BRAIN

FUNCTION
THE BRAIN FUNCTION.
 Cerebrum
 Cerebellum
 Limbic System
 Brain Stem

The human brain is ultimately responsible for all thought and movement that the body
produces. This allows humans to successfully interact with their environment, by
communicating with others and interacting with inanimate objects near their position. If the
brain is not functioning properly, the ability to move, generate accurate sensory information
or speak and understand language can be damaged as well.

The nervous system is your body's decision and communication center. The central nervous
system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) is made of nerves. Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing
and blinking to helping you memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from your brain to your
face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord... and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body.
Sensory nerves gather information from the environment, send that info to the spinal cord,
which then speed the message to the brain. The brain then makes sense of that message and
fires off a response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your
body. The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the spine, is similar
to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second.

The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain
consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system). The
midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum,
pons and medulla. Often the midbrain, pons, and medulla are referred to together as the
brainstem.

The Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain, and contains tools which are
responsible for most of the brain's function.. The cerebrum is divided into a right and left
hemisphere which are connected by axons that relay messages from one to the other. This
matter is made of nerve cells which carry signals between the organ and the nerve cells which
run through the body. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called "lobes": the
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe.

What do each of these lobes do?

 Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement,

emotions, and problem solving
 Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of
stimuli
 Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing
 Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli,
memory, and speech
Thalamus:The Thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control the attention
span, sensing pain and monitors input that moves in and out of the brain to keep track of the
sensations the body is feeling.
Hypothalamus:The hypothalamus region of the brain controls mood, thirst, hunger and
temperature. It also contains glands which control the hormonal processes throughout the
body.

Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found buried
within the cerebrum. Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is rather old.

This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

Midbrain:The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon is made up of the tegmentum and
tectum. These parts of the brain help regulate body movement, vision and hearing. The
anterior portion of the midbrain contains the cerebral peduncle which contains the axons that
transfer messages from the cerebral cortex down the brain stem, which allows voluntary
motor function to take place.

Note that the cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes the brain more
efficient, because it can increase the surface area of the brain and the amount of neurons
within it.

A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres.
The two hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shown that each side functions
slightly different than the other. Sometimes the right hemisphere is associated with creativity
and the left hemispheres is associated with logic abilities. The corpus callosum is a bundle of
axons which connects these two hemispheres.

Nerve cells make up the gray surface of the cerebrum which is a little thicker than your
thumb. White nerve fibers underneath carry signals between the nerve cells and other parts of
the brain and body.

The neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebrum. This is a six-layered structure of the
cerebral cortex which is only found in mammals. It is thought that the neocortex is a recently
evolved structure, and is associated with "higher" information processing by more fully
evolved animals (such as humans, primates, dolphins, etc).

The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two
hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with
regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance.
The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than the cerebrum, evolutionarily. What do I
mean by this? In other words, animals which scientists assume to have evolved prior to
humans, for example reptiles, do have developed cerebellums. However, reptiles do not have
neocortex. Go here for more discussion of the neocortex or go to the following web site for a
more detailed look at evolution of brain structures and intelligence: "Ask the Experts":
Evolution and Intelligence

Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure is responsible for
basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Scientists say that
this is the "simplest" part of human brains because animals' entire brains, such as reptiles
(who appear early on the evolutionary scale) resemble our brain stem. Look at a good
example of thishere.

The brain stem is made of the midbrain, pons, and medulla.

http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/brain

http://www.md-health.com/Parts-Of-The-Brain-And-Function.html
BRAIN
DEVELOPMENT.
HOW THE BRAIN DEVELOP

When babies are born, their brains are ready to learn. Even newborns can understand some things
about objects and their relationship to each other. The brain organizes what the child experiences
into groups. As a childcare provider, you give children chances to touch, taste, see, hear, and smell
all they can. This helps them to learn about the world around them. As children play with things,
they learn about them. For example, children will sit on objects or throw them just to see what will
happen. As children get older, they continue to explore the world around them in new ways. For
example, children may mix yellow and blue paint to learn that it makes green. Exploring and
trying things out is how children learn.

As children learn, their brains grow. This article describes how the brain grows over time. In
recent years, there has been a lot of “brain research.” There are some basic facts we have learned
about brain development in infancy. Many studies show that you as caregivers have been doing
many of the right things to support brain development. Many parents have been doing the right
things, too. The best ways to support brain development are (1) being caring and supportive, (2)
paying attention to children and giving them what they need, and (3) providing a rich learning
environment. .

The brain grows at an amazing rate during development. At times during brain
development, 250,000 neurons are added every minute! At birth, almost all the neurons that the
brain will ever have are present. However, the brain continues to grow for a few years after birth.
By the age of 2 years old, the brain is about 80% of the adult size.

You may wonder, "How does the brain continue to grow, if the brain has most of the neurons it
will get when you are born?". The answer is in glial cells. Glia continues to divide and multiply.
Glia carries out many important functions for normal brain function including insulating nerve
cells with myelin. The neurons in the brain also make many new connections after birth.

Children are born with all of the brain cells they’re going to have

As babies grow, they learn many things, but they do not get new brain cells. They do not get new
muscles, either. The muscles in a baby’s arms and legs will develop as she gets older and matures.
In the same way, the nerve cells in the brain (called neurons) will also grow and develop. Muscles
must be used to become stronger. The same is true with the brain. Children need to use their brains
to learn to think.
When used, brain cells connect

Brain cells are not much good if they are not connected with each other. After birth, brain cells are
making connections all the time. These connections are called synapses (SIN app sez).
Connections are made when a child has experiences. Experiences make children think. When a
child thinks, brain cells are used. The connections (synapses) get stronger the more the child uses
them. These connections become a basis for how the child thinks.

The children in your care are always having experiences that help their brains to make strong
connections. You can learn about the connections that children’s brains are making. As you
explore the learning process, you will learn why some activities are important. Then you can help
parents with their children.

The stories of two chidren can explain the idea of the brain making connections. Isaac is 2 ½ years
old. He now lives in the United States and speaks English. But he was born in Mongolia. For the
first six months of his life he only heard Mongolian. Since he was adopted by a family in the
United States, he has heard only English. The brain cells that are used for understanding and
speaking English are used whenever he hears, speaks, or thinks in English. Like anyone else, when
Isaac was first learning English, he had to hear basic words over and over to help build the
connections in his brain. Now that he has some very strong “English-speaking” and “English-
understanding” connections, he doesn’t struggle to speak English. He can do it without effort,
because the connections are strong.

Giulia, on the other hand, lives in Italy. She is 16 years old and was born in Italy. She has an
Italian father and Korean mother. When she was young, she did not hear or speak English. Her
brain could have developed “English-speaking” connections, but it did not, because she was not in
an English-speaking environment. Instead, her brain made “Italian-speaking” connections. The
same process of connections is used for everything a child learns. That is why experiences are so
important.

Some connections break down

When connections are not used, they get weaker. Later, they disappear. For example, Giulia took
piano lessons for a few years, and then quit playing altogether. The synapses that were used to
play the piano became weak, because they were not used. The good news is these synapses can get
stronger if Guilia starts to practice the piano again. The more she practices the piano, the stronger
these connections become. But the more time that passes without practicing the piano, the harder it
will be to build up those connections.

The same is true with Isaac and his ability to learn Mongolian. For the first six months of his life
he heard Mongolian. But Isaac’s parents have spoken English with him since he came to the
United States. He does not hear Mongolian anymore, only English. So the “Mongolian”
connections are getting weaker and weaker. In the long run, the “Mongolian” connections will
almost disappear if he does not try to learn Mongolian.

Nature vs. nurture

Some brain development occurs just because it happens naturally. Almost every baby will do
things like other babies because of natural growth. But in other ways children will grow very
differently. This is because they have many different experiences.

Adults can count on nature taking care of some things. They do not need to teach children every
little skill. Most children will learn to talk without parents teaching them how to move their
mouths. Most children will learn to roll over without the parents doing anything. But children will
not learn to talk if no one talks to them. They will not learn to roll over if they are always in a seat
or being held.

Most experts agree that growth comes from both nature and nurture. It is interesting to look at how
nature and nurture work together. For a baby’s brain to make connections, she must be healthy and
have what she needs physically. If that happens, some changes will come naturally. But that is not
enough. She must also be in a place that gives her experiences. Nature and nurture together help
her make brain connections and make the connections strong.

The brain is divided into sections

The brain seems to use different brain areas for different jobs. There are not only areas for
language and music, but also for math, sight, emotions, and every other job the brain thinks about
and does. Within each of these areas, there are millions of neurons and synapses. The areas of the
brain can change a little, though. If a person has brain damage in one area, sometimes another area
can take over.

The areas of the brain develop at different times. That means that children can learn some things
best at particular times. A “window of opportunity” is the time when something is easiest to learn.
Windows of opportunity are sometimes called critical periods. The first three years of life are very
important times for basic learning. That is when the fastest growth is taking place.

Researchers have learned that there are many windows of opportunity in the first ten years of life.
This is because connections are being made in the brain then at the most rapid rates. All
researchers do not agree about what is meant by windows of opportunity. Most agree that there are
times when some things are easier to learn than at other times. But, it is hard to say exactly when
windows of opportunity occur. It is also hard to say exactly what things are learned within a
window of opportunity.

New pathways are always being made. Each day you and the children in your care are having
experiences. Those experiences are making connections in your brains. Researchers know that
connections are being made at an especially fast rate very early in life. Researchers have compared
the brains of one-year-olds with the brains of newborns and with adults. They found that a one-
year-old brain is more like the brain of an adult than the brain of a newborn. This shows how fast
the connections are made during the first year of life.

During the first years of life, the brain is ready to learn. Giulia, for example, not only learned
Italian, but she also learned a second language as a child. She learned Korean from her mother.
Learning a second language was not difficult for young Giulia. Her brain was ready to learn
languages. And since her mother provided a “Korean-speaking” environment, Giulia was able to
learn Korean. When children are older, they can still learn things, even things that may have been
easier to learn while they were younger. Older children must simply learn in different ways than
younger children. Some things, like language learning, will take longer for an older person than a
younger person. The process is not as natural for an older child as for a younger child.

When Giulia was 15 years old, she decided she wanted to learn English. She learned quickly that it
would not be as easy as learning Korean or Italian. She had to work very hard to start making
connections between brain cells. She had to practice a lot for the connections to become strong.
The more English experiences she had, the stronger the connections became. The stronger the
connections became, the less effort she had to put into thinking, writing, speaking, and reading in
English.

Other examples of brain development

To explain brain development, we have used examples of language learning. These brain
development concepts also apply to other things the brain thinks about and does. Other examples
of skills learned from infancy are how to get along with other people, how to know when you have
had enough to eat, and how to handle stress. Things that are learned later include reading, doing
math, dancing, typing, driving a car, cleaning the house, swimming, and job skills.

Many of the things we learn while we are very young help us to be able to learn when we are
older. For example, learning how to interact socially can help us to learn job skills later in life.
Learning rhymes and songs helps children when it is time for them to learn to read. The more
connections there are in the brain, the more successful children can be at developing skills over
time.

The brain and social development

This is an example that you as a caregiver can share with parents about brain development.
Children can be learning healthy ways to interact socially from the time they are small infants.
Mothers teach their children about “turn taking” in social interactions. Mothers talk to their babies.
And babies “talk” back. Babies talk by babbling and making other baby noises. Mothers should
allow their babies to finish “talking” before the mother talks again. When mothers let their babies
take their turn in the interaction, they are teaching their babies the first things they need to know
about social interactions. Babies can learn to “talk” when it’s their turn to talk, and to listen when
it’s their turn to listen. When these social interactions take place, connections, or synapses, in the
brain are being made.

Unfortunately, some mothers, and other people who interact with babies, do not allow babies to
have their turn. Some adults and children will just keep talking to the baby while the baby is trying
to take his turn. This can be seen when a baby tries to turn his head away from his mother, but his
mother keeps putting her face in front of her baby. Babies get upset and confused when this
happens. Other times, adults and children won’t listen to babies when they need attention. When
these confusing things happen, the synapses for “turn-taking” are not being connected properly.

“Turn-taking” needs to be learned for children and adults to take turns in social interactions. The
brain needs to make those connections. If the connections are not made when a child is young, the
connections will need to be made as the child grows older. Just like with learning a language, or
learning to play the piano, learning to take turns in social interactions becomes more natural the
more it is done. And it is easiest to learn early in life. The more experiences the brain has with
something, the stronger the connections, or synapses, in that part of the brain become.
In the first three years, a child’s brain has up to twice as many synapses as it will have in
adulthood.

Now that we’re a little more familiar with the fundamentals of the brain, let’s take a look at
brain development in children. Between conception and age three, a child’s brain undergoes
an impressive amount of change. At birth, it already has about all of the neurons it will ever
have. It doubles in size in the first year, and by age three it has reached 80 percent of its adult
volume.8,9,10
Even more importantly, synapses are formed at a faster rate during these years than at any
other time. In fact, the brain creates many more of them than it needs: at age two or three, the
brain has up to twice as many synapses as it will have in adulthood (Figure 3). These surplus
connections are gradually eliminated throughout childhood and adolescence, a process
sometimes referred to as blooming and pruning. 11

The organization of a child’s brain is affected by early experiences.

Why would the brain create more synapses than it needs, only to discard the extras? The
answer lies in the interplay of genetic and environmental factors in brain development.

The early stages of development are strongly affected by genetic factors; for example, genes
direct newly formed neurons to their correct locations in the brain and play a role in how they
interact.12,13 However, although they arrange the basic wiring of the brain, genes do not design
the brain completely.14,15
Instead, genes allow the brain to fine-tune itself according to the input it receives from the
environment. A child’s senses report to the brain about her environment and experiences, and
this input stimulates neural activity. Speech sounds, for example, stimulate activity in
language-related brain regions. If the amount of input increases (if more speech is heard)
synapses between neurons in that area will be activated more often.

Repeated use strengthens a synapse. Synapses that are rarely used remain weak and are more
likely to be eliminated in the pruning process. Synapse strength contributes to the connectivity
and efficiency of the networks that support learning, memory, and other cognitive
abilities.16,17 Therefore, a child’s experiences not only determine what information enters her
brain, but also influence how her brain processes information.
Genes provide a blueprint for the brain, but a child’s environment and experiences
carry out the construction.

The excess of synapses produced by a child’s brain in the first three years makes the brain
especially responsive to external input. During this period, the brain can “capture” experience
more efficiently than it will be able to later, when the pruning of synapses is underway. 11 The
brain’s ability to shape itself – called plasticity – lets humans adapt more readily and more
quickly than we could if genes alone determined our wiring. 18 The process of blooming and
pruning, far from being wasteful, is actually an efficient way for the brain to achieve optimal
development.
From Conception to Age Three: An Outline of Early Brain Development

FIRST TRIMESTER

The development of the brain begins in the first few weeks after conception. Most of the
structural features of the brain appear during the embryonic period (about the first 8 weeks
after fertilization); these structures then continue to grow and develop during the fetal period
(the remainder of gestation).19,20
The first key event of brain development is the formation of the neural tube. About two weeks
after conception, the neural plate, a layer of specialized cells in the embryo, begins to slowly
fold over onto itself, eventually forming a tube-shaped structure. The tube gradually closes as
the edges of the plate fuse together; this process is usually complete by four weeks after
conception. The neural tube continues to change, eventually becoming the brain and spinal
cord.20,21
About seven weeks after conception the first neurons and synapses begin to develop in the
spinal cord. These early neural connections allow the fetus to make its first movements, which
can be detected by ultrasound and MRI even though in most cases the mother cannot feel
them. These movements, in turn, provide the brain with sensory input that spurs on its
development. More coordinated movements develop over the next several weeks. 22
SECOND TRIMESTER

Early in the second trimester, gyri and sulci begin to appear on the brain’s surface; by the end
of this trimester, this process is almost complete. The cerebral cortex is growing in thickness
and complexity and synapse formation in this area is beginning. 20,21,23
Myelin begins to appear on the axons of some neurons during the second trimester. This
process – called myelination – continues through adolescence. Myelination allows for faster
processing of information: for the brain to achieve the same level of efficiency without
myelination, the spinal cord would have to be three yards in diameter. 14
THIRD TRIMESTER

The early weeks of the third trimester are a transitional period during which the cerebral
cortex begins to assume many duties formerly carried out by the more primitive brainstem.
For example, reflexes such as fetal breathing and responses to external stimuli become more
regular. The cerebral cortex also supports early learning which develops around this time. 24,25
YEAR ONE

The remarkable abilities of newborn babies highlight the extent of prenatal brain
development. Newborns can recognize human faces, which they prefer over other objects, and
can even discriminate between happy and sad expressions. At birth, a baby knows her
mother’s voice and may be able to recognize the sounds of stories her mother read to her
while she was still in the womb.26,27
The brain continues to develop at an amazing rate throughout the first year. The cerebellum
triples in size, which appears to be related to the rapid development of motor skills that occurs
during this period. As the visual areas of the cortex grow, the infant’s initially dim and limited
sight develops into full binocular vision. 28,29
At about three months, an infant’s power of recognition improves dramatically; this coincides
with significant growth in the hippocampus, the limbic structure related to recognition
memory. Language circuits in the frontal and temporal lobes become consolidated in the first
year, influenced strongly by the language an infant hears. For the first few months, a baby in
an English-speaking home can distinguish between the sounds of a foreign language. She
loses this ability by the end of her first year: the language she hears at home has wired her
brain for English.30,31
YEAR TWO

This year’s most dramatic changes involve the brain’s language areas, which are developing
more synapses and becoming more interconnected. These changes correspond to the sudden
spike in children’s language abilities – sometimes called the vocabulary explosion – that
typically occurs during this period. Often a child’s vocabulary will quadruple between his first
and second birthday.

During the second year, there is a major increase in the rate of myelination, which helps the
brain perform more complex tasks. Higher-order cognitive abilities like self-awareness are
developing: an infant is now more aware of his own emotions and intentions. When he sees
his reflection in a mirror, he now fully recognizes that it is his own. Soon he will begin using
his own name as well as personal pronouns like “I” and “me.”14,28
YEAR THREE

Synaptic density in the prefrontal cortex probably reaches its peak during the third year, up to
200 percent of its adult level. This region also continues to create and strengthen networks
with other areas. As a result, complex cognitive abilities are being improved and consolidated.
At this stage, for example, children are better able to use the past to interpret present events.
They also have more cognitive flexibility and a better understanding of cause and effect. 14,32
The earliest messages that the brain receives have an enormous impact.

Early brain development is the foundation of human adaptability and resilience, but these
qualities come at a price. Because experiences have such a great potential to affect brain
development, children are especially vulnerable to persistent negative influences during this
period. On the other hand, these early years are a window of opportunity for parents,
caregivers, and communities: positive early experiences have a huge effect on children’s
chances for achievement, success, and happiness.
http://projectflexner.sites.medinfo.ufl.edu/how-we-learn/

https://www.extension.purdue.edu/providerparent/child%20growthdevelopment/braindev.htm

https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/dev.html

HOW BRAIN
WORK IN
LEARNING
PROCESS
 HOW BRAIN WORK IN LEARNING
How the brain learns
“Tell me and I’ll forgot, show me and i may remember, involve me and I’ll understand.”
– Chinese Proverb

If learning was a simple as pouring the pitcher of knowledge into the empty glass of a
students head, then all education would require was a person to speak didactically on the
subject, and students would listen and gain the knowledge themselves. Unfortunately,
learning takes a lot more then merely listening to an authority speak, irregardless of his
expertise and reliability.

So how do most adults learn?

To answer this central question we need to know something about how the brain processes
information and creates long term memories:

The brain processes different stimuli in different parts of the brain:

 Verbal input is initially processed through the left temporal lobe in a right handed
person.
 Reading requires processing by the occipital cortex, the left temporal lobe and the frontal
cortex.
 Writing requires use of the motor cortex in the dominant hemisphere (left hemisphere for
a right handed person) as well as the occipital cortex.
 Pictures and other images are initially managed by the occipital cortex and eventually
the right side of the brain.

The brain creates two types of memory:

 Short-term memory that includes immediate memory and working memory.
Immediate memory acts as a temporary site where input is briefly stored until the brain
decides whether to erase the memory as unimportant or to process the memory. The
triaging of memories is primarily unconsicous. These temporary memories are thought to
be stored in the hippocampus, and emotions generated in the adjacent amygdola increase
the likelihood of memory retention.
Working memory is the place where conscious processing occurs. This is where stimuli
that capture our interest and attention are managed. Auditory and visual spacial stimuli
can be rehearsed in the working memory and rehearsal increases the likelihood of long-
term storage. The adult working memory can only hold 7 objects at one time. Only by
grouping multiple facts into a single chunk can the learner process greater amounts of
information. As learners move from novice to expert, they increase the number facts
in large chunks. Items can be processed in the working memory for up to 45 minutes.
Longer periods of processing lead to fatigue. Maximal attention usually lasts about 10
minutes. Ideally to minimize working memory fatigue facts should be processed for
10 minutes at a time.

 Long-term memories – These are memories that are retained for greater than 24 hours.
What determines which short-term memories become long-term memories? The working
 memory scans past long-term memories and asks two questions:
1. Does the material make sense? –Is it logical and does it fit with previously retained
facts? Can it be connected or chunked with other facts in my long-term memory?
2. Is the material important to me (does it have meaning)? This is the most important
criteria for deciding whether a series of facts will be transferred to long-term memory. If
material is deemed trivial it will not be retained as a long-term memory. Brain scans show
maximal activity when material that has meaning and makes sense is presented, as
compare to material that has meaning and doesn’t make sense or material that makes
sense, but is trivial in nature.

 Long-term memories require the generation of new synapses during sle New
synapses are created during REM sleep. Students who sleep for 8 hours have 5 REM
episodes while those who are sleep-deprived have on average on 3 REM episodes. The
sleep-deprived student has fewer opportunities to generate long-term memories.

Implicatons for teaching –

Use all parts of the students brain by including reading, writing, verbal processing and
images in your teaching.
Engage the working memory – encourage processing of material by requiring active
participation, and requiring students to work with the material. Rehearsel enhances
understanding and increases the likelihood of a long-term memory.
Don’t overload the working memory – less is more. Remember the novice can only process
7 facts at a time in his or her working memory.
Avoid working memory fatigue – Lessons should be presented in 10-20 minute blocks
Encourage long-term memories by creating meaning and creating material that makes
sense to the learner. Relating lessons to real-life situations, and being enthusiastic create
meaning. Know your learners’ backgrounds so that you relate to past learning and allow the
learner to understand and make sense of the material you are presenting.
Encourage students to get enough sleep. Long-term memories are created during REM
sleep. Without sleep there can be no long-term memories.
Evaluations must assess long-term memory and understanding – Too often multiple
choice questions simply test recognition. Short term memory can be temporarily
crammed with blocks of material that allow the student to recognize the correct answer.
However, once the test is completed these facts are erased and never make it to long-term
storage. This phenomenon has been called the Zeigarnik effect.
Further Reading

Knowledge retention is key in both corporate training and education. Users need to remember
learning content so that they can accurately apply it in real-life instances. So when we set out
to create the amplifire software, thoroughly understanding how the brain stores information in
memory was imperative.

At its most basic level, there are four stages of memory critical to the learning process.
 1. Encoding

This is the transformation of phenomenon in the environment (sights, sounds, etc.)

into material that the brain can understand. This is essentially a translation process
in which the brain creates a memory of something in relation to what it already
knows.

2. Storage

There are two different types of memory storage, short term and long term. Long-
term memory occurs when neuron pathways are established in order to store
information that can be recalled later. Short-term memory does not establish their
neural networks and is believed to be housed primarily in the prefrontal lobe.

3. Retrieval

There are four different kinds of memory retrieval:

 Recall allows a person to retrieve information unprompted. This can be tested using
fill-in-the blank style questions.
 Recollection uses logical reconstruction to piece together different pieces of
information. Essay questions test this kind of retrieval.
 Recognition occurs as a result of “re-experiencing” the information. This can be
tested using multiple choice questions.
 Relearning is a rehearsal of previously learned information to strengthen retrieval.

4. Forgetting

This often annoying process is a fundamental part of the brain’s functioning which
allows less important information to fall away so that more important information
can be retrieved more easily. Research at the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and
Self-Organization has shown that the brain forgets information at a rate of 1 bit per
second per neuron.

While the biochemical and psychological processes underlying each of these four stages are
robust and complex, this basic framework is critical for considering how our brains learn and
remember.
6 important things you should know about how your brain learns

POSTED BY BELLE BETH COOPER

1. We take in information better when it’s visual

The brain uses 50% of its resources on vision.

Think about that for a minute. Half of your brain power goes to your eyes and the processes
in your brain that turn what you see into information. The other half has to be split up among
all the other functions your body has.

Vision is not only a power-hungry sense, but it trumps our other senses when it comes to
taking in information.

Image credit: Amit Kapoor – Storytelling with Data – See | Show | Tell | Engage

A perfect example of this is an experiment where 54 wine aficionados were asked to taste
wine samples. The experimenters dropped odorless, tasteless red dye into white wines to see
whether the wine tasters would still know they were white based on the taste and smell. They
didn’t. Vision is such a big part of how we interpret the world that it can overwhelm our other
senses.

Another surprising finding about vision is that we treat text as images. As you read this
paragraph, your brain is interpreting each letter as an image. This makes reading incredibly
inefficient when compared to how quickly and easily we can take in information from a
picture.

More than just static visuals, we pay special attention to anything we see that’s moving. So
pictures and animations are your best friends when it comes to learning.

Action: Find or make flash cards with images on them. Add doodles, photos, or pictures from
magazines and newspapers to your notes. Use colors and diagrams to illustrate new concepts
you learn.
2. We remember the big picture better than the details

When you’re learning lots of new concepts, it’s easy to get lost in the barrage of information.
One way to avoid being overwhelmed is to keep referring back to the big picture. This is
probably where you’ll start with something new, so coming back to explore how the new
concept you just learned fits into that big picture can be helpful.

In fact, our brains tend to hang onto the gist of what we’re learningbetter than the details, so
we might as well play into our brains’ natural tendencies.

When the brain takes in new information, it hangs onto it better if it already has some
information to relate it to. This is where starting with the gist of an idea can be helpful: it
gives you something to hang each detail on as you learn it.

I read a metaphor about this concept once that I loved: imagine your brain is like a closet full
of shelves: as you add more clothes they fill up more of the shelves and you start categorizing
them.

Now if you add a black sweater (a new piece of information) it can go on the sweater shelf,
the black clothes shelf, the winter clothes shelf, or the wool shelf. In real life you can’t put
your sweater on more than one shelf, but in your brain that new piece of information gets
linked to each of those existing ideas. You’ll more easily remember that information later
because when you learned it you related it to various other things you already knew.

Action: Keep a large diagram or page of notes handy that explains the big picture of what
you’re learning and add to it each major concept you learn along the way.

3. Sleep largely affects learning and memory

Studies have shown that a night of sleep in-between learning something new and being tested
on it can significantly improve performance. In a study of motor skills, participants who were
tested 12 hours after learning a new skill with a night of sleep in-between improved by 20.5%,
compared to just 3.9% improvement for participants who were tested at 4-hour intervals
during waking hours.

Naps can improve learning just like a full night of sleep can. A study from the University of
California found that participants who napped after completing a challenging task performed
better when completing the task again later, compared to participants who stayed awake in-
between tests.
Sleeping before you learn can also be beneficial. Dr Matthew Walker, the lead researcher of
the University of California study, said “Sleep prepares the brain like a dry sponge, ready to
soak up new information”.

Action: Try practicing your new skill—or reading about it—before going to bed or taking a
nap. When you wake up, write some notes on what you remember from your last study
session.

4. Sleep deprivation significantly reduces your ability to learn new information

Sleep deprivation is a scary thing. Because we don’t fully understand sleep and its purpose yet
(though we have some ideas) we don’t always respect our need for sleep.

But although we can’t say definitively what sleep does for us, we know what happens if you
don’t get enough. Sleep deprivation makes us play it safe by avoiding risks and leaning on old
habits. It also increases our likelihood of being physically injured, since our bodies don’t
perform as well when we’re tired.

Most importantly for learning: sleep deprivation can cut your brain’s ability to take in new
information by almost 40%. Compared to getting a good night’s sleep and waking up
refreshed and ready to learn, an all-nighter doesn’t seem worth the effort.

Image credit: Mikael Häggström

A Harvard Medical School study found that the first 30 hours afterlearning something are
critical, and sleep deprivation during this time can cancel out any learning benefits of getting
a full night’s sleep after those 30 hours are up.

Action: Forget all-nighters. Save practice and study sessions for days when you’re alert and
well-rested. And definitely avoid sleep deprivation right after learning something new.

5. We learn best by teaching others

When we expect to have to teach other people what we’re learning, we take in new
information better. We organize it better in our minds, remember it more correctly, and we’re
better at remembering the most important parts of what we’ve learned.
One study told half the participants they would be tested on the information they were
learning, and told the other half they would have to teach someone else what they learned.
Both sets of participants were tested on the information and didn’t have to teach anyone else,
but the subjects who thought they’d be teaching others performed better on the test.

The study’s lead author, Dr. John Nestojko, said the study implied that students’ mindsets
before and during learning can make a big difference to how well we learn new information.
“Positively altering a student’s mindset can be effectively achieved through rather simple
instructions,” he said.

Though we don’t realize it, learning with the idea that we’ll have to teach this information
later tends to invoke better methods for learning subconsciously. For instance, we focus on
the most important pieces of information, the relationships between different concepts, and
we carefully organize the information in our minds.

Action: Keep a notebook or blog where you write about what you’ve learned. Write about
each new concept you learn as if it’s a lesson for others.

6. We learn new information better when it’s interleaved

A common learning approach is what UCLA researcher Dick Schmidt calls ‘block practice’.
When you practice or focus on learning one particular thing over and over, that’s block
practice. For instance, you might study history for a few hours in a row, or practice just your
serve in a tennis lesson.

Schmidt advocates a different approach to learning called interleaving, which mixes up the
information or skills you practice. Another UCLA researcher, Bob Bjork, studies interleaving
in his psychology lab. One of his experiments involves teaching participants about artistic
styles by showing them a series of images on a screen. Some of the participants are exposed
to block practice of artistic styles (all 6 examples of a painter’s style are shown before moving
on to another painter’s style), while others have their images interleaved (examples of
different painter’s styles are mixed in together).

When the two groups are tested afterwards on how well they can recognize a painter’s style in
a painting they haven’t seen before, the interleaving group usually scores around 60%, while
the block group scores around 30%.

Surprisingly, around 70% of the participants in this experiment say they think the block
practice was most effective in helping them learn. Clearly we have some work to do to
understand what helps us learn best.
Bjork believes interleaving works better because it plays into our natural abilities to recognize
patterns and outliers. When applied in the real world it also provides an opportunity for us to
review information regularly, as we interleave what we already know with new information.

Some examples for interleaving could be cycling through three different subjects you need to
study before exams, practicing speaking, listening, and writing skills of a foreign language in
tandem rather than in blocks, or practicing your forehand, backhand, and serves in a single
tennis lesson rather than setting aside one lesson for each.

Action: When you’re learning or practicing a new technique, practice it interleaved with other
techniques. For instance, if you’re practicing a particular golf swing, practice other swings at
the same time to mix it up. If you’re learning new information, mix in information you
already know—old vocabulary words and new when you’re learning a foreign language, for
instance.

As Bob Bjork says, we all need to become smarter learners. “In almost any job, you have to
keep managing some new kind of technology,” he said, so “just knowing how to manage your
own learning is very important”.

http://blog.crew.co/6-things-know-brain-learns/

http://knowledgefactor.com/blogs/breaking-down-brain-learning-process-simplified
 CEREBRUM carry
signals between the
organ and the nerve
cells
THALAMUS control the
attention span, sensing
LIMBIC SYSTEM pain and monitors input
contains the thalamus, that moves in and out
hypothalamus, of the brain to keep
amygdala, and track of the sensations
hippocampus. the body is feeling.

FUNCTION
BRAINSTEM is
HYPOTHALAMUS
responsible for basic
control the hormonal
vital life functions such
processes throughout
as breathing, heartbeat,
the body.
and blood pressure.

CEREBELLUM is
associated with MIDBRAIN help
regulation and regulate body
coordination of movement, vision and
movement, posture, hearing
and balance.
 As children learn, their
brains grow

Genes provide a
newborns can understand
blueprint for the brain,
some things about
but a child’s environment
objects and their
and experiences carry
relationship to each other
out the construction.

BRAIN
DEVELOPMENT

When connections are 250,000 neurons are

not used, they get weaker added every minute

The muscles in a baby’s

arms and legs will
As babies grow, they
develop as she gets older
learn many things, but
and matures. In the same
they do not get new brain
way, the nerve cells in the
cells
brain (called neurons) will
also grow and develop
 Verbal input is initially
processed through the left
temporal lobe in a right
handed person.
Forgetting.This often
annoying process is a
fundamental part of the
Reading requires processing
brain’s functioning which
by the occipital cortex, the
allows less important
left temporal lobe and the
information to fall away so
frontal cortex.
that more important
information can be
retrieved more easily

Encoding.this is the
transformation of
BRAIN Writing requires use of the
motor cortex in the
phenomenon in the
environment (sights,
WORK IN dominant hemisphere (left
hemisphere for a right
sounds, etc.) into material
that the brain can
LEARNING handed person) as well as
the occipital cortex.
understand PROCESS

Pictures and other

Long-term memories –
images are initially
These are memories that
managed by the occipital
are retained for greater
cortex and eventually the
than 24 hours.
right side of the brain.

Short-term memory that

includes immediate
memory and working
memory.
Immediate memory