CHAPTER PREVIEW

• Social Cognition

• Social Behavior

• Social Influence

• Intergroup Relations

• Close Relationships

• Health and Wellness

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

The study of how people think about, influence, and relate to

other people.

– social cognitions

– social influences

– social relations

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SOCIAL COGNITION

How do people select, interpret, remember, and use social

information?

Person Perception
– physical attractiveness
• “beautiful is good” stereotype
• self-fulfilling prophecy
• composite faces, symmetry,
and youthfulness
– first impressions

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SOCIAL COGNITION

• Attributions
– explanations for why people
behave the way they do

• Attribution Theory
– attempt to discover underlying
causes of behavior
– internal/external causes
– stable/unstable causes
– controllable/uncontrollable causes

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SOCIAL COGNITION

Attribution Errors

– fundamental attribution error

• overestimate the importance
of internal traits
• underestimate the importance
of external causes

– observers often explain actors’

behaviors incorrectly

– actors often explain own

behavior in terms of external
causes

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SOCIAL COGNITION

Heuristics: cognitive shortcuts that speed decision making

– stereotypes
– false consensus effect
• overestimating the degree to which everyone else thinks or acts
the way we do
• use our outlook to predict that of others

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THE SELF AS A SOCIAL OBJECT

Self-Esteem

– positive illusions – views of ourselves

that are not necessarily rooted in
reality

– self-serving bias – tendency to take

credit for success and deny
responsibility for failure

– self-objectification – tendency to see

oneself primarily as an object in the
eyes of others

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SOCIAL COGNITION

• Stereotype Threat
– a self-fulfilling fear about being judged on the basis of a
negative stereotype about our group

• Social Comparison
– process by which we evaluate our thoughts, feelings, behaviors,
and abilities in relation to other people
– social comparison theory

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ATTITUDES

beliefs about people, places, and ideas.

– Can attitudes predict behavior?

• when attitudes are strong
• when attitudes are rehearsed
• when person has vested interest

– Can behavior predict attitudes?

• cognitive dissonance and self
perception

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COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

• Discomfort Caused by Two Dissonant Thoughts

– thoughts of one’s attitude versus one’s behavior

• Dissonance Reduced By
– changing behaviors to
match attitude
– changing attitudes to
match behavior

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SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY
Both cognitive dissonance and self-perception theory explain the
connection between attitudes and behavior.
Individuals make inferences about their own attitudes by
perceiving their own behavior, especially if their attitudes are
unclear.
Cognitive Dissonance Self Perception

Strive for consistency Infer our attitude

I hate my job. I spend all my time thinking

But I work hard at it. how bad my job is.
I need to fix my attitude. I must really hate it.

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PERSUASION

• The Communicator (credibility)

– trustworthiness, expertise, attractiveness, likeability, similarity

• Medium (television versus print)

• The Target (age, attitude, strength)

• Message (rational versus emotional

strategy)
– elaboration likelihood model
• central route
• peripheral route

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PERSUASION

• Successful Persuasion
– foot-in-the-door technique
– door-in-the-face technique

• Resisting Persuasion
– inoculation

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SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

• We behave in social ways toward the people around us.

• Two extremes of human

social activity:
– altruism
– aggression

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PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

• Altruism
– an unselfish interest in helping
someone else

• Egoism
– helping others for personal
enhancement (e.g., to ensure
reciprocity)

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PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Explanations of Altruism
– evolutionary
– psychological factors
• mood
• empathy

– sociocultural factors
• market economies
• investment in established
religion
• gender

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PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

• The Bystander Effect

– Darley and Latané (1968)
– individuals are less likely to help
in an emergency when others
are present
– diffusion of responsibility

• Media Influence

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AGGRESSION

Biological Influences

• evolutionary views

• genetic basis

• neurobiological factors
– limbic system and frontal
lobes of brain
– low levels of serotonin
– testosterone

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AGGRESSION

Psychological Influences

• aversive circumstances
– frustration
– weather, physical pain,
crowding

• cognitive determinants
– priming
– perception of unfairness

• observational learning
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AGGRESSION

Sociocultural Influences

• cultural variations
– culture of honor

• media violence
– television
– violent pornography
– violent video games

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SOCIAL INFLUENCE: CONFORMITY

Asch’s Experiment (1951)

– Factors that Contribute to Conformity
• psychological
– informational social influence
– normative social influence
• biological
– Brain equates non-conformity with making an error.
– Oxytocin promotes conformity.
• cultural
– Collectivism promotes conformity.
– Pathogenic prevalence correlated with conformity.

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SOCIAL INFLUENCE: OBEDIENCE

Milgram’s Experiments (1965, 1974)

– Factors that Contribute to Disobedience

• disobedient models
• authority figure not legitimate
or not close by
• victim made to seem
more human

– Ethical Concerns
Regarding Milgram – Deception

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SOCIAL INFLUENCE: OBEDIENCE

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment

• 2-week Simulation: Guards vs. Prisoners

• Manifested Extreme Aggression & Abuse

– Participants did not quit.
– Simulation was aborted after 6 days.

• Biased Sample

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GROUP INFLUENCE

• Deindividuation
– erosion of personal identity and responsibility
– anonymity

• Social Contagion
– spread of behavior, emotions,
and ideas

• Group Performance
– social facilitation: arousal with
well-learned tasks
– social loafing: reduced
accountability

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GROUP DECISION MAKING

• Risky Shift
– Group decisions are riskier than average individual decisions.

• Group Polarization
– Discussion strengthens
the individual’s position.

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GROUP DECISION MAKING

• Groupthink
– group harmony
– impaired decision making and avoidance of realistic appraisal
– symptoms of groupthink
– avoiding groupthink

• Majority-Minority
Influence
– majority: normative and
informational pressure
– minority: informational
pressure
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INTERGROUP RELATIONS

• Group Identity
“us” versus “them”
• Social Identity
define ourselves in terms
of group membership

Social Identity Theory
in-groups versus
out-groups
• Ethnocentrism
favoring one’s own group
over other groups

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SOCIAL IDENTITY

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PREJUDICE

an unjustified negative attitude toward a group and its members

• Explicit Versus Implicit Racism

• Explanations for Prejudice

– competition between groups
– cultural learning
– motivation to enhance
self-esteem
– limitations in cognitive
processes

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STEREOTYPING AND PREJUDICE

• Stereotype
– a generalization about a group

• Discrimination
– an unjustified negative or harmful action

How can relationships between ethnic groups be improved?

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STEREOTYPING AND PREJUDICE

Improving Interethnic Relations

– Contact only is not effective. Works best if groups:

• think they are of equal status
• feel an authority figure
approves positive relations
• anticipate emergent friendship
• engage in cooperative tasks

– Aronson’s jigsaw classroom

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SHERIF’S ROBBERS CAVE STUDY

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CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS

Attraction
– proximity
• mere exposure effect
• promise of acquaintanceship

– we like those who like us

– similarity
• consensual validation

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CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS: LOVE

• Romantic Love
– passionate love
– sexuality and infatuation

• Affectionate Love
– companionate love
– deep caring affection

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CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS: LOVE

• Social Exchange Theory

– fair exchange of “goods”
– minimize costs, maximize benefits

• Investment Model
– factors in stability of
relationship
• commitment to partner
• investment in relationship
• lack of attractive
alternatives

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HEALTH AND WELLNESS

• Social Ties and Health

– isolation and mortality
– social support and coping

• Fighting Loneliness
– join activities with others
– act pleasant
– get help

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CHAPTER REVIEW
• Describe how people think about the social world.

• Describe social behavior, particularly altruism and aggression.

• Identify how people are influenced in social settings.

• Discuss intergroup relations.

• Explain the nature of close relationships.

• Describe social processes affecting health and wellness.

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