April 2, 2019 3D PRINTING OF BUILDINGS

ABSTRACT
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is an advanced manufacturing process that can produce
complex shape geometries automatically from a 3D computer-aided design model without any
tooling, dies and fixtures. This automated manufacturing process has been applied to many
diverse fields of industries, today due to significant advantages of creating functional prototypes
in reasonable build time with less human intervention and minimum material wastage.
However, a more recent application of this technology towards the built environment seems to
improve our traditional building strategies while reducing the need for human resources, high
capital investments and additional formworks. Research interest in employing 3D printing for
building and construction has increased exponentially in the past few years. The latest research
trends in the discipline by analyzing publications from 1997 to 2016. Some recent developments
for 3D concrete printing at the Singapore Centre for 3D Printing are also discussed here. Finally a
brief description of future work that can be done to improve both the capability and printing
quality of the current systems.

3D printing building technology is described in this report with pointing to Contour Crafting as a
promising technique that may be able to revolutionize construction industry in near future. It
has many advantages of this technology, such as reduction of the costs and time, minimizing the
pollution of environment and decrease of injuries and fatalities on construction sites could be
listed. Integration of Building Information Modeling with the 3D printing building technique are
mentioned in comparison with the traditional construction techniques.

Even though many advantages and benefits of this new technology, of course we have some
concerns are summarized in the conclusions as the technology still has many limitations. A brief
description of examples of 3D printing in construction industry are presented (Stupino town,
Moscow, Russia - Apis Cor first company to develop a mobile construction 3D printer). Modeling
a 3D model of building that will be appropriate for 3D printers is possible in many modeling
software programs. One of the most popular formats for sharing such models is STL format
common and it has been accepted by many proprietary software. Moreover, integration of BIM
method with 3D printing modeling will be effective for energy efficiency, better design, cost
reduction and isolation of structure.

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INTRODUCTION
After more than 25 years of research, development and use 3D printing is being explored
currently, both in academia and in construction practice. Conventional construction process
appears to be relatively simple and systematic, requiring two-dimensional (2D) drawings and
scale models (for evaluation of the building designs), cumbersome formwork and much skilled
labour to build any kind of free-form structures. Work-related injuries and illnesses pose a
continuing threat to the health and well-being of construction worker. This compels the
introduction of 3D printing to be coupled with building information modelling (BIM) for tracking
and monitoring new variables introduces in a dynamic working environment such as a
construction site to increase workplace safety. Combining BIM and 3D printing would also make
it easier to create highly customised building components and facilitating complex and
sophisticated design; however, there are still numerous challenges related to scale, materials,
delivery system and suitability to adverse environments.

Considering global demand to reduce CO2 emission, there is a need for innovative construction
technologies to not only pave the way towards a future of sustainable construction, but also to
reduce construction and facilities management costs while providing a competitive edge.
Construction formwork which typically accounts for 40% of the total budget for concrete work
can be avoided during the building process, ultimately reducing the project timeline without
incurring additional cost.

In recent times, construction 3D printing has begun to an individual elements of buildings, e.g.,
walls and facades. Specifically, large-scale 3D printing, such as ‘mega-techniques’, is becoming
more and more relevant especially since 29 March 2014 when work began on the world’s first
3D printing house. Little, however, is known of the full role that 3D printing currently plays in
the construction industry and where this technique could be headed in the future.

This report introduces the variants of concrete printing process under development around the
globe and provides the latest research trend by analysing publications over last 20 years.
Subsequently, the paper will highlight the ongoing reasearch on topology optimisations and the
significance of incorporating BIM. Finally, by analysing the trend, some future works are
proposed that can eliminate or reduce the challenges and limitations for 3D printing in B&C
industry.

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CHAPTER 1
3D PRINTING
“ The action or process of making a physical object from a three-dimensional digital model,
typically by laying down many thin layers of a material in succession”

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional solid objects

from a digital file. In an additive process an object is created by laying down successive layers of
material until the entire object is created. Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced
horizontal cross-section of the eventual object.

HISTORY OF 3D PRINTING
3D printing is a new technology, the birth of 3D printing was in 1984 at the hands of Chuck Hull
who invented a process known as stereolithography, in which layers are added by curing
photopolymers with UV lasers, after that, 1990 layer by layer technology used each layer has
0.1mm depth, in 1999 the first use in medicine, in 2000 the first parts of human such as ears,
fingers was done in 2008 the first self-replication printer which made the printer able to print
the majority of its own components.

In 2009 Atom by atom printing were done which allows for Bio3D printing, in 2011 the first 3D
printer Robotic Aircraft at the same year the world’s first 3D-printed Car and it became
commercially available at the next year, at the same year the first gold and silver jewelry were
done using 3D printer.

THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF A 3D PRINTER

A 3D printer includes a set of components that operate simultaneously to produce the desired
output from the input digital file, the basic components of a 3D printer are listed below:

 Print Bed (Tray)

This is the flat surface where the 3D models are layered during printing. The print bed
may be ambient or heated Depending on the filament types used in the printer. Heated
print beds are used to keep the printed section of the print warm during the layering
process to prevent warping.

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 Extruder
The extruder is the part that thrusts out and feeds the plastic filament (or any other
filament) into the ‘hot-end’. Extruders are typically incorporated into the hot-end,
however in some types it can be remote, pushing the filament through a tube, called a
Bowden cable, into the hot-end. In some types a dual extruder is used, which provides
the ability to print two different materials at the same time. This added feature result in
increased price, as it requires an extra extruder, and hot end.

Figure.1: A Bowden extruder

 Hot-end
The hot-end is composed of a heat source, a temperature sensor, and an extrusion tip
where plastic filament is fed though to deposit molten material, it is often confused with
the extruder. The hole in the slot may range in size, typically between 0.2mm and
0.8mm. The smaller the nozzle, the more detailed the print, but the longer it takes for
the thinner layers to stack up.

Figure.2: The Printrbot hot-end / extruder

 Filament
The filament is the input material which is formulated as a 3D solid object by the printer.
Like an inkjet inject ink, a 3D printer emits melted filament.

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CHAPTER 2
METHODS OF 3D PRINTING
 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
This method uses a high powered laser to melt powder together. When set up carefully, this
can create an almost perfectly uniform material of nearly injection mold quality. This make
for very durable products. This is very interesting for musical instruments, as this allows us
to create objects with the same materials as conventional instruments, but with the ease of
printing instead of manual labor. The method is relatively simple, due to inherent supports it
avoids additional step in between the 3d model and printing. The surface quality is fair, but
not as detailed as other techniques.

Materials Used :- Plastics, Elastomers, Metal, Ceramics, Glass

 Stereolithography (SLA)
A layer of fluid resin is hardened by UV or laser. It makes for great surface quality and
build accuracy. Useful, as this removes the need for post-finishing. But the products remain
brittle, which disqualifies this method for musical instruments, because an instrument which
could break during performance, is no use at all.

Material used :- Epoxy polymers, both rigid or flexible

 Polyjet or Jetted Photopolymer (J-P)

Extrudes a photo polymer which hardens with UV light. Can create rubber-like objects. This
could be interesting for creating one-piece string instruments (is 1 - 20 MPa Tensile strength
enough)

Materials Used:- Photopolymers, both solid as rubber-like.

 Laminated object manufacturing or LOM

Sheets of raw material are laid on each other, after which it will be cut out by laser or knife.
Objects can get wood-like properties, by simulating year ring.

Materials Used:- Paper, Plastic or Metals.

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CHAPTER 3
CURRENT TREND OF 3D PRINTING IN B&C RESEARCH
The interest in 3D printing for B&C has increased drastically in recent years. While the rise of
interest has enriched the literature in this discipline, it presents challenges for researchers to
capture an overview of the research development. Mapping the frequency of publications can
be a way to understand the research trend. A systematic mapping study as proposed by
Petersen et al. (2008) shown in Figure 1 provides an overview of a research area and identifies
the quality and type of research results available. It is important to examine the literature
systematically for effective understandingof research development in the discipline as well as to
serve as an inspiring source for research trend on 3D printing for B&C.

Figure 1. Systematic mapping system (Petersen et al. 2008).

REVIEW DATA SOURCE AND METHODOLOGY

This review examines data based on two multidisciplinary databases of scientific research, Web
of Science and ScienceDirect. Boolean operator, quotes and parentheses were used to refine
the search. Publications include only conference paper and journal articles with direct relation
to 3D printing for B&C applications. Other publications such as book reviews, letters, theses,
editorial materials and articles with irrelevant content were excluded in this study.

A total of 115 publications were selected from screening and were subjected to classification
based on the work presented. While screening the publications, innovative research studies
were discovered such as jammed structures ( robot-winding (Wit 2015), smart dynamic casting
(Lloret et al. 2015) and brick laying automation. Although these studies have a tremendous
potential impact on the construction industry, these studies do not fit into the objective of this
paper and therefore were not included.

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CHAPTER 4
3D PRINTING PROCESSES IN THE CONSTRUCTION:
The starting point for any 3D printing process is a 3D digital model, which can be created using a
variety of 3D software programs, for Makers and Consumers there are simpler, more accessible
programs available or scanned with a 3D scanner. The model is then ‘sliced’ into layers, thereby
converting the design into a file readable by the 3D printer. The material processed by the 3D
printer is then layered according to design and process.There are various methods of 3D printing
in construction sector, few of the most efficient and
Popular are,
 Robotic Arm Extruders

 Sand layers linked together

 Metal for solid structures

1 – Robotic Arm Extruders

This method involves the building material being deposited to create a large-scale 3D model
with a smooth surface finish. Rails are installed around the building ground that will act as a
structure to direct the robotic arm. It moves back and forth to extrude the concrete, layer-by-
layer. Trowels placed on the side and above the nozzle to flatten the extruded layers and ensure
the model’s strength.

In this process, conventional concrete cannot be used as it would need to harden before you
could continue the process. If it was 3D printed it therefore wouldn’t be able to support its own
weight. Therefore, concrete is used with quick setting properties. These machines are huge
(32m long, 10m wide and 6.6m tall). This enables them to 3D print full structures and assemble
them on the spot. This is done through mixing concrete and glass fibres on-site and then
printing.

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2 – Sand Layers Linked Together

Italian architect More recently, demonstrated an interesting 3D printing process using his ‘D-
Shape’ 3D printer. This machine relies on the binding of powder which makes it possible to
solidify a layer of material with a binder. Layers of sand are deposited according to the desired
thickness before a print head pours droplets (the binder) to harden the sand. This 4 x 4 metre
machine can create large structures of up to 6 cubic metres in size .

3 – Metal For Solid Structures

This process has developed a unique construction method called WAAM (Wire Arc Additive
Manufacturing), which enables you to 3D print metal structures with a 6-axis robot that drops 2
kilos of material per hour.

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This robot was the result of collaboration with Air Liquide and ArcelorMittal and is equipped
with a welder and a nozzle to weld, layer-by-layer, metal rods. This process is also compatible
with other metal allows such as stainless steel, bronze, aluminium and Inconel. The machine can
be likened to a sort of giant soldering iron.

CHAPTER 5
3D PRINTING MATERIALS INFORMATION
 MATERIALS INFORMATION
3D printing technologies, which process different materials in different ways to create
the final object. Functional plastics, metals, ceramics and sand are, now, all routinely
used for industrial prototyping and production applications. The different types of 3D
printers each employ a different technology that processes different materials in
different ways. The materials available for 3D printing have come a long way since the early
days of the technology,there is now a wide variety of different material types, that are
supplied in different states (powder, filament, pellets, granules, resin etc) with material
properties that more precisely suit the application.

 Nylon, or Polyamide is commonly used in powder form with the sintering

process or in filament form with the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
process. It is a strong, flexible and durable plastic material that has proved
reliable for 3D printing.

 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) is another common plastic used for 3D

printing and it is widely used on the entry-level FDM 3D printers in filament
form. It is a strong plastic and comes in a wide range of colors.

 Polylactic Acid or Polylactide (PLA) is a bio-degradable plastic material that

has gained traction with 3D printing for this reason. It is offered in a variety of

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colors, including transparent, which has proven to be a useful option for some
applications of 3D printing. However, it is not as durable or as flexible as ABS.

 LayWood is a specially developed 3D printing material for entry-level

extrusion from 3D printers. It comes in filament form and is a wood/polymer
composite

Reinforcements
Another challenge for 3D printing in B&C is the counteracting of concrete low tensile
strength and ductility. Addition of steel reinforcement to the concrete would solve the problem.
However, in 3D printing, addition of steel reinforcement automatically is not so straight forward.
Both imbedding reinforcements are demonstrated and post-tensioning reinforcement bar
demonstrated are inserted manually. Printing structures with straight hollow voids for post-
tensioning reinforcement bar would limit the freedom of the architectural design.

Attaching a steel extrusion gun similar to a staple gun at the back of the nozzle could enhance
the tensile strength in the vertical direction. However, there will be a challenge to control the
force of the steel staple penetrating the filament. If the force of the penetration is too large, it
could deform or destroy the fresh concrete, if the force is too small, there could be no
penetration at all. In addition to the steel reinforcement, inclusion of fibres may improve the
ductility of the concrete (Figure)

Figure 16. Reinforcement for concrete printing

Development of new material

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Developing material for 3D printing process is a challenging task. Still several authors have
printed nice concrete structures using different combination of cement, sand, flyash, silica fume
and micro-fibres. The future success of 3D printing in B&C will depend on fine-tuning materials
to specific needs of each application. Printing functionality added material (such as lightweight,
thermal insulated, self-healing and self sensing) adds value to the complex structures. Although,
3D printing is believed to have the right potential to print complex structures, eventually new
printable material developed for each application will be scrutinised for high quality, low
construction cost and for bringing value to the user.

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CHAPTER 6
TECHNOLOGIES FOR 3D PRINTING IN B&C
The rapid development of large-scale 3D concrete printing technology in most literatures is
categorised into two techniques, namely

 binder jetting
 material deposition method (MDM).

The basic principle of both these techniques is to build up any complex structure by adding
small layers of material one over another. It begins with the creation of a 3D computer-aided-
design (CAD) model, which is sliced into several 2D layers and then printed with an assigned
material in an incremental manner to obtain the prototype as described in the CAD model.

6.1 Bnder jetting

Binder jetting is a 3D printing process that creates objects by depositing binder layer by
layer over a powder bed. Binder is ejected in droplet form onto a thin layer of powder material
spread on top of the build tray. This method incrementally glues 2D cross sections of the
intended component to each layer of material powder . The cycle repeats until the whole 3D
object is complete Figure 5a. Any raw material that is not glued by the binder remains inside the
constrained build container and is used to support subsequent layers. The unbound material
can be removed from the print bed using a vacuum cleaner after the printing, which can be
recycled and deployed for another printing task.
This method encourages designs to have voids and overhanging features which enable
the printing of complex geometries. It has a relatively high resolution that results in the good
surface finish because of the minimal distance between layers. This layer thickness value is
determined by the penetration of the binder. If the layer thickness is too large, the binder may
not penetrate deep enough to glue the current and the previous layer together. Figure 5b
shows an egg-shaped complex sculpture, made by D-shape using a sand-based material;
however, this technique can be easily influenced by bad weather, and is difficult to use this
process for in situ construction applications.

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Figure 5. (a) D-shape printer (b) final printed component with all the excess raw material removed

6.2 Material deposition method (MDM)

Similar to fused deposition modelling (FDM), material deposition method (MDM) is a 3D
printing processes that successively lays material as per the CAD model . The extruded material
must be able to support its own weight and the weight of each subsequent layer to attain the
final design without any deformation . There are several automated systems that use MDM as
their core fabrication process and they are explained as follows:

i. Contour crafting (CC)

ii. Stick dispenser
iii. Concrete printing
iv. Flow-based fabrication
v. Mesh-mould
vi. Building information modelling

 Contour crafting (CC)

Contour crafting (CC) is a gantry-based system that extrudes material in a layer-by-layer
manner. The key feature of CC is the use of trowels attached to the nozzle. The trowel
guides the printed material to create exceptionally smooth and accurate surfaces, as
shown in Figure 6.

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Figure 6. Contour crafting process.

This trowel can be deflected at different angles (by computer control) to create various
nonorthogonal structures. Such approach enables a deposition of higher layer thickness without
significantly compromising the surface finish . Figure 7 displays contour crafted structures made
from ceramic and concrete material.

Figure 7.Contour crafting using (a) ceramic (b) cement material

 Stick dispenser
Stick dispenser is a specially designed hand-held printing device that enables a
consistent feed of chopstick material composites developed shown in Figure 8a. In this
process, chopsticks coated with wood glue are dropped randomly, forming an
aggregated porous structure that is later evaluated through volume-based analyses. The
stick dispenser is guided by a depth camera and a projector in real time. Both these tools

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assist in informing where the chopsticks are being deposited by projecting a simple
colour code. Printing must be done in low-light condition for operating the projector.
Figure 8b shows a pavilion assembled from separate panels made using this method.
The mechanical properties of the printed samples are acquired by performing different
load tests.

Figure 8. (a) Stick dispenser (b) constructed pavilion using chopsticks

 Concrete printing
Concrete printing, which is similar to CC ) that extrudes concrete layer by layer
following a digital model. The setup includes 5.4m x 4.4m x 5.4m (L x W x H) gantry
printer, as shown in Figure 9a. Certain terms are used to describe the flow of material
deposition in this method due to the fresh properties of the concrete. ‘Over-printing’ is
when too much material is deposited at a specific point, causing unnecessary bulging of
the printed part. ‘Under-printing’ is when there is a lack of deposited material at a point,
which may cause breakage during printing. These problems, however, can be addressed
by fine-tuning the machine-operating parameters or modifying the tool path.
Most MDM is categorised as flat-layered printing. Flatlayered printing extrudes
material in a two-dimensional plane layer by layer until it reaches the desired volume.
This printing method creates mechanical weaknesses such as anisotropic properties and
creates visual issue such as staircase effect on the completed print surface. Recently
another method of curved-layered printing i.e., Curved-layer printing this method
improves the aesthetic and mechanical properties of a printed part Figure 9b shows a
concrete panel printed on a non-layered panel.

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Figure 9. Concrete printing

 Flow-based fabrication
Researchers at MIT designed a system to extrude waterbased polysaccharide gels
and natural composites with a single pneumatic extrusion system attached to the end
effector of a 6-axis robotic arm shown in Figure 10. The hierarchical structuring of
printed part is designed and fabricated in 2-dimension (2D). The design and advance
manufacturing of heterogeneous materials and anisotropic structures will result in high
stiffness, lower weight, high wear and resistance .New applications for this work ranges
from automated construction of architectural facades with different translucency to
temporary lightweight shading structures.

Figure 10. Large-scale hierarchically structured chitosan-based deposited construct

 Mesh-mould
This technique utilizes a large 6-axis robot to extrude thermoplastics polymer to
print in situ structures freely in 3D space. Pinpoint cooling using pressurised air at the
nozzle during printing allows for a high level of control, thus facilitating the weaving of
wireframe structures freely in space shown in Figure 11a. In this application, the
structures act as reinforcement for the concrete. Concrete is then poured over this
formwork and later toweled manually to smooth the surface (Figure 11b).

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Using such methodology reduces the time required for fabrication of complex
structures, which becomes feasible for large-scale applications. Different density of mesh
can be printed (Figure 11c) according to the array of forces acting on the structures.
More interestingly, the presence of the mesh increases the tensile force of concrete,
ultimately becoming a possible replacement of conventional steel reinforcement.

Figure 11. Mesh-mould combines formwork and reinforcement system for concrete

 Building information modeling

BIM is a comprehensive approach towards building construction management which
covers the complete life cycle of the construction process such as construction planning,
scheduling, estimation and post construction facility management. The construction
industry has always been criticised for low productivity and lack of collaboration and
innovation in its execution process and BIM has shown potential to be a viable solution
for these issues In addition to the geometrical data. BIM also contains, material,
equipment, resource and manufacturing data. This information data helps address the
issue of lack of collaboration between various teams in the project execution and serve
as the base for integration of automation application such a 3D printing ,robotic
construction. A BIM-based process flow for 3D printing can significantly reduce the
overall process lead time by integrating each step and make it executable through a
single interface or software. This could address the issue of the constant design changes,
which is relatively common in the construction industry.

The construction industry has been facing a paradigm shift to,

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(i) increase: productivity, efficiency, infrastructure value, quality and sustainability,
(ii) reduce: lifecycle costs, lead times and duplications, via effective collaboration
and communication of stakeholders in construction projects.

Building Information Modeling (BIM) seeks to integrate processes throughout the entire
lifecycle . If used appropriately, BIM can facilitate a more integrated design and construction
process and generate substantial benefits. For instance, fewer design coordination errors, more
energy efficient design solutions, faster cost estimation, reduced production cycle times and
lower. BIM introduces a new work paradigm offering powerful perspectives for the integration
and coordination of different domains and the processes involved in the design, construction
and operation of buildings.

Since 3D printing as a versatile method does not require formwork, it is able to

accommodate design change or faster change management in the final output without
incurring much losses compared to other conventional processes. BIM can also aid in
automating the entire printing process as it can store and synthesise equipment and
manufacturing data such as printer control data, material delivery system and post finishing
operation.

BIM is seen as a prime design language in the construction industry and could become
the standard method to be followed throughout the industry. As 3D printing is also considered a
game changer for the industry, a BIM-based 3D printing can be a method for the construction
industry to look forward in the near future as it can bring obvious benefits and substantial
savings in cost and labour. Usage of BIM for 3D printing is still not practised widely and more
research on this topic is needed to bridge the gaps between BIM and 3D printing.

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Process Of 3D Printing Of Buildings Construction By BIM

A model is prepared in a 3D modelling application after following these Stages.

STL File
STL means Stereo Lithography and can be exported into most CAD software suites, like
Autodesk Fusion 360. The STL file format has become the Rapid Prototyping industry's defacto
standard data transmission format, This format approximates the surfaces of a solid model with
triangles. For a simple model such as the box shown in figure 4 (a), its surfaces can be
approximated with twelve triangles, as shown in figure 4 (b). The more complex the surface, the
more triangles produced, as shown in figure 4 The triangulation (or poly count) of a surface will
cause faceting of the 3D model. The parameters used for outputting a STL will affect how much
faceting occurs (Figures 4 (a) and Figure 4 (b). You cannot build the model smoother than the
STL file. If the STL is coarse and faceted the physical 3D printed model will be coarse and
faceted as well. However, the smoother/ less faceted your surface is, (the higher the poly count
or triangulation) the larger your file. 3D printing can only accept a certain file size; therefore, it
is important to find a balance between your model, its desired surface, and the 3D printing
process of your choice.

The STL format only utilizes the three-dimensional description of the surface geometry without
generating non-relevant information for printing like texture or colour, leading to the popularity
within the community. Each triangle, which represents the surface, is characterized by three
vertices and the related unit normal. Most 3D printable models you can find on the internet are
in the STL file format.

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Slicing
In the slicing step, the geometric model is intersected with parallel planes to obtain the
contour of each material layer. See Figure 5, This step can be done with a constant layer
thickness (uniform slicing) or with variable layer thickness (adaptive slicing). Adaptive slicing
provides better surface quality in critical features of the printed model while saving time in
regions where rougher finish is acceptable.

Figure 5:(a)A triangle mesh of a 3D object model (b)examples of uniform slicing (c)adaptive slicing

For greater generality, 3D printing software commonly assumes that the geometric model is
reduced to a set of triangles that approximates the surface of the object. This representation is
a de facto industry standard, embodied in the popular Stereo Lithography (STL) file format.
Therefore, the primary result of the slicing step is also an unordered and unstructured set of
line segments on each slicing plane .

Layer Combine
Combining different polymers in different combinations per layer of 3D printed material, is
leading to the development of an entirely new palette of materials.As 3D print manufacturers
expand on the multi-material capabilities of printers, many are looking to build up databases of
‘meta-materials’, known recipes that combine various polymers in different ways to produce
very honed and specific properties, which are often quite different to the building block base
materials used. The evolution of 3D printers is fast moving, a decade ago the technology was
normally restricted to a single off white soft plastic. Today, printers such as Stratasys’ J750
allows six materials to be used at once, offering some 360,000 colors. Also many functional
parts can be printed, for example scissors that are sharp enough to cut right away, materials
that maintain heat can be used for injection moulding. However, the ability to combine

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CHAPTER 6
LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS (LCCA) OF CONCRETE PRINTING
Construction is one of the industries that are responsible for high environmental
impacts. Although concrete printing promise to deliver a greener and low-waste type of
construction process, few attempts had been made to assess and compare environmental
consequence of this technique to conventional construction importance of material-efficient
design to achieve high environmental benefits in digital fabricated architecture. However, their
work did not target towards 3D printing but more towards digital fabrication. There is a lack in
current research to use LCA as a tool to assess the environmental impacts associated with all
stages of the product life and provide insights to the environmental improvement 3D printing
can deliver.
Besides the environment, there is also a lack of fundamental understanding of the
economics that this technology could offer. Early implementation of cost analysis model in a
project helps associate the relation between cost and design parameters. The objective of LCCA
is to provide a framework with an intention of reducing the total cost of design, development,
production, use and disposal of the fabricated part. Introduction of 3D printing into the
consideration of LCCA of a project allow an alternative solution to be considered for maximum
net savings. An example would be to determine if the structural beam should be printed or
casted in order to reduce the overall cost of construction and maintenance.

SAFETY AND SKILLS FOR 3D CONCRETE PRINTING

One of the most momentous challenges in infrastructure site is construction worker’s safety.
Studies have shown that the main risk source on-site are collision with machine, falling and
machine running over; therefore these have to be taken into consideration when designing
preventive security systems. During printing, physical barrier is necessary to remove human
activity around moving parts of the printer to prevent unnecessary collision. Safety monitoring
system such as real-time video camera could also be mounted on the printing system to
enhance proactive safety management for reducing accident on worksite.
Another challenge for 3D concrete printing is that it requires skilled workers with
experience to integrate robotic and civil work together.The knowledge on the printing
parameter and thixotropic properties of the material plays a crucial role on the quality and
limitations of the architectural design Therefore, existing worker in the conventional methods
may require re-training or may find themselves moving on to other jobs. Much research is
needed to better understand these problems.

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CHAPTER 7
3D PRINTING APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY
o Office of the Future in Dubai
The 3D printed office was designed for the United Arab Emirates National Committee as
the headquarter for the Dubai Futures Foundation. It is called “Office of the Future”
primarily serves as a meeting space for parties from all over the globe. The 3D printed
office is a fully functional building featuring electricity, water and telecommunications
and air-conditioning systems.The 3D printed house was produced in China. After the
parts had been printed, they were shipped to Dubai. The project ultimately reduced
labor costs by 50 % to 80% and construction waste by 30% to 60%. It is considered as the
catalyst behind the construction 3D printing revolution happening in Dubai.

(a) Front view

(b) Side view of Office of the Future in Dubai.

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o Apis Cor Printed House in Russia
A Russian company has done just, with a 400-square-foot-home being built from
scratch in just 24 hours in Moscow. The cost of the building is $10,000, highlighting just
how much potential the 3D printing technology has for the future. The house was built
entirely on site using nothing but a mobile 3D printer, which makes all the results
Impressive.
It is a house that is certainly habitable and short on space.The fact that it was
produced at such low-cost in 24 hours. All the walls and foundations of this structure
were printed with a concrete mixture and other parts such as windows, fixtures and
furniture being added after construction. The house was finished with a fresh coat of
paint with the final cost of the entire project totaling a modest $10,134.

Fig. Front view of Apis Cor House in Russia;

CHAPTER 8

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ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY

Waste reduction
The construction industry has long been a leader in waste production. In terms of
resource consumption, it is estimated that 40% of all raw materials used globally are used in the
construction industry , with an estimated three to seven tonnes of waste generated during the
construction of a typical single-family home. This is further compounded by the harmful
emissions that construction activities generate. Construction machines built for 3D printing may
be fully electric and therefore emission free, but one of the main energy conservation features
is the need for less people, which results in less vehicles being driven to and from the
construction site and, in turn, saving large amounts of fuel. In addition, the accurate nature of
additive fabrication enables 3D printing techniques that result in little to no material waste. This
reduction in waste is brought about in a number of ways, chief among which is the lack of
requirement of formwork and mould making. In buildings, almost every wall, panel and
partition is uniquely dimensioned, which means that for construction to be costeffective either
standard size materials are cut to fit or custom moulds are made to form each part.

Implications for labour

There is a growing skills shortage in the construction industry and this shortage will be
further compounded in the future. With safety still a major issue in the construction industry
construction sites being one of the most hazardous environments encountered. Use of mega-
sized 3D printing reduces the number of personnel required on site.
When used on small residential buildings, the full-scale machine splits into three pieces
in order to fit onto a small flatbed truck, minimizing the labour required in transportation and
logistics. In contour crafting also, with the vast majority of the construction on site being
automated, humans play a supporting role. They lay out supplies for the robotic arm and
prepare fresh batches of concrete, as well as complete tasks such as installing windows and
doors that are not worth automating or not yet automated.

Increased Construction Speed

The contour crafting method increases the building construction speed to a great extent.
He states that estimates show that the contour crafting method will be capable of completing
the construction of an entire house in a matter of hours (e.g., less than 2 days for a 200 m2
two-storey building) instead of several months. This increase in speed of the building process
directly results in an increase in efficiency of logistics and management The increase in speed
can be attributed to construction 3D printing methods always operating at a steady and

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unrelenting pace, unlike more traditional methods that include breaks for workers or concrete
curing and increase in speed.

Overcomes Construction Constraints

In the last decade, engineering research teams have been experimenting which uses a
special concrete and composite mixture. This mixture is much thicker than regular concrete,
allowing it to be self-supporting as it sets.This opens up a whole new realm of possibilities for
architects everywhere. 3D printed architectural components are totally unfettered by typical
design constraints. The ability to use curvilinear forms, rather than being cost and process
limited to rectilinear forms, opens a whole new realm of design.
It is a commonly understood truth that rectilinear forms are one of the weakest
structural forms imaginable. On the other end of the spectrum, the humble egg, which is totally
curvilinear, is one of the most efficient structures in nature. A minimum of material, crafted into
a shape where there are no straight edges, providing simple consistent curve, makes it the
strongest structural design possible. 3D printing offers the practical possibility of using these
curves in common structures.

LIMITATIONS
Since the early years of the 20th century, automation has grown and prospered in
almost all production domains other than the construction industry.The adoption of automation
into the industry has been slow due to multiple factors, with the most common ones being

 Unsuitability of the available automated fabrication technologies for large-scale products

 Conventional design approaches that are not suitable for automation
 A significantly smaller ratio of the quantity of final products as compared with other
industries
 Limitations in the materials that could be employed by an automated system
 Economic unattractiveness of expensive automated equipment
 Managerial issues
 Decrease in Manufacturing Jobs:
 Limited Materials
 High cost at professional high level industrial applications
 Dangerous Items
 Size of 3D printe

CHAPTER 9
THE FUTURE OF 3D PRINTING IN RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION

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There is a wide range of views about where the technology could be headed. Although 3D
printing is still in its early days in all industries, the potential benefits seem to be driving the
technology forward. Some suggest 3D printer will be used mainly to print building components
and panels either in factories or on site, while others envision 3d printing as a transformative
technology that could revolutionize the construction industry.

It is predicted by some additive manufacturing advocates that this technological development

will change the nature of commerce, because end users will be able to do much of their own
manufacturing rather than engaging in trade to buy products from other people and
corporations.

3D printers capable of outputting in colour and multiple materials already exist and will
continue to improve to a point where functional products will be able to be output. With effects
on energy use, waste reduction, customization, product availability, medicine, art, construction
and sciences, 3D printing will change the manufacturing world as we know it.

The question is not if , but when companys need to consider 3DP technology in their strategic
planning. Forward thinking players need to sense and anticipate the future and create an
adaptive response by answering following questions,

 How will 3D printing will change the end-end value chain in my sector?
 How robust is my firm strategy against 3D printing disruptions?
 What are the most relevant 3D printing scenerios?
 What are leading indicators and trigger points for anticipating 3D ditruptions?
 What are the immediate actions to future-proof against 3DP distruptions?

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CONCLUSION
In conclusion, 3D printing of full-scale construction components is still an emerging
technology and as an alternative construction method is attracting increasing attention. The
main challenge associated with MDM is to develop appropriate material that can be extruded
continuously and stacked up over one another without causing any deformation in the bottom
bead layers. As 3D printing and automation for B&C progresses, it would be ideal to eliminate
human involvement necessary for potentially dangerous tasks, such that the risk involve in
these dangerous task could be eliminated. With the integration of BIM, it can also help mitigate
some of the key challenges of a construction project such as construction planning and
monitoring, effective communication, safety and procurement management.
While 3D printing can offer many advantages such as creating complex design, time
saving and material saving , the need to abolish conventional methods completely may not be
necessary. The future of construction is most likely to be an integrated process that allows
organisations to take advantage of both conventional and 3D printing technologies at the same
time.

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