on the lower graph below.
Full-wave rectification is achieved by arranging four diodes in a square as

shown below. When the input current in line A is positive, the diode in the
top right allows passage of current to the positive terminal. When the input
current is negative in line A, it follows that it is positive in line B, then the
lower right diode allows this through to the positive terminal.
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The frequency of the pulses is now twice that of the input so, if 50Hz mains
is input, full-wave rectification gives a pulsating DC at 100Hz. Three phase
rectification achieves smoother output as the cycles overlap in time, but
there is still a pronounced ripple effect:
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9.9 Series and parallel

When an electrical circuit is built, wires or strip connectors connect
components in an array to produce the appropriate electrical interaction.
They may be linked together one after another in a ‘daisy-chain’ array:
Series connection.
The components can also be connected in piggy-back fashion:
Parallel connection.
The effect of linking components in these different ways creates different

overall results as seen by considering resistors and the overall resistance of
the circuit:
In series, resistance is additive, so the overall resistance is high, being the

sum of all the individual resistors’ values:
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….
In parallel, the current has multiple paths to use to travel from one side of
the resistor array to the other, so the overall resistance of the circuit is lower
than any individual resistor, according to the formula:
1 1 1 1
    ...
R t R1 R 2 R 3
9.10 Inductance
Another feature of the interaction of electricity and magnetism is inductance.
Current passing through a wire generates a magnetic field. The amount of
magnetic flux is proportional to the current so if the current is changing, it
follows that the magnetic field intensity will also vary.
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Faraday found and defined in his Law that changing field of magnetic flux
induces an emf in the wire and this acts to oppose the increase in current.
This phenomenon is known as inductance. It is particularly useful in
welding as there are instances where a very rapid rise in current can cause
instability. By adding inductance to the circuit we can control this tendency
to instability.
Although inductance is generated in a straight wire, purpose-built inductors

are usually wound as coils to maximise the magnetic effect. An inductor may
also have a ferromagnetic core that further amplifies the effect and some of
these cores may be moved to vary the inductive effect.
The symbol for an inductor is:
or
9.11 Capacitance
Current carrying wires also generate electrical fields and the effect of this
can be seen in capacitors. A simple plate capacitor consists of two plates
of overlapping conducting material separated by a very small gap of non-
conducting material. This can be air, lacquer, or other non-conductor usually
termed a dielectric. If the two plates are connected to either side of a battery
or other source of potential difference one plate will accumulate excess
electrons and become negatively charged and the other will take a positive
charge. The amount of charge is directly proportional to the area of
overlapping and inversely proportional to the distance of separation.
The charge does not occur instantaneously as there is a need for work to be
done to induce the charge: the capacitor resists being charge. Conversely,
once charged the capacitor tends to remain in a charged state so it might
therefore be seen as a means of storing charge. This is used in capacitor
discharge welding, a technique often used to join thermocouple wires
together. The capacitor bank is charged, then that potential difference is
applied across the wires and the short, rapid discharge causes heating and
fusing of the metal.
The symbol for a capacitor is:
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These notes are not intended to give a full learning package on electrical
theory and components, but reference will be made to specific aspects
where appropriate to welding power sources, eg inductance, capacitance,
rectification.
9.12 Transistors and thyristors

Solid state electronics was born from an observation in 1947 that when
electrical contacts were placed on a crystal of germanium, the output current
was greater than the input. Following this observation, workers at Texas
Instruments developed the germanium-doped silicon transistor. The
transistor can be used for this attribute of increasing the current through it, ie
as an amplifier, or it is a semi-conductor, as a switching device.
Pure silicon is not a conductor of electricity, but neither is it an efficient

insulator. The smallest amount of alloying, termed doping, will give some
electrical conductivity. The attributes of doped silicon depend on the doping
element present. Elements such as arsenic, antimony or phosphorus bring
more electrons which the silicon is ready to part with. As electrons have a
negative charge, it is referred to as an n-type layer. If boron, gallium or
aluminium are used the silicon loses electrons so is termed p-type (p for
positive).
Useful devices can be built by making sandwiches of these two types of

silicon. Think of a two-layer sandwich of an n and a p layer with electrical
contacts to top and bottom. If we introduce a current, we can make
electrons flow from the n layer to p as the p-type has a dearth of electrons
and readily accepts current flow that pushes electrons from the n to the p.
However, current will not flow in the opposite direction as the n type will not
accept further input of electrons. This array is a silicon diode and it can be
used, amongst other things, as a rectifier as described earlier in
Rectification.
If we consider a three layer sandwich of n-p-n and call these layers emitter –
base – collector, we can achieve the amplification mentioned above.
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Even if this array is connected with the emitter as negative and the collector
as positive there will be no current, as the unconnected p-layer will act as a
barrier to electron flow. But if we give a small positive voltage to the base,
we can pass current from the emitter to the base as shown above for diodes
and, with the collector at a higher positive potential, from the base to the
collector:
Applying the small positive potential to the base has switched the array from
off to on and the characteristics of the silicon have given an amplification of
the amount of current exiting the collector. This is the transistor as an
amplifier.
In the early 1970s, Watkins and Needham at TWI built a welding power
source based on transistors. Whilst a research tool it proved that sufficient
current could be developed in a solid-state amplification circuit to give the
high currents necessary for fusion welding. Development of commercial
offerings rapidly followed and today all power sources include transistors,
even if only on the control circuit. However, few simple transistors are used
in a modern circuit, most use integrated circuits that contain millions, in
fact sometimes billions, of n and p junctions.
The thyristor is a four-layer n-p-n-p device with the first p-layer as the base
or gate. Once this gate has been primed by a small voltage, the thyristor has
the characteristic that it continues to pass current even if the gate voltage is
removed, ie it is self-latching. The thyristor drops into the off state if the
forward current drops below a threshold, known as the holding current, or if
the anode has a negative voltage applied to it from another part of the
circuit.
Thyristors are used in welding power sources as they are capable of

handling high current switching reliably. They are not the source of power
but are key components in the control system.
9.13 Inverters
Inverters are fast becoming the power source of choice for welding and it is
not difficult to see why when looking at a unit, it is very small:
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Compare this to a conventional power source:
Conventional power sources are large and heavy because of the size of the
transformer required to convert 415V 63 or 125A mains to an output suitable
for welding. High current requires thick wires and large iron cores to avoid
overheating.
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However, all transformation obeys the principle that the voltage to be

transformed is directly proportional to the number of turns on the primary
coil, N, the cross-sectional area of the core, A and the frequency of the AC
current, f. Expressed as a formula this is:
V = k.N.A.f
The frequency of the AC mains is 50 or 60Hz so; the traditional power

source builders had only the number of turns and core size to consider.
They could halve the core size but this required twice the number of turns. A
large number of turns increased the likelihood of overheating. Conversely
they could reduce the number of turns and consequently the internal heating
but only by increasing the size and therefore weight of the core.
Inversion allows the consideration of the third factor. An inverter is a solid-

state device that is able to create AC at any frequency from DC. If, as is
typical, the inverter generates AC at 100kHz, f in the formula above is 2000
times higher than the 50Hz of the traditional power source. Thus both
number of turns and core size of the transformer can be dramatically
reduced for the same power rating. For example the number of turns could
be 1/10 and the core cross-section 1/200 of the conventional machine.
To take advantage of this fact, an inverter power source goes through the
slightly perverse route of rectifying mains to DC, converting DC back to AC
through the inverter, then transforming the high frequency AC, before
rectifying it once more to a DC output suitable for welding.
However, this means more components and therefore potentially more cost.
Whilst there are more components, the huge size and weight saving make
inverter power sources very desirable. With increased volume production
costs are now dropping bringing inverters into increasing usage for shop-
based industrial as well as portable welding applications.
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IWS Revision Questions on Electricity

1 What is Ohms law?
2 How is mains AC converted to DC at current and voltage suitable for welding?
3 How is high mains voltage reduced to a safe AC welding voltage?
4 What is half wave rectification and how can full wave rectification be achieved?
5 Explain the difference between connecting resistors in series and in parallel.
IWT Revision Questions on Electricity

6 Explain what is meant by positive ions and electrons. How are they formed in
welding?
7 Describe three phase power supply and compare full wave rectification of both
single and three phase AC.
8 Why is an inverter power source so small?
9 Explain the operation of a thyristor.
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Section 10
Arcs and Plasmas

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Arcs and Plasmas
10 Arcs and Plasmas

10.1 Formation and distinction
In the section on Fusion Welding Principles, we noted that the welding arc
was sustained by the formation of electrically conducting plasma through the
shielding gas. Strictly speaking, the arc is the event that initiates the
generation of the plasma. The first stage is ionisation of the gas by stripping
electrons from the atoms.
The application of a voltage across a normally non-conducting gas creates a

driving force for stripping electrons. The energy required is called the
ionisation energy. This is the energy, usually measured in kJ/mol, required
to extract an electron from a free atom or molecule of the gas. All atoms
have measurable ionisation energies, though for solids, eg the metals we
may be welding, the atoms are not free but in a crystalline state with defined
orientation. Removal of an electron from such a surface requires less
energy and this is defined as the work function of the metal.
In DC electrode negative (DCEN) TIG welding: a tungsten electrode is held

in pure argon at negative potential above a positively charged parent plate.
If the potential difference is sufficient, electrons will be pulled from atoms
and dragged towards the positively charged plate, ie current will flow. The
electrons travel with enough energy to heat the conducting gas stream to
several thousand degrees. This helps to provide energy for the dissociation
of further atoms. With a refractory cathode like tungsten, the temperature is
high enough for thermionic emission of electrons to occur. The energy
provided by the heat is sufficient to overcome the work function of the
tungsten and electrons are liberally produced at the metal surface from
where they stream across the arc to the anode. This strong stream of
electrons and the temperature achieved creates a column of ions from the
shielding gas called a plasma. Provided the potential difference remains,
this plasma will continue to conduct electricity and will heat the plate,
causing melting of the anode area.
We must also consider arc initiation. We commented above that the

potential difference had to be sufficient to allow electron stripping. We are
familiar with arcs (sparks) being created from our fingers when we reach to
a metal door knob after having been charged electrostatically by walking on
synthetic carpet. Several thousands of volts (but minute currents) are
involved. We are also familiar with lightning, so know that arcs (for that is
what a lightning flash is) can travel over several hundred metres. In lightning
the voltage is huge, in the millions of volts. In welding, however, only in the
order of 100V is available from the power source.
To create an arc with a welding power source requires one of two

techniques; either the gap must be very small or an additional starting
mechanism is required. Several processes use the former method, the
electrode of the welding torch or head is usually brought briefly into contact
with the parent plate then lifted slowly away. The small arc generated as the
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current passes between the electrode and the workpiece can then be
maintained as the gap is increased to working distance. MMA, MIG and TIG
with scratch or lift-arc start use this simple technique.
A TIG arc may also be started by the application of high frequency AC

current to create the initial spark that bridges the electrode to workpiece
gap. This is also the method used in plasma welding, where the arc is
created within the torch itself. HF start is used on most industrial TIG
machines and is an essential part of an AC set as it is necessary to re-
establish the arc every half cycle.
10.2 Arc and plasma zones

The arc can be divided into three areas of importance when considering
welding behaviour:
 Cathode spot from where electrons are released.

 Plasma column.
 Anode spot where the arc impinges on the anode.
The potential difference does not vary uniformly from cathode tip to anode,
there is a zone about 0.01mm thickness where the potential changes rapidly
at both cathode and anode end of the plasma.
Cathode characteristics
With DCEN TIG, a stable cathode spot exists around the sharpened tip of
the electrode:
The constant expulsion of electrons from this area creates a cooling effect
on the tip with the hottest part of the tungsten being measured several
millimetres back from the tip. This cooling has no direct effect on DCEN TIG
but is of significance when the cathode is the molten pool, as in the DCEP
(electrode positive) cycle of AC TIG and the normal operation of MIG.
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Cathodic cooling works against the easy emission of electrons as the

thermionic effect mentioned above depends on temperature to achieve the
excitation of the electrons. Thus when the cathode spot is on the molten
pool it is observed to wander rapidly across the surface. If the area of the
cathode spot is cooled the hotter zones surrounding it will have more
potential for electron release so the spot may be wandering to find a more
favourable site only for this to be, in turn, subjected to cooling.
Whilst this may be so, there is another aspect that may play a part. The
work function for release of electrons is lower for an oxide than for the metal
itself. The release of electrons from a metal surface is known to clean it of
oxide so the cathode spot on a weld pool may wander to find any slight
oxidation where the energy to produce electrons would be lower. The
likelihood is that both mechanisms are at play but it is not easy to see how
this could be determined experimentally.
The behaviour of the cathode spot has been observed in gas shielded
systems and found to be quite complex. In fluxed systems the interactions
are even more complicated and some of the conclusions reached in gas-
shielded systems do not hold true.
Arc column
The arc or more accurately the plasma column operates at very high
temperature – maybe up to 10,000ºC (estimates in literature range from
5,000-24,000ºC). This is sufficient for the gas to be highly ionized and
electrically conductive. In fact, to be conductive, only a small proportion of
the atoms, 5-30%, need to be ionised. The column is electrical neutral as
there are as many positive charges from ions as there are electrons. There
is heat loss from the column, by radiation and a considerable amount is lost
by convection in the plasma jet.
Most of the current carrying is due to the electron flow and because it is
electrically conducting is subject to the same phenomena that affect any
current carrying conductor. In particular, it generates a magnetic field and
will be affected by any external magnetic field. This can be used to
beneficial effect as magnetic coils will move the column around and can be
used for guidance and control used to most effect in electron beam welding
where very rapid rastering of the beam is possible.
A negative effect is found in some DC arc welding. Residual magnetism in

plate can move the plasma column away from the expected perpendicular
position. This is called arc blow and is particularly problematic in multi-wire
SAW, in root welding magnetised steels where the magnetic field is
concentrated by the prep and the welding of cryogenic nickel steels.
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The ease with which this column can be moved can be seen in the plasma
globe, once popular as an ornament. Inside the globe is an inert gas at low
pressure. The application of high voltage to the central electrode ionises the
gas producing random lines of plasma forming current paths to the outer
glass sphere. This acts as a capacitor storing charge on its surface. When a
good conductor (like a human being with a slightly sweaty finger) is
connected to the other side, the plasma column is immediately attracted to
this.
There is no arc in a plasma globe and the welding arc and plasma can be
separated, as is evidenced in a plasma torch. The arc is contained within
the torch, being struck in a gas atmosphere between a tungsten cathode
and a surrounding copper anode. The anode has a hole directly beneath the
cathode and the gas flows through this hole taking the plasma with it. The
welder is presented with a very hot flame without there being any arc
transfer to the workpiece.
Anode characteristics
The anode spot is where the electrons are absorbed having travelled across
the plasma. This bombardment causes heat transfer to the anode area, it is
usually said that 60% of the heat of the arc is transferred to the anode, with
20% heating the cathode and 20% being lost in the plasma column. This is
very much an approximation and the actual heat appearing at the anode
depends on more than the electrical aspects.
Helium generates more heat, amp for amp, than argon not due to arc
temperature effects; measurements have shown that very little difference
exists but because a significant amount of heat is transferred to the anode
by conduction through the gas layer just above it.
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Heat flow across this boundary layer is controlled by the thermal

conductivity of the gas. For monatomic gases such as helium and argon,
thermal conductivity is controlled by mass diffusivity, which is inversely
proportional to the square root of the mass of the atom. Thus the thermal
conductivity of helium is around three times greater than that of argon. This
effect also explains why gas mixtures increase heat into the pool when
compared with pure argon.
A third heating effect at the anode is apparent when diatomic gases are
present. Hydrogen is sometimes added to argon to give greater melting and
penetration. With levels of H2 at only 5%, modification of thermal
conductivity does not explain the observed increased melting. Hydrogen is
dissociated in the plasma and the recombination of atoms back to hydrogen
molecules occurs at the anode with an attendant release of energy.
In MIG welding the anode is on the wire. The size and behaviour of the spot
depends on the shielding gas providing the ions. With helium or carbon
dioxide, a small spot is formed that does not change significantly with
current. So as the wire melts and forms a globule, the anode spot stays
beneath it and the globule grows until detached, basically by gravity.
With argon gas, the anode spot is more diffuse and grows with increasing
current to fill the diameter of the wire. Further increase in current sees the
anode begin to climb the cylindrical wall of the wire. As most of the heat
transfer occurs through the anode spot, this has the effect of starting to melt
the wire from cylindrical surface beneath the anode spot. Thus a taper is
formed which becomes more acute as the current is increased and the
anode spot climbs further back along the wire. This tapering creates a much
smaller diameter at the tip so the droplet size is very much smaller and fine
spray transfer takes place.
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IWT Questions on Arcs and Plasmas

1 How does a plasma come into existence? Why is plasma sometimes referred to
as the fourth state of matter?
2 What is cathodic cooling?
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Section 11
Power Sources
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Power Sources
11 Power Sources
11.1 Types of power source
Welding takes place at relatively low voltage compared with the input mains
electricity and much higher current. The delivery of the appropriate ranges
of voltage and current is the function of the power source. Welding can be
achieved with DC electrode negative (DCEN), DC electrode positive (DCEP)
or AC power and there are a number of ways of generating these.
DC power can be generated directly from a dynamo or more likely a

brushless generator as described in the section of the notes Electricity as
Applicable to Welding. The motor to drive the coil through the magnetic field
is an internal combustion engine so the machines are usually known as
diesel or petrol generators depending on the fuel used. The advantage of an
engine-driven generator is that it is self-contained with no requirement of
input from the electricity network. So is particularly suited to site-work and
may be mounted on the back of a truck, or on wheels to give portability to
remote sites.
A small generator welding set.
Engine-driven machines are not popular for shop fabrication, due to the
noise from the engine and rotating components. They also become large
and heavy when scaled to give high current capability.
AC power sources are, at their simplest, merely transformers taking the AC

input and converting it to higher current, lower voltage. The welding current
available can be adjusted by adding inductance to the system, usually
achieved by placing an inductor in line. Inductance opposes the flow of
current so slows the rate of growth of the current during each half cycle.
With sufficient inductance the current does not reach its maximum beginning
to decay towards the other half cycle, also known as ‘choking’ and the
control device may also be called a choke. The inductor actually often
containing capacitors as well and known as a reactor, has a means of
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adjustment so giving current control to the operator. This may be by tapping

the reactor at various points, giving differing numbers of turns of wire so
different levels of inductance or by moving an iron core allowing a variable
amount of leakage of the inductance. There is another method whereby a
small DC current controls the amount of magnetism in an iron core which
determines the amount of inductance, a saturable reactor. It gives fine
control but is more expensive and usually only used for TIG machines.
AC transformer welding sets.
For DC welding in shop fabrication conditions, the AC transformer is

coupled with a rectifier which produces a heavy duty, sturdy machine, noted
for reliability and use in adverse conditions.
A traditional rectifier power source.
We noted in the section on electricity as applicable to welding that the

principle of inversion gave advantages with regard to the size of transformer
and as the components have become more commonplace and so cheaper
inverter power sources are becoming very common in welding.
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The AC mains input is first rectified to DC which is fed to the inverter which
converts it to high frequency AC, maybe at 50kHz, which means the
subsequent transformer can be many hundreds of times smaller than in a
conventional machine. This can be used for welding or passed through
another rectifier to give a DC supply. Inverter power sources may therefore
be used for AC or DC welding and even sources with high current output are
very small.
11.2 Power source characteristics

If the input to the power source is 415V and 20A, the power consumption is
415 x 20 = 8300 watts. As energy can neither be gained nor lost, this should
also be the output power, but we can expect some energy loss due to
heating of components and loss of this heat to the surroundings, so
effectively this machine will output 7500 watts. In theory we could extract
300A at 25V or 3A at 250V or any other combination amounting to 7.5kW.
A TIG welding power source may give around 100V maximum and down to
10V. Over this range our 7.5kW would provide 75A up to 750A with a
straight-line relationship between the current and voltage.
This is not, however, how welding power sources work; they are designed to
have specific volt/amp relationships. In general higher voltage means lower
current and vice versa, but the rate of change can be different according to
the circuitry. The reason why we might wish for different relationships lies in
the processes themselves.
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11.2.1 Drooping characteristic

For manual processes such as TIG and MMA welding, the arc length is
dependent on how consistently the welder can hold the torch above the
workpiece. Arc length is directly proportional to arc voltage so a longer arc
has a higher voltage and if the arc is shortened the voltage will decrease.
Variation of arc length by 3 or 4mm can easily vary the voltage by 5V. This
would vary the current between 300-375A in our theoretical machine. Such
variation would result in significant changes in weld pool size and
penetration and would make the process very difficult to control.
By design, the TIG or MMA power source has a limited range of current and
a reduced variation on changing voltage. Plotted as voltage against current
this appears as:
This is termed drooping characteristic or constant current. With such a

power source the variation of current over a change of 5V may be as little as
10A. This will give almost imperceptible changes to the weld pool, making
control much easier for the welder.
With no load on the power source, ie when it is switched on but not

delivering output, there is a relatively high voltage across its output
terminals. This is called open circuit voltage (OCV). For a drooping
characteristic power source, it may be 80 to 100V and is useful for helping
initiate the arc on MMA electrodes. Once running an arc the voltage is
normally in the range 20-35V, shown above as the normal operating range.
It is the minimal variation of current over this range that gives the power
source its characteristic relevant to MMA or TIG welding.
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11.2.2 Flat characteristic and the self-adjusting arc

MIG welding requires different characteristics from the power source. The
consumable is continuously fed through the torch where it picks up current
from the contact tip. At its end an arc is struck that melts the wires and
transfers droplets to the workpiece. As the wire is a much a smaller
diameter than that of an electrode for MMA, the current density is much
higher, as is the burn-off rate. Under constant conditions the wire feeder is
set at a speed that delivers the wire at the same rate that it is melted away
so a fixed arc length operating at particular values of voltage and current is
established. Any variation in arc length will cause a change of voltage as
noted above for the MMA process. If the same drooping characteristic
power source were to be used the increased voltage on lengthening the arc
would be accompanied by only a small lowering of the burn-off rate. With
the small wire diameter of MIG, the higher voltage arc would create a much
larger plasma column that would widen the weld pool. Similarly, shortening
the arc would produce a much smaller weld pool. As the burn-off rates are
maybe twenty times as rapid as for MMA, there is insufficient time for the
welder to react to these changes.
If the power source is designed to give a large change of current for only a
small change of voltage a more manageable situation ensues. The MIG
power source has an operating characteristic that produces only small
changes in potential (a few volts) as a result of bigger (at least one order of
magnitude) changes in current.
Any small increase in arc length and voltage will result in a large reduction in
current and burn-off rate. Thus the feed speed is momentarily in excess of
the burn-off so the wire advances from the end of the contact tip. This
reduces the arc length, lowering the voltage and increasing the current until
the feed speed and burn-off are once more in balance and equilibrium is
restored.
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The opposite is true if the torch moves towards the workpiece. The voltage
drops causing a large increase in current and therefore burn-off rate. This
now exceeds the feed speed so the wire burns back, automatically
increasing voltage. A dropping current until the equilibrium position of feed
speed equaling burn-off is again achieved.
The OCV of a flat characteristic power source is only a few volts above the
operating range. In operation both MIG and SAW arcs are initiated by
advancing the wire until it makes contact with the base plate, creating a
short circuit giving rapid heating and melting of the wire. As the molten filler
drops away an arc is established. There is no requirement for a higher
voltage for this process to happen.
11.2.3 Multi-process power sources

With the advent of inverter technology and solid state electronic control,
power source designers can now build in an option on the static
characteristics of the power source. Machines are capable of being set up
with drooping characteristic – and so be suitable for TIG and MMA or with a
flat characteristic for MIG or FCAW. Such machines are more expensive
than a single process set, can provide an economical solution for fabrication
shops with a wide variety of process requirements.
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This 300A inverter set is sold with the claim that it offers:
 MMA.
 TIG.
 MIG.
 Pulsed MIG.
 FCAW.
 Carbon arc gouging.
It weighs only 36kg and is suitable for use on a construction site as well as
in a fabrication shop. Many manufacturers now have something similar.
11.3 Pulsed power

There are instances where having the ability to switch off full power
momentarily is advantageous. In TIG welding by pulsing between a high
current and a low background current, a weld pool with the penetration of
full power is achieved without producing the overall heat normally
associated with it, giving better control over side and root fusion with less
danger of overheating the whole area leading to over-penetration. Pulsing
the power also causes the solidification front intermittently to advance
rapidly then recede. This can avoid crystal growth along the weld line and in
certain instances improves resistance to solidification cracking.
Pulsing may be achieved in a number of ways. The earliest sets operated at

mains frequency and the current was determined by chopping the full-wave
rectified power:
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t
With electronic control, rapid switching of DC became possible allowing the
generation of a square wave shape from two base current levels: a low
background and a higher peak current. In a switching circuit, the frequency is
no longer dictated by the AC mains, so pulsing frequency becomes a variable;
a higher frequency of the same pulse will result in a higher average current and
therefore heat input:
i
11.1.1.1 A
11.1.1.2 A
i
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Larger pulse width or height will also result in increased average current and
apparently similar heat input, yet the overall effect on metal transfer, weld
pool shape and ease of control of penetration will vary.
11.1.1.3 A
i
11.1.1.4 A
i
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-ve
A significant advantage of this waveform is that as the voltage has the same
shape there is not the decay to zero and build to maximum voltage of a sine
wave resulting in easier arc ignition at each half cycle and high frequency
arc initiation not required.
11.4 Slope control and gas purging

The stops and starts of weld runs can contain defects associated with the
circumstances of establishing and extinguishing the arc. The start area of a
TIG weld may be more prone to the formation of porosity than the stable
part of the run. In most processes the final weld pool is the most susceptible
to solidification cracks. For processes that involve metal transfer through the
arc there is little possibility of altering the arcing conditions to compensate
as the need for transfer dictates the conditions permissible. But for TIG
welding, the actual parameters can be varied for a time at the start and end
of a run to help address the problem of potential defects.
At the start of a weld run, the sudden establishment of a molten pool in

surrounding cold plate can make the likelihood of porosity high. If welding is
started at low current, the pool is correspondingly small and insufficient gas
evolution occurs to create porosity. In the middle of a run, conduction has
produced a heating effect that slows the freezing of the pool and gives time
for the gas to escape. TIG sets are usually designed with an ability to start
at very low current and build over a number of seconds to the full current
required for the weld run. This is called slope up and there is usually a
control to adjust the time over which the build-up will occur.
Start porosity is further aggravated by the conditions of shielding gas flow.

The torch and gas delivery line will be filled with air before welding
commences so the first delivery of shielding to the arc area will, at best, be
inert gas diluted with air and maybe water vapour. To purge this from the
system, welding equipment is usually designed to allow a pre-flow of
shielding gas prior to striking the arc.
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11.3.1 Pulsed MIG and synergic control

Flexible pulsing introduces a significant number of extra variables, but
electronics can make the job of the welder much easier. For pulsed MIG
welding, the parameters that give stable and useful conditions for each
material, wire size and shielding gas combination can be stored in software
and reproduced at the touch of a button (or the turn of a selector knob).
Such control is known as synergic (ie working together to give a better than
expected result) and are sometimes referred to as one knob sets.
Synergic MIG/MAG (GMAW) welding is a variant of pulsed MIG/MAG

welding. A synergic welding set provides unit current pulses to detach
identical molten droplets of predetermined volume from the electrode wire,
combined with the other parametric relationships necessary for stable wire
burn off. Unit pulses are unique to a given material and wire diameter and
their details are programmed into a synergic welding set. Modern sets
contain a variety of consumable and wire diameter combinations, including
programmes for flux and metal-cored consumables.
The three essential characteristics of synergic operation are:
 Pulse parameters are selected automatically.

 Pulse frequency or duration is directly related to wire feed rate.
 Electronic control of parameters ensures uniform penetration and weld
bead profile.
In practical terms, this allows an operator to pre-select wire material and

diameter once for any welding operation, then adjust the one control that
governs wire feed rate. The one knob operation synonymous with this type
of power source is the principal advantage of such a system compared to
conventional non-synergic sets, which require that the pulse parameters
(pulse frequency, peak/background current etc.) be individually set for a
given wire feed speed. Thus synergic welding sets offer the advantages
associated with pulsed MIG/MAG welding, combined with a welder friendly
control system.
Synergic control is also used in conventional MIG/MAG, in which the voltage

is adjusted in relation to the wire feed. It is now possible to buy a synergic
wire feeder which performs this function in conjunction with a standard
rectifier power source.
Power source designers soon realised that it was particularly useful to

choose pulse MIG conditions that melted and transferred a single drop of
metal from the wire and synergic power sources became synonymous with
single drop transfer. The term pulsed transfer is sometimes confused with
single droplet transfer. A simple pulse of high current merely takes the
process into a condition where normal spray conditions occur; it takes
careful selection of pulse size, shape and frequency - different for each
combination of material, wire size and gas - to achieve single drop transfer.
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Controlled short circuit transfer

During normal operation of the dip transfer mode, there is some uncertainty
concerning the amount of metal transferred in each short circuit, arc and
short circuit time and natural frequency of transfer. The random nature of
the short-circuiting together with process instability and the risk of high
spatter levels are potential limitations of the dip transfer mode. Recent
developments in power source technology have led to controlled short-
circuit transfer becoming available from several manufacturers. This
technology allows a higher degree of control over the current waveform in
dip transfer than traditional methods using inductance. These systems rely
on detection of the onset of a short circuit and the re-establishment of the
arc by monitoring the transient arc current and voltage. The current is
controlled based on the instantaneous requirements of the process. The key
features on these modified control waveforms include a reduction in current
immediately after short-circuiting has taken place to ensure good contact
between the wire and the weld pool, followed by a rapid controlled rise of
the pinch current. There is a rapid reduction of the peak current prior to
short circuit rupture to avoid spatter. There is then a pulse of current applied
to rapidly re-establish the arc length and promote good fusion. The current
is then gradually reduced to a background level, minimising weld pool
turbulence and avoiding uncontrolled short circuits.
11.3.2 Pulsed TIG and square wave AC TIG

As stated above, manual TIG welding may benefit from pulsed power to give
the welder greater control over the manipulation of the weld pool. The
limited time at peak current makes it easier to manipulate the weld pool
without burn-through and loss of penetration bead shape. Pulsed power is
also useful for mechanised TIG welding, especially where programming
allows parameter changes as profiles vary.
The DC switching approach can be used to generate a square wave AC

supply by changing the direction of the DC from positive to negative and
vice versa after each pulse:
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When the arc is extinguished, the molten pool is subjected to rapid freezing
from its perimeter inwards. This can lead to insufficient liquid being available
and the final pool may have a concave top surface - often called the crater.
In some instances the lack of liquid results in cracks forming in a star shape
in this crater, termed crater cracking. TIG power sources usually are able
to step down the current over time resulting in a much smaller pool for final
freezing where the problem of insufficient liquid feed may be eliminated,
called slope out or crater fill.
Gas shielding is important during this final solidification after arc extinction
so it follows that shielding gas flow should not cease as the arc is
extinguished. A flow is usually maintained until the pool has cooled
sufficiently that severe oxidation will not place. This constitutes a post-flow
of gas that may also be controlled by a timer on the welding set.
11.5 Duty cycle

Some energy is lost as heat and heat is generated by passing current
through any conductor according to the i2R effect. Pure copper has a lower
resistance than most other conductors but it will still be heated by the effect.
The amount of heat generated and lost partly depends on the machine
design and many have in-built fans to give forced air cooling. There are
temperature limits on most electrical components and, in the extreme;
insulation can break down causing shorting and even catching fire. So is
important that usage of welding equipment is kept within the heat generation
that can be adequately dealt with by loss to the environment.
The balance between heating from the passage of power and cooling by
loss to the surroundings is dependent on the power passing through the
circuit and the length of time for which it passes – the higher the power, the
less time for critical temperatures to be reached. This presents an issue in
rating a power source: what is its maximum power output? A machine may
be capable of delivering 400A but suffer unacceptable heating levels after
only a few minutes. Is it then reasonable to refer to this as having a 400A
capability? The welding equipment manufacturing industry has standardised
the rating of welding machines by use of duty cycle.
The duty cycle is the number of minutes, out of ten, that a machine can by
continuously operate at the power output claimed. The balance of the ten
minutes is for the machine to be cooling under no load. This definition is
used in the US and in European standard BS EN 60974-1. With regard to
duty cycle, the common ratings are at 35% (ie 3½ minutes running, 6½
minutes cooling); 60% (6 minutes on, 4 minutes off) and 100% (continuous
running). A plate must be fixed to the machine showing its rating for it to
comply with BS EN 60974:
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Most manufacturers comply with the European Standard and it is

compulsory that the electrical safety of a power source complies with the
requirements for CE marking of electrical equipment for it to be sold in
Europe.
11.6 Bibliography
Whilst now looking rather dated, more can be learnt of the principles of
power source design by reference to:
 LM Gourd: Principles of Welding Technology, Edward Arnold. ISBN 0340

61399 8.
 AC Davies: The Science and Practice of Welding Volume 1 and 2,
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521 43403 3 and 0521 43404 1.
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IWS Questions on Power Sources

1 Describe the operation of drooping and flat characteristic power sources.
2 Why is the MIG arc called self-adjusting?
3 Explain slope-up and slope-out and their use in TIG welding.
IWT Questions on Power Sources

4 Compare the methods of creating pulsed power, highlighting pros and cons.
5 What is synergic power and how is it achieved? Give the benefits of using
synergic power.
6 Define duty cycle and describe why it is important when welding.
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12 TIG Welding
A number of manufacturers publish very good guides covering theoretical
and practical aspects of TIG welding. One is available on-line from Miller at
www.millerwelds.com/resources/TIGhandbook/.
TIG welding is a process where melting is achieved by heating with an arc

struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece.
An inert gas to shields the electrode and weld zone to prevent oxidation of
the tungsten electrode and atmospheric contamination of the weld and hot
filler wire (as shown below).
TIG welding.
Tungsten is used because it has a melting point of 3370°C, well above any
other common metal. In the US it is also known as gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW).
12.2 Arc initiation

There are three ways of striking the arc in TIG welding. Simple sets, eg
hobbyist attachments to MMA equipment, rely on scratch starting. This is
essentially the same as for MMA: the electrode is stroked on the workpiece
and slightly lifted clear. A short circuit current passes whilst the electrode is
touching the workpiece and, as the electrode is lifted, the arc is established.
This is not favoured for intricate or quality work as the tip of the tungsten is
liable to be melted and transferred to the initial weld pool. Whilst these are
not the most problematic of defects, they appear vividly on radiographic
inspection films as white spots (on the negative) as tungsten is very much
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more opaque to X- or gamma-rays than the normal engineering metals

being welded.
A variant of this method since the advent of electronically controlled power

sources is the lift-arc method which relies on touching the electrode to the
metal but the electronics are set to reduce the short circuit current to only a
few amps. Thus little i2R heating occurs and the tungsten tip is not melted.
As the electrode is withdrawn from the workpiece and the arc length
lengthens, the current is raised by the control mechanism to the working
level.
The most common method of arc initiation is using a high frequency (HF)
spark. Superimposition of high voltage, but very low current, HF creates a
spark between the electrode and the workpiece that will initiate the welding
arc and plasma formation. For DC welding the HF only acts during start-up
but for AC welding with a sine wave output (traditional transformed mains)
the HF is run continuously to allow re-ignition as the current and voltage
pass through zero each half cycle. With electronically generated square
wave AC, this is not necessary as the voltage is switched instantaneously to
peak value. HF is only required for the initial start in square wave AC.
12.3 Current and polarity

Current determines the degree of penetration and the size of the weld pool.
It has to be within a range suitable for the size of tungsten electrode. If the
welding current is too high, the electrode tip can overheat and melt, leading
to tungsten inclusion too low and the electrode tip will not be properly
heated and an unstable arc may result
TIG welding is normally carried out with the electrode connected to the
negative output of the power source (DCEN). Heat is generated at the
anode by the impingement of electrons as we saw in the section on Arcs
and Plasmas. Stripping electrons from the cathode cools the tip of the
tungsten prolonging its life.
However, refractory oxides such as those of aluminium or magnesium can

hinder fusion and require removal during welding achieved by having the
workpiece as the cathode; the emission of electrons from the surface breaks
up the oxide layer, effectively cleaning the weld pool. With a DC positively
connected electrode (DCEP), heat is concentrated at the electrode tip and
therefore the electrode needs to be of greater diameter than when using DC
negative if overheating of the tungsten is to be avoided. A water-cooled
torch is recommended if DC positive is used. With the distribution of heat
being only 30% at the workpiece, penetration is shallow and the process is
only useful for thin sheet material. Helium shielding gas improves
penetration but if thick aluminium or magnesium is to be welded, the usual
choice is AC.
Clearly, AC will combine both DCEN and DCEP operation as the current
flow switches direction at each half cycle.
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Polarity of workpiece
Current
DCEN AC DCEP
type/polarity
Heat balance 70% at work 50% at work 30% at work
30% at electrode 50% at electrode 70% at electrode
Weld profile Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide
Cleaning action No Yes – every half Yes
cycle
Electrode Excellent Good Poor
capacity (3.2mm/400A) (3.2mm/225A) (6.4mm/120A)
Traditional AC achieved by directly transforming the mains gives a 50:50

split of heat but with an electronically generated output the waveform can be
modified in a similar manner to pulse modification (Power Sources). Thus
the DCEP half cycle can be reduced to a minimum required for the cleaning
action with a corresponding increase in the DCEN half cycle giving better
penetration.
+ve
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12.4 Preparing the tungsten electrode

Tungsten types
TIG electrodes may be 100% tungsten but more commonly have refractory
or rare earth oxides incorporated. These different types of electrodes suit
varying applications:
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Pure tungsten
(W) electrodes are identified by a green band, are cheaper than oxide-
dosed ones but generally have a shorter life. They are used when welding
light metals with AC because they maintain a clean, balled end but possess
poor arc initiation and arc stability in AC mode compared with other types.
Thoriated electrodes
Yellow or red band contain 1 or 2% respectively of thorium oxide (thoria) to
improve arc initiation. Have higher current carrying capacity than pure
tungsten electrodes and maintain a sharp tip for longer. Thoria is slightly
radioactive (emitting  radiation) and the dust generated during tip grinding
should not be inhaled. Electrode grinding machines used for thoriated
tungsten grinding should be fitted with a dust extraction system.
Ceriated electrodes
Grey band in Europe, orange in the US and contain nominally 2% cerium
oxide, excellent arc starting on DC even at low current and often chosen for
mechanised orbital TIG welding of thin pipework and other delicate
operations.
Lanthanated electrodes
Black band, 1%, lanthanum oxide and perform similarly to thoriated
electrodes and since lanthanum is not radioactive are often used as direct
replacements for thoriated electrodes.
Zirconiated electrodes
White band in Europe and brown in USA and are alloyed with 1% zirconium
oxide. Operating characteristics fall between the thoriated types and pure
tungsten. Able to retain a balled end during welding, recommended for AC
welding. Have high resistance to contamination so they are used for high
integrity welds where tungsten inclusions must be avoided.
Tungsten electrode manufacturer’s offer recommended current ranges for

the various diameters available. A rough guide for thoriated, ceriated or
lanthanated electrodes on DCEN is:
Current range, A Electrode dia, mm

50 – 150 1.6
130 – 250 2.4
240 – 400 3.2
The recommended safe working conditions for thoriated electrodes are

summarised in a TWI FAQ (available to TWI Industrial Members) and in the
HSE Information Document 564/6 (see below). If it is not practical to ensure
such conditions, ceriated electrodes are recommended as a health and
safety improvement.
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 HSE Information Document: Storage and Use of Thoriated Tungsten

564/6: www.hse.gov.uk/fod/infodocs/564_6r.pdf.
 TWI FAQ ‘The use of thoriated tungsten electrodes
www.twi.co.uk/content/faq_thoriated.html.
Further information on health and safety is available by searching the HSE

website.
Grinding tungsten electrodes

The end of the tungsten is ground to a point to give a concentrated area for
the creation of the cathode spot. Generally the length of the ground portion
of the tip of the electrode should approximately 2-2.5 times the electrode
diameter. The vertex angle is not critical but does have an effect on the
bead width and penetration.
A sharper, narrower electrode angle, gives a wider weld bead, easier arc
starting and improved arc stability. A narrower electrode is for less
amperage and has less weld penetration and shorter electrode life.
A blunter, wider tungsten electrode gives a narrower weld bead that is

harder to start but can handle more amperage and will provide better weld
penetration. There is increased potential for arc wander but the electrode
will last longer.
The sharp tip of the electrode is usually removed by grinding a small flat as
shown in the centre figure below. Which lowers the likelihood of melting or
spitting the tip into the pool.
For AC welding zirconiated tungsten electrodes with a hemispherical

(balled) end (are used shown below). The ball will form naturally during AC
welding as the electrode is heated on the DCEP cycle, but it is usual to pre-
form it to avoid loss of molten tungsten into the weld pool. To produce a
balled end the electrode is ground then an arc is initiated and arc on a cold
copper block and the current increased until it melts the tip of the electrode.
Electrode tip Electrode tip with Electrode tip with a

vertexangle. flat end. ‘balled’ end.
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Tips on grinding tungsten electrodes:
 Use a dedicated grinder reserved for tungsten to avoid contamination of

the electrode.
 Grinding wheels should be made of diamond or boron nitride.
 Grind longitudinally and concentrically so that the lines on the ground
surface are in the same direction as the electrode and the electrode has
no flat spots.
 Never grind tungsten electrodes on belt sanders or the sides of standard
grinding wheels.
 Do not breathe grinding dust. Use an exhaust system when grinding
radioactive thoriated tungsten electrodes.
 Wear approved safety gloves and glasses. Tungsten splinters easily and
can penetrate the operator’s hands and eyes.
 Electrodes get hot when grinding! Use an electrode grinding wand to
minimise burns.
Cutting tungsten electrodes

Tungsten alloys are dense and very brittle and can splinter or shatter,
causing fractures in tungsten electrodes a laceration hazard to the operator
during cutting. Even if a poorly cut electrode is apparently correctly
prepared, undetected fractures can lead to arc instability or break off during
welding, creating gross weld defects.
To cut your electrode to a specific length, or remove contamination from the

tip use a diamond wheel with the electrode secured on both sides of the cut
to achieve a clean, smooth cut.
Incorrect cutting methods damage the integrity of the tungsten alloys,

shorten arc time and increase the potential for tungsten contamination in the
weld.
DO NOT:
 Bend electrodes until they fracture.
 Cut tungsten electrodes with wire cutters or pliers.
 Notch the electrode on the grinding wheel then ‘snap it off’.
Fixing the electrode in the torch

A copper contact tube, or collet, that tightens holds the tungsten electrode
as a screw thread attached to the back cap of the torch is turned. The collet
also makes an electrical contact so that welding current is passed to the
electrode.
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Collets may be single or two piece and are sized to the electrode diameter:
a different collet is required for each diameter. This ensures the electrode is
held securely and that the current will pass without causing resistive heating
at the interface.
As the collet is close to the tungsten tip and exposed to radiation from the
arc, it gets hot. This can lead to distortion until the electrode is no longer
held firmly. Once this happens, increased resistance at the connection leads
to more heating and the collet quickly becomes unusable.
As a partial solution, better quality collets are made from a copper–tellurium

alloy that has much better strength at temperature and can be used at
higher current.
The electrode extends beyond the bottom of the collet and this extension is
an important variable, because the contact tube is recessed inside the gas
nozzle this parameter can be checked indirectly by measuring the stickout
length – the length from the end of the nozzle to the electrode tip – as
shown below.
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Electrode
extension
Stickout
As the tungsten forms part of the current-carrying circuit it is subject to

resistive (i2R) heating. If the electrode extension is too short, the electrode
tip will not be adequately heated leading to an unstable arc. If the electrode
extension is too long, the electrode tip might overheat, causing melting and
lead to tungsten inclusions. As a general rule, stickout length should be 2-3
times the electrode diameter.
12.5 Shielding gas

In TIG welding, it is important to avoid oxidation of the tungsten electrode as
well as the weld pool so gases are usually inert, with argon and helium or
mixtures of the two the most widely used. Nitrogen can be used when
welding copper but is too reactive on most engineering alloys. For austenitic
stainless steels, nickel alloys and cupro-nickels, argon with up to 5%
hydrogen may be used to improve penetration.
Argon is denser than air, whereas helium is very much less dense. So you
need a higher flow rate of helium to give good shielding except when
welding in the overhead position. Helium has a much higher mass diffusivity
than argon so creates better heat transfer, shown in TIG welding by
increased penetration. The ionisation energy of helium is considerably
higher than that of argon so TIG arcs in helium have higher arc voltage.
Flow rate
Whatever the gas, it is important that flow is sufficient to give adequate
shielding to the pool and adjacent hot metal. A flow meter, such as a floating
ball type should be used after the pressure regulator but the flow should
also be checked at the torch. Simple floating ball gauges can be pressed to
the upturned gas nozzle to read the flow at the torch and can be used in
conjunction with a flow meter at the cylinder to ensure that there are no
significant leaks in the hose system.
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Avoid using small diameter nozzles, especially on reactive metals like

aluminium and nickel alloys. A small cup may make it easier to see the weld
pool but can lead to insufficient cover for all the metal hot enough for
oxidation, especially true of the filler wire itself. Alloys like stainless steel and
nickel alloys contain chromium and titanium that oxidise very easily and can
produce slag inclusions if the filler wire is allowed to wander from the gas
shroud.
The flow required depends on the welding configuration and position,

current, polarity and gas composition. If the flow rate is too low, the shielding
gas cannot remove the air from the weld area and may result in porosity and
contamination. Excessive tarnishing of the weld bead, disturbance of the arc
or oxidation of the tungsten should be taken as indicators that the flow is too
low.
If the gas flow rate is too high, turbulence occurs at the base of the shielding
gas column. Air tends to be sucked in from the surrounding atmosphere and
may lead to porosity and contamination. This is usually rather difficult to
achieve but welding outside corners presents difficulties and it is
recommended that lower flow rates are used for these joints.
Shielding gas flow rates are typically in the range ~10 to ~12 l/min
Flow rate too low Flow rate too high
Where there is any concern over the gas cover, it is good practice to use a
gas lens, a device that fits between the torch body and the nozzle that
produces a more laminar flow of gas. There are various types from a porous
ceramic disc to a number of fine metal grids and elongated ceramic nozzle
accommodates the extra length.
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Back purging
For reactive metals the back of the weld needs protection from excessive
oxidation during TIG welding, achieved by using a purge gas – usually pure
argon.
For pipe welding, it is relatively easy to purge the pipe bore. Use end caps
for short runs of small bore pipe with an entry for the gas but if the pipe is
large and the weld will seal an area that will then be inaccessible, water-
soluble paper dams may be used. These have a water-soluble adhesive
strip that holds them in place, so once the pipeline is complete it is easy to
flush away the dams.
For plate or sheet welding it may be necessary to use a purge channel or,
sometimes, another operator positions and moves a back purge nozzle as
the weld progresses. An alternative is to use ceramic tiles on an adhesive
tape that excludes air from the underside of the weld bead and achieves the
protection required.
When back purging with gas, all the air at the back of the weld must be
initially replaced so a higher flow rate is required. Having allowed sufficient
time for this, the flow rate should be reduced prior to welding to a slight
positive (typically ~4 l/min). Back purging should continue until two or more
layers of weld have been deposited.
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Pre- and post-flow

The purpose of pre and post-flow is to prevent contamination of both the
weld pool and the tungsten electrode by the surrounding atmosphere.
When the torch is not in use, air enters the system through the nozzle.
Moisture in the air can condense inside the nozzle and gas hose and cause
hydrogen and oxygen contamination during initial stages of the weld. The
shielding gas pre-flow will clear air and moisture from the hose and torch
thus preventing contamination.
Post-flow works a little differently; immediately after the welding arc is

extinguished, the weld bead, filler rod and tungsten electrode remain hot
enough to cause a chemical reaction with oxygen in the atmosphere. The
result of this oxidation is obvious because it causes the weld bead, filler rod
and tungsten to turn black. Post-flow will prevent oxidation by shielding the
hot electrode and weld area and by speeding up the cooling process. If a
tungsten electrode has discoloured because of oxidation, it must be
removed and re-prepared to eliminate all trace of oxide.
Trailing shields
With highly reactive materials, such as titanium and its alloys, the
temperature of the weld bead as it leaves the inert gas shield as the torch
moves forward is sufficiently high to cause reaction with the air. To avoid the
absorption of oxygen and nitrogen with attendant embrittlement of the
material, extra inert shielding is necessary, achieved with a trailing shield,
often manufactured in-house to suit the application.
Trailing shields are available commercially in a variety of shapes.
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12.6 Filler wires

For many applications, it is possible to use the TIG process without filler, as
autogenous welding. Some applications, such as the mechanised welding
of Calrod for electrical heating elements, achieve high speed by using
multiple in-line welding heads. Most applications, the parent plate
composition does not produce satisfactory autogenous welds. Many
compositions are crack sensitive when melted and re-frozen; some, like
aluminium alloys, absorb hydrogen when liquid and expel it as porosity on
freezing; many require additional deoxidation from elements like titanium
added to filler wire composition to give defect-free welds.
Filler wire is usually added manually but it is possible to set up mechanised

welding with motor-fed cold wire addition from a spool.
Manual TIG filler is usually sold in 1m lengths, supplied in 5kg tubes.

Suppliers mark each rod at either end to minimise confusion of material at a
welding station. It is good practice to store filler away from the welding
station releasing it specifically for the job in hand as it may be difficult to
distinguish between individual rods of, say, stainless steel and nickel alloy.
With alloys sensitive to contamination (eg by grease, machining dust, etc), it
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TIG Welding
is recommended to solvent clean all working surfaces and TIG rods before
welding.
BS EN ISO 636 is the international standard covering TIG filler wire

compositions.

As well as the defects normally associated with a manual process, such as
lack of sidewall fusion, poor penetration control, etc, the TIG process
presents a few particular potential problems.
12.8 Tungsten inclusions

Any fragments of tungsten that enter a weld will show up on radiographs,
white on the negative image, because of the relatively high density. There
appears little demonstrated effect of even quite large amounts of tungsten in
either steel or aluminium TIG welds yet most inspections standards state
they are not acceptable. Measures need to be taken to avoid the
incorporation of tungsten particles in the weld pool.
One of the principal reasons for small particles to break from the electrode is
thermal shock. This can occur as full current is applied to the cold tungsten
at the initiation of arcing. Modern power sources have a current slope-up
device to minimise this risk which allows the current to rise to the set value
over a short period so the tungsten is heated more slowly and gently.
Another significant reason for tungsten loss from the electrode is oxidation
from imperfect gas cover, a further reason for pre-flow purging of the gas
lines and torch before starting the arc.
Solidification cracking
Some compositions are sensitive to solidification cracking. In ferritic and
stainless steels and nickel alloys, it is usually the presence of impurities
such as sulphur and phosphorus that cause the problem. Filler wires are
designed with manganese additions as this reacts with the impurities and
forms higher melting compounds less likely to give solidification cracking.
Stainless steels need a small percentage (~5%) of ferrite in the austenitic
matrix to avoid solidification cracking, provided by careful selection of the
filler composition. The amount of dilution and composition of the parent plate
has to be taken into account and then the filler composition is balanced to
give the required level of ferrite. Diagrams exist, after Schaeffler and De
Long that assist in this estimation of composition.
Aluminium alloys may be sensitive from the percentage of alloying element

present; they do not require impurities to create conditions for cracking.
Fillers are therefore chosen for their ability to withstand freezing without
cracking, eg the eutectic composition Al 12%Si is often used, but care must
be exercised to ensure that dilution will not introduce incompatible elements
such as Mg together with Si.
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If weld metal compositions are sensitive to solidification cracking, they are

likely to show it when there is insufficient liquid to back-fill incipient cracks
and when the strain from shrinkage during cooling is high. These conditions
apply in the final crater as the arc is extinguished, a particular type of
cracking, crater cracking, is a common form of solidification cracking. As the
final crater solidifies, a star-shaped crack may be formed in its centre.
Modern power sources have a current slope-out device so at the end of a
weld when the welder switches off the current it reduces gradually and the
weld pool gets smaller and shallower, resulting in the final crater being so
small that cracking does not occur.
Oxide inclusions
With fillers containing deliberate additions of deoxidant, it is important that
the hot end is kept in the protective gas shroud. This requires the welder to
have a steady hand and considerable dexterity to feed the wire smoothly
through the fingers whilst keeping the tip close to the pool. It is common to
find that the filler has strayed from the inert gas shield and become oxidised.
Feeding this back into the pool results in a sheath of oxide being placed into
the pool where it easily can become an inclusion. There is no fluxing and
weld pool stirring is relatively gentle, so entrapment is very likely.
For the less dexterous welder, filler wire cut to half metre lengths and these
are held midway is recommended. One end may then be used without
attempting to move the wire through the hand until the hand is too close to
the arc for comfort. The wire may then be taken from the pool area and the
hand rolled over so that the other, cool end can then be used in the same
way.
Diffraction mottling
This is not a defect but has the appearance of one on a radiograph. If a
face-centred cubic alloy that does not exhibit a phase change is welded with
the TIG process the initial root bead is likely to have long columnar growth
of crystals following the solidification front along the joint line. These present
long parallel grain boundaries in line with an incident beam of X-rays during
inspection and can give diffraction effects.
For a demonstration of diffraction, hold your hand upright with your fingers
held loosely together, closely in front of your eye. Look through the gap
between two of your fingers and you will see a number of vertical black lines
in the gap. This is an illusion caused by bending of the light around the
edges of the gap, ie diffraction. By the same mechanism, the X-rays of a
root run of an FCC material will be bent by the parallel grain boundaries,
producing parallel black and white lines on the radiograph easily confused
with a crack or root defect.
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12.9 Advantages of the TIG process

 Does not give weld spatter which makes it particularly suitable for
applications that require a high degree of cleanliness (eg pipework for
the food and drinks industry, semi-conductors manufacturing, etc).
 A good welder can avoid inclusions and achieve fusion easily producing
superior quality welds.
 Enables welding variables to be accurately controlled and is particularly
good for controlling weld root penetration in all welding positions.
 Can be used with filler metal so can weld almost all weldable metals,
including dissimilar joints. Especially useful in welding reactive metals
with stable oxides such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium and
zirconium.
 The heat source and filler metal additions are controlled independently
so it is very good for joining thin materials.
 On thin sections without filler, it can produce welds at relatively high
speed.
 Very low levels of diffusible hydrogen so less danger of cold cracking in
ferritic steels.
12.10 Disadvantages of the TIG process

 Low deposition rates compared with other arc welding processes.
 Need for higher dexterity and welder co-ordination than with MIG/MAG
or MMA welding.
 Less economical than MMA or MIG/MAG for sections thicker than
~10mm.
 Difficult to shield the weld zone fully in draughty conditions so may not
be suitable for site/field welding
 Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode is allowed to contact the
weld pool.
 No cleaning action so has low tolerance of contaminants on filler or
parent metals.
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IWS Questions on TIG

1 Describe the methods of arc initiation used in TIG welding.
2 Why is AC power selected for welding aluminium?
3 What problems exist in the use of thoriated tungsten? What alternatives might
you use?
IWT Questions on TIG

4 Which power source characteristic do you use for TIG welding and why?
5 Comment on some of the industries and applications TIG is used in and give the
reasons why.
6 Describe some of the shielding techniques used on both the top and underside
of TIG welds to improve protection of the weld metal over and above the use of
standard gases, flow rates and nozzles.
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MIG/MAG Welding
13 MIG/MAG Welding
The MIG/MAG welding process is versatile and suitable for thin sheet and
thick section components in most metallic materials. An arc is struck
between the end of a wire electrode and the workpiece, melting both to form
a weld pool. The wire serves as both the source of heat (via the arc at the
wire tip) and filler metal for the joint and is fed through a copper contact tube
(also called a contact tip) which conducts welding current into the wire. The
weld pool is protected from the surrounding atmosphere by a shielding gas
fed through a nozzle surrounding the wire. Shielding gas selection depends
on the material being welded and the application. The wire is fed from a reel
by a motor drive and the welder or machine moves the welding torch along
the joint line. Wires may be solid, (simple drawn wires of appropriate
composition) or cored, (composites formed from a metal sheath with a
powdered flux or metal filling). Consumables are generally competitively
priced compared with those for other processes and the process offers high
duty cycle and therefore productivity, because the wire is continuously fed. It
is known in the USA as gas metal arc welding (GMAW). The process is
shown below.
Manual MIG/MAG welding is often referred to as a semi-automatic process

as the wire feed rate and arc length are controlled by the power source, but
the travel speed and wire position are under manual control. The process
can also be mechanised, (all parameters under control so the power source
and ancillary machinery) but may still require manual adjustment during
welding, eg steering of the welding head and adjustment of wire feed speed
and arc voltage. Some set-ups are described as automatic when there is no
manual intervention during welding.
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The process usually operates with the wire positively charged (DCEP) and
connected to a flat characteristic (constant voltage) power source. Selection
of wire diameter (0.6-1.6mm) and wire feed speed determine the welding
current as the burn-off rate of the wire will be in equilibrium with the feed
speed as described in the section on power sources. The self-adjusting arc
is a key feature of the process.
The feed unit for the wire may be separate or incorporated into the body of
the welding set.
The wire is pulled from the reel or drum and pushed through a liner along
the cable assembly connecting the feed unit to the welding torch by a set of
driven rolls. For solid wires, there is usually one grooved roll and a second
flat roll on top. Cored wires, having less stiffness than solid wires, may
require two grooved or even grooved and knurled rolls. There are also four
roll systems and for fine soft wires, such as 0.8mm aluminium, a secondary
drive motor may be mounted on the torch. This is termed a push-pull
system.
The umbilical connection from the welding set to the torch carries three main
supplies - the wire in a liner, shielding gas in a separate hose and a welding
power lead. In the torch, the liner abuts a copper contact tip that is screwed
into a gas diffuser. The contact tip receives welding power when a latching
trigger switch is activated, which also operates the wire drive motor. As the
wire passes through the tip it picks up the welding current supply. Shielding
gas passes through the diffuser and into the space inside the welding nozzle
from where it flows over the weld pool, see below.
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Contact tip
Gas diffuser
Torch body
Liner
Gas nozzle
A number of manufacturers offer guides covering practical and theoretical

aspects of the process, one such from Lincoln Electric may be found at:
www.content.lincolnelectric.com/pdfs/products/literature/c4200.pdf. Such
guides are strongly recommended to the engineer requiring more detail of
the process and its variants.
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MIG/MAG Welding
Advantages of the MIG/MAG process:
 Continuous wire feed.

 Automatic self-regulation of the arc length.
 High deposition rate and minimal number of stop/start locations.
 High consumable efficiency.
 Heat inputs in the range 0.1-2.0kJ/mm.
 Low hydrogen potential process.
 Welder has good visibility of weld pool and joint line.
 Little or no post-weld cleaning.
 Can be used in all positions (dip transfer).
 Good process control possibilities.
 Wide range of application.
Disadvantages:
 No independent control of filler addition.

 Difficult to set up optimum parameters to minimise spatter levels.
 Risk of lack of fusion when using dip transfer on thicker weldments.
 High level of equipment maintenance.
 Lower heat input can lead to high hardness values.
 Higher equipment cost than MMA welding.
 Site welding requires special precautions to exclude draughts which may
disturb the gas shield.
 Joint and part access is not as good as MMA or TIG welding.
 Solid wire consumable not tolerant to base material surface
contaminants. Flux cored wires may be employed as they can tolerate
greater contamination.
13.2 Transfer modes
Figure 13.1 Arc characteristic curve.
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Spray transfer
Key characteristics
 Free-flight metal transfer.
 High heat input.
 High deposition rate.
 Smooth, stable arc.
 Used on steels above 6mm thickness and aluminium alloys above 3mm
thickness.
In argon when the voltage is sufficiently high, >25V for a 1mm diameter wire
and the wire feed speed is adjusted to give more than 250A, the welding arc
burns continuously, metal melts from the wire and passes across the arc in
a series of small droplets, called spray transfer. The droplet size is typically
around 0.5-1 times the wire diameter and the arc burns in a stable manner
while metal transfer, becomes almost continuous.
The wire is the anode of the electrical circuit and electron impingement
heats the wire rapidly to melting. As the current is raised, the anode spot
increases in size, reaches the same diameter as the wire and starts to climb
up its outside. The higher the current, the larger the cylinder of wire defining
the anode spot. This leads to tapering of the wire tip as the melting occurs
beneath the cylindrical area of anode spot so the effective wire diameter is
much reduced as current is increased and the droplets formed are
correspondingly smaller. Electromagnetic forces induced by the high current
density pinch the molten droplets and project them across the arc.
2% oxygen is sometimes added to the argon shielding gas for spray

transfer. This diatomic gas dissociates then recombines at the anode
creating more heat and giving arc stability at lower currents. 5% CO2 also
has a similar effect but if CO2 greater than 20% CO2 is used spray
conditions cannot be established.
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Spray transfer gives a large weld pool that does not lend itself to positional
welding or large runs with poor toughness if not properly controlled. For this
reason, some company specifications will not allow the use of solid wire
MAG for critical applications. The process is considered applicable for PA
and PB positions.
Globular transfer
Key characteristics
 Irregular metal transfer.
 Medium heat input.
 Medium deposition rate.
 Risk of spatter.
 Not widely used in the UK; can be used for mechanised welding of
medium thickness steels (typically 3-6mm) in the flat (PA) position.
When helium, CO2, or argon mixtures of these gases (CO2 levels higher
than 20%) are used as shielding gases, spray transfer does not occur. The
anode spot does not grow so remains a small area on the wire end. Melting
of the wire commences but, with the small anode spot remaining beneath
the droplet, there is no direct impingement of electrons on the outside of the
wire. The droplet therefore grows by conduction until its size dictates that it
detaches and drops to the weld pool primarily under the action of gravity.
The severe disturbance to the arc during this process and fall of a large
globule into the weld pool causes very considerable spatter. Techniques
have evolved using lower voltage settings (<20V) and pushing the arc into
the weld pool. The arc force depresses the pool so that the arc is burning in
a hollow (buried arc technique), cutting down the amount of spatter emitted
and also minimising the UV radiation. It is cited, mostly in American
literature as a means of achieving high deposition with CO2 shielded MAG
but is not widely used in Europe.
Globular transfer is not suitable for positional welding and is typically used
on larger diameter wires and high currents.
Dip transfer
Key characteristics:
 Metal transfer by wire dipping or short-circuiting into the weld pool.

 Relatively low heat input process.
 Low weld pool fluidity.
 Used for thin sheet metal above 0.8mm and typically less than 3.2mm,
positional welding of thicker section and root runs in open butt joints.
 Process stability and spatter can be a problem if poorly tuned.
 Lack of fusion risk if poorly set up and applied.
 Not used for non-ferrous metals and alloys.
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With voltage of 16-24V, shielding gas with less than 80% argon and current
below 200A, the wire feed can be set so that the end of the wire touches the
weld pool and short-circuits the system, dip transfer. These short-circuits
can take place 20-200 times per second.
During the short, the wire heats rapidly and fuses so that molten metal is
transferred to the pool after which the arc is re-established. This re-ignition
is accompanied by spatter but adjusting the inductance of the system can
give a degree of control over this.
Inductance
When MIG/MAG welding in the dip transfer mode, the welding electrode
touches the weld pool, causing a short-circuit. During the short-circuit, the
arc voltage is nearly zero. If the constant voltage power supply responded
instantly, very high current would immediately begin to flow through the
welding circuit. The rapid rise in current to a high value would melt the short-
circuited electrode free with explosive force, dispelling the weld metal and
causing considerable spatter.
Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit that slows down the rate of
current rise. Current travelling through an inductance coil creates a
magnetic field. This magnetic field generates a current in the welding circuit
that is in opposition to the welding current. Increasing the inductance will
also increase the arc time and decrease the frequency of short-circuiting.
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For each electrode feed rate, there is an optimum value of inductance. Too
little results in excessive spatter, too much and the current will not rise fast
enough and the molten tip of the electrode is not heated sufficiently causing
the electrode to stub into the base metal. Modern electronic power sources
automatically set the inductance to give a smooth arc and metal transfer.
Pulsed transfer
Key characteristics:
 Free-flight droplet transfer without short-circuiting over the entire working

range.
 Very low spatter.
 Lower heat input than spray transfer.
 Reduced risk of lack of fusion compared with dip transfer.
 Control of weld bead profile for dynamically loaded parts.
 Process control/flexibility.
 Enables use of larger diameter, less expensive wires with thinner plates,
more easily fed (a particular advantage for aluminium welding).
As described in the section on power sources, pulsed power can be

applied to MIG welding. In its simplest form, this consists of a period at a
background current that maintains the arc but does not achieve metal
transfer, followed by a period of high current during which spray transfer
occurs. The average current is midway between background and peak and
can be well below the threshold normally associated with spray transfer.
This means that the pool size is relatively small and positional welding is
possible, even though the transfer mechanism is spray.
Pulsing the welding current extends the range of spray transfer operation
well below the natural transition from dip to spray transfer. This allows
smooth, spatter-free spray transfer to be obtained at mean currents below
the transition level, eg 50-150A and at lower heat inputs. Pulsing was
introduced originally for control of metal transfer by imposing artificial cyclic
operation on the arc system by applying alternately high and low currents.
A typical pulse waveform and the main pulse welding variables are shown in
Figure 13.2. A low background current (typically 20-80A) is supplied to
maintain the arc, keep the wire tip molten, give stable anode and cathode
roots and maintain average current during the cycle. Droplet detachment
occurs during a high current pulse at current levels above the transition
current level. The pulse of current generates very high electromagnetic
forces, which cause a strong pinch effect on the metal filament supporting
the droplet; the droplet is detached and is projected across the arc gap.
Pulse current and current density must be sufficiently high to ensure that
spray transfer (not globular) always occurs so that positional welding can be
used.
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Pulse transfer uses pulses of current to fire a single globule of metal across
the arc gap at a frequency of 50-300 pulses. Pulse transfer is a
development of spray transfer that gives positional welding capability for
steels, combined with controlled heat input, good fusion and high
productivity. It may be used for all sheet steel thickness >1mm, but is mainly
used for positional welding of steels >6mm.
Figure 13.2 Pulsed welding waveform and parameters.
Synergic
A normal MIG/MAG set requires a welder to set the wire feed speed (which
dictates the current) and select an appropriate voltage to suit. The two
variables are dependent on the wire diameter and gas used. This requires
the welder/operator to have knowledge on the relationship between current
and voltage.
A synergic (non-pulse) set has a one knob dial that defines the wire feed
speed. The microprocessor within the equipment will select the optimum
voltage from a look up table (a synergic curve) to match the given current.
The synergic curve has been developed to give the best possible settings
for a particular current/wire feed speed. Now the welder is not responsible to
select the right voltage. A trim button can be used, which allows the user to
decrease or increase the voltage by a small percentage. The trim action
allows the welder to make small correction in voltage to suit the variables at
the work piece.
Pulse Synergic equipment will make adjustments to the pulse parameters ie

pulse height, width, frequency and background current based on the wire
feed speed.
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MIG/MAG Welding

The primary variables in MIG/MAG welding are:
 Welding current/wire feed speed.

 Voltage.
 Gases.
 Travel speed and electrode orientation.
 Inductance.
 Contact tip to work distance.
 Nozzle to work distance.
 Shielding gas nozzle.
 Type of metal transfer.
Wire feed speed

Increasing the wire feed speed automatically increases the current in the
wire. Too high current/WFS, without a subsequent rise in voltage, may lead
to lack of fusion and cause stubbing; essentially this is where the WFS
exceeds the voltageset. Wires are generally produced in 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2,
1.4 and 1.6mm diameter.
Voltage
Voltage is the most important setting in spray transfer as it controls the arc
length. In dip transfer it also affects the rise of current and the overall heat
input into the weld. An increase of both wire feed speed/current and voltage
will increase heat input. The welding connections need to be checked for
soundness, as any loose connections will result in resistance and will cause
the voltage to drop in the circuit and will affect the characteristic of the
welding arc. The voltage will affect the type of transfer achievable, but this is
also highly dependent on the type of gas being used.
• Increasing arc voltage
• Reduced penetration, increased width
• Excessive voltage can cause porosity, spatter

and undercut
Figure 13.3 The effect of arc voltage.
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We refer to the voltage in relation to setting the desired transfer mode and it
is one of the significant parameters for the welder to adjust his welding
condition. For precision work, it is common to use a portable arc monitoring
system (PAMS) that will record the parameters used but these are not very
helpful for the welder when setting up.
A number of manufacturers give advice on practical solutions to correct

parameter selection. The actual value of voltage will depend on the
shielding gas used but one of the simplest recommendations is to be found
in the Miller Welding series of articles:
www.millerwelds.com/resources/articles/MIG-GMAW-welding-basics
It suggests that the welder reduces voltage setting until the arc stubs into
the plate and then increases it until the arc is unstable. The correct setting is
midway between these!
Another key parameter when welding steel is the transition current between
transfer modes for those gases that support both dip and spray. The
following table gives approximate values for C-steel and stainless steel.
Wire dia, Transition

Material Shielding gas
mm current, A
0.8 155-165
0.9 175-185
Ar ≥ 10%CO2
1.2 215-225
C-steel 1.6 280-290
0.9 130-140
Ar +2%O2 1.2 205-215
1.6 265-275
0.8 120-130
Stainless 0.9 140-150
Ar +2%O2
steel 1.2 185-195
1.6 250-260
The welder does not directly set the welding current in MIG/MAG welding.
His control is over the wire feed speed and this is proportional to the current.
The relationship is not entirely linear but is sufficiently close that, over the
normal welding range, the chart below gives a good approximation.
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1.6
Welding Current A 1.2
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.8
1.2
1.6
Wire Feed Speed, m/min
Selecting a wire feed speed that is in excess of optimum gives a wide bead
with undercut at the edges. Too low current gives an uneven, lumpy bead
with poor side fusion.
Once the welder has established a good arc condition for the application, he
then has travel speed and weave to give control over the bead shape and
fusion. If travel speed is too rapid the weld bead will be narrow and convex
with poor fusion at the sides, too slow overheats the material, giving a wide
HAZ and high distortion combined with a flat wide bead.
Travel speed
The faster the travel speed the less penetration, narrower bead width and
the higher risk of undercut
• Increasing travel speed

• Reduced penetration and width,
undercut
Figure 13.4 The effect of travel speed.
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13.4 Contact tip and nozzle set-up

The contact tip to workpiece distance (CTWD) has an influence on the
welding current because of resistive heating in the electrode extension. In
the section on Power Sources, we saw that a constant voltage power source
attempts to maintain the same arc length on altering the torch to workpiece
distance (the self-adjusting arc). Thus, moving the torch away from the
workpiece, results in an increased extension of the wire from tip to arc. As
the wire extension increases, so does the overall resistance of that length of
wire. This leads to more heating of the wire by the i2R effect. So less
welding current is necessary to achieve the equilibrium rate of burn-off.
Long electrode extensions can therefore cause lack of penetration as the
current is lower than anticipated.
Conversely, welding current increases when CTWD is reduced. This

provides the experienced welder with a means of controlling the current
during welding, but can result in variable penetration in the hands of an
inexperienced welder.
Contact tip
Contact tip
Gas nozzle
Gas nozzle
Contact tip
Contact tip
setback
setback
Electrode
Electrode Contact tip-
Contact tip-
Nozzle-to- extension
extension to-work
Nozzle-to- to-work
work (stand-
work (stand- distance
off) distance
distance Arc length
Arc length distance
off)
Workpiece
Workpiece
As the electrode extension is increased, the burn-off rate increases for a

given welding current due to increased resistive heating. Increasing the
electrode extension, eg in mechanised applications, is therefore one method
of increasing deposition rates, as the wire feed speed is increased to
maintain the required welding current.
Resistive (i2R) heating depends on the resistivity of the electrode, length of

the electrode extension and wire diameter. The effect is therefore more
pronounced for welding materials which have high resistivity, such as steels.
The electrode extension should be kept small when small diameter wires
are used to prevent excessive heating in the wire and avoiding the resulting
poor bead shape.
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Increased extension
At short CTWDs, radiated heat from the weld pool can cause overheating of
the contact tube and welding torch, leading to spatter adherence and
increased wear of the contact tube.
The electrode extension should be checked when setting-up welding

conditions or fitting a new contact tube. Suggested CTWDs for the principal
metal transfer modes are:
Metal transfer mode CWTD, mm

Dip 10-15
Spray 20-25
Pulse 15-20
The contact tip may be positioned in-line with the nozzle end, protruding
beyond it or recessed inside the torch. This has an effect on gas shielding
efficiency and on visibility and accessibility; so, a compromise is necessary.
The following gives suggested settings for the mode of metal transfer being
used.
Metal transfer mode Contact tip position relative to nozzle

Dip 2mm inside to 2mm protruding
Spray 4-8mm inside
Spray (aluminium) 6-10mm inside
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Contact tip Electrode

Contact tip recessed extension
extension Electrode (3-5mm) 19-25mm
(0-3.2mm) extension
6-13mm
Set up for Dip transfer Set up for Spray transfer
The purpose of the shielding gas nozzle is to produce a laminar gas flow to
protect the weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Nozzle sizes range
from 13-22mm diameter. The nozzle diameter should be increased in
relation to the size of the weld pool, larger diameter nozzles are used for
high current, spray transfer application and smaller diameter nozzles for dip
transfer. The flow rate must also be tuned to the nozzle diameter and
shielding gas type to give sufficient weld pool coverage. Gas nozzles for dip
transfer welding tend to be tapered at the outlet of the nozzle.
Joint access and type should also be considered when selecting the
required gas nozzle and flow rate. Too small a nozzle may cause it to
become obstructed by spatter more quickly and, if the wire bends on leaving
the contact tube, the shielding envelope and arc location may not coincide.
Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow

Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
Figure 13.5 The effect of torch angle.
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13.5 Shielding gases

The purpose of the shielding gas nozzle is to produce a laminar gas flow in
order to protect the weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Nozzle sizes
range from 13-22mm diameter. The nozzle diameter should be increased in
relation to the size of the weld pool. Therefore, larger diameter nozzles are
used for high current, spray transfer application and smaller diameter
nozzles for dip transfer. The flow rate must also be tuned to the nozzle
diameter and shielding gas type to give sufficient weld pool coverage. Gas
nozzles for dip transfer welding tend to be tapered at the outlet of the
nozzle.
Joint access and type should also be considered when selecting the
required gas nozzle and flow rate. Use of too small a nozzle may cause it to
become obstructed by spatter more quickly and, if the wire bends on leaving
the contact tube, the shielding envelope and arc location may not coincide.
Shielding gas composition plays an active role in the formation and

properties of the arc and plasma and also affects the metal transfer
characteristics in MIG/MAG and helps determine weld pool shape. A
number of physical properties of gases create these welding differences.
Ionisation energy and arc voltage

Ionisation energy or ionisation potential, measured in electron volts (eV) or
kJ/mol, determines how easily the shielding gas can form electrically
conducting plasma. Helium has a high ionisation energy (~25eV) as does
CO2, but argon is significantly lower at 14.7eV. So the voltage required to
maintain an arc in Ar is significantly lower than for He or CO2 and this is
reflected in the welding conditions.
Higher arc voltage tends to give a wider plasma at the workpiece and so a
wider weld. Argon shielded MIG typically gives a fairly narrow weld bead
with a deep finger penetration. Helium gives a much wider, rounder bead
shape.
Carbon dioxide, being a multiple atom molecule, dissociates in the arc as

well as ionising. On re-combination heat is released that increases the
effective melting of the weld pool giving a deep and wide bead.
Ar Ar-He He CO2
The addition of some helium to argon gives a more uniform heat
concentration within the arc plasma and this affects the shape of the weld
bead profile. Argon-helium mixtures effectively give a hotter arc and so are
beneficial for welding thicker base materials and those with higher, thermal
conductivity, eg copper or aluminium.
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For welding steels, all grades, including stainless steels, a controlled

addition of oxygen or CO2 helps to generate a stable arc and give good
droplet wetting. Because these additions react with the molten metal they
are referred to as active gases hence the name (metal active gas) MAG
welding is the technical term that is used when referring to the welding of
steels.
100%CO2
CO2 is a relatively low cost gas so is an attractive consumable. In practice it
is oxidising and can also transfer carbon to the weld metal so is only
applicable to welding ferritic steels. It cannot sustain spray transfer as the
ionisation potential of the gas is too high so is normally restricted to dip
transfer welding. As noted above, it is possible to use higher current with a
globular transfer but this is not popular.
100% Ar
Argon is inert but as noted above has sufficiently low ionisation energy to
maintain a stable arc. This is, however, relative. MIG welding of non-ferrous
alloys, eg aluminium, copper or nickel alloys, is acceptable under Ar
shielding but the characteristics can be improved by using gas mixtures.
Pure Ar shielding of aluminium benefits from the presence of oxide which
helps to give a strong, deeply penetrating arc. Nickel alloys are notoriously
sluggish and, together with copper alloys benefit from the addition of helium
to the shielding gas.
Ar/He mixtures
Helium is more expensive than argon, making mixtures higher priced. The
advantage of adding He to the shielding is the increased arc stiffness and
greater heat transfer leading to a deeper, more rounded bead cross-section.
Helium addition also increases the operating voltage giving a wider bead.
Although pure He will not support spray transfer, addition of over 20% Ar
produces stable spray conditions. The mixtures are fully inert so can be
used on reactive metals such as titanium. Mixtures containing 70%Ar and
30%He are often selected for welding non-ferrous alloys but up to 75%He
with 25%Ar is recommended for welding heavy sections as the high helium
content gives much greater depth of penetration.
Ar + 5 to 20%CO2
An Ar/CO2 mixture is a common shielding gas for spray transfer welding of
ferritic steels. Oxygen may be present at around 2%. The percentage of
CO2 depends on the type of steel being welded and the mode of metal
transfer required. Ar + 5%CO2 is better for spray but 18-20%CO2 offers the
prospect of operating both in spray and dip conditions. The welding arc and
pool gain the benefit of both gases, ie good penetration with a stable arc
and very little spatter in spray. In dip transfer with mixed gas the spatter is
much reduced compared with 100%CO2. Industrial gas suppliers offer a
range of gas mixtures that they claim are designed for particular steels and
thickness ranges, but all are essentially argon rich with or without a small
amount of oxygen and 5-25%CO2.
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Ar + 1 to 5% O2
The addition of oxygen acts in a similar way to CO2 in that it helps to give a
strong stable spray arc. Carbon steels are often welded with 5%O2 as this
gives a fluid pool that wets the sidewalls easily. This mixture is significantly
oxidising and only suitable for carbon and C-Mn steels. Stainless steels may
be welded with 1 or 2%O2 mixtures, preferred to CO2 containing mixtures to
avoid carbon pick-up by the stainless steel. The 2% mix gives better wetting
but does tend to produce oxide that appears as a black powder alongside
the weld bead.
A summary table of shielding gases and mixtures used for different base
materials is given in below.
Summary of shielding gas mixtures for MIG/MAG welding.

Reaction
Metal Shielding gas behaviour Characteristics
Carbon Argon-CO2 Slightly Increasing CO2 content gives hotter arc,
steel oxidising improved arc stability, deeper penetration,
transition from finger-type to bowl-shaped
penetration profile, more fluid weld pool giving
flatter weld bead with good wetting, increased
spatter levels, better toughness than CO2.
Minimum 80% argon for axial spray transfer.
General-purpose mixture: Argon-10-15%CO2.
Argon-O2 Slightly Stiffer arc than Ar-CO2 mixtures minimises
oxidising undercutting, suited to spray transfer mode,
lower penetration than Ar-CO2 mixtures, finger-
type weld bead penetration at high current
levels. General-purpose mixture: Argon-3%
CO2.
Ar-He-CO2 Slightly Substitution of helium for argon gives hotter arc,
oxidising higher arc voltage, more fluid weld pool, flatter
bead profile, more bowl-shaped and deeper
penetration profile and higher welding speeds,
compared with Ar-CO2 mixtures. High cost.
CO2 Oxidising Arc voltages 2-3V higher than Ar-CO2 mixtures,
best penetration, higher welding speeds, dip
transfer or buried arc technique only, narrow
working range, high spatter levels, low cost.
Stainless He-Ar-CO2 Slightly Good arc stability with minimum effect on
steels oxidising corrosion resistance (carbon pick-up), higher
helium contents designed for dip transfer, lower
helium contents designed for pulse and spray
transfer. General-purpose gas: He-Ar-2%CO2.
Argon-O2 Slightly Spray transfer only, minimises undercutting on
oxidising heavier sections, good bead profile.
Aluminium, Argon Inert Good arc stability, low spatter and general-
copper, purpose gas. Titanium alloys require inert gas
nickel, backing and trailing shields to prevent air
titanium contamination.
alloys Argon-helium Inert Higher heat input offsets high heat dissipation
on thick sections, lower risk of lack of fusion
defects, higher spatter, higher cost than argon.
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13.6 Solid wire consumables

The wire is usually supplied layer-wound on a wire basket. Occasionally
plastic spools are used.
Both methods feed well, though personal preference may be the cause of
considerable debate amongst welders on the merits and shortcomings of
wire winding! For heavy wire usage, especially for automated stations,
drums of wire up to 350kg may be used.
To feed wire from these large packs without it twisting on exiting the welding
torch, loading into the drum has to be done with a preset opposite twist.
Smooth feeding is an essential part of MIG/MAG welding, especially

mechanised or automated. Wire appearance is the most obvious
differentiator to the welder but is not a good indicator of feeding
characteristics. Solid C-Mn wires are traditionally copper-coated, variously
thought to help feeding, improve current pick-up, slow contact tip wear and
slow rusting of the wire in storage. It is difficult to prove any of these
attributes. Bare wires became available in the 1980s and proved just as able
to run on automated equipment.
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It seems that the important characteristics when considering feeding are:
Cast
Most easily demonstrated by pulling a metre of wire from the reel or drum
and tossing it onto the floor. The diameter of the loop formed is the cast. If
too small the wire has a tendency to rub the walls of the liner with some
pressure and can give juddering during feeding.
Helix
The loop used to demonstrate cast also shows helix. If the loop is clipped to
be a single circle and is hung over a horizontal bar, the offset between the
ends is the helix. Excessive helix can give feeding issues, mostly with wear
of the contact tip and wander of the wire tip and therefore arc across the
bead.
Lubrication
Welding wires need a thin layer of lubricant to give efficient feeding through
the liner. Fortuitously, drawn wire has a persistent film of oil left from the
drawing process. Some manufacturers deliberately control the lubrication of
the final stages of drawing and winding with a view to improving feeding.
Stiffness
This is more an issue between alloy types. All C-Mn steel wires are likely to
be in a cold-drawn state. Some alloys are very difficult to draw to welding
wire sizes and may be annealed just prior to final drawing. Aluminium alloys,
even in a cold-drawn condition, will not rival steel for stiffness. These are
notoriously difficult to feed through a welding torch and may need a plastic
liner and even a two motor, push-pull feeding system.
13.7 Important Inspection Points/Checks When MIG/MAG

Welding
Welding equipment
A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equipment is in good
condition.
Electrode wire
The diameter, specification and quality of wire are the main inspection
headings. The level of de-oxidation of the wire is an important factor with
single, double and triple de-oxidised wires being available.
The higher the level of de-oxidants in the wire, the lower the chance of
occurrence of porosity in the weld. The quality of the wire winding, copper
coating and temper are also important factors in minimising wire feed
problems.
Quality of wire windings and increasing costs

(a) Random wound. (b) Layer wound. (c) Precision layer wound.
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Drive rolls and liner

Check the drive rolls are the correct size for the wire and that the pressure is
only hand tight, or just sufficient to drive the wire. Any excess pressure will
deform the wire to an ovular shape, making the wire very difficult to drive
through the liner, resulting in arcing in the contact tip and excessive wear of
the contact tip and liner.
Check that the liner is the correct type and size for the wire. A size of liner
will generally fit 2 sizes of wire ie 0.6 and 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6mm
diameter. Steel liners are used for steel wires and Teflon liners for
aluminium wires.
Contact tip
Check that the contact tip is the correct size for the wire being driven and
check the amount of wear frequently. Any loss of contact between the wire
and contact tip will reduce the efficiency of current pick. Most steel wires are
copper coated to maximise the transfer of current by contact between two
copper surfaces at the contact tip but this also inhibits corrosion. The
contact tip should be replaced regularly.
Connections
The length of the electric arc in MIG/MAG welding is controlled by the
voltage settings, achieved by using a constant voltage volt/amp
characteristic inside the equipment. Any poor connection in the welding
circuit will affect the nature and stability of the electric arc and is thus a
major inspection point.
Gas and gas flow rate

The type of gas used is extremely important to MIG/MAG welding, as is the
flow rate from the cylinder, which must be adequate to give good coverage
over the solidifying and molten metal to avoid oxidation and porosity.
Other variable welding parameters

Checks should be made for correct wire feed speed, voltage, speed of travel
and all other essential variables of the process given on the approved
welding procedure.
Safety checks
Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity or duty cycle of
equipment and electrical insulation. Correct extraction systems should be in
use to avoid exposure to ozone and fumes.
A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified

to weld the procedure being employed.
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Typical welding imperfections:
 Silica inclusions (on ferritic steels only) caused by poor inter-run

cleaning.
 Lack of sidewall fusion during dip transfer welding thick section vertically
down.
 Porosity caused by loss of gas shield and low tolerance to contaminants.
 Burn through from using the incorrect metal transfer mode on sheet
metal.
13.8 Summary of solid wire MIG/MAG GMAW

Equipment requirements
 Transformer/rectifier (constant voltage type).
 Power and power return cable.
 Inert, active or mixed shielding gas (argon or CO2).
 Gas hose, flow meter and gas regulator.
 MIG torch with hose, liner, diffuser, contact tip and nozzle.
 Wire feed unit with correct drive rolls.
 Electrode wire to correct specification and diameter.
 Correct visor/glass, all safety clothing and good extraction.
Parameters and inspection points

 Wire feed speed/amperage.
 Open circuit and welding voltage.
 Wire type and diameter.
 Gas type and flow rate.
 Contact tip size and condition.
 Roller type, size and pressure.
 Liner size.
 Inductance settings.
 Insulation/extraction.
 Connections (voltage drops).
 Travel speed, direction and angles.
Typical welding imperfections

 Silica inclusions.
 Lack of fusion (dip transfer).
 Surface porosity.
Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
High productivity Lack of fusion (dip transfer)
Easily automated Small range of consumables
All positional (dip, pulse and FCAW) Protection for site working
Material thickness range Complex equipment
Continuous electrode High ozone levels
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13.9 Flux-cored arc welding

In the mid-1980s the development of self- and gas-shielded FCAW was a
major step in the successful application of on-site semi-automatic welding
and has also enabled a much wider range of materials to be welded.
The cored wire consists of a metal sheath containing a granular flux. This
can contain elements which normally used in MMA electrodes so the
process has a very wide range of applications.
Gas producing elements and compounds can be added to the flux so the
process can be independent of a separate gas shield which restricts the use
of conventional MIG/MAG welding in many field applications.
A further advantage is the increased deposition rate compared with solid

wires. The core tends to be non-conducting and with metal cored wires the
resistivity of the powder is much higher than solid metal, so, in essence, the
current is carried by the sheath. This has a smaller cross-sectional area
than solid so, at the same amperage, the current density is higher.
Higher current density creates faster burn-off, so more material is

transferred in unit time.
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Manufacture
There are two main methods of producing cored wire. The main method
starts with a strip of metal rolled to a U shape, filled with powdered flux or
metal, closed to a tube then drawn to size. Wires are usually supplied in
sizes 0.8-2.4mm diameter.
Manufacturers have worked with several forms of closure - overlaps,

interlocking edges, etc, but insufficient advantage was found for these forms
to become common. The usual closure simply butts the edges together.
There is some concern that the seam can present access for moisture to
enter the flux but in practice this is very unlikely.
What is a potential problem is the use of drawing compounds (soaps) as the

tube is reduced to final size. These can easily be squeezed into the tube
during the drawing process and, being hydrogen containing, can be a
source of potential hydrogen during welding. Techniques involving baking
the wires part-way through manufacture and finishing with lightly lubricated
diamond dies have been developed to counter this. Modern cored wires can
easily reach <5ml H2/100g.
The second filling method overcomes this issue as the wire is seamless. A
long coil of seamless tube is mounted on a vibrating pad and powdered flux
is poured into one end whilst the coil is vibrated to encourage the filling to
move through the coil and form a central core with no voids. Once filled, the
coil is drawn to size, but, as there is no seam, die lubrication can be similar
to that for solid wire. These wires can reach very low hydrogen levels. The
method requires very careful control on particle size and shape to avoid
segregation during filling.
Cored wires are available in all the packages used for solid wire - layer or
near-layer wound reels are most common, but loose coils, drums and
Marathon Pac style bulk supplies are all used.
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Types of wire
Wires are described by the type of core with the two main categories being
gas and self-shielded. Gas-shielded flux compositions are formulated for
weld composition, arc characteristics, positional welding ability and
mechanical properties. Self-shielded wires have the additional attribute of
creating gas-shielding in a similar fashion to MMA electrodes. There is a
finite space within the core of a wire and if self-shielding is a feature the
possibilities for compositional and mechanical property control are more
limited than for gas-shielded wires.
Nonetheless, self-shielded wires may be as diverse as 55%Ni-45%Fe for

cast iron welding and all-positional, high toughness C-Mn-Ni steel for
offshore jacket construction.
Gas-shielded wires are common in three alloy groups – ferritic steels for
general and high mechanical property applications, stainless steels and
hardfacing alloys. All may be formulated in one of three fluxing systems:
Rutile
Give good bead shape and wide ranging positional capabilities.
Basic
Excellent positional capability and mechanical properties, but less smooth
bead shape and poorer slag release than rutile types.
Metal cored
Very little fluxing, designed for higher productivity, some having excellent
root run capabilities.
Note: Unlike MMA electrodes, the potential hydrogen levels and mechanical
properties of welds with rutile wires can equal those of the basic types.
13.10 Process variants

Electrogas
A vertical butt welding process for Carbon steel that resembles electroslag
welding (see Submerged Arc Welding) but uses MIG/MAG welding
principles.
It is appropriate for thick plate and completes the joint in a single pass. The
parent plates have no edge preparation, are aligned with a gap of around
25-40mm. They are clamped into position resting on a small steel start pad.
Water-cooled copper shoes are clamped either side of the gap to make a
rectangular shaped well at the bottom of the plates. Any small areas with
imperfect fit are packed with ceramic putty to give a receptacle that will hold
molten metal.
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Parent
plate
Start pad Water-

cooled shoe
A modified MIG torch is used to blow inert gas into the well and feed wire to
the bottom of the well where the arc is initiated. As the weld pool grows and
fills the gap between the parent plates, the torch is mechanically slowly
withdrawn allowing the bottom of the pool to solidify and the weld to
progress slowly up the gap. As the molten pool approaches the top of the
water-cooled shoes, a second pair is attached above the originals. Once the
weld has solidified above the top of the first pair, they are removed and
placed above the working set.
Electrogas welding is an efficient method of making large vertical welds in

thick plate but the mechanical properties are limited. The weld bead is hot
for a very long time so microstructures are near equilibrium – ferrite and
pearlite in hypoeutectoid steels – giving little flexibility to optimise toughness
etc.
Tandem wire
A method of increasing deposition by using two wires, each with its own
power supply, running into a single weld pool. Some manufacturers offer a
special torch with two electrically isolated contact tips within a single gas
nozzle. The arrangement seeks to provide faster travel speed and therefore
improved productivity.
The wires are arranged one behind the other creating a very elongated weld
pool. As there are separate controls, it is possible to run both arcs in the
spray condition, one spray and one pulsed, or both in pulsed mode. In
pulsed mode the two wires are alternately pulsed to avoid magnetic
interaction between the two arcs. The twin spray technique may be used for
welding thick material requiring deep penetration. The twin pulsed condition
allows very high speed welding of sheet material.
Due to the two arcs operating simultaneously the level of UV radiation

emitted is very high, combined with being heavy and difficult to manoeuvre
and the process requiring high travel speeds means that it is almost
exclusively used as a mechanised process.
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Controlled short circuit transfer

With modern power sources it is possible to detect small changes to
condition instantly and apply a correction to the current waveform. Several
manufacturers make use of this for low current applications. Examples are
Lincoln Electric’s Surface Tension TransferTM (STT) system and the Fronius
cold metal transfer (CMT) system, which also uses a synchronised pulsed
wire feed to aid droplet detachment. This attempts to control dip transfer to
achieve consistent controlled metal transfer without spatter.
A background current produces a molten end to the wire which grows until it
touches the surface of the pool as is normal in dip transfer. Immediately the
short circuit is recognised by the software a high current is applied to create
the pinch effect normally associated with spray transfer. This necks the
droplet at the solid wire interface. This is detected by the system and at this
point, near detachment of the droplet, the current is lowered to below
background level so that the droplet collapses into the pool with no violent
recreation of the arc as is in dip transfer.
The system immediately applies a high peak current to re-establish the arc
and commence wire melting once more. After a short time the current is
slowly decayed back to the background level and the cycle commences
once more.
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MIG/MAG Welding
IWS Questions MIG/MAG
1 Explain the options available for shielding gas and how you would choose the
right gas for a particular application.
2 Why can’t you weld vertically with a spray condition? What would you choose
instead?
3 What is a push-pull gun and when is it used?
IWT Questions MIG/MAG
1 Explain why there are different transfer modes in MIG/MAG. Give some
examples of when you would choose one over another.
2 What factors influence the ease of feeding wire? Comment on both equipment
and consumable factors.
3 Why might you use cored wire consumables for MIG/MAG welding?
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Section 14
Manual Metal Arc

(MMA) Welding
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Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding
14 Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

14.1 History
Manual metal arc welding (MMA) has its origins in the last decade of the
nineteenth century as experimenters tried using metal rods to replace the
hand-held electrode in the recently invented Bernados carbon arc process.
Originally the metal rod was bare with no flux coating so welds were
therefore of poor quality with gross porosity and oxide inclusions.
Improvements were made by dipping the rods into a lime wash but it was
not until the early 1900s, when the Kjellberg process was patented, that truly
coated electrodes appeared. Almost simultaneously, the Quasi-Arc method
was introduced in the UK.
Kjellberg based his coating on powdered limestone bound to the rod with
sodium silicate and these ingredients remain fundamental to basic
electrodes day. His method of attaching the coating was by dipping, which
gave an acceptable thickness of coating. Development of the coating led to
greatly improved weld quality and Kjellberg’s technique was used around
the world.
The origin of the extruded rather than the dipped coating is somewhat
obscure, but it is known that the A O Smith company in the US was
producing heavy, extrusion-coated electrodes in 1926.
Titanium oxide, in the form of the mineral rutile, was introduced into coatings
in the 1930s and gave a smoother arc and formed a slag that moulded the
weld bead to a smooth surface making detachment much easier. Rutile rods
were originally restricted to flat welding, but Roberts of Murex Welding
created an all-positional rutile rod, Vodex, still available today (albeit with
different ingredients!). Many manufacturers followed this lead and all-
positional rutile electrodes are probably the widest used type in the UK.
MMA welding is the most versatile process and is suitable for welding most
non-ferrous metals as well as steels, over a wide range of thicknesses. It
can be used in all positions, with reasonable ease of use and relatively
economically. The final weld quality is primarily dependent on the skill of the
welder.
The process was the most used but has been overtaken in the last twenty
years by MIG/MAG, especially as power source control and pulsed power
have developed. Some materials, like aluminium, magnesium and titanium,
are rarely, if ever, welded by MMA now and the usage of stainless steel
MMA is declining in favour of MIG with solid or cored wires.
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The electrodes are usually produced between 300-450mm long, with a core
wire diameter 2-6.0mm with a flux covering that maybe doubles the overall
diameter. Variants of the process have used electrodes well outside these
ranges.
When an arc is struck between the coated electrode and workpiece, both
melt to form a weld pool. The temperature of the arc is a minimum of
6000°C, sufficient to melt the parent metal, consumable core wire and flux
coating simultaneously. The flux forms gas and slag which protect the weld
pool from oxygen and nitrogen in the surrounding atmosphere. The molten
slag solidifies and cools and must be chipped off the weld bead once the
weld run is complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited where multi-
run welding is necessary). The process allows only short lengths of weld to
be produced before a new electrode is needed.
The presence of the slag changes the simple principles of anode heating
and cathode cooling explained Arcs and Plasmas. In general, DCEP results
in deeper penetration and DCEN has a higher burn-off for a given current
resulting in better deposition rate. This may be regarded as counter to the
situation in TIG and MIG, where DCEP results in strong heating of the
electrode – desirable for melting wire in MIG, but not recommended for TIG
which usually runs DCEN.
Electrode angle 75-80o to the
horizontal
Consumable electrode
Filler metal core
Flux coating
Direction of electrode travel
Solidified slag Arc

Gaseous shield
Molten weld pool
Parent metal
Weld metal
The manual metal arc welding process.
As well as the arc and deposition characteristics, a wide range of alloying

that can be achieved by addition to the flux coating. Many steel electrodes
have the same low C, low Mn steel core wire. Flux additions produce the
high toughness, higher Mn weld metal.
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For more information on MMA see www.twi.co.uk/content/tec_index.html
14.3 MMA basic equipment requirements
1
10
9 2
9
8 8 3
4
7
7
6 5
1) Power source transformer/rectifier (constant current type)

2) Holding quiver (holds at temperatures up to 150°C)
3) Inverter power source (more compact and portable)
4) Electrode holder (of a suitable amperage rating)
5) Power cable (of a suitable amperage rating)
6) Welding visor (with correct rating for the amperage/process)
7) Power return cable (of a suitable amperage rating)
8) Electrodes (of a suitable type and amperage rating)
9) Electrode oven (bakes electrodes at up to 450°C)
10) Control panel (on/off/amperage/polarity/OCV)
We noted in the chapter on Power Sources that MMA requires a constant

current power source so that the unsteadiness of the welders hand has only
a limited effect on the current, and therefore the fusion characteristics.
As the process can be used DCEN, DCEP or AC, all types of power source
are used for MMA. Inverter sets are very popular as they give a wide range
of current from lightweight, portable units.
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MMA is still used extensively for site work as it can operate successfully
from engine-driven generators.
In manufacturing, large transformer or transformer rectifier sets are used,

often capable of running several operators from one machine.
14.4 Electrode types

As described in 14.1 there are many types of electrode coating.
Manufacturers to claim particular attributes for their formulae, but they can
be grouped into types.
Cellulosic
Developed from experiments in the US with paper wrapping of core wire to
replace asbestos which was not naturally occurring in the US. Modern
cellulosic electrodes use industrially extracted cellulose powder, some still
have an amount of wood flour in the formula. This gives a characteristic
smell when welding. Slag forming agents are also added to the coating.
Slag remains thin and friable, although the high arc force can create
undercut and/or excessive ripple which may anchor the slag, thus requiring
grinder inter-run cleaning.
Cellulosic electrodes have a strong arc action and give deep penetration.
AWS E6010 types are DC operating and E6011 run on AC. The gas shield
generated is principally hydrogen. Which gives good protection but high
diffusible hydrogen in the weld metal and HAZ.
Cellulosic coatings are only used on carbon and C-Mn steels and are noted
for their ability to weld in the vertically down position, achievable because
the high arc force pushes the pool, keeping it from dropping under gravity
and the thin slag cover does not over-run the pool, E6010 electrodes are
often known as stovepipe rods. A great advantage in pipeline construction
and is known as stovepiping.
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Rutile
The coating of these electrodes has a high proportion of titanium dioxide,
usually as rutile sand, a naturally occurring mineral, or as ilmenite, an iron
titanium oxide mineral. Occasionally pigment grade titanium dioxide is used
to give a very pale, almost white coating, but higher cost does not make it
popular. Traditionally these coatings were couloured presumably to
distinguish them from basic coated rods, and welders tend to have
favourites – pink or the blue jobs! With rationalisation, many are now made
to the same formula with only the colour to distinguish them.
AWS type E6012 electrodes are DC operating and E6013 run on AC. Early
rutile electrodes for steel were for welding in the flat position and had fluid
slag that solidified just after the metal giving a smooth bead surface and
easy slag removal. E6012 electrodes can still be found, primarily in the US
or American-influenced markets, but most European manufacturers offer AC
running E6013. Rutile electrodes need of moisture in the coating to generate
the gas shield. So are not capable of giving low hydrogen weld metal.
E6013 electrodes may be for welding in the flat position, but many followed
the lead of Murex Welding’s Vodex (Vertical, Overhead, Downhand plus –
ex from Murex) in offering all-positional capability. E6013 electrodes remain
the welders’ choice for general purpose welding having a smooth arc action
and good slag release.
Rutile high recovery

The addition of significant proportions of iron powder to a rutile coating
advantages. The recovery is much greater so more weld metal is laid at the
same current; the coating is much thicker so forms a deeper cup in which
the arc burns, sufficiently recessed to allow the end of the coating to be
rested on the workpiece without extinguishing the arc. This makes guiding
the rod much easier, even novices can handle this touch welding
technique. The slag is also readily released, sometimes self-releasing
behind the welder as he progresses along the joint.
The downside is that these rods can only be used in the flat position.
However, for flat butt or fillet work these AWS E7024 electrodes are a good
choice. Manufacturers offer rods with 150-180% recovery though some
have tried up to 240%. Recovery is calculated as:
weight of weld metal

Recovery %  x 100
weight of core wire used
Basic
The original coatings applied to electrodes by Kjellberg were basic coatings,
little more than ground limestone and clay bound by silicate, but these
ingredients are still used today. Modern coatings attempting to realise the
lowest possible hydrogen transfer to the weld metal avoid clay but it is of
great assistance in coating adhesion and ease of production through the
extrusion process.
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Electrodes classified as E7015 in the AWS system were the first modern
basic rods and are for DC operation and have in general been superseded
by E7016 or E7018 types that can operate on AC and DC.
The main difference between E7016 and E7018 electrodes is the iron
powder content in the latter which helps stabilise the arc and is the direction
that American electrode design took when seeking best hydrogen control
and mechanical properties. In Europe, Philips 56S became known for its
good properties and all-positional ability, particularly in roots and tight
preparations, because it did not have iron powder in the coating. It was an
E7016 that gave good properties – destroying the myth in the US that
E7016 were little more than general purpose electrodes and only E7018
could give good properties.
Basic high recovery

In a similar manner to the E7024 rutile iron powder electrodes, basic
coatings can have high levels of iron powder for high recovery, termed
E7028 in the AWS system and operate on AC and DC in the flat position
only.
Iron oxide types

Rarely seen now, though some are still sold in the US for welding
galvanised steel. The coatings contain significant amounts of iron oxide
which gives a strong arc action, copes with paint and dirt and has a fluid
slag.
Asbestos wound
The first electrodes designed to run on AC and the basis of the early UK
welding consumables manufacturing industry. In the 1960s, the severe
health and safety issues became known and the electrodes were withdrawn.
14.5 Setting up for welding

As MMA electrodes produce a slag, it is often assumed that this will take
care of any oxide on the surface or inclusions in the material. Whilst this
may be true to an extent, there is no substitute for correct preparation prior
to welding.
Reactive metals are no longer welded with MMA so we do not have to

consider the cleaning regime of aluminium, but cleaning oxide from the
surface of the parent plates and especially the edge preparation is essential
for quality welding of any material. Steels may be ground, making sure that
ferritic steels are separated from stainless steels and tools are kept for
exclusive use on one or the other. Stainless steel, nickel and copper alloys
form only thin oxide layers and respond well to cleaning with wire brushes,
especially on a power tool.
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Edge preparations must be cut for all but the thinnest butt welds. Straight
sided V preparations are normal set up with an included angle of 60-70° for
ferritic steels, 70-80° for stainless and copper alloys, and 90° for nickel
alloys. Electrode types are available in ferritic steels to give good, deep
penetration and sidewall fusion. Stainless and copper electrodes have less
intense arc action so need a more open preparation to allow the welder to
manipulate into the root and sidewall. Nickel alloys are notoriously sluggish
so the welder needs a wide groove to push the weld pool around to achieve
good fusion. It is usual to leave a root gap of 1-3mm depending on plate
thickness to help the welder judge penetration and underbead formation.
Good connection between the workpiece and earth return to the power
source is essential for MMA welding. If the current route is changing across
the workpiece, a DC arc may be deflected. Residual magnetism in the
material may give similar deflection. This arc blow is at its worst when
depositing root runs in magnetic material. Each plate forms a magnetic pole
along its edge so the preparation has a highly confused magnetic field that
deflects the arc very significantly. As the root run is laid, a metallic bridge is
formed that removes the effect of the poles but the quality of the run may
have been compromised before this happens.
In 9%Ni steel the effect is accentuated by the use of non-magnetic nickel

alloy fillers so the weld metal does nothing to remove the pole effect.
Methods of combating this include degaussing the plates before welding,
setting the earth return at the end of the weld preparation and welding
towards it and, probably best of all, using an AC-running electrode.

Current (amperage)
The current range required depends on the diameter and type of electrode.
Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendation as variation can occur as
shown in the table below which cites a few specific electrodes.
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If the current selected is higher than recommended, the electrode will

overheat and, towards the end of the run, may begin to glow red, dependent
on the length of the electrode as a longer length means more resistive
heating. Stainless steel electrodes come in shorter lengths than mild steel to
help avoid overheating caused by the higher resistivity of stainless steel.
Weld quality is affected by incorrect current settings:
Current too low

Poor fusion or penetration, irregular weld bead shape, slag inclusions,
unstable arc, porosity.
Current too high

Excessive penetration, burn through, undercut, spatter, porosity, deep
craters, electrode damage due to overheating, high deposition making
positional welding difficult.
Voltage
For current to flow through the circuit there needs to be a potential
difference or voltage (V). For MMA welding the voltage required to initiate
the arc is called the open circuit voltage (OCV), the voltage measured
between the output terminals of the power source when no current is flowing
through the welding circuit. For safety reasons the OCV should not exceed
100V, and is usually between 50-90V.
Immediately the arc is established, a working (arc) voltage, of 20-30V, is

adopted. Arc voltage is a function of arc length. With MMA the welder
controls the arc length and therefore the arc voltage, which controls weld
pool fluidity.
Having the wrong arc length and therefore the wrong arc voltage can lead
to:
Arc voltage too low

Poor penetration, electrode stubbing, lack of fusion defects, slag inclusions,
unstable arc condition, irregular weld bead shape.
Arc voltage too high

Excessive spatter, porosity, arc wander, irregular weld bead shape, slag
inclusions, fluid weld pool making positional welding difficult.
Travel speed
Travel speed (S) is the rate of weld progression, the third factor that affects
heat input and therefore metallurgical and mechanical conditions. In MMA
welding, the consistency of travel speed is in the hands of the welder. An
inexperienced welder may require guidance on maintaining the correct
speed. This may be offered as a run-out length to be achieved in unit time
but once the electrode diameter, voltage and current have been established,
each electrode should take the same time to burn to a stub. So the more
usual guidance is to give run-out length per electrode. The inexperienced or
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even a skilled man when starting on a precision job may make chalk marks
along the plate to guide him on the length to be laid from ¼, ½, ¾ and
complete electrode usage. For the heat input calculation, S must be in
mm/sec, requiring conversion from workshop practice of mm/min or even
m/min.
Potential defects associated with incorrect welding speeds when MMA

welding are:
Travel speed too fast

Narrow thin weld bead, fast cooling, slag inclusions, undercut, poor
fusion/penetration, insufficient heat input giving high hardness structures.
Travel speed too slow

Cold laps, excess weld deposition, irregular bead shape, undercut, excess
heat input making the development of high toughness impossible.
Heat input
Heat input is a calculation of the total energy passed into the weld bead in
unit time. It is calculated as:
 kJ  i.V.k
Heat input   
 mm  S.1000
Where:
i = current in amps
V = voltage in volts
S = travel speed in mm/sec
k = thermal efficiency factor
The thermal efficiency factor is taken as 0.8 for MMA, MIG/MAG and FCAW.
For TIG and plasma it is 0.6 and for submerged arc is 1.
Polarity (type of current)

Polarity in TIG and MIG welding clearly affect heat distribution through the
arc. The cathode was cooled due to the energy required to emit electrons.
The anode received far greater heat due to the bombardment by the
electrons. Yet, even with the bare electrode gas-shielded processes, we
saw in the section on arcs and plasmas that polarity was not the only factor
controlling heat transfer – heat conduction across the gas boundary layer
immediately above the anode and the dissociation and recombination of
diatomic gases had significant effects.
We should not be surprised to learn that in fluxed systems the presence of

so many ionic materials in solid, liquid and gaseous form can completely
mask the electrical effect. It is not possible to say that DCEP will melt more
electrode as we did for MIG. There is evidence that DCEN can result in
higher melting rates in MMA. The preferred polarity of the MMA system
depends primarily on the electrode being used and the desired properties of
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the weld. Manufacturers have developed coating systems that stabilise the
arc in AC, DCEP or DCEN. Many electrodes work on more than one polarity
and some work successfully on all three.
14.7 Practical aspects of MMA

The techniques available and their effect on weld quality.
Stringer or weave
As well as controlling the run-out length by moving his hand faster or slower,
the welder can make a slight lateral, side-to-side motion. This weaving can
be useful as the welder briefly points the electrode tip at the sidewall thus
assisting fusion. It does, mean that the run-out is shorter so heat input is
higher.
Heat input dictates the cooling rate of the weld bead and for ferritic steels
the transformation products. To develop the best toughness requires
production of fine-grained acicular ferrite and this is produced at low heat
input. Weaving slows the cooling rate and tends to lead to larger grained
microstructure with poorer toughness and yield strength.
Running the weld bead in a straight line along the preparation is called
stringer bead technique and can achieve lower heat input per unit length. It
is possible to lay stringer beads at heat input that is too low resulting in
formation of martensite in ferritic steel with consequent loss of toughness.
Multi-pass or block welding

In a butt weld in thick material, a weld bead laid with typical parameters is
not going to fill the groove. The welder can attempt to move more slowly
allowing the metal to build but in the flat position there is a limit to how much
fill can be achieved in a single pass in this manner.
If the butt weld is in the vertical position, the welder can work a ‘triangular
weave’ – into the root along one edge of the preparation, out along the
other, then across the face. In this block welding manner fewer runs are
needed to fill a thicker section joint. As the deposition rate of an electrode is
controlled by welding current (amps) the volume of metal deposited over a
given time (joint completion time), will be virtually the same regardless of
whether a weave or stringer technique is used. Some reduction in time may
be achieved by weaving as fewer runs means less time spent in-inter run
cleaning.
Block welding creates very high heat input with correspondingly poor
mechanical properties and is not recommended for quality work and is often
banned as a technique. Some specifications limit weave width in an attempt
to avoid overly thick, near block welding.
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The usual technique for filling deep and wide grooves is to use multiple
layers - multi-pass welding which requires full removal of slag from
underlying beads. If the lower bead has been laid with a convex profile, it is
possible for slag to be trapped in the toes which needs removal by grinding
and brushing before another layer is laid over it otherwise there is a strong
possibility of leaving a string of slag inclusions.
Multi-pass welding can result in excellent mechanical properties as each

bead gives some heat treatment to the one below which can give areas of
very fine-grained recrystallised material with high toughness.
Skip welding or back stepping

Technique used to minimise distortion, particularly when welding thin
material with long lengths to be completed. A very short, 30-50mm, weld is
made then the welder moves maybe 150mm along the seam and lays
another short run. This continues until the end of the seam is reached and
returns to the start and makes further 30-50mm welds in the gaps. The
procedure is repeated until the seam is completely welded.
The disadvantage is that it requires a large number of starts and stops, the
areas most prone to defect formation like porosity or solidification cracking.
Preheat
When welding ferritic steels, you have to guard against hydrogen diffusing
through the weldment and inducing cracking. One way is to apply preheat to
slow the cooling rate of weld bead, giving the hydrogen time to be released.
Preheat may be applied with a gas torch, usually with a much large nozzle
than used for welding or with electrically heated blankets spread over the
joint area prior to welding.
Preheat is specified as a minimum and the welder is required to ensure that

the parent plate in the vicinity of the weld does not fall below the required
temperature. This may be checked with a probe thermocouple attached to a
meter or with temperature sensitive crayons.
Interpass
When multi-pass welding it may be necessary to avoid heat build up during
welding as excessive heating the weld metals can lower strength and
reduce toughness so a maximum interpass may be specified. If preheat is
applicable to the situation this still applies in a multi-pass weld so there may
be a minimum interpass temperature (equivalent to the original preheat) and
a maximum. The welder is responsible for meeting these criteria, but the
welding engineer may decide to use inspectors to ensure compliance.
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Operating factor
Because electrodes are lengths of coated wire, the welder cannot keep the
arc burning indefinitely – he needs time to change rods. He also has to
de-slag the weld bead, grind any imperfections, may be required to check
and observe interpass temperatures and/or call an inspector to check his
work and long runs will need to reposition himself for ease of operating. All
of these reduce the amount of time that weld metal is being deposited. The
percentage of arc time to total time is called the operating factor and for
MMA this is rarely above 30% and for site work of heavy fabrications it is
often about 15%. MIG/MAG can achieve 60% and fully automated welding
may reach 90% on jigs with simple loading and unloading.
Operating factor is sometimes referred to as duty cycle but that term is used
for power source capability as described in the section on power sources.
14.8 Manufacture of MMA electrodes

Coated electrodes are mass produced with millions made per week. A slow
decline in MMA welding over the last 50 years has seen rationalisation of
production to a few factories in convenient (low cost) countries.
Many manufacturers developed their own equipment, so there have been

many variants, but the basic principles of production and the functions of the
equipment are similar:
 Wire drawing from wire rod to electrode core wire diameter.

 Straightening and high speed cutting of drawn wire to electrode length.
 Racking and delivery of rods to extrusion machine.
 Weighing of ingredients to formula.
 Dry mixing followed by addition of silicate binder.
 Compacting of paste to form extrusion cakes.
 Loading of extrusion chamber with flux paste cakes.
 Continuous extrusion.
 Separation of the individual electrodes.
 Brushing the ends.
 Transportation to baking oven.
 Baking and cooling.
 Packaging.
14.9 Storage and handling

MMA electrodes are packed in a variety of forms; most common is around
5kg of electrodes in thin card packs wrapped in polyethylene film. This gives
adequate protection in storeroom conditions but the packaging is permeable
to moisture so deterioration can take place in wet environments. Electrodes
in packs should always be stored in warm dry stores. Manufacturers give
specific recommendations on their packages and data sheets.
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Electrodes that have become damp can be returned to expected

performance (14.10), but if the flux has become distinctly discoloured or
pieces have broken away, the rods should be discarded.
For pipeline welding, packaging in tins has long been a favourite as the
hermetic seal gives long-term protection. Cellulosic electrodes are often
packed in up to 25kg in tins and may be used directly from such packaging
and do not need further drying.
Basic electrodes are available from many manufacturers in vacuum packs.

The electrodes are packed under careful control directly from the baking
oven as they are manufactured; the packaging is hermetically sealed under
vacuum so there is no possibility of moisture pick-up. Manufacturers offer a
guarantee of low hydrogen performance straight from the package and may
give an exposure permissible after opening the package whilst still
maintaining adequate hydrogen control. Once this exposure is exceeded,
the rods should be discarded.
14.10 Baking electrodes

The oven and quiver in the photograph of welding equipment are required
for electrodes in which moisture is a problem, usually basic electrodes for
use on ferritic steels liable to hydrogen cracking. When aluminium was
welded with MMA, it was necessary to dry such rods but Al alloys are now
welded by MIG or TIG. Copper alloys are usually no problem but stainless
steel and nickel alloys also need dry electrodes to avoid porosity formation.
For ferritic steels, it is important to treat the electrodes according to their

type.
Cellulosic
Should not be dried as they rely on a hydrogen atmosphere to create the
shielding and should be used directly from the manufacturer’s packaging. If
electrodes have been left exposed and have become soaked, they should
be discarded.
Rutile
These electrodes require moisture in them to run correctly as dried rutile
rods have a very poor arc action and shielding. If they become inadvertently
wet, they can be returned to condition by holding for an hour at around
80°C. Some texts suggest 120°C but excessive time at such a temperature
can easily over-dry the flux.
Basic
These coatings produce CO and CO2 as the limestone in their formulation
breaks down under heating. These gases generate good shielding and arc
force and do not require hydrogen or moisture and can be baked totally dry.
They may be manufactured at 450°C, so temperatures up to this can be
used to restore them after exposure. To keep them in good condition after
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baking in an oven, they should be held in a heated quiver beside the welder
and used directly from this.
Vacuum-packed basic
Basic electrodes can be packed in hermetically sealed vacuum packs by the

manufacturer after baking. With help from the formulation, using silicates
with a low tendency to absorb moisture, the electrodes from such packs do
not need baking to achieve low hydrogen levels. Manufacturers now offer
guarantees that at known humidity and temperature vacuum-packs may be
opened at the start of a shift and the electrodes used throughout that shift
without the need to bake.
14.11 Electrode classification

Many national and international specifications cover MMA electrodes add
the detail is too much to be covered here so the student is advised to seek
the relevant specifications directly from the national standards office. TWI
published a series of Job Knowledge articles, mostly by Gene Mathers that
make excellent additional reading to these notes. Gene’s article on the BS
EN and AWS systems (www.twi.co.uk/content/jk84.html) is reproduced
below.
To be able to specify the type of flux coating, welding characteristics and

chemical composition of an electrode for a particular application, there
needs to be some standardised method of unique identification universally
recognised.
This requirement has led to the writing of a series of consumable

specifications that enable an electrode to be easily and uniquely identified
by assigning a consumable a 'classification'. The two MMA electrode
classification schemes that will be dealt with here are the EN (Euronorm)
and the AWS (American Welding Society) specifications. There is
insufficient space to cover in detail the whole range of compositions for
MMA electrodes so the emphasis will be on the carbon steel filler metals.
The European specification for non-alloy and fine grained steel MMA
electrodes is EN 499. This divides the classification or designation number
into two parts. Part 1 is a compulsory section that requires symbols for the
process, strength and elongation, impact strength, the chemical composition
and the type of flux coating. The second part is optional and includes
symbols for the type of current and metal recovery, the welding position(s)
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that the electrode can be used in and for the maximum hydrogen content of
the deposited weld metal (NOT the electrode).
The designation of a covered electrode begins with the letter 'E'. This tells
us that this is a covered electrode intended for MMA welding. The next two
numbers give the minimum yield strength that may be expected as shown in
Table 1.
Table 1 Strength and elongation symbols

Symbol Min Yield Strength Tensile Strength Minimum
N/mm N/mm Elongation %
35 355 440-570 22
38 380 470-600 20
42 420 500-640 20
46 460 530-680 20
50 500 560-720 18
The next symbol indicates the temperature at which an average impact

value of 47J can be achieved.
Table 2 Impact value symbol

Symbol Temperature for
average of 47J °C
Z No requirement
A +20
0 0
2 -20
3 -30
4 -40
5 -50
6 -60
The third mandatory symbol is for the composition. Although the

specification title (non-alloy and fine grained steels) suggests that the
electrodes have no alloying elements present, up to 3%Ni and NiMo
electrodes are included. (This symbol is only applied where the electrode
contains ( 0.3Mo or 0.6Ni).
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Table 3 Chemical composition symbols

Symbol Chemical composition % max or range
Mn Mo Ni
No symbol 2.0 - -
Mo 1.4 0.3-0.6 -
MnMo >1.4-2.0 0.3-0.6 -
1Ni 1.4 - 0.6-1.2
2Ni 1.4 - 1.8-2.6
3Ni 1.4 - >2.6-3.8
Mn1Ni >1.4-2.0 - 0.6-1.2
1NiMo 1.4 0.3 - 0.6 0.6-1.2
Z Any other agreed composition
The fourth symbol indicates the type of flux coating - basic, rutile etc.
Table 4 Symbol for flux coating

Symbol Coating
A Acid
C Cellulosic
R Rutile
RR Thick rutile
RC Rutile-cellulosic
RA Rutile-acid
RB Rutile-basic
B Basic
The next three symbols are not compulsory and give additional information
on the percentage weld metal recovery and the type of welding current on
which the electrode can be operated (Table 5); the welding position (Table
6) and the maximum hydrogen content of the deposited weld metal if the
electrodes are dried or baked as recommended by the manufacturer (Table
7).
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Table 5 Symbol for weld metal recovery and current type

Symbol Weld metal recovery, % Current type
1 <= 105 AC or DC+
2 <= 105 DC+ or DC-
3 >105< = 125 AC or DC+
4 >105< = 125 DC+ or DC-
5 >125< = 160 AC or DC+
6 >125< = 160 DC+ or DC-
7 >160 AC or DC+
8 >160 DC+ or DC-
Table 6 Symbols for welding position

Symbol Welding position
1 All positions
2 All positions except V-down
3 Flat butt and fillet welds, HV fillet weld
4 Flat
5 V-down, flat butt, flat and HV fillet welds
Table 7 Symbol for hydrogen content in weld metal

Symbol Max Hydrogen
ml/100gms weld metal
H5 5
H10 10
H15 15
A full designation may therefore read E42 2 B32H5. This describes a basic
carbon manganese steel electrode; weld metal yield strength of 420N/mm2,
better than 47J at -20°C, a weld metal recovery of over 105%, capable of
being used on AC or DC+ current in all positions except vertical down and
providing less than 5ml hydrogen in the weld metal.
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The AWS specification equivalent to EN 499 is AWS A5.1 - Carbon Steel

Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding. The classification comprises five
characters but in the 2004 edition of the specification there are two separate
schemes. A5.1, based on the US units of tensile strength in pounds per
square inch, Charpy V values in foot-pounds and A5.1M, based on the SI
system, with strength in MPa, Charpy V values in Joules.
It is thus possible to have virtually identical electrodes with different

classifications, one using US units, the other SI units. For full details of the
AWS scheme please consult the specification directly, but to illustrate briefly
how the electrodes are classified, the following gives a summary of the key
features.
The first character E is common to both classifications and indicates that the
electrode is a flux coated manual metal arc electrode. The next two digits
indicate the tensile strength. In the A5.1 designation carbon steels are either
60, indicating a UTS of 60ksi and a yield strength of 48ksi, or 70, indicating
a UTS of 70ksi and a yield strength of 58ksi. In the A5.1M designation these
are 43 or 49, indicating a UTS of 430MPa, yield strength of 330 or 490MPa
UTS, 400MPa yield respectively.
The last two digits give information on flux coating type, welding position,
current type and polarity and Charpy-V impact strength, if required.
 XX10 or XX11 have cellulosic coatings.

 XX12, XX13, XX14, XX19 or XX24 have rutile coatings.
 XX15, XX16 are basic low hydrogen.
 XX18, XX28 and XX48 are basic low hydrogen with iron powder
additions and are therefore high recovery electrodes.
Listed below are those EN and AWS specifications that prescribe the
requirements for ferrous electrodes.
BS EN 499 Non-alloyed and fine grained steel electrodes

BS EN 757 High strength steels
BS EN 1599 Creep resisting steels
BS EN 1600 Stainless and heat resisting steels
AWS A5.1/A5.1M Carbon steel electrodes for SMAW
AWS A5.4 Stainless steel electrodes for SMAW
AWS A5.5 Low alloy steel electrodes for SMAW
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IWS Questions on MMA

1 Describe the basics of the MMA process.
2 Why are inverter power sources finding increasing favour for MMA?
3 What types of MMA consumable are available for all-positional welding? Which
gives the lowest weld metal hydrogen level?
4 What is arc blow and how do you deal with it?
5 How should you control multi-pass weave welding?
IWT Questions on MMA

6 Sketch and describe the principal features of the welding arc during MMA.
7 Sketch and describe the principal features of power sources for MMA.
8 Describe the types of MMA consumable and the basis of selection for any given
application.
9 Describe good care of the various types of MMA electrode during storage and in
use.
10 Describe and illustrate with examples the classification system BS EN 499.
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Section 15
Submerged Arc Welding

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15 Submerged Arc Welding

15.1 History
Continuously fed wire as a basis of an automatic welding process appeared
in the 1920s. Early experiments in the US used in shielded arcs and were
not very successful.
In the UK, the Fusarc Company produced a continuous covered electrode

used for many years in shipyard and bridge fabrication which worked by
having two thin wires spiralled in opposite directions around a thick core
wire so as to leave diamond shaped spaces in which flux could be squeezed
and dried. Electrical contact could be made via the thin wires exposed at the
surface from rolls through which the consumable passed.
In 1929 in the US, Robinoff at the Western Pipe and Steel Co patented a
process describing a continuous bare wire and a protective flux added to the
joint preparation. This is often taken as the invention of the submerged arc
process but the arc was visible and the process relied on the flux being
magnetic – it contained significant amounts of iron powder and oxide to
achieve this. Union Carbide (Linde Division) purchased the right to this
patent but, when they described a fully submerged (invisible) arc process in
1935 patents, they saw it as sufficiently different such that they refer to the
Robinoff method as another process. In fact the UC workers believed that
their process had no arc (ie was electroslag), quickly disproved as
oscillographs showed the presence of an arc and process was licensed as
the Unionmelt process.
The original Unionmelt process used a pre-fused flux, based on manganese

oxide and silicon dioxide which gave a manganese silicate glass that could
be crushed and ground to a coarse powder. The flux was sieved to give
different particle size distribution as operators found that different current
ranges favoured selection of different density flux. Unionmelt 20, the original
formula, was designed to operate at up to 2000A and sold as OK Flux 20 in
USA by ESAB.
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Lincoln Electric attempted to introduce their own version of the process but
were sued by Union Carbide in 1949 several of their offerings un-fringed
patents, but they were able to replace the flux with two new formulae,
termed Lincoln 770 and 780, which were novel. Lincoln 780, which is still
sold today, is a bonded or agglomerated flux. The ingredients are not fused
together but are mixed as dry powders then bonded together with small
amounts of silicate, similar in principle to an electrode coating. So able to
incorporate deoxidants and alloying; something impossible with fused fluxes
are Lincoln became the best known manufacturer of high quality fluxes from
the 1950s onward and popularised the process name as submerged arc
welding (SAW).
Many other manufacturers became consumable suppliers which were

developed for hardfacing applications and SAW welding of stainless steel
and nickel alloys became possible. Developers devised ways of using
multiple wires and iron powder addition for high productivity welding and
SAW quickly became the process with most variants.

Submerged arc welding is a welding process where an arc is struck
between a continuous bare wire and the parent plate. The arc, electrode
end and molten pool are submerged in an agglomerated or fused powdered
flux, which turns into a gas and slag in its lower layers when subjected to the
heat of the arc, thus protecting the weld from contamination. The wire
electrode is fed continuously by a feed unit of motor driven rollers, which
usually are voltage controlled to ensure an arc of constant length. The flux is
fed from a hopper fixed to the welding head and a tube from the hopper
spreads the flux in a continuous elongated mound in front of the arc along
the line of the intended weld and of sufficient depth to submerge the arc
completely so there is no spatter, the weld is shielded from the atmosphere
and there are no or infra-red radiation effects. Unmelted flux is reclaimed for
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use but the use of powdered flux restricts the process to the flat and
horizontal-UV welding positions.
SAW is noted for its ability to use high weld currents giving deep penetration
and high deposition rates. Generally DCEP is used up to about 1000Amps
because it produces deep penetration. For some applications (eg cladding
operations) DCEN is chosen to reduce penetration and dilution. At higher
currents or in the case of multiple electrode systems, AC is often preferred
to avoid arc blow. On multiple electrode systems, DCEP is generally used
for the lead arc and AC for any trailing arcs.
Difficulties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of the weld with a

predetermined line owing to the obscuring effect of the flux. Where possible,
a guide wheel to run in the joint preparation is positioned in front of the
welding head and flux hoppers.
SAW is widely used in the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels; line pipe,
railway carriages and anywhere long welds are required. It can weld
thicknesses from 3mm upwards, although its main use is for section
thickness greater than this.
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15.3 Power source

DC SAW can use either constant potential/voltage (CP) or constant current
(CC) power sources. CP power sources are the accepted norm as the
control to maintain arc length on a CV set traditionally required rapidly
acting, low speed, low inertia motors that were expensive and difficult to
build with sufficient accuracy. With microprocessor control, fine adjustment
is easy and cost-effective so there is less reason to specify CP.
AC power is also usable for SAW and it is necessary to use AC when there
is more than one wire being used. Wires carrying several hundred amps DC
produce substantial magnetic fields that will deflect any subsidiary arc in the
vicinity. The normal method is to run the first wire on DCEP to give deep
penetration, followed by up to four AC wires to give extra weld metal into a
single elongated weld pool. Each wire has its own power source and control,
making set-up of optimum conditions particularly difficult. For repetitive
production where high speed is economically crucial, multi-wire arrays are
common. The production of welded pipe, either spirally welded or
longitudinal seamed, is a typical application.
15.4 Equipment
The size and layout of a submerged arc installation can vary widely. Lincoln
Electric have for years marketed a hand held gun for SAW.
It is more usual to see a mechanised or automated machine. Small, mobile

tractor units are available and are particularly useful for working inside
pipes. Column and boom system are also popular alternatives allowing the
positioning of the welding head above or within the component to be
welded. The component is then manipulated beneath the head as welding
progresses. Large scale production of repetitive shapes, eg ships plate or
longitudinally welded pipe, can justify the installation of major gantry
systems with several welding heads held on a cross-beam that travels over
the workpiece.
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15.5 Consumables
15.5.1 Wires
Usually available in 2-5mm diameter, though for special applications
diameters below and above this range have been used. Traditionally they
are solid wires cold drawn to size, cleaned and copper plated prior to
spooling, most frequently as 25-30kg coils.
The wire is relatively stiff and requires a substantial feed motor and set of
rolls to give smooth delivery to the contact tip at the welding head. The wire
is therefore wound on a larger diameter than a MIG reel.
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For bulk wire usage, eg in a pipemill, much larger drums or spiders with
between 300-2000kg of wire are used:
Tubular, mainly flux-cored, wires are also produced for use with SAW they
can result in an increase in deposition rate and be used to produce small
quantities of low alloy compositions using a carbon steel sheath and are
often used for surfacing and hardfacing applications, as well as welding high
strength low alloy (HSLA) steels.
15.5.2 Fluxes
Fluxes may be categorised in two ways: by method of manufacture (fused or
agglomerated) or by its activity (neutral, active or alloying). Within these
broad groupings the fluxes may be classified further by their constituents,
silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, etc.
Fused fluxes
Produced by mixing the ingredients, then melting them in an electric furnace
to form a chemically homogeneous product, cooled and ground to the
required particle size. Fused fluxes are limited in composition as noted
above. They are primarily manganese silicates. So they are relatively
neutral in their reaction with weld metal although pick-up of Mn and Si may
be detected. The main benefits of fused fluxes are that they are entirely
homogeneous so recycled flux is of the same composition as the original.
They also are non-hygroscopic so do not pick up moisture in storage and do
not need baking before use. Because of the temperature of their
manufacture they have compositional stability up to melting and can accept
very high current arcs. Smooth stable arcs, with welding currents up to
2000A and consistent weld metal properties, are the main attraction of these
fluxes.
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Agglomerated fluxes
Far more flexibility of composition and may be classified as acidic, neutral,
basic and alloyed. May be formulated to give deliberate addition to the weld
metal composition or to deoxidise and nucleate fine grained structures for
high toughness.
Acidic fluxes
Also known as active fluxes (though all fluxes are active), transfer Mn and Si
to the weld composition. This helps with weld metal strength but must be
kept within limits to avoid cracking. Some of these fluxes are recommended
for single pass or maximum two-layer, work.
Neutral fluxes
Balanced to minimise the Mn and Si pick-up and used for multi-pass welding
where strength rather than toughness is required will achieve reasonable
toughness weld metal but for maximum properties basic fluxes should be
used.
Basic fluxes
Like MMA electrode flux compositions, use fluorspar, to create the molten
slag. May also contain limestone, alumina and manganese oxide. During
manufacture, they are baked at maybe 500°C but it is still possible to add
and retain deoxidants such as titanium, aluminium or magnesium powder.
The balance of weld metal oxygen level is critical in C-Mn and C-Mn-Ni
steels to the development of fine-grained acicular ferrite needed for
maximum toughness. The transformation structure depends on nucleants
within the weld metal and these are primarily very small oxides created from
the deoxidation process in the molten pool.
The principle of adding metals and alloying through the flux is used to
advantage for welding stainless steel and hardfacing. When welding
stainless steel, the high reactivity of chromium results in it oxidising and
being absorbed into the flux. Quite significant reductions in Cr content may
ensue but this is compensated for by adding Cr, usually as ferro-chrome, to
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the flux. Welding engineers should be aware of this deliberate addition and
not attempt to use flux formulated for welding stainless steel on C-Mn steel.
Agglomerated fluxes can hold significant amounts of non-fluxing agents,

such as ferro-alloys and carbides, used to advantage for hardfacing. It is
very difficult to draw hard steel or Stellite (cobalt-based) alloys so; when
harder surfaces are required it is easier to add chromium or tungsten
carbide to the flux than to increasingly alloy the wire. A whole range of
hardfacing fluxes is offered by specialist companies. An alternative
approach is to use cored wire with the core containing the hardfacing
alloying.
A disadvantage is that they are prone to picking up moisture so flux should

not be left in the dispensing hopper overnight and storage should be in a
dry, warm store room. The flux can be baked prior to use but needs to be
spread thinly on trays in the baking oven or agitated repeatedly for moisture
to be released from within its bulk.
The individual particles of an agglomerated flux, particularly one with loading

of ferro-alloys, do not break down to consistent composition fines. Recycling
agglomerated fluxes needs more care than for fused fluxes. The most
practical arrangement is to sieve all reclaimed flux, ie the material sucked
from the bead surface after the passing of the weld pool and to reject the
fines before returning the undamaged flux to the hopper for re-use.

15.6.1 Flux depth
The depth of the flux burden is often poorly controlled in practice and the
powder is simply heaped around the wire until the arc is completely covered.
For optimum results, the flux depth should be just sufficient to cover the arc
although, where the electrode enters the flux cover, light reflected from the
arc should be just visible. Too shallow a flux burden and the arc may flash
through and can cause porosity and a rough surface because of inadequate
protection of the molten metal. Too deep a flux burden can also give poor
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bead appearance and lead to spillage on circumferential welds. On deep

preparations in thick plate, it is particularly important to avoid an excessive
flux cover as weld bead shape and slag removal can be unsatisfactory.
15.6.2 Arc voltage

Arc voltage has an important effect on weld bead shape and depth of
penetration; the effect being dependent on the joint preparation. Bead-on-
plate and square edge close butt welds have increased bead width and
dilution as the arc voltage increases, although the depth of penetration is
relatively unaffected
In a prepared V butt joint, increasing the arc voltage may lead to lack of
fusion in the root as the wide arc will not reach the bottom of the root.
Reducing the voltage, will increase the depth of penetration as the narrow
arc column is more easily able to reach the bottom of the preparation.
15.6.3 Wire diameter and welding current

The preferred wire diameter is governed by the welding current required for
a particular application. The commonly used SA wire diameters are in the
range 2-5mm. Current ranges for solid wire are shown in the figure below.
For a given wire diameter, the deposition rate and depth of penetration
increase with increasing welding current. Excessive current causes the
electrode wire to overheat causing arc instability, deterioration in weld profile
and sometimes undercutting. Below a minimum current level, arc instability
will also occur giving arc wander and poor penetration.
The figure also shows deposition rates in kg/hr at the maximum and
minimum welding currents using DCEP. DCEN deposition rates are
approximately 35% greater at any particular current.
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For single pass procedures (and one pass either side procedures), the
current should be sufficient to achieve the required depth of penetration
without burn-through. For multi-pass welding, the current should be selected
to give the required weld bead size whilst ensuring adequate fusion to the
underlying material. In circumferential joints the selection of welding current
will be affected by the diameter of the workpiece.
15.6.4 Travel speed

Bead size is inversely proportional to welding speed at the same current.
Higher speeds reduce bead width, increase the likelihood of porosity and if
taken to the extreme, produce undercutting and irregular beads. At high
welding speeds, the arc voltage should be kept low to minimise the risk of
arc blow. If the welding speed is too low, burn-through can occur. A
combination of high arc voltage and low welding speed can produce a
mushroom-shaped weld bead with solidification cracks at the bead sides.
Excessive travel speed can also produce centreline solidification cracking.
For a given arrangement of wires and wire diameters, welding speed is

limited by the welding current which can be tolerated by the flux. Some
fluxes are specially formulated to allow high speed operation. Higher speeds
are possible with multiple wire operation or by holding a more acute
electrode angle.
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15.6.5 Electrode positioning

As the angle between the electrode and plate determines the point of
impingement and direction of the arc force, it has a critical effect on the weld
bead profile and depth of penetration. Welding can be carried out with the
electrode wire trailing, vertical and leading or normal to the plate surface
and the effects on weld shape, penetration and undercut are shown below:
For most applications it is usual to weld with the electrode wire pointing
forwards, ie leading by 10°, to obtain the best combination of bead shape,
penetration and resistance to undercut.
There is also an effect of the electrode angle with respect the bottom plate
in horizontal-vertical fillet welds:
Equal leg length Deepest penetration
Penetration into the root of the joint can be increased by reducing the
electrode angle whilst also aiming the arc more onto the vertical rather than
the horizontal plate.
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15.7 Increasing productivity

All attempts at raising productivity should begin with a thorough appraisal of
the whole manufacturing process, before and after the welding stage.
Factors such as material and work flow and the amount of rework should be
examined and note taken of any bottlenecks in production. Only when this
has been done should attention be turned to the details of the welding
process.
15.7.1 Higher heat input

In attempting to increase the effectiveness of the submerged-arc process
fabricators have turned to high welding currents and multiple arc systems.
As noted earlier, SAW is prone to arc blow and DC arcs generate large
magnetic fields. All trailing wires and some production plant have up to four,
need to have AC supply. The travel speed is correspondingly faster so that
the bead cross-section remains appropriate for the thickness of material
being welded. This technique is used in the mass production of
longitudinally and spirally welded line pipe.
Although use of high currents or multiple arcs may increase deposition rate,
it sometimes does so at the expense of weld metal and/or HAZ toughness
or at the risk of solidification cracking or poor slag detachability. Additionally,
multiple arc systems require high capital cost equipment. Accuracy
requirements for joint preparations and fit-up are often more demanding for
high heat input welding applications.
Back-gouging, an expensive procedure, can be eliminated sometimes by

using the punch through method. After superficial cleaning of the second
side of a butt joint, a deeply penetrating bead fuses into the root run on the
first side. There is high dilution and where weld metal toughness is a crucial
factor, special consumables, eg titanium-boron (Ti-B) containing wires and
fluxes may be necessary.
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15.8 Constant heat input

Increasing metal deposition rates without an appreciable increase in energy
input is possible by means of several deposition efficient process variants
including:
 Fine wire diameters.

 Hot or cold wire additions.
 Tubular flux and metal cored electrode wires.
 Metal powder additions.
 Increased electrode extension.
 DCEN polarity.
A major advantage of the process variants is they can be applied with

modest modifications to conventional equipment and are relatively simple to
operate.
15.9 Twin wire

A variant on the multiple wire principle is twin wire welding where two small
diameter wires are run through a single contact tip. The smaller cross-
sectional area (50%) of two small wires gives a higher current density at the
same current which leads to higher burn-off rate and greater deposition rate.
15.10 Hot or cold wire feed

The arc energy normally consumed in excessive melting of the base
material can be exploited to melt additional filler material in the form of wire
or metal powder. Wires can be mounted in front of the head positioned so
that they are pushed through the flux into the molten weld pool or simply
introduced with a wire feeder without being connected to a power source –
cold wire feeding. It is also possible to pass the wire through a contact tip
where it picks up current sufficient to give resistive heating to near melting
but not enough to create a second arc, avoiding much of the arc blow issue
of multiple arcs but gives a greater deposition advantage than cold wire
before giving rise to lack of fusion fears.
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15.11 Cored wires

As noted from MIG/MAG welding the sheath is more or less the conductive
path for a cored wire so it has effectively a much reduced cross-sectional
area with regard to current carrying. The increased deposition rate that
ensues is equally applicable to SAW. In fact cored wires can also be used in
the twin wire set-up to give greatly increased deposition.
15.12 Metal powder addition

By adding extra metal powder significant improvements in deposition rates
can be accomplished without raising the arc energy. The metal powder
dispensing equipment is relatively inexpensive and is simple to operate and
can easily be attached to both fixed and portable equipment such as a
tractor mounted SAW head.
In the forward feed method, metal powder supplied from a metering device,
usually a bucket wheel dispenser is laid ahead of the weld. Because of the
reduction in penetration which results, the technique is not normally used to
make single pass welds where the root must be penetrated. In thick section
welds, when powder is used, it is normally added during the fill process.
A second method uses magnetic attraction of powder on to the electrode

wire. Two or three streams of metal powder, usually metered through a
controlling orifice, are directed onto the wire. The powder becomes
magnetically attached to the electrode wire and is carried into the molten
pool through the flux layer.
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For applications in which high toughness is a requirement, different powder

compositions are needed for the two feeding methods due to the different
elemental recovery rates in each case.
15.13 Increased electrode extension

The electrode extension is the distance the continuous electrode protrudes
beyond the contact tip. At high current densities, resistance heating of the
electrode between the contact tip and the arc can be used to increase the
electrode melting rate (as much as 25-50%). The longer the extension, the
greater the amount of heating and the higher the melting rate.
15.14 DCEN welding

Use of electrode negative results in greater burn-off of wire at the same
current compared with DCEP. Note This is different from the situation in TIG
and MIG, where cathodic cooling allows the greater proportion of heat at the
anode. It is assumed that the difference is due to very different conditions
with so many ionisable compounds in the arc of a fluxed process.
DCEN operation has much lower penetration than DCEP so it is not usual to
use it to increase butt welding deposition by this means. It is, however, the
choice when submerged arc is being used for surfacing or cladding.

15.15.1 Porosity
Porosity is a fairly common defect which can be influenced by many factors.
Sometimes it is clearly visible as pinholes or larger voids at the weld
surface, at other times it is below the surface and revealed only by X-ray
examination or ultrasonic testing. Unless it is gross or preferentially aligned,
porosity is unlikely to be harmful.
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Common causes of porosity are:
 Contamination of joint surfaces with oil, paint, grease, hydrated oxides,

etc. which decomposes in the arc to give gaseous products which can
cause elongated wormhole porosity often located along the centreline of
the weld.
 Damp flux should be kept dry and is good practice to dry all fluxes before
use and store them in a heated hopper. The manufacturer's
recommendations regarding drying temperatures should be observed.
Note If a flux recovery unit, driven by compressed air, is used the
compressed air should be dried thoroughly.
 Insufficient flux burden can expose the arc and molten weld pool to
atmospheric contamination.
 When welding stainless or duplex steels by SAW, the voltage needs very
careful setting up, as incorrect voltage can cause porosity in these
materials.
The surface of a weld may sometimes contain small depressions known as

surface pocking or gas flats which are harmless and while the exact cause
is not fully understood it is linked to conditions which cause generation of
gas or make it difficult for gas to escape; for example, moisture or lack of
deoxidants and too many fines in the flux to allow gas to pass readily.
15.15.2 Solidification cracking

Because of the large weld pools and high welding speeds often associated
with submerged arc welds, solidification or hot cracking may be encountered
and is usually found along the centreline of the weld.
Solidification cracking is controlled by the composition of the weld, its

solidification pattern and the strain on the solidifying weld metal. The
problem is aggravated by the presence of phosphorus, sulphur and carbon
and if these elements are known to be in the parent material in higher
amounts than usual, a change should be made to a wire with higher
manganese content and steps taken to minimise dilution and ensure good
weld bead profiles. The most dangerous element is carbon which, if other
considerations allow, can be kept low in the weld by use of high silica fluxes,
ie manganese and calcium silicate types. Alternatively, if the carbon level is
not too high, a basic flux would be more preferable as this can help to
reduce weld metal sulphur levels. Sometimes useful improvement to the
weld metal composition can be obtained by selecting a wire particularly low
in carbon, sulphur and phosphorus, so as to reduce the risk of cracking.
The weld bead shape also has a critical effect. Deep narrow welds, with
high depth to width ratios, are prone to centreline cracking.
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a W > d tendency for surface cracks.
b W < d tendency for centreline cracking.

c
c W/d 3/2 giving sound welds.
Cracking can be a problem in root runs where dilution of parent plate into
the weld is high giving excessive carbon content. Long and deep weld pools
or welds made at high welding speeds or with high restraint and large gaps,
accentuate the problem. Conversely, a combination of high arc voltage and
slow welding speed can produce a mushroom-shaped weld bead with
solidification cracks at the weld bead sides.
a In the root beads of a multi-run weld.
b Caused by high speed giving a long deep weld pool in first pass.
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c Caused by high restraint and root gap.
Mushroom-shaped weld penetration resulting from high voltage combined with low
speed.
Occasionally a groove may be found on the surface running along the

centre of the weld which may be caused by shrinkage and is sometimes
mistaken for incipient solidification cracking, but is only superficial.
15.16 Classification of consumables

15.16.1 BS EN system
Of all the arc welding processes, only SAW uses two completely separate
components, both may have a major effect on the mechanical properties of
the weld deposit which makes specifying consumables somewhat
complicated. The following covers the carbon, carbon-manganese and low
alloy structural steels only.
BS EN 756 is the specification for wires and wire/flux combinations in non-

alloy and fine grain steels with a minimum yield strength of up to 500N/mm2
and covers the classification of wire chemical composition and the wire/flux
combination. It also specifies the mechanical properties of all weld metal
deposits in the as-welded condition.
The classification is divided into five parts:
 Symbol indicating the process - for SAW this is S.

 Two digits indicating the tensile properties of either a multi-run deposit or
the parent metal to be welded using a two run technique - see Tables 1
and 2.
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Table 1. Symbols for tensile properties - multi-run technique.

Symbol Min. yield, N/mm 2 Min. UTS, N/mm 2 Min.elongation %
35 355 440-570 22
38 380 470-600 20
42 420 500-640 20
46 460 530-680 20
50 500 560-720 18
Table 2. Symbols for tensile properties - two-run technique.

Symbol Min yield parent metal, N/mm 2 Min tensile strength of welded joint,
N/mm 2
-2T 275 370
-3T 355 470
-4T 420 520
-5T 500 600
Note: the two-run technique has two tensile results specified; one for the
minimum yield strength of parent metal, one for the tensile strength of the
welded joint.
Table 3 gives the temperature at which the average Charpy V impact value
of 47J may be achieved for both multi-run and two-pass techniques. The
welding parameters for the test piece produced using a two-run technique
must be within a range specified by the manufacturer.
Table 3. Symbol for Charpy V impact properties

Temperature for min
Symbol impact energy at,
47J°C
-Z No requirements
-A +20
-0 -0
-2 -20
-3 -30
-4 -40
-5 -50
-6 -60
-7 -70
-8 -80
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Table 4 gives the symbols for the type of flux. Ten fluxes are listed identified
by an abbreviation of the main constituents as below.
Table 4. Flux type symbol.
Flux type Symbol
Manganese-silicate MS
Calcium-silicate CS
Zirconium-silicate ZS
Rutile-silicate RS
Aluminate-rutile AR
Aluminate-basic AB
Aluminate-silicate AS
Aluminate-fluoride basic AF
Fluoride-basic FB
Any other type Z
The final table contains a list of the chemical composition of 22 wires. The
wires contain a maximum content of 0.15%C and range from plain C,
through C-Mn, C-Mo, Mn-Mo to Ni and Ni-Mo. All are prefixed S followed by
a number from 1-4 denoting from 0.5%Mn (1) to 2%Mn (4). The addition of
nickel and/or molybdenum is denoted by the chemical symbol of the alloy
addition being included. Thus an S3 wire contains 1.5%Mn, an S2Ni1Mo
1%Mn, 1%Ni and 0.5%Mo.
The designation for a flux/wire combination designed to provide a multi-run

weld metal with a minimum yield strength of 500N/mm2, minimum Charpy V
impact value of 47J at -40°C using a Mn-Mo wire with an aluminate-basic
flux would be BS EN 756 S 50 4 AB S4Mo.
15.16.2 AWS system

As with the BS EN specifications for SAW consumables, the American
Welding Society (AWS) system also uses a dual flux type/wire composition
designation to identify the flux/wire combination that will provide the required
properties.
The AWS system is simpler than the BS EN but is described in four main
specifications. ANSI/AWS A5.17 - Carbon steel electrodes and fluxes and
ANSI/AWS A5.23 Low Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes. The bare wire
specifications are ANSI/AWS A5.9 Bare Stainless Steel Welding Electrodes
and Rods and ANSI/AWS A5.Nickel and Nickel Alloy Bare Welding
Electrodes and Rods.
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In AWS A.5.17 the first part of the designation describes the flux type and
can be up to six digits depending upon whether the flux is supplied with the
tensile strength expressed in increments of 10 megapascals (two numbers
where 43 represents 430MPa) or in pounds per square inch (1 digit ie 6
represents 60,000psi).
The first character F identifies the consumable as a SAW flux, the next, S
means the flux is made from or includes crushed slag. Omission of this letter
indicates that the flux is unused and contains no crushed used flux
introduced either by the flux manufacturer or the welding fabricator.
The next one or two digits specify the minimum tensile strength as explained
above and this is followed by A or P for whether the test results were
obtained in the as-welded, (A condition) or postweld heat treated, (P
condition).
Digit Test temperature Impact

°C °F value,
Joules
Z No impact requirements 27
0 -18 0 27
2 -29 -20 27
4 -40 -40 27
5 -46 -50 27
6 -51 -60 27
8 -62 -80 27
The last digit identifies the minimum temperature at which a Charpy V

impact value of 27J can be achieved as in this table.
In AWS A5.17 there are a total of eleven wires, split into three groups of low,
medium and high manganese. The first character, E, identifies the
consumable as a bare wire electrode. If supplemented by C the wire is a
composite (cored) electrode. The composition of the solid wire is obtained
from an analysis of the wire. Since the composition of a cored wire may be
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different from that of its weld deposit the composition must be determined
from a low dilution weld deposit made using a specific, named flux.
The next letter, L, M or H indicates a low (0.6% max), medium (1.4% max)
or high (2.2% max) manganese content. This is followed by one or two digits
that give the nominal carbon content. An optional K indicates a silicon killed
steel. There are a final two or three optional digits identifying the diffusible
hydrogen in ml/100g weld metal, H16, H8 or H4.
A full designation for a carbon steel flux/wire combination could be F6P5-

EM12K-H8. This identifies a solid wire with a nominal 0.12% carbon, 1%
manganese and 0.1-0.35% silicon capable of achieving an ultimate tensile
strength of 60kpi (415MPa) and a Charpy V impact strength of 27J at -50°F
(-46°C) in the post weld heat treated (PWAT) condition.
The properties given by these designations are obtained from as-welded, all
weld metal specimens deposited using standard welding parameters of
current, voltage and travel speed.
The properties achieved in a production weld may be entirely different due

to the effects of dilution from the parent metal, higher or lower heat input,
different wire diameters, preheat and interpass temperatures and PWAT. It
is essential, that the suitability of a flux/wire combination is confirmed by
procedure qualification testing.
Note Flux/wire combinations supplied to the same specification designation

by different manufacturers may not necessarily provide similar mechanical
properties or weld cleanliness.
Further reading
A series of articles on SAW are available on TWI’s webste.
(www.twi.co.uk/content/jk87.html;
www.twi.co.uk/content/jk88.html;
www.twi.co.uk/content/jk89.html)
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IWS Questions on SAW

1 Describe the basics of the SAW process, including the use of different polarity
power.
2 Describe the various types of flux and their typical use.
3 Why is travel speed an important variable? What problems may occur if it is not
optimum?
IWT Questions on SAW and ESW

4 Describe the differences in fundamental operation between SAW and ESW.
5 What are the features of a basic agglomerated flux and how can it be used to
help give high toughness weld metal in C-Mn steel?
6 What are the likely defects in SAW and how do you counter them?
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Section 16
Electroslag Welding
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Electroslag Welding
16 Electroslag Welding
16.1 History
Electroslag welding (ESW) is a very efficient, single pass process carried
out in the vertical or near vertical position and used for joining steel
plates/sections of 25mm and above. As with many welding processes, there
is confusion over its invention. Many believe that a patent granted
to Hopkins in the US in 1939 describes electroslag welding. He certainly
had many patents for electroslag remelting but Uttrachi
(www.netwelding.com/serv04.htm#Background Details) states that Hopkins’
1939 patent for applying surfacing was based on a furnace rather than a
welding heading head.
What is clear is that electroslag was developed into a viable welding

process by the Paton Institute in the Ukraine in the early 1950s and that a
patent for the consumable guide variant was granted to Shrubsall in USA in
1957. The Paton Institute published a book entitled electroslag welding in
1959. In 1962 and 63 US patents were granted for electroslag consumable
guide welding for joining rail track. Uttrachi points out that although the
quality of weld metal in the railroad joints was superior to the alternative
Thermite process, ESW did not catch on for this application as it took
considerably longer to complete a weld. Time is of the essence when a train
is due!
The process was used very extensively in USA, for welding thick structural
steel members in the 1960s and 70s. The Federal Highways Agency
decided on the basis of laboratory tests that the very high heat input of ESW
gave dangerously low toughness which led to a ban in the US of the use of
ESW for many applications.
The Northridge earthquake in 1994 gave a real life test to welds in highway
bridges and structural steelwork. Repairs to self-shielded welds in structural
steel cost over £1bn, but that not one ESW weld had required a repair. The
FHA ban was rescinded in 2000.

Unlike other high current fusion processes, electroslag welding is not an arc
process. Heat for melting the welding wire and plate edges is generated
through the molten slag's resistance to the passage of an electric current.
In its original form, plates are held vertically 30mm apart with the edges of
the plate cut normal to the surface. A bridging run-on piece of the same
thickness is attached to the bottom of the plates. Water-cooled copper
shoes are placed each side of the joint, forming a rectangular cavity open at
the top. Filler wire, which is also the current carrier, is fed into this cavity,
initially striking an arc through a small amount of flux. Additional flux is
added which melts forming a flux bath which rises and extinguishes the arc.
The added wire then melts into this bath sinking to the bottom before
solidifying to form the weld. For thick sections additional wires may be
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Electroslag Welding
added and an even distribution of weld metal is achieved by slowly

oscillating the wires across the joint. As welding progresses, both the wire
feed mechanism and the copper shoes are moved progressively upwards
until the top of the weld is reached.
Figure.16.1. Electroslag welding.
The consumable guide variant of the process uses a much simpler set-up
and equipment arrangement which does not require the wire feed
mechanism to climb. The wire is delivered to the weld pool down a
consumable, thick-walled tube which extends from the top of the joint to the
weld pool. The original consumable guides were flux-covered which helped
avoid any shorting onto the preparation sides and topped up the flux bath as
material was lost by sticking to the copper shoes. This process was
patented to the Linde Division of Union Carbide and subject to royalty
payment, so alternatives were tried.
At TWI in the mid 1960s, experiments with bare guide tubes proved
successful provided set-up was accurate so that the guide did not touch the
wall during any part of its oscillation. One simple, cheap, guide tested
consisted of four straight lengths of rod tacked together in a square format
with sufficient space in the centre for the wire to be passed down it. This
worked well if the gap was sufficiently wide but was prone to arcing onto the
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Electroslag Welding
side. Consumable guide ESW is often carried out without oscillation and the
tubular guides can be further supplemented by additional consumable plates
attached to the tube. As the thickness of plate increases, the number of
wires/guides increases, approximately in the ratio of one wire per 50-75mm
of thickness.
Support for the molten bath is provided by two pairs of copper shoes which
are moved upwards, leapfrogging each other as welding progresses. An
operator is required to observe the flux bath and add more flux as the bath
thins. The flux is very similar to submerged arc flux and is usually
agglomerated. Slight changes in composition give the flux more fluidity so
that it floods the initial start-up arc and extinguishes it. After that, heating
and melting continue due to the resistive heating of the current flow through
the molten flux bath.
16.3 ESW materials other than steel

16.3.1 Aluminium
Uttrachi (www.netwelding.com/serv04.htm#Aluminum Electroslag) describes
work at Union Carbide, Linde Division and latterly at WA Technology that
demonstrated ESW being used on aluminium alloys. His narrative from the
website is reproduced below.
The Consumable Guide Aluminum Electroslag Welding process was

developed in the Laboratory and produced welds in 2 inch thick (50mm)
and 4 inch thick (100mm) busbar material. Welds were made at a very rapid
rate of vertical travel speed not possible with steel welding. A sample of a
weld made with the process is shown on the left. Unfortunately the main
application for the process was for joining heavy aluminum busbars. These
are mostly employed in aluminum production facilities and the market for
aluminum had significantly deteriorated. The development work was
therefore terminated and the process was not commercialized.
The demand for aluminum is now high and new plants are under
construction. A company who works in the area asked if it were possible to
weld over 10 inch thick by 4 foot high busbars by completing the early
development work and extending it to these much thicker sections. After
considerable additional development work and cost, refining the flux,
welding parameters and equipment; the objective was achieved. The
process was used on a production application over 10 inches thick with
welds made at very high vertical travel speeds.
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Electroslag Welding
The photo left shows the equipment system welding a >10 inch thick
section.
The center photo is the finished weld. Welding speeds were very high, much
higher than in steel welding. Weld surface is excellent.
The photo right is a cross section showing good fusion and defect free weld.
16.3.2 Titanium
A team working with Eager of MIT demonstrated the feasibility of ESW
welding thick Ti-6Al-4V alloy. They used a consumable guide technique as
described in a research paper published online at
www.eagar.mit.edu/EagarPapers/Eagar089.pdf. In this paper they refer to
early work (1957, 1962 and 1968) in USSR that developed the principle.
The team showed that pure calcium fluoride was needed as flux and that
this must be kept free from moisture. They found that AC power was
necessary but reported the successful completion of welds in both 25 and
50mm plate.
16.3.3 Stainless steel and nickel alloys

The Paton Institute in Kiev welded many materials by ESW during the early
years of development of the process. Reference can be found to the
possibility of welding both austenitic stainless steel and nickel alloys but
there are no examples of its use commercially other than as a surfacing
technique.
16.4 Current status

Electroslag welding is not a major welding process because the high heat
input generates large, coarse grains in the weld metal and HAZ that lead to
poor fracture toughness properties in these areas. Toughness
improvements can only be achieved by post-weld normalising treatment.
Additionally, the near parallel-sided geometry of the weld, combined with the
coarse grains, can make it difficult to identify defects at the fusion boundary
by standard ultrasonic NDT techniques.
Considerable interest was shown in electro slag welding (ESW) during the
1970s when ideas for increasing welding speed, such as narrow gap
welding, were investigated. This was seen as an important parameter for
increasing productivity and reducing heat input to improve HAZ and weld
metal impact properties.
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Electroslag Welding
Since then little development has been done. Developments have been
limited to the tuning of parameters and tailoring techniques for specific
applications.
ESW has considerable potential for increasing productivity, but its use has
been limited because of relatively poor understanding of the process and for
specific applications the significance of the fracture toughness values. As a
result use of the process has been restricted to a few niche applications.
In the fabrication industry, the process continues to be used for thick walled
pressure vessels which are post-weld normalised and for structures such as
blast furnace shells and steel ladles used at above ambient temperatures.
The process is extensively used for welding railway points.
It is most commonly used now with strip electrode as a surfacing technique

is described in more detail in the section on surfacing.

The principal benefits of the process are:
 Speed of joint completion; typically 1 hour per metre of seam,

irrespective of thickness.
 Lack of angular distortion.
 Lateral angular distortion limited to 3mm per metre of weld.
 High quality welds produced.
 Simple joint preparation, i.e. flame-cut square edge.
 Major repairs can be made simply by cutting out total weld and re-
welding.
 Can be modified for use as a cladding technique.
The main disadvantages are:
 Grain growth giving very large grains due to very high heat input and
slow cooling giving poor toughness.
 Process is limited to vertical or near vertical position.
 Difficult to examine with NDT.
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Section 17
Thermal Cutting and Gouging

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17 Thermal Cutting and Gouging

17.1 Introduction
Thermal cutting normally refers to the severing of metal, creating two pieces
or a specific shaped single piece. Gouging is a particular form of cutting
where the aim is to remove metal in a controlled manner to leave a groove
that can act as the basis of weld preparation. In terms of the process and
the fundamental principles, they are the same; only the details of the torch
and parameters vary.
Thermal cutting and gouging are essential parts of welding fabrication. Used
for rapid removal of unwanted metal, the material is locally heated and
molten metal ejected - usually by blowing it away. Flame, laser or arc
processes can be used to produce rapid melting and metal removal.
Thermal processes, operations and metals which may be gouged or

otherwise shaped:
Process operations
Thermal
Metals
process
Primary Secondary
Oxy fuel Cutting Grooving

gas flame
Washing Ferritic steels, cast iron
Gouging Chamfering
Manual
Gouging
Grooving Ferritic steels, stainless steels, cast iron, nickel-
metal arc Chamfering based alloys
Air
Grooving
Ferritic steels, cast iron, nickel-based alloys,
carbon Gouging copper and copper alloys, copper/nickel alloys,
Chamfering
arc aluminium
Plasma Cutting Chamfering

Grooving Ferritic steels, aluminium, stainless steels
arc Gouging Washing
Chamfering Ferritic steels, aluminium, stainless steels

Laser Cutting
Drilling and may other alloys and non metallics
Note: All processes are capable of cutting/severing operations. Preheat may or may
not be required on some metals prior to gouging
General safety
It should be emphasised that because cutting and gouging rely on molten
metal being forcibly ejected, often over quite large distances, the operator
must take appropriate precautions to protect himself, other workers and his
equipment. Sensible precautions include protective clothing for the operator,
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shielding inside a specially-enclosed booth or screens, adequate fume

extraction and removal of all combustible material from the immediate area.
Gouging applications
Thermal gouging was developed primarily for removal of metal from the
reverse side of welded joints, removal of tack welds, temporary welds and
weld imperfections.
Typical back-gouging applications carried out on

arc welded joints.
Imperfection removal in preparation for weld

repair.
Applications include:
 Repair and maintenance of structures - bridges, earthmoving equipment,

mining machinery, railway rolling stock, ships, offshore rigs, piping and
storage tanks.
 Removal of cracks and imperfections - blow holes and sand traps in both
ferrous and non-ferrous forgings and castings.
 Preparation of plate edges for welding.
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 Removal of surplus metal - riser pads and fins on castings, excess weld
bead profiles, temporary backing strips, rivet washing and shaping
operations, demolition of welded and unwelded structures - site work.
 Removal of temporary welded attachments such as brackets,
strongbacks, lifting lugs and redundant tack welds, during various stages
of fabrication and construction work.
17.2 Oxyfuel cutting

The oxyfuel process is the most widely applied industrial thermal cutting
process because it can cut thicknesses 0.5-250mm and the equipment is
low cost and can be used manually or mechanised. Several fuel gas and
nozzle design options can significantly enhance performance in terms of cut
quality and cutting speed.
Process fundamentals
Basically a mixture of oxygen and fuel gas is used to preheat the metal to its
'ignition' temperature which, for steel, is 700-900°C (bright red heat) but well
below its melting point. A jet of pure oxygen is then directed into the
preheated area instigating a vigorous exothermic chemical reaction between
the oxygen and the metal to form iron oxide or slag. The oxygen jet blows
away the slag enabling the jet to pierce through the material and continue to
cut through the material.
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There are four basic requirements for oxyfuel cutting:
 Ignition temperature of the material must be lower than its melting point
otherwise the material would melt and flow away before cutting could
take place.
 The oxide melting point must be lower than of the surrounding material
so that it can be mechanically blown away by the oxygen jet.
 The oxidation reaction between the oxygen jet and the metal must be
sufficient to maintain the ignition temperature, ie sufficient amount of iron
must be present in the steel.
 A minimum of gaseous reaction products should be produced so as not
to dilute the cutting oxygen.
As stainless steel, cast iron and non-ferrous metals form refractory oxides,
ie the oxide melting point is higher than the material and powder must be
injected into the flame to form a low melting point, fluid slag. It should be
noted that as the ignition temperature needs to be reached before the
exothermic reaction can take place, laminated or stacked materials cannot
be cut unless they are in very close contact with each other.
Preheating
The preheating flame has the following functions in the cutting operation:
 Raises the temperature of the steel to the ignition point.

 Adds heat energy to the work to maintain the cutting reaction.
 Provides a protective shield between the cutting oxygen stream and the
atmosphere.
 Dislodges from the upper surface of the steel any rust, scale, paint or
other foreign substance that would stop or retard the normal forward
progress of the cutting action.
Purity of oxygen
The cutting speed and cut edge quality are primarily determined by the
purity of the oxygen stream so nozzle design plays a significant role in
protecting the oxygen stream from air entrainment.
The purity of oxygen should be ≥99.5%. A decrease in purity of 1% will

typically reduces the cutting speed by 25% and increases gas consumption
by 25%.
Choice of fuel gas

Fuel gas combustion occurs in two distinct zones. In the inner cone or
primary flame, the fuel gas combines with oxygen to form carbon monoxide
and hydrogen which for acetylene, the reaction is given by:
2C2H2+2O2 4CO+2H2
Combustion also continues in the secondary or outer zone of the flame with
oxygen from the air.
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4CO+2H2+3O2 4CO2+2H2O
Fuel gases are characterised by:
 Flame temperature - the hottest part of the flame is at the tip of the
primary flame (inner cone).
 Fuel gas to oxygen ratio - the amount of fuel gas required for combustion
varies according to whether the flame is neutral, oxidising or reducing.
 Heat of combustion - greater in the outer part of the flame.
The five most commonly used fuel gases are acetylene, propane, MAPP
(methylacetylene-propadiene), propylene and natural gas and their
properties are given in the table. The relative performance of the fuel gases
in terms of pierce time, cutting speed and cut edge quality, is determined by
flame temperature and heat distribution within the inner and outer flame
cones.
Heat distribution,
Fuel gas
Maximum flame Oxygen to fuel gas kJ/m3
temperature °C ratio, (vol)
Primary Secondary
Acetylene 3160 1.2:1 18,890 35,882
Propane 2810 4.3:1 10,433 85,325
MAPP 2927 3.3:1 15,445 56,431
Propylene 2872 3.7:1 16,000 72,000
Natural gas 2770 1.8:1 1,490 35,770
Acetylene
Produces the highest flame temperature of all fuel gases with maximum
flame temperature (in oxygen) approximately 3160°C compared with a
maximum temperature of 2810°C with propane. The hotter flame produces
more rapid piercing of the materials with the pierce time being typically one
third that produced with propane.
The higher flame speed (7.4m/s compared with 3.3m/s for propane) and the
higher calorific value of the primary flame (inner cone) (18,890kJ/m3
compared with 10,433kJ/m3 for propane) produce a more intense flame at
the surface of the metal reducing the width of the HAZ and degree of
distortion.
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Propane
Produces a lower flame temperature than acetylene and has greater total
heat of combustion than acetylene but the heat is generated mostly in the
outer cone. The characteristic appearance for acetylene and propane
flames are shown below where the propane flame appears less focused.
Consequently, piercing is much slower but as the burning and slag
formation is effected by the oxygen jet, cutting speeds is about the same as
for acetylene.
Propane has a greater stoichiometric oxygen requirement than acetylene;

for the maximum flame temperature in oxygen, the ratio of volume of oxygen
to fuel gas are 1.2:1 for acetylene and 4.3:1 for propane.
Oxyacetylene gas jet and nozzle design.
Propane gas jet and nozzle design.
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MAPP
Gas mixture various hydrocarbons, principally, methylacetylene and
propadiene and produces a relatively hot flame (2976°C) with a high heat
release in the primary flame (inner cone) (15,445kJ/m3), less than for
acetylene (18,890Kjm3) but much higher than for propane (10,433kjm3). The
secondary flame (outer cone) gives off a high heat release, similar to
propane and natural gas. The combination of lower flame temperature, more
distributed heat source and larger gas flows compared with acetylene
results in a substantially slower pierce time.
MAPP gas can be used at higher pressure than acetylene so can be used
for underwater cutting in deep water as it is less likely to dissociate into its
components of carbon and hydrogen which are explosive.
Propylene
A liquid petroleum gas (LPG) product with a similar flame temperature to
MAPP (2896°C compared with 2976°C for MAPP); it is hotter than propane,
but not as hot as acetylene and gives off a high heat release in the outer
cone (72,000kJ/m3) but, like propane, it has the disadvantage of a high
stoichiometric fuel gas requirement (oxygen to oxygen ratio of approximately
3.7:1 by volume).
Natural gas
Lowest flame temperature (similar to propane) and lowest total heat value of
the commonly used fuel gases, eg for the inner flame 1,490kJ/m3 compared
with 18,890kJ/m3 for acetylene so is the slowest for piercing.
Selection of fuel gas

Factors to be considered when selecting a fuel gas include:
 Time required for preheating when starting cuts.
 Effect on cutting speed and productivity.
 Cost and availability.
 Volume of oxygen required per volume of fuel gas to obtain a neutral
flame.
 Safety in transporting and handling.
Fuel gas characteristics and their applications:

Fuel gas Main characteristics Applications
Acetylene Highly focused, high temperature flame Rapid cutting of thin plates
Rapid preheating and piercing Bevel cuts
Low oxygen requirement Short, multi-pierce cuts
Propane Low temperature flame, high heat content Cutting of thicker sections
Slow preheating and piercing (100-300mm), long cuts
High oxygen requirement
MAPP Medium temperature flame Cutting underwater
Propylene Medium temperature flame Cutting of thicker sections
Natural gas Low temperature flame Cutting of thicker sections
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Cutting quality
Generally, oxyfuel cuts are characterised by:
 Large kerf (<2mm).

 Low roughness values (Ra<50µm).
 Poor edge squareness (>0.7mm).
 Wide HAZ (>1mm).
The face of a satisfactory cut has a sharp top edge, drag lines, little oxide,
sharp bottom edge and on underside free of slag.
Satisfactory cut in the centre. Cut too slow (left) the top edge is melted and
there are deep grooves in the lower portion of the face, scaling is heavy and
the bottom edge may be rough, with adherent dross. Cut too fast (right);
Appearance similar with an irregular cut edge. Plate thickness 12mm.
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With a very fast travel speed the drag lines are coarse and at an angle to
the surface with an excessive amount of slag sticking to the bottom edge of
the plate due to the oxygen jet trailing with insufficient oxygen reaching the
bottom of the cut.
Satisfactory cut in the centre. Preheating flame too low (left): most
noticeable effect on the cut edge is deep gouges in the lower part of the cut
face. Preheating flame too high (right): Top edge is melted, cut irregular and
there is an excess of adherent dross. Plate thickness 12mm.
Satisfactory cut in the centre. Blowpipe nozzle too high above the work
(left): Excessive melting of the top edge occurs with much oxide. Torch
travel speed irregular (right): Uneven spacing of drag lines can be observed
together with an irregular bottom surface and adherent oxide. Plate
thickness 12mm.
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Advantages of oxyfuel cutting

 Steels can generally be cut faster than by most machining methods.
 Section shapes and thicknesses difficult to produce by mechanical
means can be cut economically by oxyfuel cutting.
 Basic equipment costs are low compared with machine tools.
 Manual equipment
 very portable and can be used on site.
 Cutting direction can be changed rapidly on a small radius.
 Large plates can be cut rapidly in place by moving the torch rather than
the plate.
 An economical method of plate edge preparation.
Disadvantages of oxyfuel cutting

 Dimensional tolerances significantly poorer than machine tool
capabilities.
 Essentially limited to cutting carbon and low alloy steels.
 Preheat flame and expelled red hot slag present fire and burn hazards to
plant and personnel.
 Fuel combustion and oxidation of the metal require proper fume control
and adequate ventilation.
 Hardenable steels may require pre- and/or post-heat adjacent to the cut
edges to control their metallurgical structures and mechanical properties.
 Special process modifications are needed for cutting high alloy steels
and cast irons (ie iron powder or flux addition).
 Being a thermal process, expansion and shrinkage of the components
during and after cutting must be taken into consideration.
17.3 Powder cutting

Is oxygen cutting in which a suitable powder is injected into the cutting
oxygen stream to assist the cutting action (definition from BS499: Part
1:1991 Section 7 No.72 008).
Mild steels readily ignite in a stream of oxygen when they are heated to 700-
900°C, but for stainless steels, the ignition temperature is over 1500°C. The
oxides formed when cutting mild steel have lower melting points than the
parent metal and this facilitates a clean cut. With stainless steel, the oxide
has a higher melting point than the parent metal so hampers the cutting
process. These barriers to cutting can be overcome by adding materials to
the cutting gas stream which either remove the oxide film or raise the
reaction temperature:
 Flux injection into the cutting gas stream which chemically removes the
oxides of chromium.
 Finely divided iron-rich powder fed separately into the cutting zone in a
gaseous medium. Combustion of the iron powder increases the reaction
temperature and the fluidity of oxidation products.
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The iron-rich powder injection technique has been used for cutting copper,
nickel and aluminium and their alloys and for cutting cast irons.
The quality of the cut surface is, at best, equivalent to flame cut carbon
steel; but with many materials, the cut quality is very poor.
17.4 Oxyfuel gouging
Oxyfuel or flame gouging offers a quick and efficient method of removing

metal, principally ferritic steel and can be at least four times quicker than
cold chipping operations. Particularly attractive because of its low noise,
ease of handling and ability to be used in all positions.
Process description
Flame gouging is a variant of conventional oxyfuel gas cutting. Oxygen and
a fuel gas are used to produce a high temperature flame for melting the
steel. When gouging, the steel is locally heated to a temperature above the
'ignition' temperature (typically 700-900°C) and a jet of oxygen melts the
metal - a chemical reaction between pure oxygen and hot iron. This jet also
blows away molten metal and slag. Compared with oxyfuel cutting, slag is
not blown through the material, but remains on the top surface of the
workpiece.
The gouging nozzle is designed to supply a relatively large volume of

oxygen through the gouging jet, as much as 300 litre/min through a 6mm
orifice. In oxy-acetylene gouging, equal quantities of oxygen and acetylene
are used to set a near-neutral preheating flame. The oxygen jet flow rate
determines the depth and width of the gouge. Typical operating parameters
for achieving a range of gouge sizes are:
Nozzle Gouge Travel

Gas pressure, Gas consumption,
orifice dimensions, mm speed,
dia, mm Widt Depth Acetylen Oxygen Acetylene 02 02 gouge mm/mi
h e preheat n
3 6-8 3-9 0.48 4.2 15 22 62 600

5 8-10 6-12 0.48 5.2 29 31 158 1000
6.5 10-13 10-13 0.55 5.5 36 43 276 1200
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When the preheating flame and oxygen jet are correctly set, the gouge has
a uniform profile and its surfaces are smooth with a dull blue colour.
Operating techniques
The depth of the gouge is determined principally by the speed and angle of
the torch. To cut a deep groove the angle of the torch is stepped up
(increases the impingement angle of the oxygen jet) and gouging speed
reduced. To produce a shallow groove, the torch is less steeply angled and
speed increased. Wide grooves can be produced by weaving the torch. The
contour of the groove is dependent on the size of the nozzle and operating
parameters. If cutting oxygen pressure is too low, gouging progresses with a
washing action, leaving smooth ripples in the bottom of the groove. If the
cutting oxygen pressure is too high, the cut advances ahead of the molten
pool, disrupting the gouging operation especially when making shallow
grooves.
Four basic flame gouging techniques are used in the following types of
application.
Progressive gouging
Produces uniform grooves and is conducted in either a continuous or
progressive manner. Applications include removal of an unfused root area
on the reverse side of a welded joint, part-shaping a steel forging, complete
removal of a weld deposit and preparing plate edges for welding.
Spot gouging
Produces a deep narrow U-shaped groove over a relatively short length
ideally suited to removal of localised areas such as isolated weld
imperfections. Experienced operators are able to observe any imperfections
during gouging, which appear as dark or light spots/streaks within the
molten pool (reaction zone).
Back-step gouging
Once the material has reached ignition temperature, the oxygen stream is
introduced and the torch moved in a backward movement for 15-20mm. The
oxygen is shut off and the torch moved forwards 25-30mm before restarting
the gouging operation. Favoured for removal of local imperfections which
may be deeply embedded in the base plate.
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Deep gouging
It is sometimes necessary to produce a long deep gouge, operations the
deep gouging technique is used which is basically a combination of
progressive and spot gouging.
17.5 MMA gouging

Operates in the same way as the welding process–an arc is formed
between the tip of the electrode and workpiece. As only the arc force ejects
metal, it requires special purpose electrodes with thick flux coatings to
generate a sufficiently strong arc force and gas stream. Unlike MMA welding
where a stable weld pool must be maintained, this process forces the
molten metal away from the arc zone to leave a clean cut surface.
Cutting thin material can be achieved with these electrodes but is not very
satisfactory, leaving a very ragged edge.
The gouging process is characterised by the large amount of gas generated

to eject the molten metal but as the arc/gas stream is not as powerful as a
gas or separate air jet, the surface of the gouge is not as smooth as an
oxyfuel gouge or air carbon arc gouge.
Although DCEN is preferred, an AC constant current power source can also

be used.
MMA gouging is used for localised gouging operations, removal of defects

for example and where it is more convenient to switch from a welding
electrode to a gouging electrode rather than use specialised equipment.
Compared with alternative gouging processes, metal removal rates are low
and the quality of the gouged surface is inferior.
When correctly applied, MMA gouging can produce relatively clean gouged
surfaces. For general applications, welding can be carried out without the
need to dress by grinding. When gouging stainless steel, a thin layer of
higher carbon content material will be produced which should be removed
by grinding.
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The main advantage of MMA gouging is that the same power source can be
used for welding, gouging or cutting, simply by changing the type of
electrode.
Grooving electrodes, though based on mild steel core wires, are not just
restricted to steels: the same electrode composition may be used for
gouging stainless steel and non-ferrous alloys, in which case the cut surface
must be ground after the gouging operation has been completed.
Power source
MMA gouging can be carried out using conventional DC and AC power
sources. In DC gouging, electrode polarity is normally negative but electrode
manufacturers may well recommend electrode polarity for their brand of
electrodes and for gouging specific materials. When using an AC power
source, a minimum of 70V open circuit (OCV) is required to stabilise the arc.
Most MMA welding power sources can be used for gouging but the current
rating and OCV must be capable of accommodating current surges and
longer arc lengths.
Electrode Gouging dimensions, mm Gouging speed,

Current, A
diameter, mm Depth Width mm/min
3.2 210 2 6 1200

4.0 300 3 8 1000
4.8 350 4 10 800
Operational characteristics
The arc is struck with an electrode held at a normal angle to the workpiece
(15 degrees backwards from the vertical plane in line with proposed
direction of gouging). Once the arc is established, the electrode is
immediately inclined in one smooth and continuous movement to an angle
of 15-20 degrees to the plate surface. With the arc pointing in the direction
of travel, the electrode is pushed forward slightly to melt the metal, then
pulled back to allow the gas jet to displace the molten metal and slag. This
forward and backward motion is repeated as the electrode is guided along
the line to complete the gouge.
To produce a consistent depth and width of gouge, a uniform rate of travel

must be maintained, together with the angle of electrode: 10-20 degrees. If
the electrode angle becomes too steep, in excess of about 20 degrees, the
amount of slag and molten metal will increase, a result of the arc penetrating
too deeply. Digging the electrode into the metal causes problems in
controlling the gouging operation and will produce a rough surface profile.
For gouging in positions other than vertical, the electrode is always pushed
forward. With vertical surfaces, the electrode is directed and pushed
vertically downwards.
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Application
When correctly applied MMA gouging can produce relatively clean gouged
surfaces. For general applications, welding can be carried out without the
need to dress by grinding but when gouging stainless steel, a thin layer of
higher carbon content material will be produced which this should be
removed by grinding.
17.6 Air carbon arc gouging

An electric arc is generated between the tip of a carbon electrode and the
workpiece, the metal becomes molten and a high velocity air jet streams
down the electrode to blow it away, thus leaving a clean groove. The
process is simple to apply (same equipment as MMA welding), has a high
metal removal rate and gouge profile can be closely controlled.
As air carbon arc gouging does not rely on oxidation it can be applied to a
wide range of metals. DCEP is normally preferred for steel and stainless
steel but AC is more effective for cast iron, copper and nickel alloys. Typical
applications include back-gouging, removal of surface and internal defects,
removal of excess weld metal and preparation of bevel edges for welding.
Electrode
A graphite (carbon) rod with a copper coating to reduce electrode erosion.
Electrode diameter is selected according to required depth and width of
gouge. Cutting can be precisely controlled and molten metal/dross is kept to
a minimum.
Power source
A DC power supply with electrode positive polarity is most suitable. AC
power sources which are also constant current can be used but with special
AC type electrodes. The power source must have a constant current output
characteristic. If it does not, inadvertent touching of the electrode to the
workpiece will cause a high current surge sufficient to explode the electrode
tip which will disrupt the operation and cause carbon pick-up. As arc voltage
can be quite high (up to 50V), open circuit voltage (OCV) of the power
source should be over 60V.
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Air supply
The gouging torch is normally operated with either a compressed air line or
separate bottled gas supply. Air supply pressure will be up to 100psi from
the air line but restricted to about 35psi from a bottled supply. Providing
there is sufficient air flow to remove molten metal, there are no advantages
in using higher pressure and flow rates.
Carbon pick-up
Although carbon is picked up by the molten metal, the air stream will remove
carbon-rich metal from the groove to leave only minimal contamination of
the sidewalls. Poor gouging technique or insufficient air flow will result in
carbon pick-up with the risk of metallurgical problems, eg high hardness and
even cracking.
Operation
Typical operating data for air carbon arc gouging:
Gouging Carbon
Current A dimensions, mm Gouging
Electrode diameter, electrode
Note DC speed,
mm consumed,
electrode Depth Width mm/min
mm/min
6.4 275 6-7 9-10 120 609
8.0 350 7-8 10-11 114 711

Manual
9.5 425 9-10 12-13 100 660
13.0 550 12-13 18-19 76 508
8.0 300-400 2-9 3-8 100 1650-840
9.5 500 3-12 3-10 142 1650-635

Automatic
13.0 850 3-15 3-13 82 1830-610
16.0 1250 3-19 3-16 63 1830-710
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For effective metal removal it is important that the air stream is directed at
the arc from behind the electrode and sweeps under the tip of the electrode.
The width of groove is determined by the diameter of electrode, but depth is
dictated by the angle of electrode to the workpiece and rate of travel.
Relatively high travel speeds are possible when a low electrode angle is
used which produce a shallow groove; a steep angle results in a deep
groove and requires slower travel speed. Note: A steeply angled electrode
may give rise to carbon contamination.
Oscillating the electrode in a circular or restricted weave motion during

gouging can greatly increase gouging width, useful for removal of a weld or
plate imperfection that is wider than the electrode itself. The groove surface
should be relatively free of oxidised metal and can be considered ready for
welding without further preparation but grinding should be carried out if a
carbon rich layer has been formed. Dressing may be necessary if working
on crack-sensitive material such as high strength, low alloy steel.
Advantages
 Fast, approximately five times faster than chipping.
 Easily controllable, removes defects with precision. Defects are clearly
visible and may be followed with ease. Depth of cut is easily regulated
and slag does not deflect or hamper the cutting action.
 Low equipment cost, no gas cylinders or regulators are necessary
except on site.
 Economical to operate no oxygen or fuel gas required. The welder may
also do the gouging (no qualification requirements for this operation,
although adequate training should always be given).
 Easy to operate, the equipment similar to MMA except the torch and air
supply hose.
 Compact, torch is not much larger than an MMA electrode holder,
allowing work in confined areas.
 Versatile.
 Can be automated.
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Disadvantages
 Air jet causes the molten metal to be ejected over quite a large area?
 Because of high currents (up to 2000A) and high air pressures (80-100
psi), it can be very noisy.
 Other cutting processes usually produce a better cut.
 Requires large volume of compressed air.
 Increases the carbon content leading to an increase in hardness in the
case of cast iron and hardenable metals. In stainless steels it can lead to
carbide precipitation and sensitisation. So grinding the carburised layer
usually follows gouging.
 Introduces hazards such as fire (due to discharge of sparks and molten
metal), fumes, noise and intense light.
17.7 Plasma arc cutting
Plasma arc cutting uses essentially the same torch as plasma welding, was
described in the chapter on the subject. In cutting the constricted arc issuing
from the plasma orifice develops a high velocity jet of ionised gas that blows
the melted metal away.
A pilot arc is struck between a tungsten electrode and a water-cooled

nozzle. In the transferred arc variant, a stronger arc is then developed to the
workpiece, being constricted by the orifice in the nozzle. As plasma gas
passes through this arc, it is heated rapidly to a temperature in excess of
20,000°C which causes huge expansion of the gas which is accelerated to
near the speed of sound as it passes through the constricting orifice towards
the workpiece. As the arc melts the workpiece, the high velocity jet blows
away the molten metal. Where materials are electrical insulators, the non-
transferred arc method is used where the arc remains within the torch as in
the initial, pilot stage of the transferred arc method and the plasma jet
stream travels toward the workpiece.
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Transferred arc Non-transferred arc
Plasma arc cutting is seen as an alternative to the oxyfuel process but the
important difference between the two is that while the oxygenfuel process
oxidises the metal and the heat from the exothermic reaction melts the
metal, the plasma process operates by using the heat from the arc to melt
the metal. The ability to melt the metal without oxidation is essential when
cutting metals, such as stainless steel, which form high temperature oxides
and the plasma process was introduced for cutting stainless steel and
aluminium alloys. The first plasma torches gave poor quality cuts and the
process suffered from excessive noise and fume, especially when cutting
thicker material. Over the last thirty years, it has been highly refined and is
now capable of producing high quality cuts, at increased speeds, in a wide
range of material thicknesses.
Power source
The plasma arc process power sourcemust have a drooping characteristic
and a high voltage. Although the operating voltage to sustain the plasma is
typically 50-60V, the OCV to initiate the arc can be up to 400V DC.
On initiation, a pilot arc is formed within the body of the torch between the
electrode and the nozzle. For cutting metals, the arc should be transferred
to the workpiece in the so-called 'transferred' arc mode. The electrode is
negative and the workpiece positive so that the majority (approximately ⅔)
of arc energy is used for cutting.
Gas composition
In the conventional system using a tungsten electrode, the plasma is inert,
formed using Ar, Ar-H2 or N2. However, as described in process variants,
oxidising gases, such as air or O2, can be used but the electrode must be
copper with a hafnium tip.
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The plasma gas flow is critical and must be set according to the current level
and the nozzle bore diameter. If the gas flow is too low for the current level,
or the current level too high for the nozzle bore diameter, the arc will break
down forming two arcs in series, electrode to nozzle and nozzle to
workpiece. Double arcing is usually catastrophic with the nozzle melting.
Cut quality
Plasma cut quality is similar to the oxyfuel process. As the plasma process
cuts by melting, a characteristic feature is the greater degree of melting
towards the top of the metal resulting in top edge rounding, poor edge
squareness or a bevel on the cut edge. These limitations are associated
with the degree of constriction of the arc, so several torch designs are
available to improve this to produce more uniform heating at the top and
bottom of the cut.
Process variants
Dual gas
The process operates in the same manner as the conventional system but a
secondary gas shield is introduced around the nozzle. The benefits are
increased arc constriction and more effective 'blowing away' of the dross.
The plasma forming gas is normally Ar, Ar-H2 or N2 and the secondary gas
is selected according to the metal being cut:
 Ferritic steel – air, O2, N2.

 Stainless steel – N2, Ar-H2, CO2.
 Aluminium – Ar-H2, N2-CO2.
The advantages compared with conventional plasma are:
 Reduced risk of double arcing.'

 Higher cutting speeds.
 Reduction in top edge rounding.
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Water injection
Nitrogen is normally used as the plasma gas. Water is injected radially into
the plasma arc to induce a greater degree of constriction. The temperature
of the plasma is considerably increased (30,000°C) so higher cutting speeds
and because of the greater constriction of the arc there is a much improved
cut quality. The presence of an annular film of water around the plasma also
protects the nozzle bore, reducing erosion.
The advantages compared with conventional plasma are:
 Improvement in cut quality and squareness of cut.

 Increased cutting speeds.
 Less risk of 'double arcing.'
 Reduction in nozzle erosion.
Water shroud
The plasma can be operated with a water shroud or with the workpiece
submerged 50-75mm below the surface water. The water acts as a barrier
in reducing fume and noise levels. Noise levels at high current levels in
excess of 115dB, can be reduced to about 96dB with a water shroud and 52
to 85dB when cutting underwater.
As the water shroud does not increase the degree of constriction,

squareness of the cut edge and cutting speed are not noticeably improved.
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Air plasma
The inert plasma forming gas (Ar or N2) can be replaced with air but
requires a special electrode of hafnium or zirconium mounted in a copper
holder. Air can replace water for cooling the torch and the use of
compressed air instead of more expensive cylinder gas, makes it variant
highly competitive with the oxyfuel process. A variant is the monogas torch
in which air is used for both the plasma and cooling gas.
Air plasma is widely applied in light engineering industries, eg cutting sheet

steel of thickness 1-20mm. It is most often used on C-Mn and stainless
steels but will also cut SG cast iron and non-ferrous materials. For thin
section material of a few millimetres, the process is much faster than
oxyfuel, but at thicknesses approaching 30-40mm, air plasma becomes
relatively slow.
The cost advantages of using air in preference to expensive gases (for the
plasma and oxyfuel processes) may be offset somewhat when other
operating costs are taken into account. The air must be fed at a relatively
high pressure (typically 150litres/min at 5bar) and clean, requiring a sizeable
compressor with suitable filters for dust particles and oil. Hafnium or
zirconium electrodes are expensive and their operating life can be severely
shortened if there are frequent stops and starts.
Low current air plasma torches, typically less than 40A, are particularly
attractive for cutting thin sheet material, as compressed air is used for both
the plasma forming gas and cooling the torch. As N2 and O2 suppress the
formation of a series arc, compared with Ar, contact cutting can be practised
with the air plasma system. The process is becoming more widely used for
manual cutting thin sheet components in C-Mn and stainless steel, where
contact cutting greatly deskills the operation.
High tolerance plasma
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To improve cut quality and compete with the superior cut quality of laser
systems, high tolerance plasma arc cutting (HTPAC) systems are available
which operate with a highly constricted plasma. Focusing of the plasma is
by forcing the oxygen generated plasma to swirl as it enters the plasma
orifice and a secondary flow of gas is injected downstream of the plasma
nozzle. Some systems have a separate magnetic field surrounding the arc
which stabilises the plasma jet by maintaining the rotation induced by the
swirling gas.
The advantages of HTPAC are:
 Cut quality lies between a conventional plasma arc and laser beam cut.
 Narrow kerf width.
 Less distortion due to smaller heat affected zone.
HTPAC is mechanised, requiring precision, high speed equipment. It is

claimed that the cut quality lies between conventional plasma arc and laser
beam cutting, but the speed is significantly lower than conventional plasma
arc cutting and approximately 60-80% the speed of laser cutting.
Advantages
 Not limited to materials which are electrical conductors, so widely used
for cutting all types of stainless steels, non-ferrous and non-conductive
materials.
 Operates at a much higher energy level compared with oxyfuel cutting
resulting in faster cutting speed.
 Instant start-up particularly advantageous for interrupted cutting; this also
allows cutting without preheat.
 Can be used with a wide range of materials, including stainless steel and
aluminium.
 High quality cut edges can be achieved, eg HTPAC process.
 Narrow HAZ formed.
 Low gas consumable (air) costs.
 Ideal for thin sheet material.
 Low fume (underwater) process.
Disadvantages
 Dimensional tolerances significantly poorer than machine tool
capabilities.
 Introduces hazards such as fire, electric shock (due to the high OCV),
intense light, fumes, gases and noise levels that may not be present with
other processes. In underwater cutting, the level of fumes, UV radiation
and noise are reduced to a low level.
 Compared with oxyfuel plasma arc equipment tends to be more
expensive and requires a fairly large amount of electric power.
 Being a thermal process, expansion and shrinkage of the components
during and after cutting must be taken into consideration.
 Cut edges slightly tapered.
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 Air plasma limited to 50mm thickness plate.

 High noise especially when cutting thick sections in air.
 High fume generation when cutting in air.
 Protection required from the arc glare.
 High consumable costs (electrodes and nozzles).
17.8 Plasma arc gouging

Plasma arc as a gouging tool dates from the 1960s when the process was
developed for welding. Compared with the alternative oxyfuel and MMA
gouging techniques, it has a needle-like jet that can produce a very precise
groove, suitable for application on almost all ferrous and non-ferrous
materials.
Process description
A variant of the plasma arc cutting process, temperature and force of the
constricted plasma arc determined by the current level and plasma gas flow
rate, are so the plasma can be varied to produce a hot gas stream or a high
power, deeply penetrating jet. This ability to control quite precisely the size
and shape of a groove is very useful for removing unwanted defects from a
workpiece surface.
Whilst gouging, normal precautions should be taken to protect the operator

and other workers in the immediate area from the intense arc light and hot
metal spray. Unlike oxyfuel and MMA, the plasma arc's high velocity jet will
propel fume and hot metal dross considerable distance. When using a
deeply penetrating arc, noise protection is essential.
Equipment
The power source for sustaining this gouging arc must have a high OCV,
usually well in excess of 100V. The torch is connected to the negative
polarity of the power source and the workpiece must be connected to the
positive. The plasma torch is the same as used for cutting; either gas-or
water-cooled and have the facility for single and dual gas operation.
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Electrodes are normally tungsten for argon and argon-based gases. When
using air as the plasma gas, special, for eg hafnium tipped copper,
electrodes must be used to withstand the more aggressive, oxidising arc.
Plasma and cooling gases

Argon-35%H2 is normally recommended as a general- purpose plasma gas
for cutting most materials. Alternative plasma gases are Ar (a colder gas,
will reduce metal removal rates) and He. (Generates a hot but less intense
arc than Ar-H2, can produce a wider, shallower groove). Nitrogen and air are
also used as plasma gases, especially for gouging C-Mn steels. Gas costs
will be substantially reduced but the groove surface profile will be inferior to
that achieved with Ar-H2 gas. Air is not recommended for gouging
aluminium as this requires an inert or reducing gas. Argon, nitrogen and air
may be used as cooling gases. Use of argon will normally produce the best
quality gouge, but nitrogen or air will reduce operating costs.
Operating techniques
Gouging is effected by moving the torch forward at a steady controlled rate
and is carried out progressively to remove metal over 200-250mm. The jet
can then be repositioned, either to deepen or widen the groove, or to
continue gouging for a further 200-250mm. Principal process parameters
are current level, gas flow rate and speed of gouging, which determine
groove size and metal removal rate. In a typical gouging operation on C-Mn
steel metal is removed at about 100kg/hr at a speed of 0.5m/min, and
groove size will be around 12mm wide and 5mm deep.
The torch stand-off and its angle to the surface of the workpiece have a
major influence on speed of travel, groove profile and quality of surface. The
torch is normally held 20mm from the workpiece and inclined backwards to
the direction of gouging at an angle of 40-45°. Gouging will remove up to
6mm depth of metal in a single pass.
The torch stand-off should not be less than 12mm to avoid spatter build-up
on the nozzle from the molten particles ejected from the groove. At stand-off
distances greater than 25mm, arc/gas forces are reduced which lessens the
depth of penetration of the jet. By reducing the torch angle to the workpiece
surface, the plasma jet can be encouraged to 'skate' along the surface of the
workpiece; producing a shallower wider groove. By increasing the angle of
the torch the plasma jet is directed into the workpiece surface, resulting in a
deeper and narrower groove.
17.9 Laser cutting

Background
The first experiment in laser materials processing which subsequently
evolved into a significant industrial process was at TWI in 1967. The team
used O2 blown coaxially with a focused CO2 laser beam to cut 1mm
thickness steel sheet.
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The first oxygen assist gas laser cutting.
The advantage of lasers in cutting is that the light can be focused to a very
small spot size (<1.0mm) at high power densities heating only a very small
area of the substrate to be cut. This molten material is then blown away by
an assist gas leaving a very square, narrow cut kerf.
Introduction to laser cutting

Laser cutting is used extensively for producing profiled flat plate and sheet
for many applications in engineering industry. For three-dimensional
components, multi-axis gantry laser beam manipulators have extended laser
cutting to the automotive sector, being used for trimming of pre-production
body panels at all leading car manufacturers.
Laser cutting has also found its way - very successfully - into other industry
sectors such as shipbuilding, traditionally slow in the adoption of high
technology processes. Most modern fabrication shops either own a flat bed
laser cutting machine or buy in laser cut parts from specialised jobbing
shops. The low distortion resulting from using laser cut parts has many
downstream benefits in terms of better fit-up and ease of assembly and can
be used to produce accurate tab and slot assemblies that can self-align for
welding.
CO2 gas laser dominates cutting applications, being used on steels and
non-metallic materials, including man-made fabrics. The Nd:YAG solid state
laser is also commonly used as its wavelength is readily absorbed by
aluminium and copper.
Almost all cutting operations with the above lasers use some sort of gas to
assist the process: The degree of assistance simply providing protection to
the beam focusing lens to production of an exothermic reaction with a gas
such as O2, to increase significantly achievable cutting speeds. Oxygen
provides higher energy to the process when cutting low alloy steels allowing
faster speeds. For reactive materials such as aluminium, stainless steels
and titanium a high pressure inert gas blows the molten material out of the
kerf and protects the cut edge from oxidation, the use of gas has led to the
term gas assisted laser cutting, often used synonymously with laser cutting.
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Advantages
 Very fast speed.
 No delay for preheating necessary.
 Readily automated and can follow three dimensional tracks.
 Can cut polymers and other non-metallic materials.
 Good quality square-edged kerf.
 Very small kerf width allowing extremely fine detailing of cut parts.
 Very low heat input, effectively eliminating distortion due to cutting.
The laser and delivery system can mark and cut allowing cut parts to be
clearly identified.
Disadvantages
 High cost of equipment.
 Need to isolate personnel from laser beam.
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IWS Questions on Thermal Cutting

1 Describe the four basic requirements for successful oxyfuel gas cutting and what
happens if each is not met.
2 What are the functions of the preheating flame prior to injection of the cutting
oxygen stream?
3 How does MMA gouging work?
IWT Questions on Thermal Cutting

4 Compare air-arc and gas gouging.
5 Compare oxy-acetylene and plasma cutting.
6 Describe the likely problems if oxyfuel cutting systems are used with imperfect
settings or operating parameters.
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Section 18
Plasma Arc Welding

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Examination Records
18 Plasma Arc Welding

18.1 History
The Linde Division of Union Carbide was granted a US patent in 1955 that
described a torch with a tungsten cathode enclosed in a copper bowl-
shaped anode but with a hole in the bottom through which the plasma is
blown. This creates a very hot tongue that can be used for welding, cutting
or melting sprayed powder for coating. The original patent showed that the
workpiece could be connected into the electrical circuit at a more positive
potential than the copper anode so the arc was also forced through the
constricting hole in the copper, termed transferred arc and is the usual array
for welding and cutting.
The process will operate without electrical connection to the workpiece (non-
transferred arc) with the plasma forced through the hole in the copper anode
by the gas pressure. This gives a lower energy heat source but one not
restricted by the need to be faced by an anodic workpiece. It is favoured for
spray surfacing applications where the torch may be moved from one
component to the next, or, more usually, an array of components is moved
past a fixed torch.
Plasma welding is very similar to TIG in principle. The arc is formed

between a pointed tungsten electrode and an anode, plasma this is a water-
cooled copper bowl that surrounds the tungsten. By positioning the
electrode within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated from
the shielding gas envelope and the plasma is forced through a fine bore
hole in the copper anode. Welding and cutting are usually carried out with a
potential difference also applied to the workpiece (transferred arc plasma).
Three operating modes can be produced by varying bore diameter and
plasma gas flow rate:
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Microplasma
0.1-5A. the microplasma arc can be operated at very low welding currents.
The columnar arc is stable even when arc length is varied up to 20mm. This
is a very significant advantage over micro TIG welding where the electrode
to work distances at very low current can be too small for successful manual
operation.
Medium current
15-200A. at higher currents, the process characteristics of the plasma arc
are similar to the TIG arc, but because the plasma is constricted, the arc is
stiffer. Although the plasma gas flow rate can be increased to improve weld
pool penetration, there is a risk of air and shielding gas entrainment through
excessive turbulence in the gas shield.
Keyhole plasma
Over 100A by increasing welding current and plasma gas flow, a very
powerful plasma beam is created which can achieve full keyhole penetration
in a material, as in laser or electron beam welding. During welding the hole
progressively cuts through the metal with the molten weld pool flowing
behind to form the weld bead under surface tension forces. This can be
used to weld thicker material (up to 10mm of stainless steel) in a single
pass. This differs from keyhole welding with laser and electron beam in that
the keyhole is created by a positive gas pressure from the top surface rather
than an internal pressure due to the metal vapour so needs the gas to
escape from the underside (efflux plasma) and cannot be used for partial
penetration welding.
18.3 Power source

The power source for plasma welding is almost exclusively DC and, as in
TIG the drooping or constant current output characteristic will deliver
essentially constant current for a given power source setting. The power
source is ideal for mechanised welding as it maintains the current setting
even when arc length varies and, in manual welding it can accommodate
the natural variations of the welder.
The plasma process is normally operated with electrode negative polarity to

minimise heat produced in the electrode (approximately 1/3rd of the heat
generated by the arc is produced at the cathode with 2/3rds at the anode).
Special torches are available, for operating with electrode positive polarity
which relies on efficient cooling to prevent melting the electrode. The
positive electrode torch is used for welding aluminium which requires the
cathode to be on the material to remove the oxide film.
AC is not normally used in the plasma process because it is difficult to

stabilise the AC arc. Problems in reigniting the arc are associated with
constriction by the nozzle, the long electrode to workpiece distance and
balling of the electrode caused by the alternate periods of electrode positive
polarity. The square wave AC (inverter, switched DC) power source, with an
efficiently cooled torch makes the AC plasma process easier; rapid current
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switching promotes arc reignition and by operating with very short periods of
electrode positive polarity, electrode heating is reduced so a pointed
electrode can be maintained.
The plasma system has a unique arc starting system in which HF only
ignites a pilot arc held within the body of the torch. The pilot arc formed
between the electrode and copper nozzle is automatically transferred to the
workpiece when it is required for welding. This starting system is very
reliable and eliminates the risk of electrical interference through HF.
18.4 Torch
The torch for the plasma process is considerably more complex than the
TIG torch and attention must be paid, not only to initial set up, but also to
inspection and maintenance during production.
Nozzle
In the conventional torch arrangement the electrode is positioned behind the
water-cooled copper nozzle. As the power of the plasma arc is determined
by the degree of nozzle constriction, consideration must be given to choice
of bore diameter in relation to current level and plasma gas flow rate. For
soft plasma, normally used for micro and medium current operating modes,
a relatively large diameter bore is recommended to minimise nozzle erosion.
In high current keyhole plasma mode, the nozzle bore diameter, plasma gas
flow rate and current level are selected to produce a highly constricted arc
with sufficient power to cut through the material. The plasma gas flow rate is
crucial in generating the deeply penetrating plasma arc and preventing
nozzle erosion; too low a gas flow rate for the bore diameter and current
level will result in double arcing in the torch and the nozzle melting.
The suggested starting point for setting the plasma gas flow rate and the
current level for a range of the bore diameters and the various operating
modes is given.
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Electrode
Conventionally, the electrode is tungsten with an addition of between 2-5%
thoria to aid arc initiation. Rare earth doped tungsten are finding favour
avoiding the extra precautions necessary for preparing the middle
radioactive thoria containing electrodes. Normally, the electrode tip is
ground to an angle of 15 for microplasma welding, tip angle increases with
current level and for high current keyhole plasma welding an angle of 60-90°
is recommended. For high current levels, the tip is blunted to approximately
1mm diameter. The tip angle is not usually critical for manual welding.
However, mechanised applications, the condition of the tip and nozzle
determine the shape of the arc and penetration profile of the weld pool
penetration, so particular attention must be paid to grinding the tip. It is
necessary to check periodically the condition of the tip and nozzle and for
critical components it is recommended the torch condition is checked
between welds.
Electrode set-back
To ensure consistency it is important to maintain a constant electrode
position behind the nozzle; guidance on electrode set-back and a special
tool are provided by the torch manufacturer. The maximum current rating of
each nozzle has been established for the maximum electrode set-back
position and plasma gas flow rate. Lower plasma gas flow rates can be used
to soften the plasma arc with the maximum current rating of the nozzle
providing the electrode set-back distance is reduced.
18.5 Plasma and shielding gases

The usual gas combination is argon for the plasma gas and Ar+2-8% H2 for
the shielding gas. Irrespective of the material being welded, using Ar for the
plasma gas produces the lowest rate of electrode and nozzle erosion. Ar-H2
gas mixtures for shielding produce a slightly reducing atmosphere and
cleaner welds. Helium gives a hotter arc; but its use for the plasma gas
reduces the current carrying capacity of the nozzle and makes formation of
the keyhole more difficult. Helium-argon mixtures, eg 75% He-25% Ar are
used as the shielding gas for materials such as copper.
Plasma gas flow rate must be set accurately as it controls the penetration of
the weld pool but the shielding gas flow rate is not critical.
18.6 Backing system

The normal TIG range of backing bar designs or shielding gas techniques
can be used when using micro and medium current techniques. When
applying the keyhole mode a grooved backing bar must be used, with or
without gas shielding or total shielding of the underside of the joint. Because
the efflux plasma normally extends about 10mm below the back face of the
joint, the groove must be deep enough to avoid disturbance of the arc jet; if
the efflux plasma hits the backing bar, arc instability will disturb the weld
pool, causing porosity.
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18.7 Applications
Microplasma welding
Microplasma was traditionally used for welding thin sheets (down to 0.1mm
thickness) and wire and mesh sections. The needle-like stiff arc minimises
arc wander and distortion. Although the equivalent TIG arc is more diffuse,
the newer transistorised (TIG) power sources can produce a very stable arc
at low current levels.
Medium current welding
When used in the melt mode (as opposed to keyholing) this is an alternative
to conventional TIG. The advantages are deeper penetration (from higher
plasma gas flow) and greater tolerance to surface contamination including
coatings (the electrode is within the body of the torch). The major
disadvantage lies in the bulkiness of the torch, making manual welding more
difficult. In mechanised welding, greater attention must be paid to
maintenance of the torch to ensure consistent performance.
Keyhole welding
This has the advantages of deep penetration and high welding speeds.
Compared with the TIG arc, it can penetrate plate thicknesses up to l0mm,
but when welding using a single pass technique, it is more usual to limit the
thickness to 6mm. The normal method is to use the keyhole mode with filler
to ensure smooth weld bead profile (with no undercut). For thicknesses up
to 15mm, a V joint preparation is used with a 6mm root face. A two-pass
technique is used with the first pass being autogenous keyholing and the
second being made in melt mode with filler wire addition.
As the welding parameters, plasma gas flow rate and filler wire addition (into
the keyhole) must be carefully balanced to maintain the keyhole and weld
pool stability, this technique is only suitable for mechanised welding. It can
be used for positional welding usually with current pulsing, but is normally
applied in high speed welding of thicker sheet material (over 3mm) in the flat
position. When pipe welding, the slope-out of current and plasma gas flow
must be carefully controlled to close the keyhole without leaving a hole.
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The principal benefits of plasma welding are:
 Non-critical torch to workpiece distance. Very useful at lower current.

 Ability to weld relatively thick material in keyhole mode.
 Faster deposition rates than TIG.
Disadvantages are:
 More complex torch set up than TIG.

 Bulky torch hinders manual use.
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IWT Questions on Plasma Arc Welding

1 Describe a plasma torch and compare it with a TIG torch.
2 Describe the various current ranges over which plasma may be used and give
advantages and disadvantages compared with TIG.
3 What gases are used for plasma formation and shielding?
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Section 19
Welding Consumables
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Welding Consumables
19 Welding Consumables
Welding consumables are defined as all that is used up during the
production of a weld.
This list could include all things used up in the production of a weld;
however, we normally refer to welding consumables as those items used up
by a particular welding process.
These are:
Electrodes Wires Fluxes Gases

E 8018
SAW
FUSED
Flux
When inspecting welding consumables arriving at site it is important that

they are inspected for the following:
 Size.
 Type or specification.
 Condition.
 Storage.
The checking of suitable storage conditions for all consumables is a

critical part of the welding inspector’s duties.
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Welding Consumables
19.1 Consumables for MMA welding

Welding consumables for MMA consist of a core wire typically between
350-450mm length and 2.5-6mm diameter. Other lengths and diameters are
available. The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating. The core wire is
generally of low quality rimming steel as the weld can be considered as a
casting and therefore the weld can be refined by the addition of cleaning or
refining agents in the flux coating. The flux coating contains many elements
and compounds that all have a variety of jobs during welding. Silicon is
mainly added as a de-oxidising agent (in the form of ferro-silicate), which
removes oxygen from the weld metal by forming the oxide silica.
Manganese additions of up to 1.6% will improve the strength and toughness
of steel. Other metallic and non-metallic compounds are added that have
many functions, some of which are:
 Aid arc ignition.

 Improve arc stabilisation.
 Produce a shielding gas to protect the arc column.
 Refine and clean the solidifying weld metal.
 Form a slag which protects the solidifying weld metal.
 Add alloying elements.
 Control hydrogen content of the weld metal.
 Form a cone at the end of the electrode, which directs the arc.
Electrodes for MMA/SMAW are grouped depending on the main constituent

in their flux coating, which in turn has a major effect on the weld properties
and ease of use. The common groups are:
Group Constituent Shield gas Uses AWS A 5.1

Rutile Titania Mainly CO2 General E 6013
purpose
Basic Calcium Mainly CO2 High quality E 7018
compounds
Cellulosic Cellulose Hydrogen + CO2 Pipe root runs E 6010
Some basic electrodes may be tipped with a carbon compound, which

eases arc ignition.
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Welding Consumables
The electrode classification system of EN 499.
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Welding Consumables
EN ISO 2560 2005 (supersedes BS EN 499 1994)
Classification of Welding Consumables for Covered Electrodes for

Manual Metal Arc (111) Welding of Non-alloy and Fine Grain Steels.
This standard applies a dual approach to classification of electrodes using

methods A and B as is indicated below:
Classification of electrode mechanical properties of an all weld metal

specimen:
Method A: Yield strength and average impact energy at 47J
Example ISO 2560 – A – E XX X XXX X X X HX
Mandatory
designation:
Classified for impacts

at 47J + yield strength
Covered electrode
Minimum
yield strength
Charpy V notch
minimum test
temperature °C
Chemical composition
Electrode covering
Optional designation:
Weld metal recovery

and current type
Positional designation
Diffusible hydrogen
ml/100g weld metal
Typical example: ISO 2560 – A – E 43 2 1Ni RR 6 3 H15
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Method B: Tensile strength and average impact energy at 27J
Example ISO 2560 – B – E XX XX XXX X X HX
Mandatory
designation:
Classified for impacts

at 27J + tensile strength
Covered electrode
Minimum
tensile strength
Electrode covering
Chemical composition
Heat treatment
condition
Optional designation:
Optional supplemental
impact test at 47J
at same test
temperature given
for 27J test
Diffusible hydrogen
ml/100g weld metal
Typical example: ISO 2560 – B – E 55 16 –N7 A U H5
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Welding Consumables
Classification of tensile characteristics
Method A
Symbol Minimum yield a, N/mm2 Tensile strength, N/mm2 Minimum E% b,
N/mm2
35 355 440-570 22
38 380 470-600 20
42 420 500-640 20
46 460 530-680 20
50 500 560-720 18
a Lower yield Rel shall be used. b Gauge length = 5 x 
Method B
Symbol Minimum tensile strength, N/mm2
43 430
49 490
55 550
57 570
Other tensile characteristics ie yield strength and elongation % are

contained within a tabular form in this standard (Table 8B) and are
determined by classification of tensile strength, electrode covering and
alloying elements, ie E 55 16-N7.
Classification of impact properties
Method A
Symbol Temperature for the minimum average
impact energy of 47J
Z No requirement
A +20
0 0
2 -20
3 -30
4 -40
5 -50
6 -60
Method B
Impact or Charpy V notch testing temperature at 27J temperature in
method B is again determined through the classification of tensile strength,
electrode covering and alloying elements (Table 8B) ie a E 55 16-N7 which
must reach 27J at –75°C.
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Welding Consumables
Classification of electrode characteristics and electrical requirements varies

between classification methods A and B as follows:
Method A
This method uses an alpha/numerical designation from the tables as
listed below:
Symbol Electrode covering type Symbol Efficiency, % Type of current
A Acid 1 < 105 AC or DC
C Cellulosic 2 <105 DC
R Rutile 3 >105-<125 AC or DC
RR Rutile thick covering 4 >105-<125 DC
RC Rutile/cellulosic 5 >125-<160 AC or DC
RA Rutile/acid 6 >125-<160 DC
RB Rutile/basic 7 >160 AC or DC
B Basic 8 >160 DC
Method B
This method uses a numerical designation from the table as listed
below
Symbol Covering type Positions Type of current
03 Rutile/basic Allb AC and DC +/-
10 Cellulosic All DC +
11 Cellulosic All AC and DC +
12 Rutile Allb AC and DC -
13 Rutile Allb AC and DC +/-
14 Rutile + Fe powder Allb AC and DC +/-
15 Basic Allb DC +
16 Basic Allb AC and DC +
18 Basic + Fe powder Allb AC and DC +
19 Rutile + Fe oxide (Ilmenite) Allb AC and DC +/-
20 Fe oxide PA/PB AC and DC -
24 Rutile + Fe powder PA/PB AC and DC +/-
27 Fe oxide + Fe powder PA/PB only AC and DC -
28 Basic + Fe powder PA/PB/PC AC and DC +
40 Not specified As per manufacturer’s
recommendations
48 Basic All AC and DC +
bAll positions may or may not include vertical-down welding
Further guidance on flux type and applications is given in the standard in

Annex B and C.
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Hydrogen scales
Diffusible hydrogen is indicated in the same way in both methods, where
after baking the amount of hydrogen is given as ml/100g weld metal ie H 5
= 5ml/100g weld metal.
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Welding Consumables
19.2 AWS A 5.1- and AWS 5.5-

A typical AWS A5.1 and A5.5 Specification E 80 1 8 G
Reference given in box letter: A) B) C) (D For A5.5 only)
A) Tensile + yield strength and E% B) Welding position
Code Min yield Min tensile Min E % 1 All positional
PSI x 1000 PSI x 1000 In 2” min 2 Flat butt & H/V fillet welds
General 3 Flat only
E60xx 48,000 60,000 17-22
Note: Not all Category 1 electrodes
E 70xx 57,000 70,000 17-22
can weld in the vertical down
E 80xx 68-80,000 80,000 19-22
position.
E 100xx 87,000 100,000 13-16
V notch impact Radiographic
Specific electrode information for E 60xx and 70xx Izod test (ft.lbs) standard
E 6010 48,000 60,000 22 20 ft.lbs at –20F Grade 2
E 6011 48,000 60,000 22 20 ft.lbs at –20F Grade 2
E 6012 48,000 60,000 17 Not required Not required
E 6013 48,000 60,000 17 Not required Grade 2
E 6022 Not required 60,000 Not required Not required Not required
E 6027 48,000 60,000 22 20 ft.lbs at –20F Grade 2
E 7015 58,000 70,000 22 20 ft.lbs at –20F Grade 1
E 7016 58,000 70,000 22 20 ft.lbs at –20F Grade 1
E 7018 58,000 70,000 22 20 ft.lbs at –20F Grade 1
E 7028 58,000 70,000 20 20 ft.lbs at 0F Grade 2
C) Electrode coating and electrical characteristic D) AWS A5.5 low alloy steels
Symbol Approximate alloy
Code Coating Current type
deposit
Exx10 Cellulosic/organic DC + only A1 0.5%Mo
Exx11 Cellulosic/organic AC or DC+ B1 0.5%Cr + 0.5%Mo
B2 1.25%Cr + 0.5%Mo
Exx12 Rutile AC or DC- B3 2.25%Cr + 1.0%Mo
Exx13 Rutile + 30% Fe powder AC or DC+/- B4 2.0%Cr+ 0.5%Mo
B5 0.5%Cr + 1.0%Mo
E xx14 Rutile AC or DC+/-
C1 2.5%Ni
E xx15 Basic DC + only
C2 3.25%Ni
E xx16 Basic AC or DC+
C3 1%Ni + 0.35%Mo +
E xx18 Basic + 25% Fe powder AC or DC+
0.15%Cr
E xx20 High Fe oxide content AC or DC+/-
D1/2 0.25-0.45%Mo +
E xx24 Rutile + 50% Fe powder AC or DC+/- 0.15%Cr
E xx27 Mineral + 50% Fe powder AC or DC+/- G 0.5%Ni or/and 0.3%Cr
E xx28 Basic + 50% Fe powder AC or DC+ or/and 0.2%Mo or/and
0.1%V
For G only 1 element is required
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Welding Consumables
19.3 Inspection points for MMA consumables

Size Wire diameter and length
Condition
Cracks, chips and concentricity
All electrodes showing signs of the effects of corrosion should be discarded.
Type (specification)
Correct specification/code
20.1.1 E 46
3B
Storage Suitably dry and warm

(Preferably 0% humidity)
Checks should also be made to ensure that basic electrodes have been
through the correct pre-use procedure. Having been baked to the correct
temperature (typically 300-350C) for 1 hour and then held in a holding
oven (150C max) basic electrodes are issued to the welders in heated
quivers. Most electrode flux coatings will deteriorate rapidly when damp
and care should be taken to inspect storage facilities to ensure that they are
adequately dry and that all electrodes are stored in conditions of controlled
humidity.
Vacuum packed electrodes may be used directly from the carton only if the
vacuum has been maintained. Directions for hydrogen control are always
given on the carton and should be strictly adhered to. The cost of each
electrode is insignificant compared with the cost of any repair, thus basic
electrodes that are left in the heated quiver after the day’s shift may
potentially be re-baked but would normally be discarded to avoid the risk of
H2 induced problems.
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Welcome
Welcome to the Welding Processes and Equipment

Welding Processes and Equipment module of TWI’s Diploma course approved by the
International Institute of Welding (IIW) and
IIW/EWF Diploma in Welding
European Welding Federation (EWF).
Welcome - What this module is about
TWI Training & Examination Services
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013 Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013
What does this Module Cover? What can I Expect?
• Absolute basics – defining what a weld is. • Working to international syllabus.

• Detailed principles – how plasma is formed. – IAB-252r8-07 (short version on IIW website
www.iiw-iis.org).
• Electricity – how it is used in welding.
• This is one of four modules each examined
• Processes – common and more specialised. separately.
• Standards – briefly, those on fabrication. • Qualification towards TWI Diploma.
• Symbols – how to show welds on drawings. • Qualification towards IIW/EWF Diploma.
– Requires entrance criteria to be met.
• Greater understanding of important aspects of
welding.
What Learning Methods are used? Example – Self-Adjusting Arc

• Binder has notes and powerpoint's.
• Lectures given in classroom style.
• Extra study encouraged – necessary really.
• Interaction – especially for engineer.
• Tuition and counselling – talk to us.
Feed speed = burn off V up, i down, burn off Wire advances, i increases
down. Feed speed > until: Feed speed = burn off
burn off
1-1
Example – Laser Deposition Why is this Module Important to me?
• Welding Engineer, Technologist, Specialist must

know fundamentals of processes.
• Regarded as company specialist.
• Choose best process for job.
• Make decisions on best use of processes.
My Company Has Fixed Ideas I Just Need To Sign The Paperwork

• WL Bateman: • Short-term objective gaining Welding co-ordinator
If you keep on doing what you've always done, you'll status is excellent.
keep on getting what you've always got. • Co-ordinator does not just sign paperwork.
• Everyone wants cost efficiency. • Contracts need co-ordinator.
• Today’s equipment and control make even a few • Future contracts need to be at required quality
years-old gear obsolete. and profitable.
• Future developments always seek to improve. • Co-ordinator can advise best practice and save
• Your company will want you input. company money.
What Will I Do That I Don’t Now? What’s In It For Me?

• Tricky – all individuals coming with different • Knowledge – better performance at job.
backgrounds. • Where to find reference material when needed.
• Depth of understanding can sort problems. • Ability to respond to changing needs.
• New perspectives on traditional processes - • Possibility of professional qualification.
experience from another viewpoint helps.
• More assured future with wider prospects.
• New processes detailed - could be applicable
now or in future.
1-2
Earliest Welding
Forge welding
• Egyptians heated iron to bright red heat and hammered
Welding Processes and Equipment
pieces together to make a weld.
Carbon arc
History of Welding Bernados and Olszewaski patented in 1885/6.
Metal arc
• Coffin (US), Slavianoff (Russia) gained patents in 1892 to
replace one carbon with metal rod.
Resistance
• Thomson demonstrated principle in 1886.
Early 20th Century 1920s and 1930s

1903 1920s
• Thermit process defined by Goldschmitt. • Fusarc process developed as first continuous
1906 feed welding process.
• Dalen produces porous medium for absorbing acetone so
1930s
acetylene can be dissolved without explosion risk. Birth of
practical oxy-acetylene. • Patents for forerunner of SAW. Developed by
1908 Linde as Unionmelt process.
• Kjellberg coats metallic rods with lime and clay to make • Patents for Ar or He gas shielded continuous wire
first non-porous MMA deposits. process. Later developed by Linde as SIGMA.
• Strohmenger finds that asbestos string wrapped around
rod stabilises AC arc.
1940s and 1950s 1960s Onwards
1940s 1960s
• TIG welding invented to weld magnesium and • Laser cutting and welding developed in TWI.
stainless steel. • Solid state power sources developed in TWI.
1950s • Pulsed power sources became available.
• CO2 used for MAG welding. • Explosive welding perfected.
• Electroslag from USA developed in USSR. • Cold pressure welding invented in UK.
• Friction welding invented in USSR. 1990s
• EB welding pioneered in France. • Friction stir welding invented at TWI.
• Plasma invented by Gage in the US.
2-1
Joining
• Welding.
• Brazing.
Welding Processes and Equipment • Soldering.
• Adhesive bonding.
General Aspects of Welding • Diffusion bonding.
• Riveting.
TWI Training & Examination Services • Clinching.
• Sewing, stapling, etc.
Welding Weldable/Unweldable
An operation in which two or more parts are united • Metals.

by means of heat or pressure or both, in such a • Plastics.
way that there is continuity in the nature of the
• Ceramics.
metal between these parts.
• Composites.
Parts To Be Joined Brazing
• Parent material, base material. A process of joining in which, during or after

– Plate, pipe, section. heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or retained
• Filler, consumable. in the space between closely adjacent surfaces of
the parts to be joined by capillary attraction.
– Electrode, wire, powder.
Completed item may be called:
• In general, the melting point of the filler metal is
• Joint.
above 450°C but always below the melting
• Weld. temperature of the parent material.
• Weldment.
3-1
Braze Welding Soldering
Joining of metals using a technique similar to fusion A similar process to brazing, relying on capillary
welding and a filler metal with a lower melting point attraction to draw molten filler into a gap between
than the parent metal, but neither using capillary parts that remain solid throughout. Solders melt at
action nor intentionally melting the parent metal. low temperatures - less than 450ºC.
• For steel and copper, solders are usually alloys of

tin.
Diffusion Bonding Welding
A process in which component parts are held Fusion

together with force and heated, usually in vacuum, • Melting of parent, filler, or usually both.
to a temperature at which easy atomic movement Solid state
makes possible diffusion of material from one part to
the other. • May or may not be heated, but no melting.
Fusion Welding Solid State Welding
• Oxy-fuel gas (OFW). • Forge or blacksmith.

• Manual metal(lic) arc (MMA).
• Friction – many variations, including friction stir.
• Metal inert/active gas (MIG/MAG).
• Tungsten inert gas (TIG).
• Explosive.
• Flux cored arc (FCAW). • Cold pressure.
• Submerged arc (SAW). • Ultrasonic.
• Electroslag (ESW).
• Electron beam (EBW).
• Laser.
• Resistance.
• Magnetically impelled arc butt (MIAB).
3-2
Surfacing or Cladding Joint Terminology
Surfacing
• Uses welding processes to coat one material with
a second, usually different with particular
properties, eg corrosion, wear or heat resistance, Edge Open and closed corner Lap
not possessed by the base material.
Cladding
• More general term covering surfacing techniques
and including explosive and roll bonding of one
plate or tube to another to create duplex
structure. Tee Butt
Cruciform
Butt Preparations Single Sided Butt Preparations

Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner
materials, or when access form both sides is restricted.
Single bevel Single Vee
Square edge Square edge

closed butt open butt
Single-J Single-U
Double Sided Butt Preparations Joint Preparation Terminology

Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker Included angle Included angle
materials, or when access form both sides is unrestricted.
Angle of
bevel
Root
Radius
Double -bevel Double -Vee
Root face Root face

Root gap Root gap
Double - J Double - U Single-V butt Single-U butt
3-3
Joint Preparation Terminology Weld Terminology
Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Butt weld Spot weld

Root Fillet weld
radius
Root face Root face

Root gap
Root gap Land Edge weld Plug weld
Single bevel butt Single-J butt Compound weld
Welded Butt Joints Welded Tee Joints
Butt welded butt joint

Fillet welded T joint
Fillet welded butt joint Butt welded T joint
Compound welded butt joint Compound welded T joint
Welded Lap Joints Welded Closed Corner Joints
Fillet welded lap joint Fillet welded closed corner joint
Spot welded lap joint Butt welded closed corner joint
Compoundwelded closed corner joint

Compound welded lap joint
3-4
Penetration Sides
Full penetration Partial penetration

Single sided Double sided
Runs Stringer or Weave
Stringer bead Weave

Single run Multirun
Welding Positions Slope and Rotation
Weld slope
• The angle between root line and the positive X axis of the
horizontal reference plane, measured in mathematically
positive direction (ie counter-clockwise).
Flat - PA Horizontal- Horizontal - PC
Vertical - PB Weld rotation
• The angle between the centreline of the weld and the
positive Z axis or a line parallel to the Y axis, measured
in the mathematically positive direction (ie counter-
clockwise) in the plane of the transverse cross section of
Horizontal- Overhead - the weld in question.
Vertical-up - PF
overhead - PD PE Vertical-down - PG
3-5
Tolerances Weld Zone Terminology
Face
A B
Weld
metal
Heat
affected Weld
zone boundary
C D
Root
A, B, C & D = Weld toes
Weld Zone Terminology Weld Zone Terminology
Excess
Cap height
Weld Width
Excess root
penetration
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Toe Blend

6
mm
Maximum solid Solid-liquid boundary
• The higher the toe blend
temperature weld Grain growth zone 80°
angle the greater theamount
metal
Recrystallised zone of stress concentration.
Partially transformed zone Poor weld toe blend angle
Tempered zone
3
Unaffected base material
mm
• The toe blend angle ideally
20°
should be between 20-30o.
Improved weld toe blend angle
3-6
Features to Consider Fillet Weld Profiles
Fillet welds - toe blend Fillet welds - shape
Convex fillet
Mitre fillet
Concave fillet
Fillet Weld Features Fillet Weld Throat Thickness
a
Excess
weld metal
Vertical
Leg
length
Design
throat
Horizontal leg Length a = Design throat thickness
Fillet Weld Throat Thickness Deep Penetration Fillet Weld
a
a = Design throat thickness b
b = Actual throat thickness
b = Actual throat thickness
3-7
Leg and Throat Relationship
Throat, a = 0.7 x Leg, z

Leg, z = 1.4 x Throat, a
a = z/√2
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013
3-8
Types of Standard
• Application and design.

• Specification and approval of welding
Welding Processes and Equipment procedures.
• Approval of welders.
Levels of Standards Typical Standards

Application Application Welding Procedure Welder Approval
• Company or industry specific standards. Code/Standard Approval
• National BS (British Standard). Pressure Vessels BS 5276 BS EN ISO 15614 BS EN 287
BS PD 5500 ASME Section IX BS EN ISO 9606
• European BS EN (British Standard European ASME Section VIII ASME Section IX
Process Pipework BS 2633 BS EN ISO 15614 BS EN 287
Standard). BS 2971 ASME IX BS 4872
BS 4677 BS EN ISO 9606
• US AWS (American Welding Society) and ASME ASME B31.1/B31.3 ASME IX
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers). Structural Fabrication BS EN 1011 BS EN ISO 15614 BS EN 287
BS 8118 AWS D1.1/ D1.2/ BS 4872
• International ISO (International Standards AWS D1.1/ D1.2/ D1.6 BS EN ISO 9606
Organisation). D1.6 AWS D1.1/D1.2/
D1.6
Storage Tanks BS EN 12285 BS EN ISO 15614 BS EN 287
BS EN 14015 ASME IX BS EN ISO 9606
API 620/650 ASME IX
Welding Procedure Approval Test Welder Approval Test
• Carried out by a competent welder. • Examines welder's skill and ability to make
• Quality of the weld is assessed using NDT and satisfactory test weld.
mechanical testing techniques. • Test may be performed with or without a qualified
• Demonstrate proposed welding procedure gives welding procedure.
welded joint to specified weld quality and • BS EN 287, BS ISO EN 9606 and ASME Section
mechanical properties. IX for quality work.
• BS 4872 shows an adequate level of skill fro
general work.
4-1
Process Terminology - BS EN ISO 4063 Process Terminology - BS EN ISO 4063
• 1 - Arc Welding. • 1 - Arc welding.

• 2 - Resistance welding. • 11 - Metal arc with gas.
• 3 - Gas welding. • 12 - Submerged arc.
• 4 - Welding with pressure. • 13 - Gas-shielded metal arc.
• 5 - Beam welding. • 14 - Gas-shielded with tungsten electrode.
• 6 - Not used. • 15 - Plasma.
• 7 - Other welding processes.
• 8 - Cutting and gouging.
• 9 - Brazing, soldering and braze welding.
• 2 - Resistance welding. • 3 - Gas welding.

• 31 - Oxy-fuel gas.
• 21 - Resistance spot.
• 4 - Welding with pressure.
• 22 - Resistance seam.
• 41 - Ultrasonic.
• 23 - Projection. • 42 - Friction.
• 24 - Flash. • 43 - Friction stir.
• 25 - Resistance butt upset. • 44 - High mechanical energy.
• 26 - resistance stud. • 45 - Diffusion.
• 47 - Oxy-fuel gas pressure.
• 27 - HF resistance.
• 48 - Cold pressure.
• 29 - Other resistance welding processes.
• 49 - Hot pressure.

• 5 - Beam welding. • 8 - Cutting and gouging.
• 51 - Electron beam. • 81 - Flame cutting.
• 52 - Laser.
• 82 - Arc cutting.
• 6 - Not used.
• 83 - Plasma cutting.
• 7 - Other welding processes.
• 71 - Aluminothermic. • 84 - Laser cutting.
• 72 - Electroslag. • 86 - Flame gouging.
• 73 - Electrogas. • 87 - Arc gouging.
• 74 - Induction seam. • 88 - Plasma gouging.
• 75 - Light radiation.
• 78 - Arc stud.
4-2
• 9 - Brazing, soldering and braze welding. Actual processes depicted by a third digit, eg:
• 111 - Manual metal arc welding.
• 91 - Brazing with local heat.
• 114 - Self-shielded tubular-cored arc welding.
• 92 - Brazing with global heat. • 121 - Submerged arc welding with one wire electrode.
• 93 - Other brazing processes. • 125 - Submerged arc welding with tubular cored electrode.
• 94 - Soldering with local heat. • 131 - Metal inert gas welding (MIG welding).
• 95 - Soldering with global heat. • 135 - Metal active gas welding (MAG welding).
• 96 - Other soldering processes. • 136 - Tubular cored metal arc welding with active gas
shield.
• 97 - Weld brazing.
• 141 - Tungsten inert gas arc welding (TIG welding).
Process Terminology - BS EN ISO 4063
Possible to add transfer mode, number of electrodes,

filler or hybrid processes, viz:
• Transfer mode:
– D – Dip, Short-circuit.
– G – Globular.
– S – Spray.
– P – Pulsed.
• So MIG welding might be described as:
– BS EN ISO 4063 – 131-S.
4-3
Why Are Symbols Needed?
• To avoid excessive wording on drawing.

• To give universally accepted description.
• To ensure everyone has same understanding.
• To achieve design requirement on shop floor.
Welding Symbols
Basic Design of Symbols Basic Symbols for Edge Preparation
Supplementary Symbols Complementary Symbols
5-1
Dimensioning Fillet Welds Symbols for Intermittent Welding
Summary of Weld Symbols
5-2
Creation and Protection of Weld Pool
Fusion welding
• Heat to melt parent plate and filler.
Welding Processes and Equipment • Protection of melt from atmosphere.
Heat
Fusion Welding Principles • Flame.
• Electric arc.
• Electrical resistance.
TWI Training & Examination Services • Power beam.
Protection
• Vacuum or controlled atmosphere.
• Shielding gas and/or flux.
Protection Gas Shielding

Inert gas
• Argon – Ar.
• Helium – He.
• Ar-He.
• Nitrogen – N2 (inert for copper, but not others).
Active gas
• CO2.
• Ar-CO2.
• Ar-O2.
• Ar-H2.
Flux Shielding Leftward and Rightward Directions
• Flux may create gas to shield arc.

• Flux may have ingredients that react with
oxygen or nitrogen.
• Flux melts and solidifies to slag that covers hot
metal and excludes air.
Leftward technique Rightward technique
1
6-1
Creation of a Molten Pool Flame
• Flame. • Burning fuel gas with oxygen creates flame

• Arc. temperature around 3000°C.
• Resistance. • Cannot melt refractory metals – Nb. Mo, W.
• Power beam. • Heat transfer by conduction and small amount
radiation.
• Parent material and filler, if used, melt and mix in
pool.
Arc Resistance
• Electrical potential ionises gas to give conductive • Two sheets of metal pressed together by
path between electrode and work. electrodes of Cu-Cr alloy.
• Arc generates plasma of ionised gas. • Current passed between electrodes has to cross
• Temperature very high – ca 10,000°C. boundary between sheets.
• Heat transfer by conduction and radiation. • High resistance at boundary generates heat that
• Will melt all metals. melts the interface.
• Pressure applied to compact the molten area into
a nugget.
Power Beam Pool Penetration and Shape

• Intense, focussed beam of electrons (EB) or • Gas or arc force will depress surface of pool
photons (laser) directed to joint line. giving some depth melt zone.
• Very high temperature and concentrated beam • Power beam force very high creates keyhole.
impact area boils metal making keyhole. • Keyholing achieved with plasma welding.
• At keyhole periphery metal condenses to liquid • Conduction transfers heat into body of metal
pool. melting a deeper shape.
• As beam progresses liquid pool follows behind • Pool stirred by convection, Marangoni effect and
keyhole creating weld. Lorentz Forces.
2
6-2
Marangoni Effect Lorentz Forces
• Surface tension normally reduces with temperature • Current flow in conductor creates magnetism.
so least in weld centre. • Magnetic field induces force on conductor.
• Atoms are transported from low to higher surface
• If conductor is liquid, force gives movement.
tension zones.
• Right hand rule gives direction of force. For
• Movement of atoms in liquid from centre to outside of
pool called Marangoni effect. DCEN, up at centre and down at pool edge.
• Can be modified by composition. Sulphur reverses
flow. Can give batch variation.
• Pool development under flux not simple, in part due
to Marangoni effect.
3
6-3
Compliance
• Government legislation – The Health and Safety at
Work Act.
Welding Processes and Equipment • Health and Safety Executive – COSHH Regulations,
Statutory instruments.
• British Standards – OHSAS 18001.
Welding Safety • Company Health and Safety Management Systems.
• Work instructions – permits to work, risk assessment
TWI Training & Examination Services documents etc.
• Local Authority requirements.
Must Consider Electric Shock
• Electric shock. • Primary 240 or 460V mains.

• Heat and light. • Do not open welding equipment.
• Fumes and gases. • Only qualified electrician to wire or repair
• Noise. machine.
• Gas cylinder handling and storage. • Secondary 60-100V high current.
• Working at height or in restricted access. • Don’t touch metal parts of torch or electrode
holder - certainly not when touching an earth.
• Mechanical hazards: trips, falls, cuts, impact
from heavy objects. • Don’t work with worn cables.
• Cables must have capacity for max current.
Electric Shock Assistance Heat
• Don't touch the person. • Burns can be severe.

• Keep others from being • Assume all metal around welding is hot.
harmed. • Don’t use hand pat to check.
• Switch off power. • Use indicator stick.
• Use non-conductive pole • Sparks ignite flammable material - remove.
to free the person.
• Hot metal spatter gives very serious burns.
• Check obvious injury.
• Don’t tuck trousers in boots.
• Move victim only when
power off and no neck or • Don’t wear turn-ups.
spine injuries. • Ventilate and cool welder in confined space.
7-1
Light Infra-Red
• Different hazards according to type. • Years of exposing eyes to IR causes gradual but
• Type depends on wavelength. irreversible opacity of the lens.
• Welding creates all three types. • IR emitted by welding arc causes damage only
short distance from the arc.
Type Wavelength, nm • Burning sensation in the skin surrounding eyes
Infra-red (heat) >700
exposed to arc heat. Natural reaction to move or
cover up.
Visible light 400-700 • Rest of skin absorbs heat so cool welder - can’t
remove clothing to cool.
Ultra-violet radiation <400
Visible Ultra-Violet Effect on Eye
• Intense visible light from arc can dazzle and Cornea, conjunctiva inflammation – Arc eye.
damage network of nerves on the retina. • Arc eye caused by UV damaging layer of cells in
• Effects depend on the duration and intensity of cornea.
exposure. • Damaged cells die and fall off cornea exposing
• Natural reflex to close eyes. highly sensitive nerves.
• Normally this dazzling does not have long-term • Rubbing of eyelid causes intense pain, usually
effect. described as sand in the eye.
• Pain becomes even more acute if eye is exposed
to bright light after damage.
• Arc eye develops some hours after exposure.
Ultra-Violet Effect on Skin Fume

• UV from arc processes does not produce • Fume is from vaporisation, condensation and
attractive browning effect of suntan. oxidation of substances by arc.
• Gives acute reddening and irritation caused by • Particles very small remain in air for long time so
changes in minute surface blood vessels. may be breathed.
• Skin can be severely burned and blister. • Small particles are respirable penetrate the
• Reddened skin may die and flake off later. innermost regions of the lung where they have
• Intense, prolonged or frequent exposure, can give the most potential to do harm.
skin cancer. • Welding fume may be hazardous to health must
be controlled to regulation limits.
7-2
Is Fume Hazardous? Is Fume Hazardous?
• Degree of risk depends on: • Fe3O4, CaCO3, TiO2 have WEL of 4 or 5mg/m3.
– Composition. • Similar to any dust – no specific health issue but
– Concentration. needs control for proper lung function.
– Length of time of exposure. • Mn, Cr3+, soluble Ba set at 0.5mg/m3.
• Need to know parent plate, any coating, filler and • Cu is 0.2mg/m3.
composition of fume generated. • Cr6+, NiO potential carcinogens so:
• Different fume components vary in toxicity – Soluble Ni WEL of 0.5mg/m3.
• Limits given in Guidance Note EH40 Workplace – Cr6+ only 0.05mg/m3.
Exposure Limits available from the Health and Safety
• Exposure over time-weighted average 8h.
Executive (HSE).
Gases Why are Gases a Problem?
Toxic gases can appear in welding and cutting: • Ar, He, CO2 all asphyxiants - can’t see or smell
• Fuel gases when burnt form CO2 and CO. them in confined space.
• Shielding gases Ar, He, CO2. • Breathing <18% O2 can pass out in seconds.
• CO2 and CO from welding flux or slag. • CO is toxic, WEL 30ppm - can be formed in OFW,
MMA, MIG, SAW.
• NO, NO2, O3 from heat or UV on atmosphere
surrounding the welding arc. • NO and NO2 NOx formed by plasma cutting.
• Gases from the degradation of solvent vapours • O3, WEL 0.2ppm, formed in TIG and MIG,
or surface contaminants on the metal. especially on Al, at a distance from arc.
Local Fume and Gas Extraction Portable Fume Extraction Equipment
7-3
Noise Gas Handling and Storage
• Welding not excessively noisy but: • Gas cylinders can be pressurised to 300bar.
– Air-arc gouging. • Sudden release creates 100kg missile:
– Grinding. – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejEJGNLTo84
– Metalworking. – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHDAbM09Y1o
Can all give excessive noise levels. • Must keep in secure cradle or trolley.
• >85dB hearing protection must be worn. • Should not be lifted by single person.
• 80-85dB protection must be available and given • Fit correct pressure regulator.
if operator requests it. • Check for leaks in hoses and equipment.
Working at Height Working in Confined Space

All standard precautions All standard precautions
• Correctly erected scaffolding. • Permit to work.
• Ladders tied in. • Risk assessment.
• Handrails, safety cages on any lifts. • Emergency evacuation procedure.
• Running boards and kickboards fitted and tied. Additional risks when welding or cutting
Risk assessment for welding • Gas accumulation – asphyxiation, explosion.
• Can you lift gas cylinders? • Toxic gas, eg CO, if poorly set-up.
• Is welder protected from fall if electric shocked? • Use externally-fed helmets.
• Are others protected from falling hot metal? • Operate buddy scheme.
Mechanical Hazards Mechanical Hazards

• Large heavy metal pieces need manipulation. Vibration White Finger
• Thin metal has sharp edges. from:
• Welding cables can be trip hazard. • Grinders.
• Spark and spatter ejection risk to others. • Pneumatic burr tools.
• Mechanised welding needs guards. • Chipping hammers.
• Vibration white finger can result from 30min of
• Needle guns.
chipping hammer per day.
7-4
Fuel Gases
Fuel gas Flame Ratio O2 to Inner Outer

temp, ºC gas flame flame
Welding Processes and Equipment energy, energy,
Kj/m3 Kj/m3
Acetylene 3160 1.2:1 18,890 35,882
Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding Propane 2810 4.3:1 10,433 85,325
MAPP 2927 3.3:1 15,445 56,431
Propylene 2834 3.7:1 16,000 72,000
TWI Training & Examination Services Methane 2770 1.8:1 1,490 35,770
Acetylene Propane
• Highest temperature. • Highest heat energy in outer flame.

• Highest heat energy in inner flame. • Ideal for preheating.
• Lowest ratio of O2. • Can preheat steel prior to oxygen injection so
• Ideal for welding higher MPt metals, eg steel. can be used for cutting.
• Good for cutting.
MAPP Flame Type
• Methylacetylene and propadiene.

• Can be readily compressed. • Neutral - equal C2H2
• Useful for underwater work. and O2.
• Cutting and welding possible.
• Oxidising - excess O2.
• Reducing - excess
C2H2.
8-1
Neutral Flame Oxidising Flame
• Inner cone rounded and distinct - white - C2H2 • Very small pointed inner cone.
and O2 burn to CO and H2. • Bright blue, almost violet, outer zone.
• Surrounded by colourless tongue where CO and • Excess O2 means oxide will form.
H2 will reduce any metal oxides.
• Used for welding zinc to avoid vapourisation.
• Outer zone - slightly blue - CO and H2 burn with
O2 from air to give CO2 and H2O.
• Fizzling sound.
• Used for welding ferritic steel, stainless steel,
copper alloys, brazing, braze welding.
Reducing Flame Gas Welding Equipment

• Long white inner cone.
*
• Excess C2H2 burns at edge of outer zone with O2
from air, ragged edge.
• Luminous, slightly yellow.
• No sound.
• Carburising so used for hardfacing.
• Used for Al alloys to avoid oxide build up.
Gas Welding Equipment Safety Checks before Welding

• Flashback arrestors and non-return valves.
• Oxygen supply – white top to cylinder.
• Hoses, blue for oxygen and red for acetylene, have no
• Acetylene supply – maroon top to cylinder.
sign of wear.
• Regulators, specific for gas, to reduce • Regulators are correct type for the gas.
pressure.
• Bottle key in each bottle.
• Flashback arrestors. • All connections are tight, no leaks.
• Hoses colour coded for gas. • No oil or grease near any part of oxygen line or bottle.
• Non-return valves. • No copper containing material in direct contact with
• Blowpipe. acetylene.
• Nozzles to suit application.
8-2
Gas Welding Gas Welding Parameters
Mode of operation • Nozzle size.

• Fuel gas and oxygen mixed in body of blowpipe then • Gas pressure.
fed through nozzle and burnt. • Gas flow rate.
• Welder manipulates blowpipe to melt edges of • Tip to work distance.
workpiece and so form weld pool. • Travel speed.
• Filler metal (rod) is added as required. • Leftward or rightward technique.
• Weld pool protected from atmospheric contamination
by the burnt gas products and can be made mildly
oxidising or reducing.
Nozzle and Speed Selection Pressure and Flow
Steel Acetylene Oxygen

Nozzle
thickness Pressure Pressure
size Flow(l/min) Flow(l/min)
(mm) (bar) (bar)
0.90 1 0.14 0.50 0.14 0.50
1.20 2 0.14 0.90 0.14 0.90
2.00 3 0.14 1.40 0.14 1.40
2.60 5 0.14 2.40 0.14 2.40
3.20 7 0.14 3.30 0.14 3.30
4.00 10 0.21 4.70 0.21 4.70
5.00 13 0.28 6.00 0.28 6.00
6.50 18 0.28 8.50 0.28 8.50
8.20 25 0.42 12.00 0.42 12.00
10.00 35 0.63 17.00 0.63 17.00
13.00 45 0.63 22.00 0.63 22.00
25.00 90 0.63 42.00 0.63 42.00
Gas Welding Defects Gas Bottle Identification – BS EN 1089-3
• Lack of fusion and penetration.

• Overheated weld - risk of cracking.
• Poor shape - undercut, overlap, poor profile.
• Oxidation.
• Unequal leg length on fillets.
8-3
Conductors and Non-Conductors
Conductors
• Metals.
Welding Processes and Equipment • Graphite.
• Salt solutions.
Electricity as Applicable to Welding • Plasma (ionised gas).
Non-conductors
TWI Training & Examination Services • Most non-metallic materials, eg rubber, O2
gas.
• Most organic material, eg wood, cotton.
• Most minerals, eg limestone, clay, rocks.
How a Conductor Works Atomic Structure

• Electrons on outside of atom loosely bound. • Nucleus has +ve protons and -ve neutrons.
• Can be stripped from atom by electrical potential • No. of protons dictates change of element:
(+/- voltage). – 1 proton = hydrogen.
• Electrons are negatively charged so flow towards – 2 protons = helium.
positive. – 8 protons = oxygen.
• Rest of atom positively charged, called ion, flows – 26 protons = iron.
toward negative. • No. of neutrons changes isotope:
• Metals have loose electrons helping to bind atoms – 6p + 6n = Carbon 12 (common).
together, even without electricity, so very good – 6p + 8n = Carbon 14 (trace amounts – radioactive).
conductors when potential applied.
Magnetism and Electricity Dynamo Principle
• Magnetism is naturally occurring, Earth has a • Move metal wire through magnetic field and
magnetic field. electrons move along it to try to stay close to
• Concept of North and South poles for Earth and positive North pole.
for magnets. • Use many wires and keep moving, many
• Magnets apply force on charged particles. electrons flow along wires.
– North is +ve - will attract electrons. • Collect electrons from wires - flow of electricity.
– South is –ve - will attract positive ions. • Can have annular magnets and spin wire bundle
• Loosely bound electrons in metal move in a in centre or make wire bundle annular and spin
magnetic field. magnet in centre - dynamo.
9-1
Dynamos Electrical Terms
Potential or voltage
• Creates drive – size of difference between + and -.
• Termed V, measured in volts.
Electromotive force, EMF
• Drive created by electrical potential.
• Termed ε, measured in Volts.
Current
• Flow of electrons and ions.
• Termed i, measured in amperes (Amps).
Principle of bicycle dynamo Gramme dynamo 1870
Power Resistance
• Available power depends on both i and V. • House Cu wire - 3kW no noticeable effect.
– 240V indicator lamp on equipment - dim. • Electric fire wires glow red and give out heat.
– 12V battery lamp - very bright. • Cu low resistance, passes current very easily.
• Product of i and V is power consumption, W, • Ni-Cr high resistance, current flow difficult.
measured in Watts: • Resistance, R, measured in Ohms, Ω.
W=ixV
• Ohms Law:
• Available power measured in same way, eg 240V V=ixR
mains on 13A fused circuit has:
W = 13 x 240 = 3120 = 3.12kW
Heating Effect Direct and Alternating Current
• Difficulty of flow in Ni-Cr wire gives energy loss as • Dynamo and modern generator, gives current all
heat. in same direction - direct current (DC).
• Happens in all conductors, even Cu house cables • National Grid supplies current that changes
can heat up. direction – alternating current (AC).
• Heating effect proportional to resistance of wire
and square of current carried:
i2R Effect
9-2
Frequency Transformation
• Number of cycles per second can vary. • To minimise loss, grids have very high voltage –
• One cps is called 1 Hertz, 1HZ. 400,000V.
• European grid supply is 50cps, 50Hz. • Reduce for domestic and industrial use.
• US grid supply is 60Hz. • Link between electricity and magnetism used.
• Current at high voltage passed through coil with
iron core – gives magnetic flux in iron.
• Core is loop and passes through second coil of
wire – induces current in this coil.
Transformer Welding Current and Voltage
• Voltage in 2nd coil depends • Welding needs high current but low voltage.
on turns. • At 80V (typical starting voltage for arc) mains
V1/V2 = n1/n2 15A ring main supply transforms to 45A.
• Even cooker supply gives only 90A. Can be used
• High V, more turns.
for small hobby jobs as arc runs at around 30V
• Low V , few turns. after start.
• Industrial jobs need industrial supply.
• Energy preserved so:
• 415V, 125A transforms to 650A at 80V or 1700A
• High V, low i. at 30V.
• Low V, high i.
Three Phase Rectification
• For efficiency grid sends Half-wave

AC via three wires. • Pass AC through diode, only allows one way
• Each 120° out of phase. flow:
• Can use 1, 2 or 3 phases
in workshop.
• Can transform and rectify
all to make smoother
supply.
9-3
Full-Wave Rectification Three Phase Rectification
Use four diode bridge.

A
Full-wave rectification of three
phase gives smoother DC
output:
B
Turns negative half-cycle to positive.
Series and Parallel Inductance
Daisy chain resistors in series. • Current in wire generates magnetic field.

• Magnetic flux proportional to current.
• So, if current changes, magnetic field intensity also
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
varies.
• Faraday Law: changing field of magnetic flux
Link resistors piggy back in parallel. induces an EMF in wire that acts to oppose the
increase in current.
• Phenomenon is known as inductance.
• Useful in welding. Rapid changes in current can
give instability. Inductance slows change.
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ...
Current Rise and Inductance Inductors

• Purpose-built inductors wound as coils to
No inductance maximise magnetic effect.
• An inductor may have ferromagnetic core to
amplify effect.
Current With inductance
• Some cores may move to vary inductance.
• Symbols for inductors:
Time
9-4
Capacitance Transistor as Diode
• Two metal plates very close but insulated from • Si insulator but accepts atoms with fewer or more
each other connected to battery. electrons. Allows current to pass.
• One collects electrons - negative. • Deliberate doping As, Sb, P bring extra electrons,
• Other collects ions - positive. Si becomes negative - n layer.
• Charge created depends on area of overlap and • Si doped with B, Ga, Al loses electrons to these
is inversely proportional to gap. so becomes positive - p layer.
• Charge builds and holds until circuit made to • n + p layers together, connected to power supply.
release it, eg capacitor discharge welding. Electrons can flow from n to p as p is missing
electrons. Can’t flow p to n.
• Symbol for capacitor:
• This is silicon diode.
Transistor as Amplifier Thyristor
• Three layer n-p-n: • Four layer n-p-n-p.

• Emitter –ve, collector • When first p layer primed with +ve charge
+ve, no current through p thyristor self-latches and continues to pass
layer. current.
• Small +ve to p layer, • Stops if current falls below threshold or negative
bigger +ve to collector, charge acts on anode.
current passes. • Thyristors very good switching devices, handle
• More current as second n large currents. Used in welding machines.
layer has more electrons.
Transformer Theory Inverters
• Welding transformers are big and heavy. • Inverter electronically switches DC to give
• High current needs thick wire and large iron negative cycle.
core to avoid overheating. • Speed of switching can be varied and can be
• Transformation relationship: very high – 100kHz.
V = k.N.A.f • This multiplies f by 2000 in V = k.N.A.f.
• Mains AC is 50-60Hz so only number of turns • Thus both N and A can be very much smaller.
or size of core to vary. Both use a lot of metal, • Transformer in inverter power source is very
so heavy machine. small yet handles high current without
• If could use higher frequency AC figures overheating.
change.
9-5
Size Comparison
Inverter MMA
Conventional MMA
9-6
Formation of Arc and Plasma
• Non-conducting gas can be stripped of electrons
to become positive ions if voltage exceeding
Welding Processes and Equipment ionisation potential is applied.
• Electrical current from electron flow creates an
arc.
Arcs and Plasmas
• Energy of electrons creates high temperature.
• At high temperature thermionic emission of
TWI Training & Examination Services electrons helps sustain flow.
• Ionised gas at high temperature is plasma.
Arc Initiation Arc and Plasma Zones
• Electrons need high voltage to jump gaps. • Cathode spot - where electrons are produced.
• Welding is low voltage so must eliminate gap. • Arc/plasma column - transferring electrons
• Touch electrode to work - MMA, MIG, SAW. and ions between cathode and anode
creating heat.
• Scratch start TIG gives tungsten inclusions.
• Anode spot - impingement zone for electrons
• HF applied to send spark across gap.
giving maximum heat in gas shielded
• Lift-arc uses control to start with very low current processes.
and increase as torch is moved to working
distance.
TIG DCEN Argon Arc Cathode
• Emission of electrons cools cathode spot.

Cathode forms ring
away from tip. • Works against electron thermionic emission.
• Electron emission easier from oxide than metal.
• When cathode spot on metal it wanders seeking
Plasma. higher temperature and traces of oxide.
Diffuse anode gains heat

from electron impact and
conduction from plasma.
10-1
Arc or Plasma Column Anode
• Excitation by electron flow raises ionised gas to high • Absorbs electron energy so gets heated.
temperature - maybe 10,000°C. • Also conduction from plasma through gas
• Thermionic emission at this temperature keeps boundary layer.
plasma stable.
• Argon thermal emissivity lower than lighter gases
• Transfers heat to surroundings by radiation and to so conduction less.
workpiece also by conduction.
• Helium and mixed Ar-based gases give more
• Affected by magnetic fields - arc blow.
heat to anode.
• Can separate arc and plasma (non-transferred
plasma welding) and use plasma as very high • Recombination of H2, O2, etc in Ar gives more
temperature flame. energy release so more heat transfer.
MIG Anode Behaviour
• In Ar, anode is diffuse and climbs up outside of

wire tapering end.
• Very small diameter produces tiny drops easily
detached by Lorentz forces – spray.
• In He or CO2, anode is small spot on end of
wire.
• Full diameter drops form not easily detached -
can’t achieve spray.
10-2
Generators
• Use dynamo principle rotating wires through

magnetic fields to produce DC electricity.
• Petrol or diesel driven engines turn
Welding Processes and Equipment machinery so portable.
• Used for site work.
Power Sources • Not popular for shop work as noisy.
Transformers Transformers
• In simplest form, step-down transformer to Tapped transformer Moving core

take 415V mains to 80-100V. transformer
• Output current adjusted by adding
inductance and capacitance (reactance) .
• Called choking and adjustment often called
the choke.
• Can tap at different points of output coil of
transformer or use moving iron core.
Rectifier Inverters
HF AC transformation
gives very small size
Transformer coupled with rectifier gives DC
11-1
Current/Voltage Relationship Drooping Characteristic
100
• 415V drawing 20A has power input 8.3kW. 90
O.C.V. Striking voltage
(typical) for arc initiation
• Allow for loss, say 7.5kW. 80
70
• Theoretically: 60
Voltage
– 75A at 100V 50
– 375 A at 20V V 40
Normal Operating
• Straight line graph. 30 Voltage Range
• Not so in practice. 20
10
20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200

i Amperage
Drooping Characteristic Flat Characteristic

• Known as constant current (CC).
Small change in voltage = large change in amperage
• No current – open circuit voltage (OCV).
• For MMA OCV helps strike arc.
• Used on steep slope where large change to
voltage makes small change to current.
• Manual welding difficult to hold electrode at V
exactly same height, so voltage varies.
• Very little effect on current so penetration
stays the same.
• Ideal for MMA and TIG. i
Flat Characteristic Self-Adjusting Arc
• Known as constant voltage (CV) or constant

potential (CP).
• Very shallow, almost straight line graph.
• Small movement of hand changes voltage be
small amount.
• Large effect on current changes burn off rate
of a wire electrode.
• Used for MIG/MAG and SAW.
• Self-adjusting arc. Feed speed = burn off V up, i down, burn off Wire advances, i increases
down. Feed speed > until: Feed speed = burn off
burn off
11-2
Self-Adjusting Arc Multi-Process Power Sources
• Solid state control.
• Inverter small size.
• Circuitry to adjust
between CC and CV.
• Machines do all:
– MMA.
– TIG.
– MIG.
– Pulsed MIG.
– FCAW.
Feed speed = burn off V down, i up, burn off Wire retracts, i decreases – Carbon arc gouging.
up. Feed speed < burn until: Feed speed = burn off
off
Pulsed Power Pulsing by Wave Chopping
• Switching off or reversing polarity in

programmed manner. i
• Useful for heat input and weld pool control.
• Makes positional welding easier, eg MIG with
t
spray transfer during peak current pulse. High current
• Balancing melting and cleaning when AC TIG
welding aluminium alloys. i
Low current t
Square Wave Pulse - Frequency Change Square Wave Pulse - Width Change
i i
Ave Ave
t t
Ave Ave
i i
t t
11-3
Square Wave Pulse - Width Change Square Wave AC
i +v
Ave e
i
t t
-
Ave ve
i
t
Modified Square Wave AC Synergic Control MIG
• Can adjust pulse parameters – height,

duration, frequency - to melt and detach one
+v drop per pulse.
e
• Different for each filler and each wire size.
i • Can programme machine with most
t
common combinations.
-
• Select via buttons or knob.
ve
• One-knob control.
One-Knob Control Slope Control TIG

• Starts can have porosity and tungsten
defects.
• Worse if started at full current.
• Start at very low current then build up.
• Slope-in or slope-up.
• Stops can have crater cracking.
• Step down to low current before switch off.
• Select material/wire/gas combination on knob in wire
• Slope-out, slope-down or crater-fill.
feeder compartment.
• Adjust voltage on front panel for thickness. • Gas pre- and post-purge also help minimise
defects.
11-4
Duty Cycle BS EN 60974 Label for Duty Cycle
• Heat generated by current through wires.

• May degenerate insulation, electrical safety.
• Fire hazard.
• Must use then allow to cool.
• Length of time in use in ten minutes with rest
for cooling to remain within temperature
limit.
Duty cycle
11-5
TIG Basics
TIG Welding
Equipment for TIG Arc Starting

Scratch start:
Power control • Tungsten touched on workpiece.
panel Transformer/
Rectifier • Short-circuit starts current.
• Arc established as torch lifted.
Power return
cable Inverter power
• Can leave tungsten inclusions.
source Lift Arc:
Torch Power control • Electronic control very low short-circuit current.
assemblies panel • Builds to operational current as torch lifted.
Tungsten HF:
Power cable
electrodes • Superimposition of HF high voltage spark.
Flow-meter
Polarity Oxide Cleaning

DCEN:
• Most used.
• Tungsten cooled by electron emission.
• Workpiece receives more heat.
DCEP:
• Will clean oxide from Al and Mg.
• Heat tends to melt tungsten.
• Can be done with water cooled torch.
AC:
• Usual way to weld Al and Mg to get cleaning.
12-1
Polarity Tungsten Types
Pure W - green band.
• Cheap, but short life. Poor arc start.
W +ThO2 - yellow (1%), red (2%).
• High current carrying but slightly radioactive.
Current DCEN AC DCEP W + CeO2 - grey (Europe), orange (US).
type/polarity
Heat balance 70% at work 50% at work 30% at work • Good for low current DC work.
30% at 50% at 70% at W + La2O3 - black.
electrode electrode electrode
Weld profile Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide • Increasing use to replace thoriated.
Cleaning No Yes – every Yes W + ZrO2 - white (Europe), brown (US).
action half cycle
• Used for AC.
Electrode Excellent Good Poor
capacity (3.2mm/400A) (3.2mm/225A) (6.4mm/120A)
GTAW Torch GTAW Torch
Tungsten
electrode
Torch Electrode
cap/tungsten collet Collet
housing holder
Torch
body
Torch types: • Gas cooled: cheap, simple, large size, short life for Ceramic
component parts. nozzle
• Water cooled: recommended over 150A, expensive, On/off
complex, small size, longer life of parts. switch
Correct Gas Flow Shielding Gas Selection
• Too low and air can Argon (Ar): He/Ar mixes:

reach pool from sides. • Suitable for welding C- • Suitable for welding C-
• Too high and eddies steel, stainless steel, Al steel, stainless steel, Cu,
draw in air. and Mg. Al and Mg.
• Lower cost, lower flow • High cost, high flow
rates. rates.
• More suitable for • More suitable for thicker
thinner materials and materials and materials
positional welding. of high thermal
conductivity.
12-2
Gas Lens Special shielding methods
Stainless steel
wire sieve
Thread for
gas nozzle
Thread for
torch body
• Reduces eddies in gas flow.

• Extends length of laminar flow
prevents contamination.
• Highly recommended for reactive metals
(eg Ti, Al).
Torch trailing shield Welding in protective tent
Commercially Available Trailing Shields Pipe Backing Gas Dams
Pre- and Post-Flow Electrode Tip for DCEN

Penetration
increase
2-2.5 times electrode
• Gas flow is started

Increase
before and continues
after, welding current. Vertex
angle
diameter
• Better protection against Decrease

oxidation.
Bead width
Electrode tip for low current increase Electrode tip for high current
welding welding
12-3
Electrode Tip for AC Grinding Tungstens
• Reserve grinder for tungsten only.

• Use diamond or boron nitride wheels.
• Grind longitudinally and concentrically.
• Never use belt sander or sides of wheels.
• Do not breath grinding dust.
• Use exhaust system for thoriated tungsten.
• Tungsten splinters. Wear gloves and glasses.
• Use grinding wand. Electrodes get hot.
Electrode tip ground and
Electrode tip ground then conditioned
Autogenous Welding and Fillers Potential Defects

Tungsten inclusions:
• TIG can be used autogenously.
• Thermal shock splinters W.
• Can mechanise and use more than one head.
• Touch start fuses spots to workpiece.
• Can add filler from reel for mechanised.
• Spitting and melting can throw pieces into pool.
• Manual filler - 1m rods in 5kg pack.
• Very visible on radiograph but not critical defect.
• Made to compositions in BS EN ISO 636. Solidification cracking:
• Stamped for identity: • Some compositions inherently crack sensitive.
• Impurities often make eutectics.
• Fillers designed with elements to react with impurities,
eg Mn used to give high MPt MnS.
Potential Defects Advantages of TIG
Oxide inclusions: • No spatter, high cleanliness.

• Oxides contribute to lack of fusion. • Good welder easily produces quality welds.
• No fluxing to absorb oxides. • Good for penetration beads in all positions.
• Need to keep good gas cover to avoid • Wide range metals, including dissimilar.
oxidation of reactive metals. • Good protection for reactive.
Diffraction mottling: • Very good for joining thin materials.
• Not real defect. • Very low levels of diffusible hydrogen.
• Black and white parallel lines on radiograph.
• Can obscure real lack of fusion defect.
12-4
Disadvantages of TIG
• Low deposition rates.

• Higher dexterity and co-ordination.
• Less economical for thicker sections.
• Not good in draughty conditions.
• Low tolerance of contaminants.
• Tungsten inclusions can occur.
12-5
MIG/MAG Welding
• Also known as gas metal arc welding (GMAW).

• Uses continuous wire electrode.
• Weld pool protected by shielding gas.
Welding Processes and Equipment • Classified as semi-automatic - may be fully
automated.
• Wire can be bare or coated solid wire, flux or
TWI Training & Examination Services metal cored hollow wire.
MIG/MAG - Principle of Operation Process Characteristics
• DCEP from CV power source.

• Wire 0.6-1.6mm diameter. Gas shielded.
• Wire fed through conduit. Melt rate maintains
constant arc length/arc voltage.
• WFS directly related to burn-off rate.
• Burn-off rate directly related to current.
• Semi-automatic - set controls arc length.
• Can be mechanised and automated.
MIG/MAG Equipment Wire Feeding
External wire Transformer/

feed unit Rectifier
Internal wire feed

system
Power cable
Power control and hose
panel assembly
Liner for wire

15kg wire spool
Power return Welding gun Separate feeder Feeder in set
cable assembly
13-1
Feeder Drive Rolls Types of Wire Drive System
Internal wire drive system Plain top roller
Two roll Four roll Push-pull
Half grooved bottom roller Wire guide

Roll Grooves Liners for MIG/MAG
• Often have plain top roll.

• Bottom, and sometimes top, roll grooved.
• V shape for steel.
• U shape for softer wire, eg Al.
• Knurled for positive feed.
• Care needed on tightness of rolls.
– Too light – rolls skid, wire stalls.
– Too tight – rolls deform wire, wire can jam.
Close wound Teflon liner
• If wire stops arc burns back to contact tube. stainless steel
wire.
Welding Gun Types Torch Components

Welding gun assembly (less Welding gun body
Swan neck nozzle)
On/Off switch
Spatter
protection Hose port
Nozzles or Spot welding

Push-pull shrouds spacer
Gas diffuser Contact tips

13-2
Push-Pull Torch Assembly Power Source Characteristic
Gas diffuser Small change in voltage = large change in amperage

Contact tip
Union nut
V
WFS remote
control
Trigger potentiometer
Gas nozzle
i
Self-Adjusting Arc Self-Adjusting Arc
Feed speed = burn off V up, i down, burn off Wire advances, i Feed speed = burn off V down, i up, burn off Wire retracts, i
down. Feed speed > increases until: Feed up. Feed speed < burn decreases until: Feed
burn off speed = burn off off speed = burn off
Welding Parameters Wire Feed Speed / Current Relationship

Wire feed speed: 500
• Increasing wfs automatically gives more current. 450
400
Voltage:
350
• In spray, controls arc length and bead width.
Welding Current, A
300
Current: 0.8
250
• Not separately set. Mainly affects penetration. 200

0.9
1.2
Inductance: 150
1.6
• In dip, controls rise in current. Lowers spatter. Gives hotter 100
or colder welding. 50
More info on several websites, eg: 0
www.millerwelds.com/resources/articles/MIG-GMAW-welding-
2.5 5 7.5 10
Wire Feed Speed, m/min
basics
13-3
Process Variables Process Variables
Electrode
Arc voltage: orientation.
Increasing Voltage.
Reduced penetration, increased width.
Excessive voltage can cause porosity, Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow
spatter and undercut.
Electrode Excess weld metal Max Moderate Min
extension. Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
Travel speed:
Increasing travel speed.
Reduced penetration and width,
undercut. Increased extension
Shielding Gas Transition Current Dip to Spray

Argon:
Material Shielding Gas Wire Dia, mm Transition
• OK for all metals weldable by MIG. Current, A
• Supports spray transfer, not good for dip. 0.8 155-165
0.9 175-185
• Low penetration. Ar + 10%CO2
1.2 215-225
Carbon dioxide: C-Steel 1.6 280-290
0.9 130-140
• Use on Ferritic steel.
Ar +2%O2 1.2 205-215
• Supports dip and globular, not spray. 1.6 265-275
Ar based mixtures: 0.8 120-130
Stainless 0.9 140-150
• Add He, O2, CO2 to increase penetration. Ar +2%O2
Steel 1.2 185-195
• >20Ar + He, >80Ar + O2, CO2 can spray and dip. 1.6 250-260
MIG and MAG Shielding Gases Metal Transfer Modes

Metal inert gas (MIG): Depending on shielding gas and voltage, metal
• Usually Ar shielding. crosses from wire to work in:
• Can be Ar + He mixture - gives hotter action. • Spray mode - wire tapers to a point and very fine
• Used for non-ferrous alloys, eg Al, Ni. droplets stream across from the tip.
Metal active gas (MAG): • Globular mode - large droplets form and drop
under action of gravity and arc force.
• Has oxidising gas shield.
• Short-circuiting (dip) mode - wire touches pool
• Can be 100% CO2 for ferritic steels. surface before arc re-ignition.
• Often Ar + 12-20% CO2 for both dip and spray. • Pulsed mode - current and voltage cycled
• Ar + O2 for stainless steel. between no transfer and spray mode.
13-4
Use of Transfer Modes Droplet Growth and Detachment
Spray transfer: V > 27; i > 220. • Current heating wire causes melting and droplet
• Thicker material, flat welding, high deposition. formation.
Globular transfer: between dip and spray. • Droplet held by surface tension and viscosity.
• Mechanised MAG process using CO2. • Droplet detachment by electromagnetic forces
(Lorentz and arc forces), gravity.
Dip transfer: V < 22; i < 200.
• Electromagnetic forces proportional to current t
• Thin material positional welding.
hence dip at low current.
Pulse Transfer: spray + no transfer cycle.
• Frequency range 50-300 pulses/second.
• Positional welding and root runs.
Dip Transfer Lorentz Force Pinch Effect
• Droplet stays attached and touches pool causing short-

circuit.
• Current rises very quickly giving energy to pinch-off
droplet violently.
• Akin to blowing a fuse - causes spatter.
• Droplet detaches, arc re-establishes and current falls.
• Cycle occurs up to 200 times per second.
Inductance Effect Practical Effect of Inductance
Inductance slows rise of current during short-circuit. Maximum inductance: Minimum inductance:
• Reduced spatter. • Colder arc used for
• Hotter arc more wide gaps.
No penetration.
inductance • Convex weld, more
• fluid weld pool flatter, spatter.
Current With smoother weld. • Good pool control.
inductance • Good for thicker materials
• Recommended on
and stainless steels.
thin materials.
Time
13-5
Dip Transfer Attributes Globular Transfer
Advantages: • Transfer by gravity or short

• Low energy allows welding in all positions. circuit.
• Good for root runs in single-sided welds. • Requires CO2 shielding.
• Good for welding thin material. • Drops larger than electrode
Disadvantages: hence severe spatter.
• Prone to lack of fusion. • Can use low voltage and bury
• May not be allowed for high-integrity arc to reduce spatter.
applications. • High current and voltage, so
• Tends to give spatter. high distortion.
Gas Metal Arc Welding Spray Transfer

Spray transfer: • Tapered tip as anode climbs
When current and voltage are raised together higher energy
wire.
is available for fusion (typically > ~ 25 volts and ~ 250 amps).
This causes a fine droplets of weld metal to be sprayed from • Small droplets with free flight
the tip of the wire into the weld pool. from pinch effect.
Transfer-mode advantages:
• Requires Ar-rich gas.
• High energy gives good fusion.
• High rates of weld metal deposition are given. • High current and voltage,
• These characteristics make it suitable for welding thicker high distortion.
joints.
• Large pool, not positional.
• Transfer-mode disadvantages.
• It cannot be used for positional welding. • Used for thick material and
flat/horizontal welds.
Pulsed Transfer Electronic Generation
Simplest form uses mains frequency and chops to • Now use synthesised pulsed can have height,
control current. duration and frequency control.
• Droplets spray during peak current for time above
threshold.
i
• No transfer during background - current too low
for dip.
t
• Can select conditions to give single drop transfer
i
each pulse - synergic MIG.
13-6
Pulsed Transfer Attributes Setting Torch to Work Distance
Advantages:
• Good fusion. Contact tip
• Small weld pool allows all-position welding.

Gas nozzle
Disadvantages:
Contact tip
• More complex and expensive power source. setback
Electrode
Contact tip-to-
• Difficult to set parameters. Nozzle-to-work
(stand-off)
extension
work distance
distance Arc length

• But synergic easy to set, manufacturer
provides programmes to suit wire type,
diameter and type of gas. Workpiece
Contact Tip to Work Distance Contact Tip to Nozzle Distance
Metal transfer mode Contact tip to nozzle

Metal transfer mode CWTD, mm Dip +/- 2mm
Spray 4-8mm inside
Dip 10-15 Spray (Al) 6-10mm inside
Spray 20-25
Electrode extension
Contact tip 19-25mm
Contact tip extension
Pulse 15-20 (0-3.2mm) Electrode recessed
extension (3-5mm)
6-13mm
Set up for Dip transfer Set up for Spray transfer

Filler Wire Filler Wire Packaging
• Similar composition to base material.

• Solid, flux cored or metal cored.
• FCW run in spray, give good fusion.
• Slag of FCW allows all-positional welding.
• Metal cored wires similar to solid wires, but better Layer wound on
deposition rate. spool 15kg
Machine wound on
• Some FCW are self-shielded. basket 16kg
Pre-twisted into bulk

pack 300kg
13-7
Filler Wire Feeding Cast and Helix
Manufacturer needs to control: Cast:

• Helix. • Pull ~ 1m wire from the reel or drum and toss it onto
floor. Diameter of loop is the cast.
• Cast.
• If cast is too small, wire will rub the walls of liner and may
• Lubrication. judder.
• Stiffness. Helix:
• Loop used to demonstrate cast also shows helix.
• Clip loop to single circle, hang over a horizontal bar -
offset between ends is the helix.
• Excessive helix can give wear of contact tip and wander
of the wire and arc across the bead.
Lubrication and Stiffness Potential Defects

Lubrication: • Most defects caused by lack of welder skill, or
• Welding wires need thin layer of lubricant to give efficient incorrect settings of equipment.
feeding through the liner.
• Worn contact tip causes poor power pick up and
• Drawn wire has oil film left from the process.
this causes wire to stub into work.
• Manufacturers control lubrication of final stages of drawing
and winding to improve feeding. • Silica inclusions build in steels if poor inter-run
Stiffness: cleaning.
• C-Mn steel wires are in a cold-drawn state but some alloys • Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer).
may be annealed prior to final draw.
• Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc).
• Al alloys, even cold-drawn, have poor stiffness so difficult
to feed. May need plastic liner and even two motor, push- • Cracking, centerline pipes, crater pipes on deep
pull feeding system. narrow welds.
MIG/MAG Attributes
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• High productivity. • Lack of fusion (dip).
• Easily automated. • Small range of
• All positional (dip and consumables.
pulse). Flux Core Arc Welding
• Protection on site.
• Material thickness
range. • Complex equipment.
• Continuous electrode. • Not so portable.
13-8
Gas Shielded Principle of Operation Self-Shielded Principle of Operation
Benefit of Flux FCAW - Differences from MIG/MAG
• Flux assists in producing gas cover, more • Usually operate DCEP but
tolerant to draughts than solid wire. some self-shielded wires
run DCEN.
• Flux creates slag that protects hot metal.
• Some hardfacing wires
• Slag holds bead when positional welding. are larger diameter - need
• Flux alloying can improve weld metal properties. big power source.
• Reduced cross-section carrying current gives • Don't work in dip.
increased burn-off at any current. • Need knurled feed rolls.
• Self-shielded wires use a
different torch.
Self-Shielded Welding Gun Travel Angle
Close wound stainless steel spring 24V insulated

Handle
wire liner (inside welding gun switch lead
cable)
Conductor
tube
Trigger Welding gun

cable 75° 90° 75°
Thread protector
Hand shield
Contact tip
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

13-9
Backhand (Drag) Technique Forehand (Push) Technique
Advantages: Disadvantages: Advantages: Disadvantages:

• Preferred for flat or • Produces higher weld • Preferred method for • Produces low weld
horizontal with FCAW. profile. vertical up or overhead profile, with coarser
• Slower travel. • Difficult to follow weld with FCAW. ripples.
• Deeper penetration. joint. • Arc gives preheat effect. • Fast travel gives low
• Weld hot longer so • Can lead to burn- • Easy to follow weld joint penetration.
gasses removed. through on thin sheet. and control penetration. • Amount of spatter can
increase.
FCAW Advantages Deposition Rate for C-Steel
• Less sensitive to lack of fusion.

• Smaller included angle compared to MMA.
• High productivity.
• All positional.
• Smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut.
• Basic types produce excellent toughness.
• Good control of weld pool in positional welding
especially with rutile wires.
• Ease of varying alloying constituents gives wide range
of consumables.
• Some can run without shielding gas.
FCAW Disadvantages Electrogas Welding
• Limited to steels and Ni-base alloys. • Vertical position process.

• Slag covering must be removed. • Single pass to weld complete thickness.
• FCAW wire is more expensive per kg than solid • Water-cooled copper shoes on either side of
wires (except some high alloy steels) but note thick vertical plates.
may be more cost effective. • Wide gap makes well in which molten pool can
• Gas shielded wires may be affected by winds and form.
draughts like MIG. • Wire fed into well which is flooded with gas.
• More fume than MIG/MAG. • Shoes are leapfrogged over each other as weld
rises to top of each.
13-10
Tandem Welding Adaptive Control
• Large diameter contact tip has two wires • Electronic control detects arc events and machine
passing through it. automatically compensates.
• Single power source. • Example is Lincoln Surface Tension TransferTM -
• Arcs form into a single pool from each wire. dip transfer without spatter.
• Benefit is the increased current density, eg 2 x • Machine detects short-circuit and applies high
current to pinch off droplet.
0.8mm dia instead of 1 x 1.6mm diameter.
• Just as it detaches, current is dropped to low value
to avoid explosive collapse of droplet.
• Current then immediately high to restart arc and
decays to setting to start next cycle.
13-11
Early History
• Bernados and Olszewaski often cited as inventors from

1885 British patent but this was carbon arc welding with
Welding Processes and Equipment two electrodes.
• Coffin in 1890 gained US patent for replacing one carbon
with metal rod. First instance of metal transfer through an
Manual Metal Arc Welding arc.
• Slavianoff also suggested using metal rods.
• In 1908 Kjellberg patented coated electrode – dipped in
TWI Training & Examination Services CaCO3, clay and silicate.
• In 1909 Strohmenger patented asbestos wound rods,
stable on AC.
Developments MMA - Principle of Operation
• In WW1 US short of asbestos rods. Smith tried paper Electrode angle 75‐80o to

making first cellulosic rod. the horizontal
• Extruded electrodes appeared in the 1920s. AO Smith Consumable electrode
Filler metal core
selling heavy coated rods in 1926.
Flux coating
• Rutile tried in 1930s, for flat and horizontal welding. Direction of electrode travel
• Roberts made rutile VODEX (Vertical, Overhead, Solidified slag Arc Gaseous shield
Downhand for Murex) in 1936.
Molten weld pool
• MMA dominated welding 1940s to 1980s
• Also known as Shielded Metal Arc Welding. Parent metal
Weld metal
MMA Welding MMA Basic Equipment
Main features:
• Shielding provided by decomposition of flux.
Control panel
• Consumable electrode. (amps, volts)
Power source
• Manual process.
Electrode Holding oven
Welder controls: oven
• Arc length. Electrodes Inverter power

source
• Angle of electrode. Return lead
Electrode holder
• Speed of travel.
Welding visor
• Current setting. filter glass Power cables
14-1
Constant Current Power Source MMA Electrode Holder
100
O.C.V. Striking voltage

90
(typical) for arc initiation
80
70
60
Voltage
50
40
Normal Operating
30 Voltage Range
20
10
20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200
Amperage Collet or twist type Tongs type with spring-loaded jaws

Process Characteristics Cellulosic Electrodes
• Straight lengths of coated electrode 250-450mm • Use industrially extracted cellulose powder, or wood flour
in the formula.
long and 1.6-6.0mm diameter.
• Characteristic smell when welding.
• DCEP, DCEN and AC all possible.
• Slag remains thin and friable, although arc force can
• Coatings grouped: create undercut and/or excessive ripple which may
– Cellulosic. anchor the slag.
– Iron oxide. • Strong arc action and deep penetration.
– Rutile. • AWS E6010 types DC; E6011 run on AC.
• Gas shield principally hydrogen.
– Basic.
• Only used on C- and C-Mn steels.
– With or without iron powder.
• High arc force allows V-D stovepiping.
Rutile Electrodes Rutile High Recovery Electrodes
• High amount of TiO2, (rutile sand or ilmenite). • High amount Fe powder added.
• Coatings often coloured. • More weld metal laid at the same current.
• AWS type E6012 are DC; E6013 run on AC. • Coating much thicker, forms deep cup.
• Many designed for flat position. • End of coating can rest on workpiece.
• Fluid slag, smooth bead, easy slag removal. • Slag easy release, sometimes self-releasing.
• Need some moisture to give gas shield. • Only for flat position.
• Not low hydrogen. • These AWS E7024 have recovery between
• Available for ferritic and austenitic steels. 150- 180%.
• Fair mechanical properties. • Recovery = Weld metal wt x100/core wire wt.
14-2
Basic Electrodes Other MMA Coatings
• CaCO3 and CaF2 main ingredients. AWS E7028:

• AWS E7015 first modern basic rods. Ran DC. • Basic with high levels of Fe powder added.
• Superseded by E7016 or E7018 - AC and DC. • Flat and horizontal only.
• E7018 has Fe powder to help stabilise arc. • Good mechanical properties.
• E7016 good rooting and all positional. AWS E6020:
• Both can give good mechanical properties. • High levels of iron oxide.
• Often hybrid; small dia. no Fe powder, larger dia. • Rare now, used for painted steel.
increasing amounts. • High arc force, relatively poor properties.
• Used for ferritic, stainless steels, Ni and Cu. Asbestos wound:
• No longer permitted.
Setting up for MMA Welding Process Characteristics
• Slag will help clean but rust and scale must be • Arc melts both electrode and parent plate.
removed. For stainless and Ni wire brush. • Flux forms gas to protect and form a plasma and
• Edge preparation usually needed: slag to protect hot metal.
– 60° for Ferritic – deep penetration rods available.
• Short runs as finite length electrode.
– 70-90° for stainless and Cu - less forceful rods.
• Must deslag before next run.
– Up to 90° for Ni alloys - sluggish, viscous pool.
– Root gap 1-3mm for most applications.
• Good earth connection. Weld towards it on DC to
minimise arc blow (or use AC).
MMA Welding Variables MMA Welding Parameters

Open circuit voltage (OCV): Current:
• Value of potential difference delivered by set with • Range set by electrode, diameter, material type and
thickness.
no load. Must be enough for specific electrode.
• Approx 35A per mm diameter.
• Electrodes labelled with min OCV, usually ~80V.
• Too low - poor start, lack of fusion, slag inclusions,
Voltage: humped bead shape.
• Measure arc voltage close to arc. • Too high - spatter, excess penetration, undercut, burn-
• Variable with change in arc length. through.
Polarity:
• Too low, electrode stubs into weld pool.
• Can be DCEP, DCEN, AC.
• Too high, spatter, porosity, excess penetration, • Determined by operation and electrode type.
undercut, burn-through.
14-3
MMA Welding Parameters MMA – Parameter Setting
Travel speed: Left to right:

• Controlled by welder. • Good conditions.
• Often measured as run-out length as time to • Current too low.
burn single rod fairly standard at constant
current. • Current too high.
• Too low - wide bead, excess penetration, burn- • Arc length too short.
through. • Arc length too long.
• Too high - narrow bead, lack of penetration, lack • Travel too slow.
of fusion, difficult slag removal. • Travel too fast.
Typical Current Ranges Heat Input

Type EN Specification Dia. mm Current Range,
A
Cellulosic, mild
E38 0 C 11
3.2
4.0
90 – 120
120 – 160
• Total energy put in weld bead in unit time.
steel
5.0 135 – 200
2.0 40 – 70 • Calculated as: HI (kJ/mm) = 60iVk/1000S.
2.5 75 – 100
Rutile, mild steel
all-positional
E 35 2 R12
3.2
4.0
95 – 125
135 – 180
– Where:
5.0 155 – 230
6.0 185 – 300 – i = current in Amps.
2.5 85 – 125
Rutile,mild steel
high recovery, E42 0 RR73
3.2
4.0
130 – 170
180 – 230
– V = voltage in Volts.
160% 5.0
6.0
250 – 340
300 – 430 – S = travel speed in mm/min.
2.0 50 – 75
E69 4 Mn2NiCrMo
2.5 70 – 110 – k = thermal efficiency factor.
Basic, low alloy 3.2 100 – 150
B42 H5
4.0
5.0
135 – 210
180 – 260
– k = 0.8 for MMA, MIG/MAG and FCAW.
1.6 35 – 45
2.0 35 – 65 – k = 0.6 for TIG and plasma.
2.5 50 – 90
Rutile, stainless E19 9 LR12
3.2
4.0
70 – 130
90 – 180
– k = 1.0 for SAW.
5.0 140 – 250
2.5 60 – 90
Basic, Cu 7Sn 3.2 90 – 125
4.0 125 – 170
Stringer or Weave Multipass or Block Welding

Weave: • In thick material, typical bead won’t fill groove.
• Lateral swings as well as moving along joint. • Move slowly allowing metal to build but limited in flat
• Useful to assist side wall fusion. position.
• Run-out is shorter so heat input is higher. • Vertical, can triangular weave - into root along one
edge, out along other, across face.
• Slows cooling rate, poorer toughness.
• Block welding very high HI so poor properties.
Stringer bead: • Use multiple layers - multipass welding.
• Run weld bead in straight line along joint. • Need good cleaning of slag between runs.
• Lower heat input per unit length. • Excellent properties, each bead heat treats one
• Can be too low – martensite in steel so poor below. Can give with high toughness.
toughness.
14-4
Skip or Back-Step Welding Preheat
• Technique to minimise distortion. • Ferritic steels must not have hydrogen diffusing
• 30-50mm weld made then move ~150mm along and inducing cracking.
seam and lay another short run. • Can apply preheat to slow rate of cooling giving
• Continue to end of seam. hydrogen time to be released.
• Return to start and make 30-50mm welds in • Preheat may be with gas torch and large nozzle
gaps. or electrically heated blankets.
• Repeat until seam completely welded. • Preheat specified as a minimum. Parent plate
• Large number of starts and stops may have near weld must be heated. Check with probe or
defects like porosity or cracking. temperature sensitive crayons.
Interpass Temperature Operating Factor for MMA
• In multipass welding must avoid heat build up. • Welder needs time to change rods.
Can lower strength and toughness. • Also has to de-slag weld bead and grind any
• Maximum interpass may be specified. imperfections.
• May be required to observe interpass temperatures.
• Note preheat still applicable so may have
minimum interpass temperature (equivalent to • Inspection will be required.
original preheat) and maximum. • On long runs welder has to reposition.
• All reduce time weld metal is deposited.
• Arc time % to total time is operating factor. For MMA
this is rarely above 30%.
Electrode Classification – EN499 Electrode Classification – EN499
E (for electrode) followed by 2 digit strength. Symbol for toughness.

Temperature,
Min Yield Symbol °C, for average
Tensile Strength Minimum of 47J
Symbol Strength
N/mm Elongation %
N/mm Z No requirement
A +20
35 355 440-570 22
0 0
38 380 470-600 20
2 -20
42 420 500-640 20 3 -30
46 460 530-680 20 4 -40
5 -50
50 500 560-720 18
6 -60
14-5
Symbol for composition. Symbol for flux type.
Symbol Chemical composition % max or range
Mn Mo Ni Symbol Coating
No symbol 2.0 - - A acid
Mo 1.4 0.3-0.6 - C cellulosic
MnMo >1.4-2.0 0.3-0.6 - R rutile
1Ni 1.4 - 0.6-1.2 RR thick rutile
2Ni 1.4 - 1.8-2.6 RC rutile-cellulosic
3Ni 1.4 - >2.6-3.8 RA rutile-acid
Mn1Ni >1.4-2.0 - 0.6-1.2 RB rutile-basic
1NiMo 1.4 0.3-0.6 0.6-1.2 B basic
Z Any other agreed composition
Non-compulsory symbol for recovery and polarity. Non-compulsory symbol for position.
Weld metal
Symbol Current type
recovery % Symbol Welding position
1 <= 105 AC or DC+ 1 All positions
2 <= 105 DC+ or DC- All positions except V-
2
3 >105<=125 AC or DC+ down
4 >105<=125 DC+ or DC- Flat butt and fillet welds,

3
HV fillet weld
5 >125<=160 AC or DC+
4 Flat
6 >125<=160 DC+ or DC-
V-down, flat butt, flat and
7 >160 AC or DC+ 5
HV fillet welds
8 >160 DC+ or DC-
Electrode Classification – EN499 Full EN499 Designation
Non-compulsory symbol for hydrogen. Example: E42 2 B32H5.

• Basic C-Mn steel electrode.
• Weld metal YS 420N/mm2.
Max hydrogen • Better than 47J at -20°C.
Symbol
ml/100gms weld metal
H5 5 • Recovery >105%.
H10 10 • AC or DCEP in all positions except V-D.
H15 15
• <5ml hydrogen in the weld metal.
14-6
Typical Welding Defects Advantages and Disadvantages
Most caused by: Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Lack of welder skill.
• Incorrect settings of equipment. • Field or shop use. • High welder skill.
• Incorrect use or treatment of electrodes. • Range of • High levels of fume.
Typical defects: consumables.
• Slag inclusions.
• Hydrogen control
• Arc strikes. • All positions. (flux).
• Porosity. • Portable. • Stop/start problems.
• Undercut.
• Shape defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, • Simple equipment. • Low productivity.
etc).
14-7
History of the Process
• In 1929 Robinoff in USA patented continuous wire

process with flux – but visible arc.
Welding Processes and Equipment • In 1935 Union Carbide/Linde patented fully
submerged arc – called Unionmelt.
Submerged Arc Welding • Licensed around world with fused flux.
• Used for Liberty Ships, T2 Tankers in WW2.
TWI Training & Examination Services • In 1949 Lincoln offered agglomerated flux.
SAW Principle of Operation Process Characteristics
• Arc between bare wire and parent plate.

• Arc, electrode end and the molten pool
submerged in powdered flux.
• Flux makes gas and slag in lower layers under
heat of arc giving protection.
• Wire fed by voltage-controlled motor driven rollers
to ensure constant arc length.
Process Characteristics SAW Basic Equipment

• Flux fed from hopper in continuous mound along
line of intended weld. Power return
Transformer/
Rectifier
• Mound is deep to submerge arc. No spatter, cable
weld shielded from atmosphere, no UV on Power control Welding carriage
control unit
welder. panel
• Unmelted flux reclaimed for use. Welding carriage
• Only for flat and horizontal-vertical positions. Granulated flux Electrode wire
reel
Granulated flux
15-1
Types of Equipment SAW Equipment
Wire reel
Hand-held gun Slides

Flux hopper
Tractor
Wire feed motor

Feed roll assembly
Torch assembly
Tracking system
Column and boom Gantry Contact tip
Courtesy of ESAB AB
Tractor Units Column and Boom
• For straight or gently • Linear travel only.

curved joints.
• Ride tracks alongside • Can move in 3 axes.
joint or directly on • Workpiece must be
workpiece. brought to weld station.
• Can have guide wheels
to track. • Mostly used in
workshop.
• Good portability, used Courtesy of ESAB AB
where piece cannot be

moved.
Courtesy of ESAB AB
Gantry Power Sources

Power sources can be:
• 2D linear movement • Transformers for AC.
only.
• Transformer-rectifiers for DC.
• For large production.
Static characteristic can be:
• May have more than
one head. • Constant voltage (flat) - most popular.
• Constant current (drooping) - used for high
current.
15-2
CV Power CC Power
• Most commonly used. • Preferred >1000A.

• Can be mechanised or automatic welding. • Can be mechanised or automatic welding.
• Self-regulating arc so simple WFS control. • Not self-regulating arc so must have voltage-
• WFS controls current, power supply controls sensing WFS control.
voltage. • More expensive.
• DC limited to 1000A by severe arc blow. • Voltage from WFS control, power source
controls current.
• Not for high-speed welding of thin steel.
Wire Fused Fluxes
• Usually 2-6mm diameter. • Original Unionmelt design - manganese,

• Copper coated to avoid rusting. aluminium and calcium silicates.
• 25 or 30kg coils. • Non-hygroscopic, no need to bake.
• Can be supplied in bulk 300-2000kg. • Good for recycling, composition doesn’t vary.
• Some can accept up to 2000A.
• Very limited alloying and property control.
• Cannot make basic fused flux.
Bonded or Agglomerated Flux SAW Operating Variables

• Powdered minerals pelletised with silicate. • Welding current.
• Baked to high temperature but hygroscopic. • Current type and polarity.
• Flexible composition, can alloy, make basic. • Welding voltage.
• Can add deoxidants for good properties. • Travel speed.
• Composition can vary as particle breakdown. • Electrode size.
• Need to extract fines when recycling. • Electrode extension.
• Can add Mn and Si to weld so separate. formulae • Width and depth of the layer of flux.
for single or multipass.
15-3
Welding Current Setting Current
Controls penetration and dilution: • Too high excess weld metal, increased
shrinkage, more distortion.
• Excessively high digging arc, undercut, burn
through, narrow bead cracking.
• Too low lack of fusion, poor penetration.
• Excessively low unstable arc.
Current Type and Polarity Welding Voltage
• DCEP - deep
• Controls arc length.
penetration; better for
porosity. • Increase gives flatter,
wider bead.
• DCEN - higher
deposition rate; • Increase also in flux
reduce penetration; consumption and
surfacing use. alloying transfer.
• Increase reduces
• AC used to avoid arc
blow; can give porosity.
unstable arc. • Can bridge root gaps.
Setting Voltage Setting Voltage
• Low voltage - stiffer arc Excessively high voltage:

penetration in deep groove • Produces hat-shaped bead -
and resists arc blow. tendency to crack.
• Excessive low voltage - high • Increases undercut, slag
narrow bead, difficult slag removal difficult.
removal. • Produce concave fillet weld
subject to cracking.
15-4
Setting Travel Speed Setting Travel Speed
• Excessively high speed

Increase gives: leads to undercut, arc blow
• Low heat input. and porosity.
• Less filler metal applied • Excessively low speed
per unit of length. produces hat-shaped
• Less excess weld metal. beads cracking.
• Smaller weld bead. • Excessively low speed
produces rough beads and
slag inclusions.
Electrode Size Electrode Extension

Increased extension:
At same current, small • Adds resistance.
electrodes have higher • Increases deposition.
current density so higher
• Decreases penetration and
deposition rates. bead width.
• Helps prevent burn-
through.
• Increase voltage to control
weld shape.
Excessive extension:
• Difficult to position tip.
Depth of Flux Effect of Electrode Angle on Bead Shape
• Influences appearance of weld.

• Usually, depth of flux is 25-30mm.
• If too deep:
– Arc too confined so rough rope-like top surface.
– Gases trapped so pool surface distorted.
• If too shallow:
– Flashing and spattering. Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow
– Poor appearance and porous weld. Excess weld metal Max Moderate Min
Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
15-5
Electrode to Work Angle Work Angle for Flat Fillet
Typical work Smaller work Larger work

Exception - when more
angle = 40° angles reduce angles increase Correct penetration is required
penetration penetration
Weld Backing Starting/Finishing the Weld
Backing strip
Backing weld
Copper backing
Increasing Productivity Increasing Heat Input
There are four main ways: Use smaller diameter wire at same current
• Increase heat input. Increase current, use larger wire
• Keep same heat input but add more metal.
• Use narrower preparation.
• Use more heads simultaneously. Deposition rate in Kg/h at
min and max current
15-6
Same Heat Input Twin Wire
Increase deposition rate with: • Two small diameter wires run through single
• Fine wire diameters. contact tip.
• Hot or cold wire additions. • 50% smaller cross-sectional area gives higher
• Tubular flux and metal cored electrode wires. current density at the same current.
• Metal powder additions. • Higher burn-off so greater deposition rate.
• Increased electrode extension. Viz:
• DCEN polarity. 4.0mm wire: area = π x 22 = 12.57mm2.
2 x 2.0mm wires: area = 2 x π x 12 = 6.28mm2.
Hot or Cold Wire Feed Cored Wires

• Arc energy normally melting base material can be • Same as MIG/MAG, sheath is conductive path for
used to melt additional filler. a cored wire.
• Wires are pushed through the flux into the molten • Effectively much reduced cross-sectional area so
weld pool. higher current density.
• Can use wire feeder without connecting to power • Increased deposition rate.
source – cold wire feeding. • Cored wires can be used in twin wire set-up to
• Can pass wire through contact tip to pick up give greatly increased deposition.
current, resistive heating to near melting.
• Gives greater deposition than cold wire before
risk of lack of fusion.
Metal Powder Metal Powder

• Arc energy will melt significant metal powder • Can attract powder onto wire magnetically.
increasing deposition rate. • Carried by wire into pool through flux layer.
• Dispensing equipment is cheap and simple. • Higher addition possible, up to 9kg/hr.
• Forward feed, powder supplied from bucket wheel • Used for fillets and small dia. circumferential
dispenser ahead of weld. seams not practical for forward feed method.
• Reduced penetration so not for roots. • For high toughness different compositions for two
• Typically 5kg/hr added reducing number of weld methods due to the different elemental recovery
passes by 30-50%. rates.
• Reduced flux consumption offset extra cost of
powder.
15-7
Metal Powder Addition Methods Electrode Extension
• Electrode extension distance wire protrudes

beyond contact tip.
• Resistive heating proportional to i2R.
• R proportional to length of stick-out.
• Longer the extension, the greater the heating
and therefore melting (as much as 25-50%).
Forward feed system Magnetic attraction method
DCEN Narrow Gap Welding
• DCEN gives greater • No increase in deposition rate but significantly

burn-off at same reduced weld volume.
current. • Small angle preparations, typically 2-20°.
• Lower penetration so • Less weld metal, less welding time to fill.
not usual in butt • In SAW one run fuses both sides of preparation,
welding. each run laid directly on last.
• First choice for • Require specialised equipment, as root difficult
surfacing. to reach.
Multiple Heads Potential Defects
• 2-6 wires in line astern. Porosity:

• Each has power source. • Oil, paint, grease, etc decompose in the arc to
• All feed into one pool. give elongated wormhole porosity.
• DCEP first wire only. • Flux must be dry. Manufacturer's give drying
• Trailing wires on AC to temperatures.
avoid arc blow. • Compressed air flux recovery units need dry air.
• Can have one head either • Insufficient flux burden can expose arc and pool
side of job (eg web onto to atmospheric contamination.
flange).
15-8
Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking
• Control composition, susceptibility predictor.
In the root beads of a multi-run weld
230C + 190S + 75P + 45Nb - 12.3Si - 5.4Mn - 1
• Add Mn and Si to counter C, S and P, either in
wire or through flux.
• Depth to width ratio important. Caused by high speed giving a long
– W much greater than D - surface cracks likely. deep weld pool in first pass
– D much greater than W - centreline cracks likely.
– D similar to W - sound welds.
Caused by high restraint and root gap
Solidification cracking BS EN756 Classification
Mushroom shaped weld penetration resulting from S (for SAW) plus 2 digit strength (multirun).
high voltage combined with low speed.
Min. Yield Min.Elongation
Symbol Min. UTS N/mm2
N/mm2 %
35 355 440-570 22
38 380 470-600 20
42 420 500-640 20
46 460 530-680 20
50 500 560-720 18
BS EN756 Classification BS EN756 Classification
S plus 2 digit strength (2 pass). Digits to show toughness.

Temp. for Min Impact
Symbol
Energy 47J at °C
Min Tensile Z No requirements
Min Yield Parent
Symbol Strength of Welded A +20
Metal N/mm2
Joint N/mm2 0 0
2 -20
3 -30
2T 275 370
4 -40
3T 355 470 5 -50
4T 420 520 6 -60
7 -70
5T 500 600
8 -80
15-9
BS EN756 Classification BS EN756 Classification
Symbol for flux type. • Final table lists composition of 22 wires.

Flux Type Symbol • All prefixed S followed by a number from 1-4
manganese-silicate MS denoting from 0.5% Mn (1) to 2% Mn (4).
calcium-silicate CS
• Addition of Ni and/or Mo denoted by chemical
zirconium-silicate ZS
rutile-silicate RS
symbol and whole number for %. No number
aluminate-rutile AR
means ca 0.5%.
aluminate-basic AB – S3 wire contains 1.5% Mn.
aluminate-silicate AS
– S2Ni1Mo has 1% Mn,1% Ni and 0.5% Mo.
aluminate-fluoride basic AF
fluoride-basic FB
any other type Z
Advantages of SAW Disadvantages of SAW
• High current density, deposition, productivity. • Only flat and horizontal positions.
• Deep penetration so narrow grooves. • Limited to C, low alloy, creep resisting, stainless
• Fast travel speed, less distortion. steels and nickel alloys.
• Easy deslagging. • High HI can give low impact strength.
• Good surface finish and fatigue properties. • Need flux handling and recirculation control.
• Mechanised, high duty cycle, low skill level. • Difficult to apply on-site.
• Consistent quality. • High capital costs.
• Arc not visible so no UV hazard. • Straight or circumferential seams only.
• Low fume. • Needs accurate fit-up.
History
• Many cite Hopkins (US) as inventor in 1939.

• Mostly electroslag remelting, even surfacing
reference still remelting.
• Paton Institute developed process in 1950s.
Electroslag Welding • Shrubsall (US) consumable guide in 1957.
• Much used in the US buildings in 1960s, 1970s.
• Very poor toughness led to ban.
• Earthquake 1994 showed no problem to ESW.
• Ban lifted in 2000.
15-10
Principle Variants of ESW
• Thick vertical plates, square edge, large gap.

• Copper shoes on either side make well.
• Wire fed to bottom, usually through tube that also
melts (consumable guide).
• Flux covers wire end.
• Initial arc melts wire and flux.
• Molten flux conductive, floods arc so wire melts Guide tube system
through resistive heating of flux.
Consumable guide
• Weld completed in single pass.
Process Characteristics Materials Welded
• After initiation arc extinguishes, wire melted • Mostly used on C and C-Mn steel.
rapidly by resistive heating. • Has been used on stainless and Ni alloys by
• Welds up to 300mm made in single pass. Paton Institute.
• Copper guide tube used in standard process. • Also claimed to weld Ti successfully.
Oscillated, slowly lifted as weld progresses. • Al is possible but not welded commercially.
• Tubular consumable guide not lifted so melts into • Process developed for rail track joining but
pool. Not usually oscillated either. although better quality than Thermite did not gain
• Very slow cooling, near equilibrium structure. favour.
• PWHT to gain properties.
Advantages and Disadvantages
• Speed ~1 hr per m whatever • Grain growth gives very
thickness. large grains and poor
• No angular distortion. toughness.
• Low lateral distortion. • Limited to vertical or near
• Defect-free. vertical position.
• Simple flame-cut square • Except cladding
edge. modification - flat.
• Can be used for cladding • Difficult to examine with
(major application now). NDT.
15-11
History
• Many cite Hopkins (US) as inventor in 1939.

• Mostly electroslag remelting, even surfacing
Welding Processes and Equipment reference still remelting.
• Paton Institute developed process in 1950s.
Electroslag Welding • Shrubsall (US) consumable guide in 1957.
• Much used in US buildings in 1960s, 1970s.
TWI Training & Examination Services • Very poor toughness led to ban.
• Earthquake 1994 showed no problem to ESW.
• Ban lifted in 2000.
Principle Variants of ESW
• Thick vertical plates, square edge, large gap.

• Copper shoes on either side make well.
• Wire fed to bottom, usually through tube that
also melts (consumable guide).
• Flux covers wire end.
• Initial arc melts wire and flux.
Guide tube system
• Molten flux conductive, floods arc so wire melts
through resistive heating of flux.
• Weld completed in single pass. Consumable guide
Process Characteristics Materials Welded
• After initiation arc extinguishes, wire melted • Mostly used on C and C-Mn steel.
rapidly by resistive heating. • Has been used on stainless and Ni alloys by
• Welds up to 300mm made in single pass. Paton Institute.
• Copper guide tube used in standard process. • Also claimed to weld Ti successfully.
Oscillated, slowly lifted as weld progresses. • Al is possible but not welded commercially.
• Tubular consumable guide not lifted so melts into • Process developed for rail track joining but
pool. Not usually oscillated either. although better quality than Thermite did not gain
• Very slow cooling, near equilibrium structure. favour.
• PWHT to gain properties.
16-1
• Speed ~1 hr per m • Grain growth gives very
whatever thickness. large grains and poor
• No angular distortion. toughness.
• Low lateral distortion. • Limited to vertical or
• Defect-free. near vertical position.
• Simple flame-cut square • Except cladding
edge. modification – flat.
• Can be used for cladding • Difficult to examine with
(major application now). NDT.
16-2
Description of Processes
• Thermal cutting and gouging are essential parts
of welding fabrication.
Welding Processes and Equipment • Thermal cutting severs metal, creating two pieces
or a specific shaped single piece.
Thermal Cutting and Gouging • Gouging form of cutting removing metal to leave
groove as weld preparation.
• Torches and parameters different for each.
• Material locally heated and molten metal ejected
- usually by blowing it away.
• Flame, laser or arc processes can be used.
Summary of Processes General Safety

Process operations
Thermal process Metals • Cutting and gouging forcibly eject molten metal,
Primary Secondary
Oxyfuel Cutting Grooving
often over large distance.
Ferritic, cast iron
gas flame Gouging Chamfering • Must take appropriate precautions to protect
Ferritic, operator, other workers and equipment.
Grooving
Manual metal arc Gouging stainless, cast
Chamfering
iron, Ni alloys • Protective clothing, enclosed booth or screens,
Ferritic, cast iron, fume extraction, removal of all combustible
Grooving
Air carbon arc Gouging
Chamfering
Ni alloys, Cu material.
alloys, Al
Cutting Chamfering Ferritic,
Plasma arc
Gouging Grooving stainless, Al
Chamfering
Laser Cutting Ferritic, stainless
Drilling
Gouging Typical Applications of Gouging
• Like cutting but not severing into two pieces.

• Reverse side of welds, removal of tacks, temporary
welds, and weld imperfections.
– Repair and maintenance of structures.
– Removal of cracks, blow holes and sand traps in
forgings and castings.
– Preparation of plate edges for welding.
– Removal of surplus metal - excess weld bead profiles,
temporary backing strips.
– Removal of temporary welded attachments such as
brackets, strongbacks, lifting lugs.
17-1
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Process Fundamentals
• Most widely applied industrial thermal cutting • Mixture of O2 and fuel gas used to preheat metal
process. to its 'ignition' temperature.
• Can cut thicknesses from 0.5-250mm. • O2 jet then directed into preheated area.
• Low cost equipment can be manual or • Exothermic reaction between O2 and metal to
mechanised. form iron oxide or slag.
• Several fuel gas and nozzle design options. • Jet blows away slag so it can pierce through the
material and continue to cut.
Four Basic Requirements Oxygen Purity
• Ignition temperature lower than melting point. • Cutting speed and cut edge quality determined by
• The oxide MPt must be lower than metal so that it purity of O2.
can be blown away by jet. • Nozzle design protects O2 from air entrainment.
• Reaction between O2 and metal must give heat to • Jet should be ≥99.5% O2.
maintain ignition temperature. • Decrease in purity of 1% reduces cutting speed by
• Minimal gas products so as not to dilute the 25% and increases consumption by 25%.
cutting O2.
Fuel Gas Reactions Fuel Gas Flame Energy
Combustion occurs in two distinct zones:

Fuel gas Flame Ratio O2 to Inner Outer
• In inner cone gas combines with O2 to form CO temp, ºC gas flame flame
and H2, eg for acetylene: energy, energy,
Kj/m3 Kj/m3
2C2H2 + 2O2 → 4CO + 2H2
Acetylene 3160 1.2:1 18,890 35,882
• Combustion continues in outer zone with O2 Propane 2810 4.3:1 10,433 85,325
being from air: MAPP 2927 3.3:1 15,445 56,431
4CO+2H2 +3O2→ 4CO2 +2H2O Propylene 2834 3.7:1 16,000 72,000
Methane 2770 1.8:1 1,490 35,770
17-2
Acetylene Propane
• Highest temperature so fastest preheat. • Highest heat energy in outer flame.

• Highest heat energy in inner flame reduces HAZ • Flame unfocussed, (speed 3.3m/s).
width and distortion. • Slower preheating than acetylene but effective.
• High flame speed (7.4m/s), good piercing. • Once at ignition temperature, O2 reaction is
• Lowest ratio of O2. same so cutting speed same.
MAPP Cutting Quality
• Methylacetylene and propadiene. Oxyfuel typically:

• High flame temperature (second to acetylene), • Large kerf (<2mm).
good flame energy levels. • Low roughness values
• Can be readily compressed. (Ra<50µm).
• Choice for underwater cutting. • Poor edge squareness
(>0.7mm).
• Wide HAZ (>1mm).
Cutting Speed Preheating
• Left - too slow, top

face melting, irregular • Left - too little, deep
cut. gouges low on face.
• Centre - optimum. • Centre - optimum.
• Right - too fast, metal • Right - too much, top
and oxide not fully face melts.
expelled.
17-3
Advantages and Disadvantages Powder Cutting
• Can inject flux into flame to remove oxide from
• Faster than machining. • Not precision cut.
stainless making cut possible.
• Shapes can be cut • C and low alloy steel.
economically. • Fire and burn hazards.
• Can inject Fe powder giving exothermic reaction
• Equipment costs low. • Need fume control and
makes cuts in stainless, Cu, Ni possible.
• Portable equipment. ventilation. • Cut quality usually poor.
• Can follow small radius • Can give distortion and
easily. residual stress.
• Can mechanise torch for
large plates.
• Economical for edge
preparation.
Flame Gouging MMA Gouging
• Cutting principle • Similar to welding but electrode has very high arc
adapted to gouging. force to eject metal.
• Curved nozzle. • Used at low angle to push molten pool away from
• Quick, efficient removal groove.
on steel. • DC or AC on standard MMA power source.
• Low noise, ease of use, • Can cut thin material but poor quality.
all positional. • Gouge not as smooth as gas processes.
• Nozzle size changes • Mild steel electrode used for all materials.
gouge dimensions.
MMA Gouging Air Carbon Arc Gouging
• Arc between tip of carbon electrode and

workpiece.
• Metal melts and high velocity air jet blows it away,
leaving clean groove.
• Simple, uses MMA equipment.
• High metal removal rate and gouge profile can be
closely controlled.
• Can be used on wide range of metals.
17-4
Process Characteristics Air Carbon Arc Gouging
• DCEP for steel and stainless steel. AC for cast

iron, Cu and Ni alloys.
• Graphite electrode with Cu coating to reduce
electrode erosion.
• Diameter selected for depth and width.
• Molten metal/dross kept to minimum.
• Standard MMA CC power source. Electrode
different for AC vs DC.
• Air from compressor or bottle used.
Typical Parameters Advantages and Disadvantages
Gouging
Carbon • Low equipment cost. • Air jet ejects metal large
Current dimensions Gouging
Electrode diameter electrode
on DC speed • Economical to run. distance.
(mm) Depth Width consumed
electrode (mm/min) • Easy to operate. • Very noisy.
(mm) (mm) (mm/min)
• Fast, easy to control. • Cut only OK.
6.4 275 6-7 9-10 120 609
• Defects visible. • Needs large volume air.
8.0 350 7-8 10-11 114 711
Manual • No slag issues. • C increase, grinding
9.5 425 9-10 12-13 100 660
13.0 550 12-13 18-19 76 508 • Compact, can work in usually needed.
8.0 300-400 2-9 3-8 100 1650-840 confined areas. • Sparks, ejected metal,
9.5 500 3-12 3-10 142 1650-635 • Use on all materials. fumes, noise and intense
Automatic
13.0 850 3-15 3-13 82 1830-610 • Can be automated. light.
16.0 1250 3-19 3-16 63 1830-710
Plasma Arc Cutting Plasma Cutting Variants
• Basic process uses same torch as plasma Dual gas:

welding. • Second gas shield in nozzle.
• Keyhole range plasma arc pierces metal. • Increased constriction, more
• Conditions set to avoid pool formation so effective dross removal.
becomes cutting tool. • Reduced top edge rounding.
• No oxidation reaction, usable on any metal. Water injection:
• Introduced for stainless and Al. • Water into plasma stream.
• More constriction, hotter arc.
• Cut quality similar to oxyfuel.
• Increased cut speed.
• Variants developed with different torches.
• Less nozzle erosion.
17-5
Plasma Cutting Variants Plasma Cutting Variants
Water shroud or immersion: High tolerance plasma arc

• Shroud cuts fume and noise. (HTPAC):
• Attempting to rival laser cut
• Bath cuts noise 115-70dB.
quality.
• No effect on top edge rounding.
• Plasma gas swirls, constricting
Air plasma: arc.
• Air as plasma gas, cheap. • May use magnetic field to constrict
• Needs Hf electrode. arc further.
• Manual cutting thin steel. • Narrow kerf width.
• Can touch torch to work. • Less distortion due to smaller heat
affected zone.
Plasma Gouging Advantages and Disadvantages

• Standard torch may be • Cuts non-conductors. • Noise can be high.
used.
• Faster than oxyfuel. • Fairly expensive.
• Air plasma also possible. • Instant start-up. • Cut edges tapered.
• Use low angle. • HTPAC has high quality • Air plasma limited to
• Forces metal away from cut edges. 50mm thick plate.
groove by power of • Narrow HAZ. • Fume cutting in air.
plasma. • Air plasma low gas) • Arc glare.
cost. • High consumable costs.
• Ideal for thin sheet.
• Water bath low fume 0.
Laser Cutting Laser Cutting
• First done in 1967 at TWI. • Very quick, especially on thin sheet.

• O2 jet with laser in centre. • Now used for automotive door panels.
• CO2 laser then only high power, now Yb fibre or • Growing use in shipbuilding.
Nd-YAG possible. • Automated with programmed pattern.
• Nd-YAG good for Al, Cu. • Complex and very fine detail possible.
• Can also drill very fine holes.
17-6
• Very fast speed. • High cost of equipment.
• No preheating. • Need to isolate
• Readily automated and personnel from laser.
can follow three
dimensional tracks.
• Can cut polymers and
other non-metallic
materials.
• Good quality square-
edged kerf.
17-7
History
• Robert Gage (Linde Division Union Carbide)

gained US patent in 1955.
Welding Processes and Equipment • Described torch with W cathode enclosed in Cu
bowl-shaped anode with hole in bottom through
which plasma is blown.
Plasma Welding
• Patent said workpiece could be in circuit more +ve
than Cu anode so arc forced through.
TWI Training & Examination Services • Gage’s torch design still in use today.
Process Characteristics Three Modes of Operation
• When workpiece connected more +ve than Microplasma: 0.1-15A:

anode on torch variant called transferred arc and • Can operate at very low current.
is usual array for welding and cutting. • Arc stable even when length varied up to 20mm.
• Can operate without connection to workpiece • Big advantage over microTIG.
(non-transferred arc) with plasma forced through Medium current: 15-200A:
hole by the gas pressure. • Process characteristics similar to TIG.
• This gives lower energy heat source but not • Stiffer arc, improved penetration.
restricted by need for electrical connection. Keyhole plasma: over 100A:
• Used for spray surfacing where torch may be • Powerful beam gives full penetration (like laser or
moved from one component to the next. EB) up to 10mm stainless steel single pass.
Plasma Welding Schematic Power

• DC constant current.
• Normally DCEN to maximise heat at work.
• Special torches available for DCEP for Al which
needs cathodic cleaning of oxide film.
• Difficult to stabilise AC arc, but square wave AC
(inverter, switched DC) possible.
• HF only at first start for pilot arc held in torch.
Automatically transferred to workpiece when
required for welding. Very reliable, eliminates HF
interference.
18-1
Torch Nozzle
• Larger, more complex than TIG. • Power determined by degree of constriction.

• Attention needed to initial set up, internal • Choose bore diameter vs current and plasma gas
distance electrode to anode, number of parts to flow rate.
be adjusted. • Soft plasma, micro and medium current, large
• Inspection and maintenance needed during bore to minimise nozzle erosion.
production. • For keyhole, bore, plasma gas flow rate and
current selected to give highly constricted arc with
power to cut through the material.
Plasma and Shielding Gases Plasma Gas Flow
• Usually Ar for plasma gas. Can use Ar + H2 or Plasma gas flow rate crucial - too low gives double
He, hotter arc, lower electrode and nozzle life. arcing in torch and nozzle melting.
• Shielding gas often Ar + 2 to 8%H2 gives reducing
atmosphere and cleaner welds.
• 75%He - 25%Ar used for shielding for Cu.
• Shielding gas flow rate is not critical.
• Plasma gas flow rate must be set accurately as it
controls the penetration of the weld pool.
Electrode Electrode Set Back
• Traditionally W + 2 and 5% ThO2. Now Ce, La • Need constant electrode position for
doped avoid radioactivity precautions. consistency.
• Tip ~15° for microplasma. • Guidance and special tool provided by the torch
• Angle increases with current, for keyhole 60-90° manufacturer.
recommended. • Balance with other variables.
• For high current, tip also blunted to ~ 1mm. • If lower plasma gas flow rates used to soften arc
• Tip angle not critical for manual welding. electrode set-back distance is reduced.
• For mechanised, electrode condition helps
determine shape of arc and penetration.
18-2
Backing System Advantages and Disadvantages
• TIG backing bar or gas techniques can be used Advantages: Disadvantages:

for micro and medium current. • Non-critical torch to • More complex torch
• For keyhole either gas backing or a grooved workpiece distance. set up than TIG.
backing bar must be used. Useful at low current. • Bulky torch hinders
• Efflux plasma ~10mm below back face, so groove • Welds thick material in manual use.
must be deep to avoid disturbance. keyhole mode.
• Arc instability will disturb weld pool, causing • Faster deposition
porosity. rates than TIG.
18-3

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EWF/IIW Diploma –

Welding Processes and Equipment (Intermediate)

Training & Examination Services

Pre training briefing

9.6 Transforming electricity

14 Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

18 Plasma Arc Welding

Others that you may find helpful are:

1.2 What does this module cover?

We cover all of the commonly used processes and many of those

Standards applicable to welding and symbols used on drawings to indicate

1.3 What is the final outcome that I can expect?

1.4 What sort of material and learning methods are used?

1.5 Why is this module important to me?

1.6 My company has fixed ideas, who am I to change them?

Welding is a traditional process, but the equipment and control available

1.7 My company just wants me to be IIW/EWF qualified so that

1.9 So, in a nutshell, what’s in it for me?

If your company develops opportunities in applications and materials

Whilst we recognise that you are likely to be sponsored by your company

The History of Welding

2 The History of Welding

2.2 Manual metal arc (MMA)

Almost coincidentally, Strohmenger in England found that wrapping a metal

2.3 Oxy-fuel welding

2.4 Semi-automatic welding

Submerged arc welding (SAW) was also developed in 1930 by Robinoff of

Carbon dioxide was introduced as an alternative gas for MIG on steel in

Flux-cored wires were developed in the late 1950s with Bernard

2.5 Other processes

General Introduction to Welding

3 General Introduction to Welding and Joining

3.2 Joining methods

Joining covers welding, soldering, brazing, adhesive bonding, diffusion

Many materials such as metals, plastics and ceramics may be welded

The completed welded joint may be referred to as a weldment.

3.2.4 Braze welding

Basically, bulk addition of filler is made in a manner similar to welding but

3.2.5 Diffusion bonding

3.2.6 Adhesive bonding

3.2.7 Mechanical bonding

Occasionally, hybrid bonding consisting of both adhesive and mechanical

3.3 Welding processes

Fusion welding includes

American codes and standards use different terminology and abbreviations

 MMA – Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW).

The most common of the abovementioned welding processes are described

3.4 Surfacing or cladding

There are more extreme examples of the possibilities presented by

These coatings may be applied by what are basically welding processes, eg

3.5 Joint configuration

Type of joint Sketch Definition

A connection between the ends or edges of two

A connection between the edges of two parts

A connection in which two flat plates or two bars are

A connection between two overlapping parts making

3.6 Types of weld

Butt weld Fillet weld

3.6.2 Based on penetration

Partial penetration weld:

3.6.3 Based on composition

3.6.4 Based on accessibility

Single side weld Double side weld