Advanced Elementary Math

Introduction to secondary school mathematics.
School Mathematics Study Group.

[Stanford, Calif., Stanford University, c1961-
http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015017374367
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MATHEMATICS
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SCHOOL
MATHEMATICS
STUDY GROUP
INTRODUCTION TO SECONDARY
SCHOOL MATHEMATICS
Commentary for Teachers
VOLUME I (Parti)
(revised edition)
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INTRODUCTION TO SECONDARY SCHOOL

MATHEMATICS
Volume I (Part 1)
(revised edition)
Prepared under the supervision of a Panel consisting of:
V- H- Haag, Franklin and Marshall College
Mildred Keiffer, Cincinnati Board of Education
Oscar Schaaf, South Eugene High School, Eugene, Oregon
M- A- Sobel, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, New Jersey
Marie Wilcox, Thomas Carr Howe High School, Indianapolis, Indiana
A- B- Willcox, Amherst College

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Financial support for the School Mathematics Study Group has been provided by the
National Science Foundation-
Copyright 1961 by Stanford University- ™OToutw>fwnt«» by cush™ - maiôy- «c-

ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN-UNITED STATES OFAMERICA
5<9'3f03'/'tf2, PREFACE TO TEACHERS
This text has been written for the student in grade 7 whose
mathematical talent is underdeveloped. The subject matter
presented is essentially that which appears in the School Mathe
matics Study Group text: "Mathematics for Junior High School",
Volume 1. This is part of the body of mathematics which members
of the Study Group believe is important for all educated citizens
in our society. It is also the mathematics which is important
for the pre-college student as he prepares for advanced work in
the field of mathematics and related subjects.
Within the group for which this material is intended there
may be a large number of college capable students whose mathema
tical talent may not as yet have been discovered. There may be
others who heretofore have been insufficiently challenged. How
ever this text is not offered as appropriate content for the

very slow non-college-bound student.
A number of guiding principles were followed in preparing
these materials, among which are the following:
- to lower the reading level;
- to shorten the chapters with variation from chapter to
chapter in terms of content;
- to shorten sections within each chapter;
- to introduce new concepts through use of concrete examples;
- to provide numerous illustrative examples;
- to include simple drill material in many of the problem
sets;
- to provide chapter summaries, reviews, and cumulative
sets of problems.
in this text is not of the type
The mathematics which appears
normally called "business" or "vocational" mathematics, nor is it
intended that this serve as a terminal course. Rather, as the
title clearly states, this is an introduction to secondary school
mathematics which will provide the student with many of the basic
concepts necessary for further study.
It is that this material will serve
the hope of the panel
to awaken the interest of a large group of students who have
ability in mathematics which has not yet been recognized. It is
hoped also that it is possible to build an understanding of funda
mental concepts for those whose progress in mathematics has been
blocked or hampered through rote learning or through an inappro
priate curriculum.
The teacher should keep in mind that this is an experimental
text which is being used to test the hypothesis that material of
this type can be taught to young people of the ability level
previously described. Consequently the development should follow
the text closely in terms of content as well as methodology in
order that a fair evaluation of the material may be made.
The material in this text is presented in a manner different
from the usual text at this level, and as previously indicated,
is written for a particular type of student. For these reasons
some general suggestions for its use are offered below.
Reading. This text is written with the expectation that it can

and will be read by the student. students are not accustomed
Many
to reading a mathematics book so that it will be necessary to
assist them in learning how to make best use of this text.
Experience has shown that it is best for the teacher to read
with the class during the early part of the course. The teacher
may read aloud while the students read silently. Later the
teacher may start the reading with the class and then encourage
them to continue the reading alone. This is not recommended as
a method of teaching reading as such, but rather as a method of
helping the student discover that he can read a mathematics book.
There will be times when the student will need to reread
the same passages several times. The teacher should suggest this,
and see that time is made available for it.
The students of the ability level for which this text was
written are not able to read long passages with understanding.
Some students may be able to read only a sentence or two at a
time in the beginning. Consequently, it
is important that the
teacher stop often for class discussion.
It will prove helpful if
students are asked to state, in
their words, the ideas which they have read; but the teacher
own
should not expect this verbalization to be formal.
It that the teacher's objective is to get
must be observed
across to the students the ideas contained in the material. He
cannot permit reading retardation to inhibit or to undermine
student interest in the content. The mathematics teacher cannot
overcome serious pupil retardation in reading, but he can
contribute to reading skill by pointing out to the student the
need for rereading and giving careful consideration to the material-
The use of a pencil and paper to draw diagrams and illustrate
ideas should be encouraged.
Precision of Language. Ideally, pupils snould be encouraged to

express themselves accurately. Some pupils, however, have limited
vocabulary resources. It is wise to encourage them to express
themselves in their own words, meager as their contributions may
be. The pupil's inadequate expression may then be refined by
the teacher so that it is
mathematically precise. Constant
insistence upon precise formulation may Interfere with thought
patterns and act as a barrier to free expression.
Discussion Questions. text provides discussion questions

The
periodically which are useful in helping to strengthen or empha
size basic concepts and understandings. These are especially
useful in developing ideas in sections of the text where the
reading may be difficult. Therefore where class discussion
exercises are provided they should be treated orally within the
class period and not omitted.
Discovery Approach. student usually gains a better understanding

A
of a concept if he "discovers" the idea of the concept himself.
The teacher must set the stage for the discovery approach. No
textbook can do this because the text must give the student
correct information to which he may refer and by which he may
check his own ideas. Therefore the approach will not be
effective unless he is given some opportunity to try it before
he reads in the text the idea he was to "discover".
Students with limited ability should be given the oppor
tunity to "discover" very simple ideas. For instance in
Section 2-2, the student could be given 23 objects, or a paper
with 23 ungrouped marks, and be asked to group these in
bundles of 10. He could repeat this with other collections
of objects. Thus he will "discover" that the objects are to
be arranged in groups of 10 in order to write the correct
numeral in the base 10.
It is important for these students to have many experiences
with an idea in order to develop meaning. In all cases the
teacher will need to clarify the idea which the student has
discovered and assist him in finding "his" idea in the text in
correct mathematical language.
Exercises. The text has an ample supply of exercises. They are

graded in most sections so that the most difficult are at the
end. Many of the exercises, however, are developmental in nature
and need to be treated sequentially. The teacher should be very
cautious about making any omissions.
Assignments. Assignments for this group should be made quite

definite and shouldnormally concern only material which has been
discussed in class so that the student may enjoy some measure of
success in the preparation of it. Exercises which demand deeper
vision, a higher degree of abstraction, or a preview into hew
material should be called "extra credit", or given some such
notation, so that the student with below average ability may omit
this part of the assignment without any feeling of failure or
frustration.
Testing. Chapter tests will
supplied by the SMSG. However
be
students of the ability for which this text is written need to
have short tests at frequent intervals; at least one a week.
These tests, like the assignments, should be flexible. The major
portion of the test should cover material actually discussed in
class with a few exercises for the more capable students included
at the end. If the slower learning students are not given some
test questions which they can answer correctly, they may lose
interest in the course and the opportunity to improve their
mathematical background will be lost. They must be permitted
to enjoy some measure of success.
Since the intent of this book is to emphasize grasp of
ideas rather than memorization involving recall, the testing
program should be geared accordingly. The teacher should be
generous in accepting expression of ideas in the students' own
words.
Extent of Course. A teacher should not necessarily feel

obligated to complete the book. The number of chapters studied
will depend upon the class situation, the length of the class
period, and the length of the school year.
Content. The title of

the book indicates that the content
provides an introduction to secondary school mathematics. Through
out the course emphasis is placed upon mathematics as a method of
reasoning. The structure of our decimal numeration system is
examined and then thecounting numbers, whole numbers, rational
numbers, and negative numbers are successively Introduced.
The basic properties (field axioms) are intuitively developed
as the successive sets of numbers are studied. The familiar
computational procedures are shown to be possible because of the
properties of the number system and the operations employed.
The number line and the idea of presenting numbers as points
on a line provides the basis for all graphing and for analytical
geometry. Itprovides the motivation for order relatives between
numbers and for the invention of real numbers.
Procedures for computing with decimal fractions are
rationalized and percent is taught by means of proportion.
Measurement is carefully developed, based on properties of
continuous quantities.
The main purpose of the geometry included in this text is
to present intuitively the concepts of point, line, and plane
and to reach agreement by inductive reasoning that certain
statements concerning these concepts appear to be true. Some
of these statements will appear in the formal geometry course
as axioms. Others will be proved as theorems. A second purpose
of the geometry in this book is to present an introduction to
the process of deductive reasoning in geometry.
CONTENTS
Chapter
1. WHAT IS MATHEMATICS 1
1-1. Mathematics as a Method of Reasoning 2
1-2. Mathematical Reasoning 2
1-3. From Arithmetic to Mathematics 8
1-4. Kinds of Mathematics ll
1-5. Mathematics Today l4
1-6. Why Study Mathematics? 15
1-7. The Konigsberg Bridge Problem 17
2. NUMBER SYMBOLS
Introduction
Suggested Time Schedule
........ 20
20
22
2-1. Ancient Number Systems 23
2-2. The Decimal System 25
2-3. Expanded Form and Exponents 29
2-4.
2-5.
2-6.
Numerals in Base Five
Addition and in Base Five
Subtraction
Multiplication in Base Five
... 33
37
4o
2-7. Division in Base Five 42
2-8. Changing Decimal Numerals to Base
Five Numerals 44
.......
2-9. Numerals in Other Bases 44
2-ll. Answers to Chapter Review Problems 49
Sample Test Questions for Chapter 2 . 51
3. WHOLE NUMBERS 55
3-1. Introduction 55
3-2. Sets 55
3-3. Counting Numbers 57
3-4. Properties of Operations 59
3-5. Commutative Property 59
3-6. The Associative Property 6l
3-7. The Distributive Property 64
3-8. The Closure Property 66
3-9. Inverse Operations 72
3-10. Betweenness and the Number Line 75
3-ll. The Number One 76
3-12. The Number Zero 78
3-l4. Answers to Chapter Review 80
3-15. Answers to Cumulative Review 8l
Sample Test Questions for Chapter 3 82
4. NON-METRIC GEOMETRY 85
Notes to Teacher 85
4-1. Points, Lines, and Space 89
4-2. Planes 92
4-3. Names and Symbols 96
4-4. Intersection of Sets 99
4-5. Intersections of Lines and Planes 101
4-7. Answers to Review Questions 104
4-8. Answers to Cumulative Review 105
Sample Test Questions on Chapter 4 106
5. FACTORING AND PRIMES 109
5-1. The Building Blocks of Arithmetic 109
5-2. Multiples 110
5-3. Primes Ill
5-^. Factors ll7
5-5. Divisibility 120
5-6. Least Common Multiple 121*
5-8. Answers to Chapter Review 127
Sample Test Questions for Chapter 5 129
Chapter 1
WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
General Remarks
This chapter is intended to give the pupil appreciation

an
of the Importance of mathematics. Its objectives are:
I. To develop understanding of what mathematics is;
an
to dispel the notion that mathematics consists solely
of computation.
II. To develop an appreciation of the role of mathematics
in our culture.
III. To motivate pupils by pointing out the need for
mathematicians and for mathematically trained people.
Since this chapter is different from ordinary textbook
much
material, it will need a different treatment. The purpose of
the chapter is not to teach many facts or skills, but rather
to build an enthusiasm for the study of mathematics. Good
attitudes will be built if you use imagination and enthusiasm in
getting these objectives across to the pupils.
It is expected that from five to six lessons will be suffi
cient for this chapter. Certainly no more than six days should
be devoted to it.
It might be worthwhile to have the pupils read this chapter
again at the end of the year. The problems might also be solved
again. They should be much easier to solve after the course has
been completed.
Encourage the more able students to solve the brainbusters
but be ready to help them if they have difficulties. Most pupils
will to puzzle over the brainbusters for a few days. For
want
this reason, only individual help is suggested until the time
seems appropriate for general class discussion.
For the average and slower students, this chapter might
present some real challenge. They will have to be led
Pages 1-2 2 1-1, 1-2
frequently to discover the solutions themselves. They should not

be "given" the solutions, but enough hints should be given at the
appropriate times that they will feel some degree of success at
the beginning of their seventh grade course. These problems
should be challenging, but also fun for the students. This is
not a chapter to be tested.
1-1. Mathematics as a Method of Reasoning.

class discussion might center around what the students
A
think mathematics is. This could lead very well into Section 1-2
on Mathematical Reasoning.
1-2. Mathematical Reasoning.
It might provide an additional

challenge to emphasize to the
pupils that Exercises l-2a and particularly l-2b are not easy.
Moreover, no simple formula for solution can be given. Some of
the pupils (and many parents!) will certainly find the problems
in l-2b difficult and time-consuming at this stage. You may not
wish to assign all the problems in this section.
Although there is no section on deductive reasoning, it is
important to understand the distinction between inductive and
deductive reasoning, and their applications to mathematics.
The experimental scientist arrives at a conjecture after
a number of observations or trials in the laboratory. Further
experimentation is used to prove or disprove the validity of
this conjecture. This is Inductive reasoning.*
The mathematician might also arrive at a conjecture by
inductive reasoning. But he cannot prove the mathematical
statement by experimentation. Knowing that a statement is true
in a certain number of cases does not prove it true for all cases.
♦Inductive reasoning should not be confused with mathematical

induction which is a valid means of proof and depends upon a
property of the counting numbers. See Haag, Vincent H. , Studies
in Mathematics, Vol. Ill:
"Structure of Elementary Algebra"
1-2 3 pages 1-2
A single case that contradicts the conjecture disproves it. The

proof must depend on that is, it must be
deductive reasoning;
a statement which follows logically from a set of other statements
which have been proved true or which are assumed true. Deductive
reasoning is the "if-then" type of reasoning that mathematicians
employ.
Answers to questions in 1-2.

Yes, there can be empty boxes. If any pupils are born in
the same month there will be at least two slips in the same box
and then at least one box will be empty. If all 12 pupils
are born in the same month, then one box will have 12 slips
and the other eleven will be empty.
When the 13th pupil places his slip, one box will have
two slips. This idea is known as the pigeon-hole principle
and is used as the basis for many mathematical proofs.
Answers to Exercises l-2a

Since these are to be used for class discussion, plan
simple demonstrations to illustrate them. The birthday illustration
in the text may serve as a model for these problems.
1. e.g., One of the students

will get this 5th pencil.
\\\\\
© ©
2. Illustrate possibilities as in the birthday problem discussion.

Ask "Is it
possible for one or more students to receive no
pencils?" "Is it possible for one or more students to
receive only one pencil?" Then illustrate the case with two
pencils for each student. Discuss what happens to the 13th
and l^th pencils.
pages 3-^ 1-2
3. a. 8
b. 15
c. (a) Ifthere are 7 movie houses in a town, then 8
is the smallest number of people that would be
required to go to the movies to be sure that at
least 2 people see the same show.
(b) If there are 7 movie houses in a town, then 15
is the smallest number of people who must go to
the movies to be sure that at least 3 people see
the same show.
Exercises l-2b which follow are usually difficult for the

students, but if they are not pushed into finding a solution
quickly, they should enjoy them. The problem involving the
wolf, goat and the cabbage should be discussed thoroughly in
class, so the students will see the pattern of the problem.
There are many problems of this sort. In this particular one,
the goat is the key to the solution, since he is the only one
who cannot be left unguarded with either the wolf or the cabbage.
In the class discussion, the class might be asked If there might
be another solution. Actually, the wolf and cabbage can be
Interchanged in the solution.
Answers to Exercises l-2b

1. 11 steps. With the first three steps (two forward and one
backward) she progresses one space ahead. She does this 3
times (9 steps) and is at that time 3 spaces ahead. Two

more steps and she is in the pool.
Stand How many steps
here
c^ o^ o^> Q^> to arrive here?
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3
Step 4 Step 5
Step 6
Step 7 Step 8
Step 9
Step 10 Step ll
1-2 page
2.
2 men 2 bo: -(A) Two boys go over-
1 boy -(B) One boy comes back-
1 man
-(C) One man goes over-
1 boy
1 man
1 boy -(D) The other boy
comes back
1 man -(E) Steps A-D are

repeated In order
to bring over the
other man
1 boy 2 men
page k 1-2
3.
AB DEF — Step 1: Boat C enters bay G.

C
AB DEF — Step 2: Boats DEF pass G.

C
AB DEF C — Step 3: Boat C goes on its way.
AB DEF C •Step ^: Boat DEF returns to

original side of G.
A DEF C •Step 5-9: The same operation

(Steps 1-4) is
B
repeated for Boat B,
and then for Boat A.
A DEF BC
DEF BC
DEF BC
A
DEF ABC
1-2 pages 4-5
7
4. Two sons cross; one returns. Father crosses; other son

returns. Two sons cross.
5. Man takes goose and returns alone. He takes fox and returns
with goose. He takes corn across river and returns alone
to pick up goose. (Does the class see that this one is
identical in structure to the Illustrative problem?)
The following problems will be done by the class by trial-and-

error, probably. The explanations of these are of interest to
teachers, however, since these are solutions of Diophantine
equations. (The idea in Diophantine equations is to find
integer solutions.) These three problems are given in order
of increasing difficulty. The algebraic discussion is for the
teacher, not the pupil.
6. Yes. This depends on the fact that 8x + 5y = 3 has

solutions in integers. One solution is, x = 1, y = -1.
This means that if you fill the 8 gallon jug once and pour
it into the 5 gallon jug just once, you will have 3
gallons left in the 8 gallon jug.

7. Yes. This depends on the fact that 8x + 5y = 2 has
solutions in integers, such as x = -1, y = 2 and x = 4,
y a -6. The first means that if you the 5 gallon fill
jug twice and empty it once into the 8 gallon jug, you
will have 2 gallons left in the 5 gallon jug. The second
solution means that if you fill
the 8 gallon jug four times
and use it to fill
the 5 gallon jug 6 times, you will
have 2 gallons left in the 8 gallon jug. Point out that
the first solution is better.
8. Yes. This depends on the fact that 8x + 5y = 1 has solutions

in integers, such as x = 2, y = -3, and x = -3, y = 5. The
first means that if you fill the 8 gallon jug twice and empty
it into the 5 gallon three times, you will have one gallon left
in the 8 gallon jug. The second solution means that if you fill
pages 5-6 8 1-3
the 5 gallon jug 5 into the 8 gallon jug

times, and empty it
3 times, you will have one gallon left in the 5 gallon jug.
Point out that the first solution is best.
1-3. From Arithmetic to Mathematics.

John Friedrich Karl Gauss was born in Brunswick, Germany, in
1777. He died in 1855 at the age of 78. The pupils may be
interested in noting that his lifetime almost spanned the years
from the American Revolution to the Civil War.
Mathematicians consider Gauss as one of the greatest
mathematicians of all times.
In this age of space exploration it is interesting to note
that Gauss developed powerful methods of calculating orbits
of comets and planets. His interests extended also to such
fields as magnetism, gravitation, and mapping. In 1833 Gauss
invented the electric telegraph, which he and his fellow worker,
Wllhelm Weber, used as a matter of course in sending messages.
In 1807 Gauss was appointed Director of the Gottlngen
Observatory and Lecturer of Mathematics at Gottingen University.
In later years the greatest honor that a German mathematician
could have was to be appointed to the professorship which Gauss
once held.
This section deals with Gauss's discovery of the known
method of arithmetic series. It dramatizes how some
summing an
pupils (and mathematicians) apply insight to finding a solution
to a problem. Your better students should be told that there
are methods other than Gauss's for finding the sum of a series
of numbers. Some students might be encouraged to discover
methods of their own for adding number series quickly.
The "middle number" method is one that may be used. This
scheme can be used for
or an odd number
an even of integers.
The following examples may be used to explain this method to the
students who have tried to discover other methods.
Example A. 1 + 2 + 3+^+5+6 + 7 = ?
In this series the middle number (*0 is the average of the

1-3 9 pages 5-6
individual numbers of the series. The sum is the product of the

middle number (4) and the number of integers in the series, or
4 x 7 = 28.
Some pupils may prefer to think of the series as

(1 + 7) + (2 + 6) + (3 + 5) + * =
(4 + 4) + (4 + 4) + (4 + 4) + 4 =
7 x 4 = 28.
Example B. 1 + 2 + 3+4+5 + 6 + 7 + 8=?
In this case the "middle number" is half way between 4
and 5, or 4fr. Then the product (4~) x 8 = 36 is seen to

give the correct sum.
It may seem more plausible here to write the sum as
(1 + 8) + (2 + 7) + (3 + 6) + (4 + 5) =
4|)
4|)
4|)
x
4|
(4|+ +
(4|+ +
(4|+ +
(4|+ 4±) =
8
Clearly, Gauss's method is to be preferred in this case.
Answers to Exercises 1-3

1. 15. Another method is this: + 4=3 + 3, 1+5=3+3.
2
That is, the sum is the same as: + + + + = 5x3= 15.

3
3
3
3
This can be called the "averaging method".

2. Either method works. Gauss method:
8x5
— ~--
;
Averaging method: x = 20.

4
5
3. — 64. Here there is

of quantities so
an even number
£
that the "averaging method" must be modified

to give eight's or x = 64.
8
8
8
pages 6-7 10 1-3
4. a. 4 4
b. 9 9
c. 16 16
d. They are the same.
This is really the "average method". See Problem 1.
1 + 3 = 2 + 2 =4 = 2x2
1 + 3 + 5 =3+3 + 3 = 9 = 3x3
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 4+4+4+4 = 16 = 4 x 4
e. 1+ 15 =3+ 13 =5+ ll =7+9= 16

The average of each two is 8.
Therefore 1+3+5+7+9+ll+13+15=
(1 + 15) + (3 + 13) + (5 + ll) + (7 + 9) =
8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 8x8 = 64
5. 7+9 H + + 13 + 15 + 17 pii v 6
lZ+l£+13 + ll+_9_+_L ^-f-^ = 72
24 + 24 + 24 + 24 + 24 + 24
6. 4+6+8+... +28 ,Q
* 1J
,,
28 26 24 + + + ... + 4
6d
2
= 208
32 + 32 + 32 + ... +32
7. 2 + ... 200
| —
1 + 3 + + guu x 201
200 + 12£ + 1^8 + ... + 1
POO
= 20,100
201 + 2 01 + 201 + ... + 201
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 200
P01 x 200
200 + 122 + 128 + 121 + ••• + __0 =
20'100
2
200 + 200 + 200 + 200 + ... + 200
Yes, the answers are the same. If we start with 1, there

are 200 integers in the series giving us —-—g
-» ' .
If we start with 0, there are 201 integers in the

series, giving us (° +
.
|00)201
The products of the factors are equal. The method also
same
may be used in a series if we select a number other than 1
or 0 as the starting points. Some of the better students

may investigate whether the method works in other series.
1-4 11 pages 7-8
1-4. Kinds of Mathematics.

Discussion of this section should emphasize the dynamic
character of mathematics. It is not a "dead" subject as many
parents believe.
It is important also to point out here (and throughout the
course) that certain important ingredients are common to all the
many varieties of mathematics. The method of logical reasoning,
the use and manipulation of abstract symbols, the insistence on
precision of thought and clarity of expression, the emphasis on
general results — these are some characteristics which need to be
stressed whenever possible.
Some Interesting Problems

Bring out the fascination of mathematics as a leisure activity
or hobby. Encourage students to look for recreational mathematics
in books available at school and from current magazines or
rotogravure sections of newspapers.
such problems now and then, throughout the year, at
Choose
a time when the class needs a change of pace. These kinds of
problems can be used profitably with the class period before a
lengthy vacation.
Some Recreational Books
Adler, Irving. MAGIC HOUSE OF NUMBERS. New York: Signet Key

Book, the New American Library, Inc. Paperbound 50^.
Adler, Irving. MATHEMATICS, THE STORY OF NUMBERS, SYMBOLS, AND
SPACE. New York: Golden Press, 1958. Library edition
$1.39. Paperbound 50/.
Kraitchik, Maurice. MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1953. Paperbound $1.75.
Leeming, Joseph. MORE FUN WITH PUZZLES. New York: J. B. Lippen-
cott Co., 19^7. $2.50.
Merrill, Helen A. MATHEMATICAL EXCURSIONS. New York: Dover
Publications, 1957. Paperbound $1.00.
Mott-Smith, Geoffrey. MATHEMATICAL PUZZLES FOR BEGINNERS AND
ENTHUSIASTS. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 195^.
Paperbound $1.00.
page 8 12 1-*
Smith, David Eugene and Glnsburg, NUMBERS AND NUMERALS. J.

Washington, D.C. : National Council of Teachers of Mathe
matics. 35/^.
Wylie, C. R. 101 PUZZLES IN THOUGHT AND LOGIC. New York:
Dover publications, Inc., 1957. Paperbound $1.00.

1. Cost: $80 + $75 = $155
Selling price: $90 + $100 = $190
Profit = Selling price - Cost = $190 - $155 = $35.
2. There are five combinations: 1 quarter and nickel

1
1 dime and 4 nickels

2 dimes and 2 nickels
3 dimes
6 nickels
3. a. 6 c. None e. 12 g. 1
b. 27 d. 8 f. 6
4. There is, of course, usually more than one way to do these.

k =
i-^-i-+ 4 or 4(4 . 4) + 4
c iA X 4) + 4
V
6
4+4 +
^4-^+ 4
=
7T-
7 -t _ 4
8=4+4+4.4
9=4+4
4 + 4
44 - 4
+
H
|
10 =
If
the students like these, you might do a few extra ones
such as the ones below; however, you can not go too high or have
too great a variety since the students are not familiar enough
with exponents. Some other examples are as follows:
1-4 13 pages 8-9
12
44 +
4
4
32 = 4x4+4x4
4
15 Tf- + ^ or (4 x 4) 43 =
**-4
16
4x^x4 44 =
**(£)
17 (*x 4) +
£ *5 = w +
4
20 60 = 4x4x4-4
24 (4 x 4) + 4 + 4 68 = 4x4x4+4
28 44 _ 4 x 4 256 = 4x4x4x4
5. One solution would be as follows:
Mr. and Mrs. Arnold

Mr. and Mrs. Bertrand
Mr. and Mrs.B Mrs. A
Mr. A
Mrs. B
5^£z. Mrs. A
Mr. and Mrs. A

Mr. and Mrs.B
page 9 14 I-1*, 1-5
6.
7. Ask if it to try out all the possible ways the

is practical
dominoes may be placed on the board. This would be difficult
because there are many thousands of ways of trying to do
this. The solution may be found in another way:
There are 64 squares in all, and 62 squares to cover.
If 31 dominoes are placed on the board, you must
cover 31 white and 31 black squares. However, since
both of the squares not to be covered are black there
are therefore 32 white squares, but only 30 black
squares to be covered. This is evidently impossible,
because each domino always covers both a white square
and a black square.
Be sure the pupils do not confuse the notion of an unsolved
problem with that of an impossible problem.
l-5« Mathematics Today.
Students should be encouraged throughout the year to bring

material concerning mathematics for the bulletin board. There
is a wealth of material in daily papers, magazines and pamphlets-
Even in the want-ads of large daily papers there are advertise
ments for mathematicians.
Before World War II
almost all mathematicians were employed
as teachers in schools and colleges. Since then, the world of
mathematics and the world of mathematicians have changed
tremendously. Today there are more teachers of mathematics than
1-5, 1-6 15 pages 9-10
ever before. In junior and senior high schools there are perhaps
50,000 who teach mathematics. Employed in colleges and
universities there are about 3,000 more, but now in business, in
industry, and in government there are from 7,000 to 10,000
persons working as mathematicians.
Numerous agencies of the Federal Government hire mathematicians
for of different assignments.
a number Literally, thousands of
people work with computers and computer mathematics for the big
electronic computers. Industries of all types are hiring
mathematicians to solve complex mathematical problems, to help
other workers with mathematical difficulties, and even to teach
mathematics to other employees.
These changes have been brought about by the revolutionary
advances in science and in technology which we discussed. Changes
continue to take place.
Many people are not primarily mathematicians need a
who
comprehensive background in mathematics. This has long been true
of engineers and physicists, and they now find It necessary to
use even more advanced mathematics. Every new project in air
craft, in space travel, or in electronics demands greater skills
from the engineers, scientists, and technicians.
A survey of college requirements in certain vocations might
be interesting for the class but the necessity for a minimum
knowledge for everyone should also be stressed.
1-6. Why Study Mathematics?
Just as music is the art of creating beauty with sounds,

and painting is the art of creating beauty with colors and
shapes, so mathematics is the art of creating beauty with
combinations of Ideas. Many people enjoy mathematics as a
fascinating hobby. Many people study mathematics for fun as
other people enjoy music or painting for pleasure.
The problems on tracing are designed to set a pattern of
thinking which can be utilized directly in showing the impossibility
of the Kdnigsberg problem.
pages ll-12 16 1-6

1. Figure 1, figure 2, figure 3, and figure 5 can be retraced.
2. a. The number of paths to the point is odd.
b. The number of paths to the point is even.
3. a. If you start at the point you must finish at the point.

b. If you start at the point you cannot finish at that point-
4.
FIGURE A B C D E F G H 1
^m^ m ^ ^
v% ^ V& ^ ^
1 2 2 2
2 2 3 3 2
m,m:m
H ^ W/,
3 4 2 4 3 3 4
4 3 3 3 3 3 3
6
4
5
2
2
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
4
2
2
m^
2 2
5. a. They are all even.

b* 3 are even, none are odd.
6. 2 even, 2 odd.
7. ^ even, 2 odd.
8. none even, 6 odd.
9. 7 even, none odd.
10. 5 even, 4 odd.
ll. A figure is traceable if there are at_ most 2 odd vertices,

1-7 *7 page3 13-12*
1-7 • The Konigsberg Bridge Problem

Konlgsberg problem is a difficult one for many students,
The
but after they try many routes, some of them might like to
discuss why the problem is impossible. Figure l-7c will help
them see the various ways of walking through the city using the
bridges to go from one piece of land to another. Use C_ in place
of the piece of land to the north and D, the land to the south.
A is the island and B is the land to the east. The lines leading
from A, C, D, and B show routes across the bridges to the various
parts of the city. The bridges are lettered a, b, c, d, e, f, g.
At points B, C, and D three routes come together and at point A
five routes meet.
By experimenting you can show that it is impossible to cross
every bridge just once if there are more than two points where
an odd number of routes come together. Since there are four
points where an odd number of routes come together, this makes
it impossible to walk over each bridge once and only once.
In other words, when an even number of paths come together,
it is possible to leave each time you enter. When an odd number
of paths come together, this means you must start or stop at
that point.
The proof of this problem was derived by Leonhard Euler.
highlights of junior high mathematics should be discussed

The
with the class. During this year the students will develop a
better understanding of what mathematics really is. They will
have many opportunities to use mathematical reasoning. Though
mathematics is much more than just counting, computing, measuring
and drawing, operations and applications will be used in
many
the following chapters.
They will learn about history of number from the primitive
peoples' scratches in the dirt, to written symbols for numbers.
Early number symbols are reviewed to emphasize the characteristics
of the numeration system we use. Pupils will find that the
numeral 100 (read one, zero, zero) does not always represent
pages 13-1^ 18 1-7
one hundred.
For years they have used counting numbers, such as
many
1, 2, 3, ^, and so on. Are there other kinds of numbers? Yes,
they will become acquainted with several other kinds.
Ask them if they have ever carefully observed how numbers
behave you add or multiply them.
when they have, they willIf
find some properties that are always true in addition and multi
plication. Zero and one also have special properties which they
may have discovered. This year they will observe numerals much
more closely than they have ever done. For some of them will it
be similar to looking through a magnifying glass. When they
really look at a problem carefully, they discover how much
clearer the mathematics in the problem becomes.
For years they have used the word "equal" and know
many
a symbol for It. Can there be inequalities as well?
Another interesting part of their year will be spent con
sidering ideas of point, line, plane, and space. They may
already have some ideas about these. Have they ever built models?
If they have, they will have some of their own ideas of point,
line, plane, and space.
The students are already familiar with many symbols In
mathematics. Some of these symbols have been used so often that
they are used without thinking much about them. Look at the
23
fraction -^j. Are they familiar with this symbol? Now look at
an Egyptian way of writing this fraction many years ago:
1111
r tt.
g- + -r + + Will they not find the symbol
23
-rrzr much simpler
and easier to handle than the sum of these four fractions?
New symbols will
introduced this year to enable the
be
students to be more precise mathematically.
You cannot possibly tell them all about their first year in
junior high mathematics, or what mathematics is, at the end of
Just one chapter. However, it is
that as they study mathe
hoped
matics this year they will gain a much better Idea of what mathe
matics Is and why they should know as much of It as they can
learn.
19
Bibliography for the Teacher

1. Bell, Eric T. MEN OF MATHEMATICS. New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1937.
2. Boehm, George A. W. and the Editors of Fortune. THE NEW
WORLD OF MATHEMATICS. New York: The Dial Press, 1959.
See especially pp. 17-^6 (The New Mathematics).
3. Courant, Richard and Robbins, Herbert. WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
New York: Oxford University Press, 19^+3.
4. Kline, Morris. MATHEMATICS IN WESTERN CULTURE. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1953.
See especially pp. 3-12 ( General Concepts),
pp. 21-39 (Deductive Reasoning),
5. Sawyer, W. W. PRELUDE TO MATHEMATICS. Baltimore, Maryland:

Penguin Books, 1957.
Chapter 2
NUMBER SYMBOLS
Introduction
For this unit little background is needed except familiarity
with the number symbols and the basic operations with numbers.
The purpose of the unit is to deepen the pupil's understanding
of the decimal notation for whole numbers, expecially with regard
to place value; this will help him delve a little deeper into
the reasons for the operations, which he already knows, for
addition and multiplication. One of the best ways to accomplish
this is to consider systems of number notations using bases other
than ten. Since, in using a new base, the pupil must necessarily
look at the reasons for "carrying" and the other mechanical
operations in a new light, he should gain deeper insight into
the decimal system. A certain amount of computation in other
systems is necessary to fix these ideas, but such computation
should not be regarded as an end in itself. Some of the pupils,
however, may enjoy developing a certain proficiency in using new
bases in computing.
important reason for introducing ancient symbolisms
The most
for numbers is to contrast them with our decimal system, in
which not only the symbol, but its position, has significance.
It should be shown, as other systems are presented, that position
has some significance in them also. The Roman system made a
start in this direction in that XL represents a different
number from LX, but the start was a very primitive one. The
Babylonians also made use of position, but lacked a symbol for
zero until about B.C. The symbol
200
"
£
"
denoted the absence
of a figure but apparently was not used in computation. The
numeral zero is necessary in a positional system. Pupils should
not be expected to memorize ancient symbolism. It is recommended
that very little time be spent on the use of the symbols themselves-
In order for pupils to appreciate the important characteristics
21
of our system of writing numbers, the following table may be

discussed.
BASE PLACE VALUE ZERO
Egyptian Ten No No
Babylonian Sixty Yes limited meaning
Roman Varied No (but it has

positional value) No
Decimal Ten Yes Yes
It is especially important to distinguish between a number

and the symbols by which it is represented. Some of the properties
usually connected with a number are really properties of its
notation. facts that, in decimal notation, the numeral for
The
a number divisible by 5 ends in 5 or 0, and that 4 has
an unending decimal equivalent are illustrations. Most of the
properties with which we deal are properties of the numbers
themselves, and are entirely independent of the notation in which
they are represented. Examples of such properties of numbers
are: 2+3=3+2; the number eleven is a prime number; and
six is greater than five. The distinction between a number and
the notation in which it is expressed should be emphasized when
ever there is opportunity.
An attempt has been made to use "number" and "numeral" with
precise meaning in the text. For example, "numerals" are written,
but "numbers" are added. A numeral is a written symbol. A
number is a Later in the text it may be cumbersome to

concept.
the point of annoyance to speak of "adding the numbers represented
by the numerals written below." In this case the expression
"adding the numbers below" may be used.
At several points, numbers are represented by collections of
x's. Exercises of this kind are important, because they show the
role of the base in grouping the x's, as well as the significance
of the digits in the numeral for the number.
22
Suggested Time Schedule
It is important that only enough time be spent on the various

sections to secure the understandings desired. The historical
symbols themselves are not important. Neither are the numerals
in other bases valuable in themselves, but the ideas that they
help to clarify are important. It is estimated that 22 to
25 days will be required for completion of this chapter, including
testing. A few days more or less may be required, depending upon
the character of the particular class.
Familiarity with the subject matter is an important factor
In a smootn presentation. Teachers report that a second
experience with this material is much easier than the first.
The lesson moves more rapidly, apparently, as the teacher gains
confidence in the subject matter presented.
Homogeneously grouped classes undoubtedly will alter
the
suggested schedule since the more able students can complete the
chapter in less time while less able students may require a
considerably longer period of time on various sections. The
following schedule may then be adapted to local needs, taking into
consideration the length of class periods, and other factors.
It should be remembered that extra time spent on this chapter
will necessarily reduce the number of days available for later
important chapters.
Sections Day s
1 2
2 2 or 3
3 3
4 H
5 3
6 1
7 1 or 2
8 1
9 3
10 1
Test 1
Total 22 to 2h
2-1 23 pages 15-17
«
2-1. Ancient Number Systems.

The purposeof the historical material is to trace the
continuing need for convenient symbols and for a useful way of
writing expressions for numbers. The idea of "one-to-one"
correspondence is introduced. It is developed later and should
not be defined here where the emphasis is upon numerals rather
than upon numbers. Egyptian symbolism is introduced to familiar
ize the pupils with one of the first important systems of notation.
Do not use an excessive amount of time in discussing the Egyptian
or Babylonian systems. No pupil should be required to memorize
ancient symbolism except in the case of Roman numerals.
The Babylonians were among the first to use place value.
They used the two symbols y and -< for small numbers and gave
them a positional value using base sixty. An empty space had
somewhat the same meaning as our zero.
For example, YY could
mean (6o x 1) + 1. Similarly, -< YY could mean (60 x 10) + 2.
On the other hand, the first illustration could be interpreted
as (60 x 6o) + 1, or even as 1+1, since there is no means

of determining how much space the writer considered the equivalent
of one place. The indefinite means of indicating position, and
the base of 60 makes it a difficult system to understand. For
this reason, it was touched lightly in the student text. A more
complete explanation may well be given by the teacher if he
wishes. It can be pointed out that our measurement of angles
and of time is a heritage from the Babylonians.
The Mayan numerals illustrate another method by which a
multiplier in a numeral system can be indicated. The Mayans
used three symbols: a dot bar for five,
for 1, a and an
oval, cZD , which written below another symbol multiplied its
value by twenty. Some Mayan numerals are written below:
CID
o) (7) (ii) m
Hogben's "Wonderful World of Mathematics" contains a very
attractive account of Mayan and other numerals.
pages 16-17 2h 2-1
,
The Roman system may be stressed because of its continued

use. Note that the subtracting principle was a late development.
It may be pointed out that computation in ancient symbolism was
complex and sometimes very difficult. Because of this, various
devices were used, such as the sand reckoner, counting table, and
abacus. After decimal numerals became known, algorithms were
devised and people were able to calculate with symbols alone.
There was much opposition in Europe to the introduction and use
of Hindu-Arabic numerals, especially on the part of the abacists.
As the new system became accepted, the abacus and other computing
devices slowly disappeared in Europe.
Answers to Exercises 2-la
1. a. Ill e.• *
X GGGnnn
K GGGnnn
QQQnnr]
b.n„ GGG
cnnn ^^ (7* C^
d-GGnn
ii
•A A cr
2. a. 32 b. 214 c. 3^0 d. 1,250
3-nnnn °r nnnn°rnnim ornnnn , etc.
^ a. 7, III c. 20^,GG II
III II
I
b. 15, n ill d. 10,351 /? ggg nnn i
ii nn
Other representations should be accepted: for example,

T"H4- II for seven, etc.
2-1, 2-2 25 pages 19-20
Answers to Exercises 2-lb

1. a.yyry b. -^y c- -<^yyy a. ^yyy
-cyy
2. a. 15 b. 37 c 55
3. a. 16 c. 29 e. 90 g. 666
b. 14 d. ll0 f. 105 h. 2350
4. a. XV e. XCVIII
b. XXIII f. DCXXIX
c. XXXIV g. MMMCCLVI
d. LXII
5. Decimal Roman Egyptian Babylonian
a. 6 VI III YYY
III YYY
b. 17 XVII Dill YYY
III <YYY
Y
c. 24 XXIV nnli <YY
ll .<YY
6. a. 7
b. 1
c 7
d. 10
2-2. The Decimal System.
Discussion of the decimal system should emphasize the

importance of the invention of a useful system which lends itself
easily to calculation. Its efficiency lies in the small number
of symbols used, with no need for new or additional symbols as
larger numbers are Introduced; in the use of place value where
each position corresponds to a power of the base; in the use of
pages 20-22 26 2-2
zero as a place holder and in computation. The students1

appreciation for some of these characteristics will be increased
as they proceed through Section 2-3. Emphasize the value
represented by a digit and the value of position in decimal
notation.
An abacus can be used to good advantage in discussion of
place value. It is suggested that counting be done as a class
exercise, each number shown on the abacus, and similarities
between this representation and numerals discussed. It can be
pointed out that the Romans used the idea of place value in their
computation with an abacus, but did not extend the principle to
numerals. The invention of a zero symbol might have changed the
course of Roman arithmetic.
The amount of attention given to reading and writing of
numerals will depend upon the needs of the pupils. Some pupils
probably will have a very limited proficiency in this area.
Students should be aware of the meanings of number names
such as thirteen, (three and ten), seventeen (seven and ten),
forty (four tens), sixty (six tens), etc.
Children will enjoy stories that illustrate the difficulties
involved in trying to discard outmoded systems of record keeping
and in learning to compute with the decimal system.
For a long period in English history, exchequer accounts
were kept by means of wood tallies notched to show amounts.
Notches of different sizes represented different amounts of money.
Not until 1826 was the practice finally abolished. The following
quotation from an address by Charles Dickens, delivered a few
years later, describes the official end of the era.
"In 183^ it was found a considerable
that there was
accumulation of [these tallies j; question then
and the
arose, what was to be done with such worn-out, worm-
eaten rotten old bits of wood? The sticks were housed
in Westmenster, and it would naturally occur to any
intelligent person that nothing could be easier than to
allow them to be carried away for firewood by the
miserable people who lived in that neighborhood. However,
they never had been useful, and official routine re
quired that they should never be, and so the order went
2-2 27 page 22
out that they were to be privately and confidentially

burned. It came to pass that they were burned in a
stove in the House of Lords. The stove, over-gorged
with these preposterous sticks, set fire to the
panelling; the panelling set fire to the House of
Commons; the two houses were reduced to ashes; archi
tects were called in to build others; and we are now
in the second million of the cost thereof."
A story is told of a German merchant, living in the
fifteenth century, who wished to give his son an advanced com
mercial education. He asked a prominent professor of a university
to advise him as to where the son should be sent. The reply was
that if training in addition and subtraction were sufficient,
it could probably be obtained in a German university; but for
instruction in multiplication and division, the son must be
sent to Italy, where scholars had made considerable study of
the art.
Answers to Exercises 2-2a
1. a. three hundred
b. three thousand, five
c. seven thousand, one hundred, nine
d. fifteen thousand, fifteen
e. two hundred thirty-four thousand
f. six hundred eight thousand, fourteen
g. one hundred thousand, nine
h. one million, twenty-four thousand, three hundred five
(Note: Only the tens numbers are hyphenated, as
twenty-three. )
1. thirty million, two hundred fifty thousand, eighty-nine
j. fifty- two billion, three hundred sixty million, two
hundred fifteen thousand, seven hundred twenty-three
2. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
3. thousand
4. thousand, million, billion

5. a. 4 b. 2 c. 1 d. 3 e. 5 f. 5
pages 23-24 28 2-2
a. Answers will vary.

b. Answers will vary.
a. 100,000
b. one hundred thousand
c. Answers will vary.
8- a. 999,999
b. nine hundred ninety-nine thousand, nine hundred
ninety-nine.
a. 159 f. llll,000
b. 502 g. 3,003,003
c. 5,200 h. 5,000,000,002
d. 6,857 i. 2100
e. 27,017 J. 6000
10, a. 857 b. 333,000 c. 910 d. 330,000
ll- a. 10 e. 100
b. 10 f. 1000
c. 10 g. 10
d. 10 h. 1000
12. 10 times as large.
Note the phrase "as large as" in the statement of the

problem. Encourage the use of this phrase rather than "how many
times larger than", which contains two conflicting ideas.
Exercises 2-2b were included as review material for
maintenance of skills. Emphasize that knowledge of a procedure
in calculation is of little value unless it leads to the correct
result.
Answers to Exercises 2-2b
1. 135 6. 605 ll. 124

2. 254 7. 39^8 12. 107
3. 1858 8. 15,^66 13. 600
4. 35 9. 33^,100 14. 304 R 4
5. 278 10. 3,276,000 15. 4030 R 8

2-3 29 pages 25-26
2-3. Expanded Form and Exponents.
Exponents are introduced here in a situation which shows

clearly their usefulness for concise notation. Furthermore,
their use serves to emphasize the role of the base and of position.
This role will be more fully utilized in the sections to follow.
Note the use of parentheses to show that certain combinations are
to be considered as representing a single numeral.
of the terms "square" and
Use "cube" in reading second and
third powers of numerals should not be introduced here.
1. ^32, 234, 38
2. 2380, 300, 60,385
3. 3^56, 4()2, 56,420, hundred
4. a. 28 =
(2 x 10) +(8xl)
b. 56 = (5 x 10)
(5 x 1) +
c. 721 = (7 X 100) + (2 x 10) + (1 x 1)

or [ (7 X 10 X 10) + (2 x 10) + (lxl)]
d. 1312 = (1 x 1000) + (3 X 100) + (1 X 10) + (2 x l)
or [(1 x 10 X 10 X 10) + (3 X 10 x 10) +(lx 10) + (2 x l)]
e. 244 = (2 x 100) + (4 x 10) + (4X1)
f. 2846 =
(2 x 1000) + (8 x 100) + (4 x 10) +(6xl)
g. 507 (5 x 100) + (0 x 10)
= +(7xl)
h. 23,162 = (2 x 10,000) + (3 X 1000) + (1 X 100) +
(6 x 10) +(2xl)
Answers to Oral Exercises 2-3b
Multiply :
1. 3,04o 6. 99,000
2. 30 4, 000 7. 14,000
3. 27,500 8. 45,000
4. 22,200 9. 48,000
5. 600 10. 64,000
pages 27 -28 30 2-3
Divide:
11. 270 16. 330
12. 27 17. 10
13. 27 18. 1,000
1*. 305 19. 10
15. 100 20. 1
Answers to Exercises 2-3c

1. ^23 = (4 x 10 x 10) + (2 x 10) +(3xl)
2. 771 =
(7 x 10 x 10) + (7 x 10) +(lxl)
3. 5253 = (5 x 10 x 10 x 10) + (2 x 10 x 10) + (5 x 10) +(3xl)
4. 2608 = (2 x 10 x 10 x 10) (6 x 10 x 10) + (0 x 10)
+ +(8xl)
5. 34,359 - (3 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10) + (4 x 10 x 10 x 10) +
(3 x 10 x 10) + (5 x 10) +(9xl)

Answers to Exercises 2-3d
1. a. 4 x 2 g. 103 m. 42
b. 3 x 10 h. 10* n. 2 x 4
c. 4 X 10 i. 65 0. 53
d. 5 x 6 J. 83 P. 23
e. 3 x 8 k. 5 x 3 q. 3 x 2
f. 24 1. 35
2. a. 4 X 4 x 4 e. 2 x 2 X 2
b. 3 x 3 x 3 X 3 f. 3 x 3
c. 5 x 5 g. 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 x 1)
d. 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 h. 5 x 5 x 5 x 5
3. a. 12 h. 8
b. 64 i. 9
c. 81 J. 20
d. 10 k. 20
e. 25 1. 1024
f. 32 m. 625
g. 6
2-3 31 pages 28-31
4. a. five to the third power

b. ten to the sixth power
c. two to the fifth power
d. ten to the fourth power
e. two to the third power
f. eight to the second power
5. a. 102 e. 2 x
b. 10 x 2 f. 310
c. 5* g. ilO
d. 23 h. 101
Answers to Exercises 2-3 e
a. c. 25s e. 279-
b. d. K6 f. 161
a. three d. ten
b. seven e. five
c. two
a. 2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2
b. 10 X 10 x 10 x 10 X 10 X 10 X 10
c. 33 x 33 x 33 x 33 x 33
d. 6o x 6o x 6o x 6o x 6o x 6o
a. 256 c. 3^3 e. 81 g. 64
b. 36 d. 64 f. 1000 h. 1024
5- a. means 8. means 9.
b. k3 means 64. means 81.
6- a. 4 x 102) + (6 x 10) + (8x1)

b. 5 x 10J) + (3 x 10d) + (2 x 10) +(4X1)
c. 7 x 103) + (0 x 102) + (6 x 10) +(2xl)
d. 5 x 10 )+ (9 x 103) + (1 x 102) + (2 x 10) +(6xl)
e. 1 x 105) + (0 x 104) + (9 x 103) + (1 x 102) + (8 x 10) +
0X1)
pages 31-32 32 2-3
7. 101 10 ten
102 100 one hundred
103 1,000 one thousand
io4 10,000 ten thousand
105 100,000 one hundred thousand
106 1,000,000 one million
8. a. 103
b. 105
c. 106
d. 108
*9. The exponent of the base "10" tells how many zeros are
written to the right of "1" when the numeral is written in
the usual way.
10. The value of 10° is 1 by definition. The idea should

not be stressed here, however. Students can be shown that
the meaning of 10 is reasonable by the following approach:
10 = 10,000 Each time the exponent
Each is decreased by
103 = 1000 one, the value of the number dividedis
102 - 100 by 10. Continuing the process, there
101 = 10 fore,
fore it would follow that 10° = 1.
10° = 1
The expanded form of a decimal numeral can be written with

powers of ten representing the values of all the places thus:
2156 = (2 x 103) + (1 x 102) + (5 x 101) + (6 x 10°).
ll. 10100. It may be pointed out that l100 is 1. The
mathematician in the story is Edward Kasner, and the name
"googol" was suggested by his nine-year-old nephew. At the
same time, the child suggested that a "googolplex" might be
"1" followed by a googol of zeros, or 1010 . The two terms
have caught the public fancy and have become generally

accepted in speaking of very large numbers.
2-4 33 pages 32-3^
2-4. Numerals In Base Five.
of teaching systems of numeration with bases

The purpose
other than ten is not to produce facility in calculating with
such systems. A study of an unfamiliar system aids in under
standing a familiar one, just as the study of a foreign language

aids us in understanding our own. This understanding will he
heightened if the teacher will continually contrast base five
with the decimal system. The decimal system is so familiar that
its structure ideas involved in its algorithms are easily
and the
overlooked. In this section attention is focused on numerals,
rather than on numbers. Base five was selected for this section
rather than base seven or any other base, because it is thought
to be easier for pupils.
Questions may arise about the notation for a numeral to base
five. We do not write "13,-" because the symbol "5" does not
occur in a system of numeration to this base. Replacing the
numeral by the written word emphasizes this fact. Note that in
any system, the symbol for the base is 10.
It is that this section be developed by a
recommended
laboratory procedure. Students should be furnished with dupli
cated sets of counting symbols like those of Exercises 2-4a and
2- 4b. Considerable help may be needed in making the transfer
from groups of counters to place value numerals.
Devices of any kind in which counters can be manipulated to
show successive groups of five will be helpful. For this purpose
an open-end abacus can be used, with counters dropped on the rods
to indicate various numbers. Pennies can be used as counters,
and groups of pennies replaced by nickels and by quarters as
numbers become larger. Use such time as is needed and as many
approaches devised to develop the concepts of numerals
as can be
in base five. A clear understanding of this section is necessary
before students attempt the remainder of the chapter.
The Celts and Mayans used twenty as a base, probably because
they used their toes as well as their fingers in counting. The
special name sometimes used for twenty is "score." Some Eskimo
tribes probably count by five using the fingers of one hand.
pages 34-35 34 2-*
As a class exercise, pupils enjoy counting orally in base

five. Be sure that they say three-four, not thirty-four,
for a* .
Answers to Exercises 2- 4a
1. a. 11
five
b. 14
five
c. 22
five
d. 33
five
e. 42
five
2. a. (x x x x x)x x x d. (x x x x x)x
b. (x x x x x)x (x x x x x)x
(x x x x x) (x X X x xjx
c. (x x x x x) (x X x x x)x
(x X X X x)
(x X X X x)
3. Numeral in Base five Expanded Form Numerals in Base Ten
1five 1 x one 1
2 x one 2
'five
*five 3 x one 3
+five
4 x one h
10
five (1 x five + 0 x one) 5
11
12
13
14
20
21
five (2 x five + 1 x one) ll
22
23
24
30
five (3 X five + 0 x one) 15
31
2-4 35 pages 35-37
3. (continued)
Numeral in Base five Expanded Form Numerals in Base ten
32
five (3 x five) + (2 x one) 17
33
34
40
4l five (4 x five) + (l X one) 21
42
43
44
The subscript "five" in the first four numerals in base

five is included only for emphasis, since "4" represents the same
number, whether the base is five or ten.
Answers to Exercises 2- 4b
1. 132
five 4.
320five
2. 124
five 5. 200five
3. 2ll five 6. a. twenty-five
b. 125 or 5 x 5 x
Quarters Nickels Pennies

a. 2 3
b. 4
c. 1 4
d. 1 4 1
-
e. 2 1 3
f. 3
g. 4 3 1
h. 4 4 4
8- a. 23
five e. 213
five
b. 4o
five f. 300
five
c. 104 g. 431
five five
d. l4l five h. 444
five
pages 38-39 36 2-4
1. powers
2. X b. 6^ ^ X
(*)
Pi
(*i
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X
y
y
l*J
v£/ v*/ v£/
3. a.
9
b. 16
c. 13
a. x five) x one)
4.
(0 (2 (4 (3
+ = 8
1
b. five) + one) = l4
x
x
2
c. x five) + x one) = 17
3
d. five) x one) = 20
k
x
e. x five2) x five) x one)

(3
(2
+ = 38
1
f. x five2) x five) x one)

(2
82
(1
+ + =
3
g. x five2) five)
(2
62
(2
+ one) =
x
+
x
2
h. x five2) x five) x one)

(3
103
(0
=
4
+ +
i. x five3) x five2) five) (h

(3
(1
+ + + one) = 29^
x
2
5. a. twenty-fives, or x five or x five x five.

3
3
3
b. x five
3
c. one
x
3
twenty-fives, or five or
3
d. one hundred x
3
five five five.

x
x
3
6. There may be many suggestions. Here is an opportunity for

ingenuity, though names should suggest meanings. The
suggestion of one class of students was 20fMVe = twofi;
30five
= thrifi; ^five = forfl; 10°
five " Fifl (Give it
the French pronunciation.)
7. a. 1000 b. 4l0 five c. *K)00

five
five
2-4, 2-5 37 pages 39-^0
8. 13 years old; 20 guests; 62 hamburgers; 48 doughnuts; 7 quarts

of ice cream; 50 bottles of pop; 8 o'clock; 77 cents.
*9. a. 6, l4, 32, 4o

b. Last digit divisible by 2 (or even)
c#
4five' llfive' 22five> 123five
d. Sum of the digits is divisible by 2.
If this property of divisibility of base five numerals is

not apparent to students, they should be led to investigate more
fully. Awareness of the property will
not only be enjoyable to
the student, but will aid him later in discovery of the test for
divisibility by 3 in decimal numerals.
♦10. a. 20, 30, 50
b. Last digit is zero.
c 20flve, 30flve, 4of±ve
d. Last digit is zero.
e. A digit in the one place shows the number of objects not
included in any group, no matter what base is used. In
base ten the final zero shows no remainder when grouping
by ten is done; in base five the final zero shows no
remainder when grouping by five is done.
2-5. Addition and Subtraction in Base Five.

Computation with base five will probably be more difficult
for the students than counting or writing numerals. The explanatory
paragraphs in all the computation sections should be presented by
the teacher or read through with the class to be sure that all
the steps are clear. Exercises should be assigned as homework
only after enough class discussion has clarified methods of
procedure for the pupils.
Addition in base five is undertaken to clarify addition in
decimal notation. Some of the newer elementary school textbooks
prefer to use the word "change" or "regroup" rather than "borrow"
or "carry" since the first two words seem to describe the actual
process better than the last.
pages 4o-4l 38 2-5
Point out to the pupils that in working in base ten it is

often necessary to regroup ten ones as one ten, whereas in base
five we regroup five ones as one five.
pupils use the addition table for subtraction, they will
As
observe that subtraction is the inverse of addition.
In computing with base five, pupils may find writing the
subscript "five irritating because it consumes so much time. It
has been written in the student text for emphasis, but any
agreement made by the class as a means of indicating the base
should be satisfactory.
1. Be sure that pupils understand the construction of the

addition, base ten, table;
Additj -on, Base Ten
XX
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ll
XX
1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12
3 4 7 8 10 ll 12 13
X
3 5 9
4 4 10 ll 12 13 14
X ll
5 6 7 9
XX
5 5 6 7 8 12 13 14 15
6 6 7 8 9 10 13 14 15 16
7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 17
8 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 X, 17 18
9 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 19
10 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
If pupils facts,
know the no time should be wasted on the
table after its characteristics have been discussed.
2. Pupils should to observe the symmetry of the table
be helped
with respect to the diagonal. They will notice that
8+6=6+8, for example, and that this is true for any
pair of numbers. Later they will learn that this is the
commutative property of addition. The word "commutative"
should not be used at this time.
2-5 39 pages 42-4*1
3.
Addition, Base Five
+ 0 1 2 3 4 10
0 1 2 3 4 10
1 1 3 4 10 ll
ll
^^
2 2 3 10 12
3 3 4 10 12 13
4 4 10 ll 12 14
10 10 ll 12 13 14 "^-20
There is
value in memorizing this table. The process is
no
more important than the facts. The point to be emphasized is
that numbers and number properties are independent of the
numerals or symbols used to represent the numbers. Commutativity
holds in base five as well as base ten because it is a property
of numbers, not numerals.
Thetable should be kept in the pupil's notebook, or a
wall-chart may be made for reference when subtraction exercises
are done.
4. Discussion should include observations such as those mentioned

for the base ten table.
5. In each case (10 and

10fMve) tne "1" shows one of the
base collection, the 13 therefore is one ten plus three,
while 13
five is one five plus three.
Ilnll
6. 20f.
= ten and 20 = twenty, but in each case the 2
shows the result of adding two of the smallest groups.

1. 3Vive - 19 5. *°4five - 104
2. 42five
= 22 6. 400five
- 100
3.
43five
= 23 7. 130five
= 40
4. = 9* 8. " 66
334five 231five
pages 45-46 40 2-5, 2-6
9. a. 4
five
b. 3five
c. 2
*five
d.
3five
10. a. five
b. 4
five
c. 2five
1. a. d. ll0flve = 30
3five
b. 24
* 14 e. 12
five
=
22flve
c. 122five
= 37 f. 121flve
= 36
2. Add 27 and 36. The result should give the minuend, 63.
3. Answers will be minuends of 1(a), (b), and (c).
2-6. Multiplication in Base Five.
extent to which this section and the one succeeding it

The
are used will vary with the class. For good students, the two
harder processes will be challenging, and will give an opportunity
for discussion of reasons underlying the algorithms of multipli
cation and division. On the other hand, if addition and sub
traction have been very difficult to motivate for a group of
children, it may be better to omit these sections for to use
them only for demonstration. Ability to compute with base five
numerals has no value in itself.
2-6 4i pages ^7-48
1.
Multiplication, Base Ten
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10
^^
1 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2 0 2 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 0 3 6 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 0 4 8 12
"*v 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 0 5 10 15 20 >k 30 35 40 ^5 50
6 0 6 12 18 24 30 ^3^ 42 48 5^ 60
l4
^
7 0 7 21 28 35 42 '*^^ 56 63 70
8 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 72 80
9 0 9 18 27 36 ^5 5^ 63 72 '^ 90
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ÎGlD
b. (1) The product of 0 and any number is zero.

(2) The product of 1 and any number is the number
itself.
(3) The order in multiplication does not affect the
product.
(*) The products marked by the diagonal line are
second powers of the counting numbers.
(5) The successive products in any one row or column may
be found by adding the same number one more time.
c. Yes.
d. yes-
2. a. five
= 31
five
= 22
five
pages 48-51 42 2-6, 2-7
3. a.
Multiplication, Base Five
X 0 1 2 3 4 10
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 2 3 4 10
2 0 2 ll 13 20
3 0 3 ll 22 30
4 0 4 13 22 40
10 0 10 20 30 4o tea
Study ofthis table is valuable for the additional insight
it affords into the understanding of multiplication. There is
no value in memorizing it. The table may be used in emphasize
that division is the inverse of multiplication.
b. Discussion as for Exercise 1 (b).
c. Yes
d. 2, 4
4. Base five is easier, because there are fewer products to be

learned.
Answers to Exercise 2-6b
6-
1322five
' 212
2,
132five
- 42 7- 2021five
= 261
3. l*lflve - 46 8. 2l44five
= 299
*•
212five
= 57 9. 30313flve
= 1958
5,
432five
- "7
2-7. Division in Base Five.

Since division is the most demanding operation, it is
suggested that teachers regard the topic as optional and do
only as much as they judge appropriate, in class discussion.
Pupils may need help in learning how to use the multiplication
2-7 ^3 pages 51-52
table to find division facts. Exercises are included for those

pupils who wish to attempt them.
♦Answers to Exercises 2-7a

1. a. 2 c. 4 e. 2 R 2
b. 4 d. ^ R 2 f. 4 R 3
2. a. 4lfive
b. 2Vive
c. 2^2 R 2
five
d. 23five
e. 33 R
12flve
Answers to Review Exercises 2-7b

1. a. (3 x five2) + (0 x five) + (2 x one)
o
b. (1 x ten ) + (6 x ten) + (7 x one)
2. 302five
= 77 167 is larger.
3. a. lllfive
b. 3%lve
4. a. 23f±ve
b«
213five
5. a. 202f±ve
b,
23\ive
6. Room 123; book 7; 15 chapters; 39^ pages; 32 pupils;
5 times; 55 minutes; 13 girls; 19 boys; ll years old;
66 inches tall.
7. a. 37; 136; 87; 59; 3278; 13; 9.
b. io4iflve
c. 146
d. 42five; 22
pages 53-55 ^ 2-8, 2-9
2-8. Changing Decimal Numerals to Base Five Numerals,
Ask for the highest power of five which is

contained in the
number given in base ten numeration. For example, consider 283.
Is five21 (or 625) contained in 283? Is five3 (or 125)?
After we have taken as many 125* s as possible from 283, how
much remains? The next power of five is five2. How many 25 *s
are contained in 33? Finally, how many 5's and how many l's
are left?
Answers to Exercise 2-8

1. a. 17 = (3 x 5) + 2 =
32five
b. 36 = (1 x 25) + (2 x 5) + 1 =
121flve
c. 68 = (2 x 25) + (3 x 5) + 3 =
233flve
2, a.
24flve d«
2llfive
e-
b«
43five 3llfive
c*
122five f«
1002five
g.
2022flve
2-9. Numerals in Other Bases.

Bring out the idea that the base of the system that we use
is "ten" for historical rather than mathematical reasons. Some
mathematicians have suggested that a prime number such as 7 has
certain advantages. Society of America,
The Duodecimal
20 Carlton Place, Staten Island 4, New York supports the adoption
of twelve as the best number base. Information about the duo
decimal system is furnished by this society on request. Exer
cises in other number bases help establish an understanding of
what a positional, power system of numeration is.
The Binary and Duodecimal Systems
The use of binary notation in high speed computers is well

known. The binary system is used for computers since there are
only two digits, and an electric mechanism is either "on" or
2-9 *5 page 55
"off." Such an arrangement is called a flip-flop mechanism. A

number of pamphlets distributed by Remington Rand, IBM,
and
similar sources may be obtained by request and used for supple
mentary reading and study. "Yes No - One Zero"
published by
Esso Standard Oil Co., 15 West 51st., New York 19, New York is
available for the asking only in states served by Esso.
It should be of interest that the sum ll001 + ll0 looks
the same in the binary system, decimal system, and, in fact, all
positional number systems. The meaning, however, is quite
different.
The base two has the disadvantage that, while only two
different digits are used, many more digits are needed to express
numbers in binary notation than in decimal, e.g.,
2000ten
=
ll,lll,010,000two
Here is a set of cards which can be used in a number trick.
1 2 4
1 9 17 25 2 10 18 26 4 12 20 28
3 ll 19 27 3 ll 19 27 5 13 21 29
5 13 21 29 I 6 1* 22 30 6 l4 22 30
7 15 23 31 7 15 23 31 7 15 23 31
8 16
8 12 24 28 16 20 24 28
9 13 25 29 17 21 25 29
10 14 26 30 18 22 26 30
ll 15 27 31 19 23 27 31
Using the first four cards,

to choose a tell a person
number between 1 and 15, to pick out the cards con
taining that number and to give them to you. By
adding the numbers at the top of the cards he gives you,
you can tell him the number he chose. Note that the
numerals at the top of the cards represent the powers
of two in reverse order.
pages 55-56 ^6 2-9
By using all five cards, you can pick out numbers

from to 31. The trick is based on the application
1
of the binary numbers. Further information may be found

in the following volumes:
Jones, Philip S. Understanding Numbers: Their History
and Use
Merrill, Helen A. Mathematical Excursions
Swain, Robert L. Understanding Arithmetic
If you have a peg board and some match sticks, you can
represent base two numbers on the board. Leave a hole blank for
0 and put in a match stick for one. Represent two numbers on
the board, one below the other, and try adding on the board.
The twelve system uses two digits more than the decimal
system. From some points of view twelve is a better choice for
a base than ten. Many products are packaged and sold by the
dozen and by the gross. Twelve is divisible by 2, 3, 4, and
6 as well as 12. Ten is divisible only by 2, 5, and 10.
Because it
employs a larger base, large numbers may be represented
in base twelve with fewer digits than smaller bases require.
For example:
T0Etwelve
■
^Hen

1. a. The numeral says there are two groups of seven and six
more,
b. two, six, base seven
c. twenty
2. 22 5. 50
^three seven
3. J3^ five 6. Xlltwo
4. 7.
twelve 212three
8. 10 five;
-^seven' four
9. 13
fiveJ ll seven' 20
four
2-9 47 pages 56-58
10. 21five; 1* ;
seven* 23four
11. 30five>
21
seven* 33four
12. 44 33
five' seven' 12<W

1. 3S
-'seven
2. a. QL X X X X X x) X
b. X X X X X x)(x X X X X X _jl) X X X X X
789
QC
3. Base ten 1 2 345 6 10 ll 12 13 14

Base seven 1 2 3^5 6 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 20
ten 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
seven 21 22 23 24 25 26 30 31 32 33 34
4. 49
5. ''seven
6. 6
7. 55 126 44
sever r
;
-^seven' seven
8. one, seve n, fori :y-nine

three hundred forty-three

1. Base ten 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Base twelve 13 l4 15 16 17 18 19 IT IE 20 21 22
ten 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
twelve 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 2T 2E 30 31 32
ten 39 4o 4i 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
twelve 33 3^ 35 36 37 38 39 3T 3E 4o 4i 42
2. One hundred forty-four 4. 83; 125 131; 58

5. base twelve
3#
8\welve
6. one, twelve, twelve (or 144)
pages 59-61 48 2-9

1. a. 12 b. 5 c 7 d. 10 e.
2. 2
3. a. two x two four =
b. five x five = twenty-five

c. twelve x twelve = one hundred forty-four.
4. a. Addition, Base Two b. There are only four
+ 0 1 addition facts.
0 0 1
1 1 10
5. Multiplication, Base Two b. There are only four

X 0 1 multiplication facts.
0 0 0 c. The two tables are not
1 0 1 alike, except that 0 h 0
and 0x0 both equal 0-
The binary system is

very simple because there are only
four addition and four multiplication facts to remember.
Computation is simple.
e. Numeral s for large numt ?ers are too -Long.
6. a. llXtwo
b. ll00two
7. Ten Two Five Eight
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
5 101 10 5
7 llll 12 7
15 llllll 30 17
16 10,000 31 20
32 100,000 ll2 ^0
64 1,000,000 224 100

256 100,000,000 20ll 400
2-9, 2--ll 49 pages 61-65
*8. a. 24-
ten'; 33
seven
b. 32five' 15twelve
c.
62ten'- 332four
d. ll01W 1000three
9. In the octal system, each digit corresponds to a group of

three places In the binary system.
7 2 6,
eight
' '
111 010
iiotwo
10. a. weights; 1 oz., 2 oz., 4 oz., 8 oz.
b. five weights, those listed in "a" and 16 oz.
Answers to Exercises 2-ll

1. a. Two thousand, thirty-five
b. Fifty-six thousand, two hundred eight
c. Eight hundred seventy-six million, five hundred thousand,
two hundred ten
2. a. 32 b. 251 c. 19 d. 900
3. 8
4. a. (2 x 103) + (3 x 102) + (l x 10) +(4xl)

b. (1 x five3) + (3 x five2) + (0 x five) + (4 x l)
c. (1 x two2) + (1 x two) +(lxl)
o
d. (1 x seven ) + (2 x seven) + (6 x l)
5. Ten
6. All true except (d).
7. a. 625 c 49 e. 64 g. 32
b. 16 d. 27 f. 10
8. Base 20; 87 years.

page 65 50 2-ll
9. a. three d. six
b. six e. nine
c. four
10. a. twelve b. seven c. five d, two
11. Sin ce this has five symbols,

Since It is a base five system —
therefore DCBAO - (4 x 625) + (3 x 125) + (2 x 25) + (1x5) +0
or 2930.
12. 1 2 3 * 5 6 7 8 9 10
A B C D AO AA AB AC AD BO
ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
BA BB BC BD CO CA CB CC CD DO
51
Sample Test Questions for Chapter 2
Part I. True - False
1. The 3 in „
356 seven stands for three hundred.
2. 10 means 10 x 10 x 10 x 10.
3. The numeral 8 means the same number in the ten system
and in the twelve system.
4. The smaller the base, the more basic combinations there
are in multiplication table.
the
5. The fourth place from the right in the decimal system
has the place value 10 .
6. In base two numerals the number after 100 is 1000.

7. We can make a symbol to
wish. mean what we
8. When we "carry" in addition the value of what is carried

depends upon the base.
9. A number may be written In numerals with any whole number
greater than one as base.
a
10. In the symbol 6 , the exponent is 3.

11. 513
six
- means (5 x six x six x six) + (1 x six x six) +
(3 x six)
12. The 1 in
10,000 (base two) means 1x2 or sixteen.
13. The following numerals represent the same number:
, 1033 4 .
twelve : 363 eight*
183,_ ^4_;
4
six
1^. In base eight numerals, the number before 70 is 66.
15. Four symbols are sufficient for a numeration system with
base five.
16. In the base four system 3 + 3 »
llfour
17. When we "borrow" in the twelve system as in 157 - 6e, we
actually "borrow" units. 12

18. In the Egyptian system a single symbol could be used to
represent a collection of several things.
19. The Roman numeral system had a symbol for zero.
52
Part II. Completion
1. In decimal numerals ^twelve is

2. MCXXIV in decimal numerals is
3. The decimal system uses different symbols.
4. in any numeration system, the smallest place value is
5. 629,468,000 written in words is
6- The number represented by 212 is _(even, odd)
7. In expanded notation 5,678- is

8. +
.five*
213flve 312flve
9. Multiply: 32„ x 3~
four four
10. ll00ll two -ten*
ll. The numeral 444_ represents an (even, odd)
12. Add:
seven +
62OQ„QV1 l6OQ„ar,
seven
- — ——— .
13. 13
ten -two.
14. The numeral after eight is
37,.-,„-v,+-
-eight.
15. Using the digits 5, 6, 7, and 0, write the largest
possible 4-place numeral.
16. Using the digits, 5, 6, 7, and 0, write the smallest
possible 4_piace numeral.
17. What Is the largest number you can write, without exponents,
using only two 4's?
*
3
18. Write this numeral without exponents: 5 .
19. The numeral immediately before

1000+-Wo
is *
20. Subtract: - = .
42f±ve l4f±ve
Part III. Multiple-Choice

I. In which of the numerals below does 1 stand for four?
a. 21four
b. 21
eight
53
c- 100two
d. 102three
e. None of the above is correct.
2. In what base are the numerals written if 2x2= 10?
a. Base two
b. Base three
c. Base four
d. Base five
e. All of the above are correct.
3. A decimal numeral which represents an odd number is:
a. 461,000
b . 7629
c . 5634
d. 9,000,000
e. of the above is correct
None
4. If N represents an even number, the next consecutive even
number can be represented by:
a. N
b. N + 1
c N + 2
d. 2N
e. All
of the above are correct.
5. Which numeral represents the largest number?
a- 43five
b- 212three
c. 10ll0,^
two
nine
e. 10twenty-five
6. What is correct?
a. 5 =5+5+5+5
b. 43 =4x4x4
c. 5=4x4x4x4x4
d. 23 = 2 x 3
e. None of the above is correct

5*
7. 6120 - is how many times as large as 612

nine-
a. twelve d. five
b. ten e. None of the above
c. nine is correct.
8- In which base does the numeral 53 represent an even number?
a. twelve c. eight
b. ten d. seven
e. six
Answers to Sample Test Questions for Chapter 2
Part I Part II Part III

True-False Completion Multiple Choice
1. False 1. 16 1. c
2. True 2. ll24 2. c
3. True 3. Ten 3. b
4. False 4. One K c
5. False 5. Six hundred twenty- 5. e
6. False nine million, four

6. b
hundred sixty-eight
7. True thousand 7. c
8. True 6. Odd 8. d
9. True 7. (5 x 103) + (6 x 102) +
10. True (7 x 101) +(8xl)

11. False 8.
1030flve
12. True
9- 222four
13. False
14. False 10. 51
15. False ll. even
16. False 12. seven

True 13. ll01two
17. i,
18. True l4. êight

False 15. 7650
19.
16. 5067
17. kk
18. 125
19. i:L1two
20.
Chapter 3
WHOLE NUMBERS
3-1. Introduction.
This chapter Is designed to help the youngster grasp the
concept of counting and the properties which govern the funda
mental operations with the counting numbers and the whole
numbers. The new vocabulary has been introduced so that student
and teacher may communicate more efficiently and effectively.
Continual classroom usage of such words as commutative, associ
ative, distributive, and inverse should help to make these an
integral part of the student's mathematical vocabulary. There
are a large number of exercises so that the student will have
an opportunity to practice these new concepts and also maintain
a satisfactory level of achievement with the manipulative skills.
Small numbers have purposely been used in many of the exercises
so that complex arithmetic operations will not interfere with
the student's understanding of the properties with which he
will be working.
It is estimated that 22-25 days will be required to
complete this chapter.
3-2. Sets.
Emphasis here is placed upon the meaning of set. The
concept of set has been introduced to facilitate the definition
of counting numbers. This same concept will also enable us to
define closure more adequately, and to discuss the properties
of the counting numbers and of the whole numbers. It is important
that the student comprehend this concept for later use with non-
metric geometry, prime numbers, and all of his work this year.
The class will enjoy talking about such sets as:
a. the set of brown-eyed boys in the room.
b. the set of blue-eyed girls in the room.
c. the set of girls over 5 feet in height who are in
the room.
pages 68-70 56 3-2
The teacher may use numerous illustrations to indicate that

a set any number of elements.
may have
There has been no attempt to discuss the union and inter
section of two or more sets. Intersection will be developed
in Chapter 4, NON-METRIC GEOMETRY I,
union in Chapter 7, and
NON-METRIC GEOMETRY II. It is suggested that the teacher avoid
these concepts at this time, since our objective is merely to
introduce the meaning of a set.
Answers to Discussion Exercises 3-2a
1. There are many such words with which the student is already
familiar. Some of these might be:
a. pack of matches e. swarm of bees
b. baseball team f. family of people
c. my gang g. pair of cuff links
d. flock of sheep h. herd of cows
2. Set of chairs, set of desks, set of windows, set of books,

set of boys, set of girls are Just a few of the many
examples which might be mentioned.
3. Set of dishes, set of furniture, set of silverware, set of

spoons, set of closets are Just a few.
1. M = (April, August)
2. D = {Sunday, Saturday)
3. There are many possible answers which are correct.
h. s = {Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, Mississippi, Montana,
Michigan, Massachusetts)
5. There are many correct solutions depending upon your
particular school.
6. R = {10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24)
7. A = {w, x, y, z)
8. B = {23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33)
In the following exercises it should be noted that each set

3-2,3-3 57 pages 70-72
may be described correctly in more than one way. Only one

possible description is given below.
9. The set of capitals of the United States, England, and France.
10. The set of odd numbers greater than ll
but smaller than 19.
ll. The set of current American coins less than one dollar in
value.
12. The set of the first 6 letters of the alphabet.
13. The set of numbers from 3 to 21 inclusive, which are
exactly divisible by 3.
14. The set of states whose names begin with A.
15. The set of one-digit numerals.
16. The set of all odd numbers from 1 to 9 inclusive.
3-3. Counting Numbers.
teacher should strive to develop understanding of the

The
following concepts:
1. The number of members of any set can be found by
matching the members of the set with the members of
some standard set. This is a clumsy method if the
number of members is large since the standard sets
must themselves be large. The best known way of
finding the number of members of a set, then, is by
matching the members of the set with a memorized set
of sounds representing the counting numbers.
2. The counting numbers are represented by the set
(1, 2, 3, ^, ...} and do not include zero. The
counting numbers are often called natural numbers
and the teacher may wish to point this out to the
student. We have chosen to use the name counting
number since it is already familiar to many members
of the class.
3. The counting numbers and zero constitute the set
called the whole numbers. It is necessary that the
students be fully aware of the difference between
the set of counting numbers and the set of whole
pages 72-73 58 3-3
numbers to avoid difficulties later when working

with the properties of operations.
The idea that we want to get across here is that by counting
we have a set of numbers that "matches" the objects. The one-
to-one correspondence is a pairing of the things we are counting
with a subset of the counting numbers. The set of all counting
numbers never ends, but the counting of objects does. When
we have two finite sets of objects that have the same number of
elements we can pair them so that each element of set A corres
ponds to exactly one element of set B and each element of
set B corresponds back to that element of set A.
A.
1. a. (North America, South America, Africa, Europe, Asia
Australia, Antarctica}
b. {Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Antarctic, Arctic)
c. (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19}
d. (1, 2, 3, ..., 10)
e. {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,)
2. Yes. 8 was left out.
3. a. 0 and 11
b. 0, 2, 5, and 11
4. 17
5. The following shows a one-to-one correspondence between

the counting numbers and the even number.
6. He subtracted 27 from 81. The correct answer is (5^ + l).

3-4,3-5 59 pages 73-78
3-4. Properties of Operations.

Theprincipal objectives In the study of the commutative,
associative, and distributive properties is to have the pupils
understand the statements in mathematical language; to dis
tinguish property from another; and to recognize the one,
one
or ones, that may be used in various exercises. These are not
properties that are being proved. The pupils have used them
for a longtime, but they probably have not had names for them
and have not recognized when they have been using them.
3-5« Commutative Property.
The exercises are designed to help the student discover that

both addition and multiplication are commutative operations, but
that subtraction is not commutative nor is division a commutative
operation. To help cement the commutative property of multi
plication, it might be helpful to arrange stars on a cardboard
in the following manner:
*****
*****
*****
*****
This arrangement shows 4 rows of 5 stars in a row. However,
by rotating the cardboard 90°, the arrangement will show 5
rows of 4 stars in a row.
The meaning of such new symbols as <, >, /, • , are
to be discovered by the student. However, an opportunity has been
provided for the teacher to insure that each member of the class
is in agreement on what these symbols represent.
Since it is impossible to list all pairs of numbers in
addition and multiplication, letters have been introduced to
generalize the commutative properties for addition and multi
plication. The large variety of exercises should lead naturally
into this generalization provided the student understands that
letters may represent any number whatsoever.
pages 74-78 60 3-5
Other examples of commutative activities might be:

To wash your face and wash your hair.
north one block and then west one block.
To go
To count to 100 and write the alphabet.
Other examples of activities which are not commutative:
To put out the cat and go to bed.
To write a word and erase that word.
Answers to Class Exercises 3-5a
1. a. 3 d. 3 g. 9 *J. b
b. 24 e. 6 h. 6 *k. d
c. 82 f. 2 *i. a *1. c
2. The results in parts a, b, c, and d remain the same.

The others change because the commutative property does
not hold for division and subtraction.
3. a. No. Addition is commutative.
b. No. Multiplication is commutative.
c. Yes. Subtraction is not commutative.
d. Yes. Division is not commutative.
1. Addition and multiplication are commutative. Subtraction

and division are not.
2. The activities are commutative in parts a and d.
3. a. 63 b. 57 -c. 79 d. 1051 e. l48l

4. a. 782 b. 800 c. 5073 d. 183,314 e. 543,648
1. 2 is less than 6 or 2 is smaller than 6.

2. 3 times 7 equals 21.
3. 3 is not equal to 2.
4. 8 is not equal to ll.
3-5, 3-6 61 pages 77-79
5. 14 plus 15 is less than (or smaller than) 16 plus 18.

7. 92 is
greater than (or larger than) 25.
9- 4 is not equal to 17.
10. ll is greater than (or larger than) 6.
11. 19 minus 17 is less than (or smaller than) 5.
12. l4
14 divided by 7 is less than (or smaller than) 5.
13. 16 is greater than 8 and 8 is greater than 2. Or,
8 is between 16 and 2.
14. 3 is less than 10 and 10 is less than l4. Or,
10 is between 3 and l4.
15. less than or smaller than
16. greater than or larger than
17. times
18. not equal to
19. = 23. < 27. 31. >
20. > 24. < 28. 32. -

21. > 25. =
29. >, > 33. <
22. = 26. < 30. <, < 34. <
Answers to Exercises 3- -5d
1. (6} 5. (0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 9. set of whole numbers

2. (5) 6. m 10. (0, 1}
3. (1) 7. (0, 1, 2, 3, ^, 5} 11. (9)
4. (o, 1} 8. (0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 12. {8}
13. (i, 2, 3, *, 5, 6, 7, 8}
14. Set of all whole m ambers.
3-6 . The j Associative Property.

:
Have the students use blocks or disks to make such arrange

ments as
* » * * * * * # *
pages 79-84 62 3-6
Have them push the first sets together and count the
two
total (3+2) + 4. After rearranging, have them push the second
two sets together and count the total 3 + (2 + 4). Use sufficient
variations of this procedure to lead to the understanding that
(a+b)+c=a+(b+c) where a, b, and c are any whole
numbers.
Then ask: Is the product (3 •
4) •
5 equal to the product
• •
3 (4 5)?
This may be illustrated by arranging a set of 20 blocks
in a rectangular array, 4 by 5. Then put two layers of 20
blocks each on top of these forming a box arrangement. Look at
it in different to see (3 • 4) . 5 and 3 • (* • 5).
ways
Different boxes may be made to illustrate 2 • (3 • 4), (2
•
3) • 4
and many others. Again, emphasis is upon arrival at understanding
that a* (b.c)=(a«b)«c where a, b, and c are any
whole numbers.
Sufficient exercises have been provided so that the student
will soon realize that there is an associative property for
addition and multiplication, but not for subtraction and division.
It is suggested that part
of Exercises 3-6c be done in 5
class to assure maximum understanding.
Point out some operations or activities which are not
associative and have students suggest others.
Answers to Oral Exercises 3-6a
1. 11 + 2 = 4 + 9 3. 34 + 16 = ki + 9
13 =13 50 = 50
2. ll9 + 98 = 46 + 171 4. 21 + 9 = 26 + 4
217 = 217 30 = 30
5. The associative property is used in these examples.

3-6 63 pages 81-82
1. a. (10 + 5) + 3 = 10 + (5 + 3)
= 10 + 8
= 18
b. (30 + 3) + 6 = 30 + (3 + 6)
= 30 + 9
= 39
c. (70 + 2) + 5 = 70 + (2 + 5)
= 70 + 7
= 77
d. (90 + 6) + 7 = 90 + (6 + 7)
=90+13
= 103
e. (30 + 4) + 2 = 30 + (4 + 2)
= 30+6
= 36
2. a. (51 + 9) + 22 = 82
b. 16 + (25 + 25) = 66
c. (3ll + 89) + 76 = 476
d. 15 + (l4 + 16) = 45
e. (23 + 17) + 18 = 58
f. (24 + 6) + 87 = ll7
1. a. 7
•
12 = 21 • 4 c. 21 • 15 = 63 •
5
84 = 84 315 = 315
b. 45
•
2 = 5
•
18 d. 9
• 16 = 18 • 8
90 = 90 144 = 144
2. a. 74 b. 42 c. 79 d. 6
3. a. No b. No c. The associative property

does not hold for subtraction,
ages 82-88 64 3-6, 3-7
a. No e. 80 + (20 + 2)
b. No f. (80 * 20) * 2
c. (75 -^
15) + 5 g. The associative property
d. 75 * (15 *• 5) does not hold for division.
5. It is suggested that these exercises be done orally if at
all possible.
a. 16 c. 1080 e. 7600 g. 670
b. 260 d. 22 f. 922 h. 216
3-7. The Distributive Property.

Emphasize that the distributive property is the connecting
link between the two operations of addition and multiplication.
However, multiplication is distributive over addition but addition
isnot distributive over multiplication. This says that
a»(b+c)=a#b+a*c. We can not do anything to simplify
a + (b •
c).
Blocks can be used in the following way. Lay out 2 rows of
3 each and 2 rows of 5 each.
# * * *****
*** *****
Ask: If we move these together, we will have 2 times what
number? When they move them together do they get 2 times 8?
This can be repeated until they understand that
a •
(bc) = (a • b) + (a • c),
+
when a, b, and c are whole numbers. Repetition of the same

illustration with different numbers of blocks may be better than
different types of illustrations.
It is
very important that the student grasp the idea that
the distributive property Involves two operations; namely, addition
and multiplication. However, it is equally important that the
student realize that not all problems involving both multiplication
and addition utilize this property. This fact is brought out in
part 1 of Exercises 3-7b.
3-7 65 pages 86-87
Use the distributive property to help make mental computations

during class, such as:
7 • 32 = 7 •
(30 + 2) = (7 •
30) + (7 •
2) = 210 + l4 = 224
35 • 8 = (30 + 5) • 8 •
(30
•
8) + (5 •
8) = 24o + 4o = 280

1. a. 45 f. 60
b. 135 ■ g. 30
c. 45 h. 30
d. 21 1. 45
e. 60 J. 72
2. a. 4 • 12 = 28 + 20 f. 30 + 18 = 6 • 8
48 = 48 48 = 48
b. 18 + 24 = 6 •
7 g. 2 • 20 = 24 + 16
42 = 42 4o = 4o
c. 48 + 42 = 15 • 6 h. 48 + 16 = 16 • 4
90 = 90 64 „ 64
d. 23 •
5 = 46 + 69 i. 12 + 24 . 3 •
12
ll5 = ll5 36 = 36
e. ll •
7 = 33 + 44
77 = 77
3. a. 3 •
(4 + 3) = (3 •
*) + (3 •
3)
b. 2 •
(4 + 5) = (2
•
*) + (2
•
5), There are other possible
answers, but only this
pair demonstrates the
distributive property.
c. 13 •
(6 + 4) = (13
•
6) + (13
•
4)
d. (2 •
7) + (3 •
1) -• (i + 3)
•
7
.
e. (j_ 4) . . (6
• •
(6 4) + + 7) 4
pages 87-90 66 3-7, 3-8
4. a. 4 - 2 + 4.3 5 (6 + 7)
b. 7 ' 4 + 7.6 8 l4 + 8 17
c. 9 •
(8 + 2) 6 5 + 13 5
d. 6 - 13 + 6 •
27 (5 + 4) . 12
e. 12 (5 + 7) 3-4+5
5. a. (2 3) + (2 2) or 2 (3 + 2)
b. (3 M + (3 3) or 3 (* + 3)
c. (5 2) + (5 3) or 5 (2 + 3)
d. (3 1) + (3 2) or 3 (1 + 2)
e. (3 *) + O 5) or 3 (* + 5)
f. (5 3) + (5 5) or 5 (3 + 5)
g. (5 7) + (5 8) or 5 (7 + 8)
h. (3 10) + (3 7) or 3 (10 + 7)
i. (3 9) + (3 17) or 3 (9 + 17)
J. (7 1) + (7 *) or 7 (1 + M

1. a. 18 + 9 = 27 d. 12 • 8 = 96
b. 3 •
15 = ^5 e. 12 + 15 = 27
c. 5 + 56 = 61 f. 7 + 15 = 22
Parts a, c, and f dp_ not use the distributive property.
2. a. Commutative property for addition.
b. Distributive property.
c. Associative property for addition.
d. Associative property for multiplication.
e. Commutative property for multiplication.
f. Distributive property.
3. 221, 312
3-8. The Closure Property.

Emphasis here is
placed upon the meaning of a set closed
under an operation. The student is already familiar with the
meaning of set and with the set of counting numbers and the set
of whole numbers. Here is an excellent opportunity to review
3-8 67 pages 90-91
these concepts and point out once more the significant difference
between the set of counting numbers and the set of whole numbers.
Good examples of sets closed under addition:
set of whole numbers.
The
The set of counting numbers.
Then ask the class if these sets are closed under multipli
cation. Under subtraction. Under division.
Emphasize that if
just one pair of counting numbers can be
found such that their difference (or quotient) is not a counting
number, then the set of counting numbers is not closed under
subtraction (or division). For example, 9-12 is not a
counting number for there is no counting number which can be
added to 12 to get 9 and 12/9 is not a counting number
since there is no counting number which can be multiplied by 9
to get 12. Since subtraction and division with two counting
numbers are not closed, the need for negative numbers and rational
fractions now becomes apparent.
The commutative,associative, distributive and closure
properties and the identity properties of 0 and 1, all of
which are encountered in this chapter, are very fundamental in
Modern Algebra. These properties are part of the small list of
axioms for high school Algebrafrom which everything else can be
derived. This axiomatic approach to Algebra is a fairly recent
development (dating back to the first decade of this century) and
until recently only a very few people have been familiar with it.
Because of this, until the last few years, students were first
introduced to this approach to Algebra in a graduate course in
the university.
Itturns out that this allegedly sophisticated approach is
actually easier than the conventional one in that it organizes
and clarifies the subject. This method of presenting Algebra is
employed at the ninth grade level in the various modern mathe
matics programs for the schools.
The axioms we are referring to are tabulated below.
pages 90-91 68 3-8
I. Field Axioms. A set of objects (numbers) R is called a

field if, whenever a, b, and c are in R we have
Addition Multiplication
Closure a + b is in R a • b is in R
Commutative a + b = b + a a • b = b • a
Associative a + (b+c) = (a+b) + c a •

(b«c) =
(a«b) • c
Identity There is a number 0 There is a number 1

in R for which in R for which
a + 0 = a a • 1 = a
Inverse There is a number (-a) If aÔ there is a

in R for which
number — in R
a
a + (-a) = 0
for which
a- 1.1
Distributive a •
(b + c) = (a •
b) + (a •
c)
It is interesting to note that obtain an equivalent set we

of axioms if we remove the Identity and Inverse Axioms and
replace them by
Solvable There is a number x If aÔ, there is a

in R for which number y in R for
x which
a + = b
a • x = b
"rules" that are taught in a traditional algebra course

The
can be proved as consequences of these field axioms. For
example, we can prove the following statement:
a • b = 0 if, and only if, a = 0 or b = 0, or both.
If a = 0 or b = 0 the theorem is true by the zero property

of multiplication. To show that a or b must be zero, let
a ^ 0. Then by Inverse property — is in R and we have
3-8 69 pages 90-91
• b = 0
1.
a (a
K
•
b = 0
b = 0
If we assume b ^ 0 then we can prove a = 0 in the same way.
II. Order Axioms. If in addition to the field axioms, R satisfies

the axioms below, then R is called an ordered field. Whenever
a, b, and c are in R we have
Trichotomy Exactly one of the following three

statements is true:
a < b, a = b, b < a.
Transitive If a < b and b < c then a < c.
Addition Property If a < b then a + c < b + c.

Multiplication Property If a < b and 0 < c then a«c < b«c.
III. Completeness Axiom. If in addition to the field and order

axioms, R satisfies the axiom below, then R is called a
complete ordered field. We present this in the following form.
a. Dedekind Cut If are non-empty subsets of R

A and B
which satisfy
the condition:
*(i) AUB = R, **(ii) AflB is empty,
(iii) each member of A is less than
each member of B; then either there is
a largest number in A or there is a
smallest number in B.
b. Least upper bound Every non-empty set of numbers which
has an upper bound also has a least
upper bound.
c. Infinite Decimals Every number has a unique representation
as an infinite decimal having infinitely
many digits different from 9.
* See Chapter 4 for a discussion of intersection of sets. j
** See Chapter 7 for a discussion of union of sets.
pages 90-91 70 3-8
Only the third form of the completeness axiom is mentioned in

this text.
Theset of rational numbers satisfies the field and order
axioms but not the completeness axiom. The real numbers satisfy
all the axioms.
The wayin which these axioms are used in this course follows
this outline. The closure, commutative, associative, identity
and distributive properties are observed in Chapter 3 to hold
for counting numbers in a number of examples and are assumed to
be true in general. (In effect they are assumed as axioms.) In
Chapter 6 it is observed that the set of counting numbers is not
closed under division—or in other words, that the solvability
property of multiplication does not hold — and this is used to
motivate the extension of our number system to embrace the non-
negative rational numbers. Then it is shown that if we wish to
retain the commutative, associative, identity and distributive
properties we must multiply, divide, add and subtract rational
numbers in just the way we always have. In Chapter 16 we show
analogously how the lack of closure under subtraction—or the
absence of the solvability property for addition — leads to the
extension of our number system to embrace the full set of rational
numbers, positive and negative and zero. In Chapter 20 it is
observed that the real numbers have the completeness property
while the rational numbers do not.
The following chart shows the chapters in which the
various properties first come up for extensive discussion.
Field
Closure 3 3
Commutative 3 3
Associative 3 3
Identity 3 3
Inverse 16 6
Distributive 3
Solvability 16 6
3-8 71 pages 91-92
Order
Trichotomy 8
Transitive 8
Addition 8
Multiplication 8
Completeness
Infinite Decimals 20
a. No. The sum of 2 odd numbers is always an even number.

b. No.
a. M is the set of counting numbers which are divisible

by 5.
b. Yes. Since each of the numbers in the set is a multiple
of 5, the sum of any two numbers in the set is a
multiple of 5«
Below is the general proof that set M is closed under
addition:
Let a and represent any counting numbers.
b
Then 5a and 5b must represent any two numbers

in set M, and 5a + 5b represents their sum. There
fore 5a + 5b = 5(a + b) by the Distributive Property.
Since one of the factors of the right member is 5, then
the sum 5a + 5b must be a multiple of 5.
3, Each set is closed under multiplication.
4- a. Yes
b. No. For example 500 + 501 = 1001 and 1001 is not in
the set.
c. No. For example 3 + ^7 = 50 and 50 is not in the set,
d. Yes. If the numerals of 2 numbers end in 0, then
the sum of the numbers ends in 0.
pages 92-93 72 3-8, 3-9
5. a. Yes. b. No. c. No. d. Yes.

6. Yes. Multiplication of whole numbers is an abbreviated
process for addition.
7. No. The student may give any number of examples. For

instance, 1-2.
8. No.
9. No. For example, the result of 3 divided by 4 is not

in the set.
10. No.
1. a. 8219 b. 1928
2. a. 19,997 b. 1179
3. a. 78,528 b. ^50,95^ c 2,499,574

4. Two million, seventy thousand, three hundred fifty-one.
5. 72 cents.
6. a. greater than
b. equal to
c. less than
d. not equal to
e. times
7. A set is a collection of objects.
3-9* Inverse Operations.

The basic concepts in this section are:
1. The meaning of inverse.
2. Addition and multiplication have the closure,
commutative, and associative properties, while
their inverses
not. do
The meaning of inverse may be explained by giving an example.
"I write on the chalkboard" may be stated as one actually writes
3-9 73 pages 93-96
"inverse" on the board. Then the teacher may say "the inverse of
writing on the board is
erasing the writing from the board." The
board may actually be erased. It should be emphasized that the
inverse operation undoes the first operation. Some pupils may
think that the failure to do an operation is the inverse of the
operation. For example, to the question "what is the inverse of
singing?" the pupil may say "Not singing." But "not singing"
does not undo the operation of singing as erasing the chalkboard
undoes writing on the chalkboard. In this connection it is
important to point out that some operations have no inverse.
Some discussion of a • x = b may be helpful to many
students.
The following questions may be suggestive.
1. what operation is indicated by a • x?
2. what operation will undo multiplication?
3. What is the inverse of multiplication?
4. To undo a • x, do we divide a • x by
a or a • x by x?
(Since a • x means a times x we divide by

a, the multiplier. )
5. How do we undo 3 •
3.)
2? (Divide 6 by
*
How do we undo 8 8.)
4? (Divide 32 by
6. In terms of these symbols, can you define division?
An understanding of a • x = b will be helpful to the pupil as
he studies percentage, and the equivalence of the two statements
"b + a = x" and "a • x = b" will be of great importance in
Chapter 6. Therefore, an emphasis on understanding the relation
ship between a, x, and b is not only desirable but necessary.
We used the device of the two machines to illustrate the
inverse of multiplication by a as the unary operation of

division by a. The following may be used to illustrate the
general statement.
In general, suppose we have two machines that perform
operation (l) and operation (2). And suppose we hook them
together, and observe that whenever we put a number in the first
machine we get the same number out of the second machine.
pages 93-97 74 3-9
^Z
OPERATION
J A
Then whatever was done by the first machine was undone by the
second. We would say that operation (^ is the inverse
operation of operation (T) .

1. a. Laying down the penc ill. i. There is no inverse.
b. Take off your hat. J. Subtraction.
c. Get out of a car. k. Multiplication.
d. Withdraw your arm. 1. Addition.
e. Division. m. There is no inverse.
f. Tear down. n. There is no inverse.
g. There is no inverse. 0. Put on a tire.
h. Step backward.
2. a. 46,471 f. $1342.67
b. $507.10 g. 876
c. 506 feet h. 987
d. $1412.78 i. 798
e. $ll01.04 J. 697
Answers to Oral Exercises 3-9b

1. 5 7. 8 14 . 4 20. 0
2. 5 8. 1) 15 . 5 21. 0
3. 1 9. 3 16 . 5 22. 0
4. 7 10. 3 17 . 9 23. 0
5. None ll. None 18 . 9 24. 1
6. 0 12. 7 19 . 6 25. 1
13. Any whole 26. 1

number
3-9, 3-10 75 pages 97-99

a. 12 f. 463
b. 31 g. 3
c. 3 h. 6
d. 5 i. none
e. 588 J. none
2. a. 19 e. 165,821
b. 1922 f. 13
c. 89 g. 6
d. 19,219 h. 20
3. a. 21 e. 46
b. 84 f. 20
c. 102 g. 104
d. 3 h. 195
3-10. Betweenness and the Number Line.
The following understandings should be developed by the

teacher so that the student will gain the fullest appreciation
of betweenness and the order relations of numbers.
1. The number line helps to show how the counting numbers
are related. The students may ask about the dots to the
left of zero. The teacher may wish to mention that these
are negative numbers and give a few illustrations,
but the topic of negative numbers will not be discussed
at all in our work.
2. A number is less than a second number if the first is
to the left of the second. A number is greater than
another if it is to the right of it.
3. There is not always a counting number between two
counting numbers. This fact is brought out in Exercises
such as part 1(g) of Exercises 3-10.
4. To find the number of whole numbers between two other
numbers (if it can be done at all):
Subtract the
smaller from the larger and then subtract one (l) from
pages 99-100 76 3-10, 3-ll
from this difference. subtract one (1) from the Or,

larger and then find the difference between that result
and the smaller number. Or, add 1 to the smaller
number and then subtract this result from the larger
number. Example: Find the number of whole numbers
between 7 and 15.
Method 1 15 - 7 = 8 8-1 = 7
Method 2 15 - 1 = l2* 14-7-7
Method 3 7 + 1 = 8 15 - 8 = 7
a. 17 e. None
b. 21 f. 2
c. h g. None
d. 7 h. 88
a. 10 e. 18
b. ll f. 22
c. g. 16
d. 30 h. 9
3. The pairs of numbers in parts a, b, c, g, *i, and *j,

have whole numbers midway between them.
*^. a. Yes, since c is to the right of a on the number line-

b. Yes, since b is to the right of a on the number line-
c. Yes, since b is to the left of c on the number line.
The numbers a, b, and c would be located in the
following manner on the number line.
3-ll. The Number One.
In this lesson emphasis should be placed not only on special

properties of the operations with 1 but also on the closure,
associative, and commutative properties. The fact that there is
3-11 77 pages 100-102
more than one way to represent the number 1 is emphasized In

the first exercise. Of course this gives the teacher the oppor
tunity to review the concept of numeral as a name for a number
and not the number itself. Pupils think of the operation with
numbers so frequently that they forget that 4-3 is really
another way to represent 1.
We note that 1 is not an identity for division. Since
a • b = b • a for all whole numbers, in particular 1 acts as
an identity on each side. This is true for any commutative
operation. However, division is not commutative, a + b ^ b + a.
In particular 1 * b ^ b + 1. b + 1 = b so that 1 is a
right handed identity for division.
class discussion of the lesson summary In symbols may be
A
profitable for many pupils. Of course some other letter in
place of c would be used as practice for pupils in translating
symbols into words. Be sure that the pupils have the ideas
before attempting symbolism. The pupils1 translations of the
mathematical sentences could be somewhat as follows:
a. If counting number is multiplied by 1, the

any
product is the same counting number.
b. If any counting number is divided by 1, the quotient
is the same counting number.
c. If any counting number is divided by the same number,
the quotient is 1.
d. The number one, raised to any power which is a counting
number, equals 1.

1. The symbols in the following parts represent the number 1:
a. b, c, d, e, 1, k, 1, m, o, and p.
2. a.
b.
100
10
d.
e.
|
0
c. 1^ f. 0
pages 103-106 78 3-ll, 3-12
f3. The successive addition of l's to any counting number

will give a counting number. But, the successive subtraction
of l's from any counting number will become 0 if the
operation is carried far enough. If we go too far we get
out of the set.
4. a. 876, 429 e. 3, 479

b. 976,538 f. 97
c. 897,638 g. 1
d. 896,758 h. 1
3-12.• The Number Zero.
The purpose of this lesson is

to understand why we can or
cannot perform the fundamental operations with zero.
It is important for pupils to understand that zero is a
perfectly good number and that it does not mean "nothing."
The pupil should see that in addition and subtraction zero
obeys the same laws as the counting numbers.
In explaining the product of c • 0 and 0 • c, it may be
helpful to review briefly the meaning of multiplication. Such
discussion questions might be:
1. What is another way to find the answer to 3x5?
2. What does 3x5 mean? It means 5+5+5 and
not 3+3+3+3+3.
3. Make up a real problem using 3x5. (The price of
3 pencils at 5^ each.)
4. What does 5x3 (It
3.)
mean? means 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 +
5. Make up real problem using 5x3. (The price of

a
pencils at 3/ each.)
5
After such questions, zero may be introduced in the dis

cussion as multiplicand and multiplier, since 5*0=0*
5
by the commutative property for multiplication.

In case of division, pupils should understand why we divide
by a and do not divide by 0. It may be desirable to
a
0
use several examples so that the pupils will see that —

(where
is counting number) should be and is not the name
£
0
a
c
3-12 79 pages 106-107
of any whole number.

Some of the pupils may be Interested in why we do not define
sr = 1 or
other number.
some They should understand that It
would be out of harmony with the fact that zero times any number
equals zero.
The translations into words of the symbolic statements
concerning zero can be somewhat as follows:
a. The sum of any whole number and zero is the same
whole number.
b. If zero is subtracted from any whole number, the
difference is the same whole number.
c. If any whole number is subtracted from itself, the
difference Is zero.
d. If c is a counting number, then 0 to the c-power
is zero.
e. The product of any whole number and zero is zero.
f. If zero is divided by any counting number, the
quotient is zero.
g. Zero cannot be used as a divisor.
1. The symbols in the following parts represent the number 0:

b, d, f, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, q, and s.
2. a. 3724 i. $70.65 P. $1846
b. 73,788 J. 679 q. 0
c. l44 r 56 k. 379 r. 0
d. 152 R 60 1. 897 s. 0
e. $36,^53 m. $397.16 t. 0
f. $60,^44 n. Division by u. 976

g.
zero is not
v.
0
possible. $97.46
h. $846.25 o.
pages 107-109 80 3-12, 3-1 ^
*3. The error is in the generalization to C in part i.

If a • b = C, a or b does not need to be C.
Example: 2 • This exercise shows the error that
2 = ^.
may be made by making a generalization on just a few cases.
^. The number is one or zero.
Answers to 3-1^, Chapter Review
1. The commutative property of multiplication is illustrated.

2. In the set of counting numbers the Identity element for
multiplication is one (lj .
3. 2 •
13 + 5
' 13 = (2 + 5)
•
13
4. 136 + 25 + 75 = 136 + (25 + 75)
= 136 + 100
= 236
5. Multiply 65 times ll and see if the product is 715.
The division is correct.
6. The number of counting numbers between 6 and ^7 is 4p .
7. Zero is a member of the set of whole numbers. Zero is not
a member of the set of counting numbers.
8. The statement is false. If one can find one example where
the operation is not closed, then the operation is not
closed for the set of whole numbers.
9. The value of l12 is 1 .
10. There are no counting numbers between 5 and 6.
ll. 100 + (20 + 5) = 100 + 4
= 25
12. The distributive property involves two operations: addition
and multiplication.
13. a. 5 c. Any whole number larger
b. Any whole number
than 3*
d. 2
1^. The identity element for addition of whole numbers is 0 .
15* No. For example, 6 + 9 = 15, and 15 is not in the set.

16. a. The inverse operation of division is multiplication.
b. The inverse operation of subtraction is addition-
page ll0 81 3-15
17. 5 - ^j 7+7, and 1-0 are different symbols which all

represent the number 1 .
18. a. 7 is larger than 2.

b. 15 is less than 33.
c. 4 is less than 6 and 6 is less than 10.
Answers to 3-15t Cumulative Review
1. (122)three
=
(I7)ten
=
(32)five. (It is easiest to get
to base five by going through base ten.)
2. Yes. Start by filling either the 3-cup or the 5-cup
container. If
the three-cup container is filled first
then: (a) Pour 3 into 5; (b) Fill 3; (c) Pour
2 from 3 into 5, which leaves 1 in 3; (d) Empty
5, pour 1into 5; (e) Fill 3. Now we
left in 3
have 4. if the five-cup container is filled first then:

(a) Pour 3 from 5 into 3, which leaves 2 in
5; (b) Empty 3 and pour in 2 from 5; (c) Fill
5; (d) Fill 3 by pouring 1 from 5; (e) Empty 3.
Now we have ^.
3. 1,ll1
5. Base 2
6. (2 x 27) + (0 x 9) + (1 x 3) + (0 x 1)
7. 21
8. 100, 101, 102, 103, 102* (all base six numerals)
9,
(*5)ten
10. Zero is an element of the set of whole numbers, but zero
is
not an element of the set of counting numbers.
11. Commutative property of multiplication.
12. Multiplication.
13. (3 + 2) •
5 or 5 •
(3 + 2)
14. (125 + 75) + 36
15. Multiply 125 times 3 and see if the product is 375.

16. 37
82
17. Subtraction
18. Division
19. a. eleven is
greater than eight
b. six does not equal ten
c. two is less than four
Sample Test Questions for Chapter 3-
1. Insert a symbol which makes a true statement:

8 + 4 4 + 8.
2. How many days are there between March 13, 1951 and March 27,
1951?
3. Show with one example that the set of numbers from 10 to

15 is not closed under addition.
4. Answer true or false: The identity for multiplication in
the set of whole numbers is zero.
5. If K is a counting number then — = ?
6. Apply the commutative property of addition to: (4

•
5) + 6.
7. We are using the -______ property when we say that 3a + 5a

is another way of writing (3+5) *
a.
8. If the product of 5 and a certain number is zero, then

that number must be:
a. 1 b. 0 c. 5 d. None of the
above.
9. When the number one is divided by any counting number n,
the answer is always:
a. 0 b. 1 c. n d. None of the
above
10. Which of the following numerals are names of counting numbers?
(1Q)two
lk ° <713>ten I XIV
ll. [(7 + 3) 5)] = [(7
+ 7- (6 • + 3) + (7 .
6). 5] illustrates
the associative property of ? .
83
12. How many counting numbers are there between (10),.-

^ U3)four?
13. Make a true statement of (3
•
7) + (* ) 7*( )
1^. To check the statement 7 x 3^5 = 2^15 by the inverse

operation we would ?
15. The letters a, b, and x represent counting numbers,

a
and t- = x,
x. What can we say about the relation between
a and b?
Answers to Sample Test Questions
1. = 10-
10two> l4> 713ten>
XIV
2. 13 Multiplication
11.
3. 12 + 13 - 25
12. 1
4. False 13. (3 •
7) + (^
•
7) = 7 .(3 + 4)
5. 0
lh. Divide 2^15 by 7 (or by 3^5)
6. 6 + (4 •
is
5)
15. a a multiple of b, and
7. Distributive a is either greater than b
8. b
or equal to b.
9- d
Chapter 4
NON-METRIC GEOMETRY
Some remarks are in order to explain the purposes of this

chapter. In the conventional 10th grade course geometry is
presented as a mathematical theory in which theorems are proved
from axioms using rules of logic. What is being attempted here
is something quite different but it would be a grave error to
look upon our approach with disdain. The approach in this chapter
Is a very necessary prelude to the axiomatic development.
Everyone has an intuitive grasp of the concepts of point,
line, and plane and everyone will agree that certain elementary
properties pertaining to these concepts are obvious. Many efforts
have been made to define these elementary concepts and to prove
these elementary properties but these efforts seem most unsatis
factory, belonging more to the realm of metaphysics than of
science. The reason that these attempts are so unsatisfactory
Is that the problems are unsolvable. The process of definition
is the statement of the meaning of new words or expressions in
terms of words or expressions where meaning is already known.
The process of deductive proof is the establishing through the
rules of logic of the truths of statements by use of statements
already known to be true.
When these facts are recognized, then we see that any body
of knowledge must contain certain undefined terms and certain
statements which are accepted as true without proof. "Deductive
science" and "mathematical theory" are names applied to bodies
of knowledge in which the undefined terms and statements to be
accepted without proof (axioms) are clearly set forth at the
outset. Thereafter all other terms used are defined by means
of these undefined terms and any other statements accepted as
true must have been proved first by logical reasoning from the
axioms and statements (theorems) previously established. A
mathematical theory such as geometry is, then, a collection of
statements about certain undefined concepts derived logically
from certain unproved statements-
-86-
The connection with "reality" depends on common acceptance

of the axioms. If a person accepts the axioms as properties
which are true of his concepts of points, lines, and planes then
he must accept the rest of the theory — the logical consequences
of these axioms. The selection of the axioms is achieved by the
process of inductive reasoning applied to the intuitive concepts
of point, line, and plane. After the axioms have been selected,
inductive reasoning drops from sight in the formal structure of
the theory where only deductive reasoning is used. Inductive
reasoning nevertheless retains an important place in the creative
process. The creative process in mathematics consists of two
parts: first, the conjecture or guess that a certain statement is
true; second, the proof of the statement. The conjecture is made
by use of intuition and inductive reasoning. The proof is ac
complished by deductive reasoning.
The main purpose of geometry in this text is to present
intuitively the concepts of point, line, and plane and to reach
agreement by inductive reasoning that certain statements con
cerning these concepts appear to be true. Some of these state
ments will appear in the formal geometry course as axioms. Others
will be proved as theorems. A second purpose of geometry in this
book is to present an introduction to the process of deductive
reasoning in geometry.
The principal objectives of this chapter are threefold:
1. To introduce pupils to geometric ideas and ways of
thought.
2. To give pupils some familiarity with the terminology
and notation of "sets" and geometry, and
3. To encourage precision of language and thought.
There is an attempt to guide the student to the discovery
of unifying concepts as a basis for learning some of the more
specific details. This chapter forms a background for later
chapters which deal with metric or distance properties. It
attempts to focus attention upon ideas which are fundamental
but which (while sometimes vaguely taken for granted) are often
poorly understood by students.
-87-
Traditionally, those Ideas have been taught as they were
needed for a particular geometric discussion. But, all too often,
the teacher has assumed that these properties are obvious or clear
without mentioning them. Also, there should be some advantage in
considering together this group of closely related analogous
properties and observing relations among them. The higher level
study of some aspects of non-metric geometry has become a separate
mathematical discipline known as projective geometry.
Spatial Perception
One of the important aims of this chapter is to help boys
and girls to develop spatial Imagination. There is some basis
for the belief that slower students, in many cases, have powers
of visualization that compare favorably with those possessed by
more able students. To what extent there is a correspondence
between general intelligence and spatial understanding Is diffi
cult to determine. Therefore, it would be desirable for the
teacher to exploit the interest shown by the slower student in
devising drawings or other representations of spatial relations.
If given free rein, students will devise ingenious models for
spatial representations.
Time Schedule
A definitive time schedule may be inadvisable. The varia
tions among pupils great that a flexible schedule is
may be so
advised. For general guidance to the teacher the following
schedule is indicated. The teacher must not feel that this is
to be followed rigidly.
Lessons 1-5 — Sections 1 and 2
Lessons 6-12 — Rest of Chapter
As to the specific ground to be covered in each lesson, the
teacher must use her own judgment. An attempt has been made to
include exercises at frequent intervals. In some cases, a sub
section together with the appended exercises will make a satis
factory unit lesson, but this will not always be the case.
Materials
Insights into ideas developed in this chapter will be
greatly enhanced by use of instructional devices. Encourage
-88-
students to make simple models as a means of developing basic
understandings. Emphasize Ideas, not evaluation of models. The
use of a tinker toy set or D-sticks will be found helpful in
representing spatial relations. In using any instructional
material of this kind, seek understanding of ideas without over-
dependence uponrepresentations.
Suggested Materials
STRING — to represent lines in space.
PAPER — to represent planes, and folded to represent
lines and intersections of planes.
TAPE OR TACKS — for attaching string to walls, floor,
and points in the room.
MODEL— (as illustrated)
Suggest making the model as shown above by using a card

board carton (or, it can be made using heavy paper, oak tag,
screen wire). Cut away two sides so that only two adjacent sides
and bottom of the box remain. String, wire, etc., may be used
to extend through and beyond "sides," "floor," etc.
OAK TAG — for making models to be used by both teacher
and students.
COAT-HANGER WIRE, KNITTING NEEDLES, PICKUP STICKS
SCISSORS, COLORED CHALK.
LIGHTWEIGHT PAPER — for tracing in exercises.
YARDSTICK or meter stick with several lengths of string
tied to it at different intervals. By fastening
stick to wall, lines may be represented by holding
the string taut. By gathering together the free ends
4-1 -89- Pages llll-ll2
at one point the plane containing the point
and the yardstick may be shown.
OPTIONAL
Long pointer for seeing lines.
Toothpicks for student models
Saran wrap, cellophane, and wire frame for
representing planes.
4-1. Points, Lines, and Space.
1. Understandings .
a. A point has no size.

b. A line is a certain set of points.
c. A line is unlimited in extent.
d. Through two points there is one and only one line.
e. Space is a set of points.
2. Teaching Suggestions.
Just representations to develop the concept of
as we use
the "counting numbers" (2 cars, 2 people, 2 hands, 2 balls,
2 chairs, etc., to develop the concept of twoness) similarly
we must select representations for developing the concepts of
point, line, plane, and space.
Point
Identify things the idea of a point keeping
which suggest
in mind that one suggestion by itself is inadequate for developing
the idea of point. a One needs to use many illustrations in
different situations. Avoid giving the impression that a point
is always identified with tip of a sharpened object.
a
Suggestions: pupil of the eye in intense brightness, dot of

light on some TV screens, particle of dust in the air.
Line
Identify two points using
of the situations as above.
some
Bring out the idea that given these two points there are many
other points of the line that contain them. Some of these are
between the two points, some are "beyond the one" and some are
"beyond the other." Also, through two points there can be only
Pages ll1-ll7 -90- k-l
one line. line has no thickness and no width. It is con
The
sidered to extend indefinitely. Use string held taut between two
points to show representations of lines in positions that are
horizontal, vertical, and slanting. Each student may represent
lines by using a pencil between his fingertips. With each example,
talk about thinking of a line as unlimited in extent. Emphasize
frequently that we use the word "line" to mean straight line.
Identify other representations of lines such as: edge of tablet
(holding the tablet in various positions), edge of desk, vapor
trails, of roof of building, etc. It is important to select
edge
illustrations representing lines in space as well as the usual
representations made by drawing on chalkboard and paper.
Space
Models will be most helpful here. Using "string on yard
stick" considering
and some point on a table, desk, or on some
object which all students can see, let all the representations
of lines from the yardstick pass through the point. Also, use
string to show representations of other lines from other points
on different walls, the floor, etc., all passing through the
point. Use the model as described in drawing under "Suggested
Materials." Pass lines (string, wire, thread) through "walls"
and "floor" to suggest infinite number of lines and that these
lines extend Indefinitely. Bring out the idea that each line
is a set of points, and that space is made up of all the points
on all such lines.
YARDSTICK
4-1 -91- Pages ll2-ll4

1. Depends upon ingenuity of students in finding objects which
represent points.
2. a. T
b, P
c, S
d, D
3. c,
ROW Y-
ROW IY- D(
ROW m- B,
ROW II- E,
ROW I- An F, i—
2 3 4 6 5 7
SEAT NUMBERS
b. E c . Q d. N
The dimensions of regulation baseball and softball fields are:

Baseball: 90' square infield, homeplate to pitcher's
mound 60'6", homeplate to 2nd base 127'
3^-".
Softball: 6o! square infield, homeplate to pitcher's
mound 46' .
6.
100
Pages ll6-ll8 -92- *-1, *-2
Answers to Class Exercises 4-1b
1. 3, AB, FG, HD
In naming the lines encourage students to use any two

letters that will Identify the line.
2. AC and KF, B etc.
3. No. The crepe paper ribbons do not form straight lines.
4. a. A, B, or C
b. SV or WX
c. DE
d. RT (other names are RL or LT )
e. KL and RT, L etc.
Answers to Exercises 4-lc

1. Depends upon classroom.
2. The porcupine has quills which -uggest lines emanating
from the body. If we consider the body a point, then
space is like the set of points consisting of all the
points on all the lines (quills).
3. Depends upon gymnasium.
4. The boundary lines are fixed because the points determining
these lines are fixed. Property 1 states: Through any
two different points in space there is exactly one line.
4-2, Planes
1. Understandings
a. A plane is set of points in space.
a
b. If a line contains two different points of a plane,

it lies in the plane.
c. Many different planes contain a particulai pair of
points.
d. not exactly in
Three points a straight line determine
a unique plane.
Identify surfaces in the room which suggest a plane —
*-2 -93- Pages ll8-123
walls, tops of desks, windows, floor,
piece of
sheet of paper,
cardboard, chalkboard, shadow. Make use of Saran wrap, cellophane,
and a wire frame to show further a representation of a plane since
this more nearly approaches the mathematician's idea of a plane.
With each example bring out the idea that a plane has no bound
aries, that it is flat, and extends indefinitely. It is an "ideal"
of a situation just as are a line and a point. We try to give
this idea by suggesting things that represent a plane. It is
important to suggest representations of planes in horizontal,
vertical, and slanting positions. Note that if a line contains
2 points of a plane, it lies in the plane and that many planes
may be on a particular pair of points as pages of a book, re
volving door, etc.
Then using three fingers or sticks of different heights in
sets of 3 (not in a straight line) as suggested by the sketch
at the right, see what happens
when a piece of cardboard is placed Nails or
on them. fourth finger or Darning needles
Add a
a fourth stick and observe what

happens.
student may try this experi
Each
ment by using three fingers of one hand
(and also three fingers using both hands)
letting a plane be represented by a book,
piece oak tag, or card. Change the position
of the fingers and thumb by bending the wrist (changing the
sticks in the model). Ask the class to make a statement about
three points not in a straight line. (Property 3.)
Demonstrate with wires or string the ideas in the last
paragraph before asking the students to read it or suggest that
one or two students be responsible for demonstrating the idea
to other members of the class.
The Class Discussion Problems may well be developed as a
class activity.
A_ note. What is a basic motivation for the study of
geometry? In our daily living we are forced to deal with many
Pages ll9-122 -9^- 4_2
flat surfaces and with things like flat surfaces. It would be

foolish not to note similarities of these objects, so, we try to
note them. In so doing we try to abstract the notion of flat
surface. We try to find properties that all flat surfaces have.
Thus, we are led to an abstraction of the flat surface — the
geometric plane. We study two aspects of this.
1. What a plane is like, considered by itself
(plane geometry), and
2. How various planes (flat surfaces) can be related
in space (one aspect of spatial geometry).
Just how do we study the geometric plane? We study it by
thinking of what the plane is supposed to represent, namely,
a flat surface. However, in trying to understand a plane
(or planes) we find it difficult to think in the abstract. Thus,
we think of representations of the plane: wall, chalkboard,
paper, etc., and we think of these as representations of the
abstract idea. The abstract idea enables us to identify
characteristics which all flat surfaces have in common.
1. Depends upon the particular kitchen. Most kitchens would
probably have the following examples: tabletop, shelves,
seats of chairs, blades of knives, bottoms of pots, pans,
and baking dishes in addition to floor, ceiling, and walls.
2. Would depend upon particular library.
3. Consult dictionary.
Answers to Class Exercises 4_2b
1.
B-
2. N^- Yes. If a line contains two
different points of a plane,
it lies In the plane.
(Property 2.)
4-2 Pages
-95- 122-123
3. Notice that there are many

different locations for points
R and S. to review
You may want
the Idea of betweenness by asking
various students where they
placed their points.
(Property 2. )
If a line contains two different

points of a plane, it lies in
the plane. (Property 2.)
Same reason as step 4.
6. This figure is one possibility,

There are others.
Answers to Exercises 4-2 c
1. Would depend upon the particular

classroom.
2. Any three of these points not exactly in a straight line
are in one plane. Thus, there will be 4 planes — XYZ,
XYW, XZW, YZW.
Pages 123-124 -96- 4-2, 4-3
3. The feet of a three-1egged stand are in only one plane.

The addition of a fourth point creates the possibility
of having 4 different planes.
Refer to previous problem. A
three-1egged stand will therefore maintain one position.

A four-1egged stand may take any one of 4 different positions
and is therefore unstable unless constructed so that the
4 points are in the same plane.
4. a. Many planes. If we have 2 points, then many planes

contain these points.
b. Only one line. Through any two different points in
space there is
exactly one line.
c. One plane. Through any three points, not all on the
same line, there is exactly one plane.
5. AB, AD, BD. If a line contains two different points of a

plane, it lies in the plane.
6. a. 6
b. 6
A simple model to explain this problem can be made with
cardboard, elastic thread, and thumbtacks.
A, B, C, and D are tacks,
representing the four points.
Stretch elastic thread between
the points to represent the
6 lines. Merely lift
one of
the tacks off the cardboard to
illustrate part b. The elastic
keeps the lines straight and
obviously no new lines are
possible.
4-3. Names and Symbols
1. Understandings .
Note: Notation for naming points and lines was introduced

in 4-1 in order to facilitate class discussion. This is
reviewed and simplified in 4-3.
a. Students learn to recognize how planes, lines on planes,
4-3 "97_ Pages 124-127
lines through planes, etc. can be represented by

drawings.
b. Students learn to name particular points, lines, and
planes, using letters, etc.
c. Students learn how to interpret and understand
perspective drawings.
d. Students learn to develop an awareness of planes and
lines suggested by familiar objects.
Reinforce the idea that we make agreements as to how to
represent certain ideas i.e., for a point, " •— or
"
.
"
A--*'*rM for a line, and the use of letters for naming lines and
points. We usually name points by capital letters, lines by
lower case letters or by pairs of capital letters with bar and
arrows above, as AB , and that a plane is named by three
capital letters. A plane may also be named by a single capital
letter although this convention may cause some confusion with
slow pupils. It is generally avoided in this chapter. Also,
we sometimes talk about two or more lines, planes, etc., by
using subscripts, such as,/,, J[ 2, and J( „.
We do not expect students to learn to make drawings showing
more than one plane, intersections of planes, etc. Some
students, however, may have considerable talent in this direction-
Such students should be encouraged to make drawings which the
entire class may find useful. For the class as a whole, the
emphasis should be on the interpretation of drawings.
Students enjoy a guessing game about abstract figures such
as these:
mi}
\v>\("Vji iiwi "man looking over a fence" or "boat sinking."
They might enjoy a similar game with planar abstractions
such as
"open door" or /f\/^ "pup tent" or
"butcher knife"
Pages 128-131 -98- 4_3
Answer questions in 4-3. Other names for plane ABE are

plane AEC, plane ABC, plane BCE.
Answers to Exercises ^-3
1. a. ABC, or ADC, or BCD, etc.

b. AB, or BC, or CD, or AD.
c. For AB, plane ABF or plane ABD, etc.
d. PBC
2. It has turned upside down.
3. a. cot
b. pingpong table
c. football field
d. carpet
e. high jump
f. coffee table
g. line of laundry
h. open door
1. chair
J. shelf
k. ladder
5. Yes. No. No. One.
6. 1. b. 4. d.
2. d. 5. a.
3. c . 6. a .
Stress that the second column suggests an advantage

of the subscript way of labeling.
7. a. yes e. no
b. yes f. no
c.
d. i; g. no
8. a . ABC or BCD or ABD

b. CDF or CEF or DEF
c. GB
d. HBC and ABC, etc.

k"^ -99- Pages 131-132
4-4. Intersection of Sets.

1. Understandings .
a. A set usually contains elements which are collected
according to some common property or explicit
enumeration.
b. The common elements in
or more sets make up the
two
elements of the intersection of two or more sets.
Review the idea of sets by asking students to describe
certain sets, as set of names of members of the class, set of
all students in the class whose last name begins with "B", set
of even numbers, set of counting numbers between 12 and 70
having factor 7 (i.e. , (l4, 21, 28, . . .}).
a
Explain that any two sets determine a set which is called

their intersection, that is, the set of elements (if any) which
are in both sets. Have students give the intersection for
the set of odd numbers between set of counting
1 and 30 and the
numbers having the factor 3 between 1 and 30. Note the three
sets: the two given sets and the intersection of the two sets.
Use other illustrations such as the set of boys in the class and
the set of students with brown eyes. In selecting sets, include
some in geometry (i.e. ,the intersection of two lines in the
same plane, etc.). Note that the empty set is the intersection
of two sets with no elements in common.
After developing the idea of intersection go back to examples
and describe how the idea can be expressed in symbols. It is
a code we can use and like many codes it simplifies the
expression. For example,
Set A = (3, 5, 7, 9, ll, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29}
Set B = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27}
A D B = (3, 9, 15, 21, 27}
-100-
Pages 132-135 Answers to Exercises h-ka
^
1. a. (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday,
Sunday} .
b. Would vary with student.

c. Would vary with student.
d. The empty set.
e. (18, 19, 20, 21, 22) Stress the meaning of "greater
than" and "less than."
2. a. Any three states, such as, California, Iowa, Maine.
b. Any three months, such as March, May, July.
c. Numbers such as 5, 10, 15* ....
3. a. {1, 9)
b. {John, Frank, Alice)
c. (9, 10, 12) ll,
d. Would vary with student.
e. July 4
f. The empty set.

4. a. [9, 10, ll, 12, 13, l4, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20)
C • \Xf^t o, • . ..J
d. P
The latter portion of this section provides introductory and

exploratory material on intersections of geometric figures.
These ideas will be developed formally in the next section.
1. a. Any three labeled points such as P, Q, R, S, etc.

b. Any three lines such as, AD, AB, AJ, etc.
c. Any three planes such as, ABC, BCG, HFG, etc.
d. Any three intersections of planes such as
AB, BC, EF, etc.
e. Any three intersections of lines such as, points B,
C, D, etc.
2. a. G
b. D
c. A
d. The empty set.
4-4, 4-5 -101- Pages 135 - 139
3. a. HK
b. point L
c. the empty set
d. point P
4-5. Intersections of Lines and Planes.

1. Understandings .
a. Two lines may:
(1) be in the same plane and intersect.

(2) be in the same plane and not intersect (intersect
in the empty set).
(3) in different planes and not intersect
be
(intersect in the empty set).
b. A line and a plane may:
(1) not intersect (intersect in the empty set).

(2) intersect in one point.
(3) intersect in a line.
c. Two different planes may:
(1) intersect and their intersection will be a line.

(2) not intersect (have an empty intersection).
2. Teaching Suggestions
Use models in order to explore the possible situations for
two lines intersecting not intersecting.
and (Let each student
have materials, too.) Also, use a pencil or some other object
to represent a line, and a card to represent a plane. Use two
pieces of cardboard each cut to center with the two fitted
together to represent the idea of two planes and their inter
section, and, from these, state some generalizations that may
be made.
M,
A Ms
Pages 135-137 -102- 4-5
Also, identify situations in the room which are representa

tions of different cases of intersections of lines and planes.
Some may wish to express the ideas in symbols.
Subscripts also may be used to talk about lines J; , and-
JJ . The use of a few subscripts should be encouraged. The

students have been prepared for this in the previous section.
Answers to Questions in 4-5
1. AD f| CD = D, GFfl FE = F, AB f| BC = B, etc.
2. AD and BC or GF and HE
A, B, and C are in exactly one plane since through any
three points, not all on the same line, there is exactly
one plane.
AB lies in this plane since, if a line contains twodifferent
points of a plane, it lies in the plane. AC lies in this
plane for the same reason.
2. a. AD fl DC = D, etc.
b. etc.
AB and DC,
c. AB and KJ, etc.
3. CD and CG are intersecting lines. If two different lines
intersect, exactly one plane contains both lines.
4. Points A and D are on AD.
are on DC. Points D and C
Through any two different points in space there is exactly

one line. AD and DC intersect. If two different lines
intersect, exactly one plane contains both lines.
5. a. Planes ABC, ABJ, CDK, EPA.
b. ED and BA, EP and BA, BJ and CD, etc.
c. Points G, H, J, K all lie in the same plane.
In discussing the intersection of two planes in class, do

not stress the reasoning that leads to the conclusion that two
planes intersect in a line. In fact, with many classes it
^"5 -103- Pages l4o-14l
would be desirable to show illustrations

of this idea in the
environment and omit the development of the reasoning.
Answers to Exercises ^-5b
1. a. Plane ABE, plane FDC, plane EBC, plane EAD, plane ABC.
b. EB and AD, EF and AB, etc.
c. EP and BC, AB and DC, etc.
2. a. Plane EAB and plane FDC
b. Plane EAB f\ plane ABC = AB, plane EAD f) plane ABC = AD, etc,
c. AE H EB - E, AB fl BC = B, etc.
d. Point A
3. a. Point E
b. Point F
c. The empty set
d. BC
e. AB
f. The empty set
g. The empty set
4. a. Point V
b. Point W
c. The empty set
d . The empty set
e. RT
f. TW
5. RS and RT, plane SRT

ST and TW, plane XWT
RS and XR, plane RSX, etc.

6. a. JE
b. AB and FL, CB and DF, etc.
c. The empty set
d. Point J
e. Plane ABL, or ABH, or ABJ, etc.
f. Point E
g. Point E
Pages 141-146 -104- il_5j i±_j
7. a. Plane HGD and plane ABC, etc.

b. Plane HGB and plane GBC, plane FGD and plane FHE, etc.
c. Planes BAH, BGC, and ABC, etc.
d. Planes HGD, FGD, and BGD, etc.
e. GD and plane ABC, FE and plane HGD, etc.
f. FE and GD, AH and GB, etc.
g. HG and DC, ED and AB, etc.
h. HG, FG, and GD; AB, BC, and BG, etc.
1. Planes FGB, FGD, HGD, and BGD.
Answers to Review Questions ^-
1. a . ZN
b. F, E, H, or G .
c. The empty set.

d. Point X.
e. EF or GH .
f. C
g. The empty set.

2. There are 4 places as follows: plane ABC, plane ABD,
plane ACD, plane BCD.
3. a. Plane ABD, plane CEF, plane EGH, plane XYZ.
b. Planes ABD and CEF, the intersection is CD. There are
others.
c. AC and EF, EG and DF, etc.
d. Point D.
e. The empty set.
f. Point F.
g. The empty set.
h. The empty set.
4. RT, RV, TV. If a line contains two different points of a
plane, It lies in the plane.

5. a. Plane ADE.
b. Plane ABD, or plane GFE.
c. The empty set.
d. BG
4-7, 4-8 -105- PaSes 1*6-1*8
e. Point F.
f. Point C.
g. Point B.
h. The empty set.
i. The empty set.
j. Only one line. Through any two different points in
space there is exactly one line,
k. Many planes, for example plane ADE, DHC, etc.
1. Plane ABC and Plane DCF.
4-8. Cumulative Review.
1. 8
2. a. two thousand, forty-two.
b. thirty-seven thousand, two hundred fifty-six.
3. a. (3 x 103) + (4 x 102) + (0 x 10) + (7 x l)
b. (1 x 2k) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (1 x 2) + (1 X 1)
c. (2 x 53) + (1 x 52) + (4 x 5) + (3 x 1)
4. a. 81
b. 81
c. 64
5. Yes.
6. 25 m 32, 52 = 25, 25 is larger than 52.
32 is 7 more than 25.
7. Base 4.
8. one.
9. 1; raised to any power is another name for 1.
1
10. The set of all multiples of 3.

11. Yes.
12. a. 9*3 + 9*2
b. 7-6 + ll*6
13. All counting numbers are whole numbers.
14. a. 6 < 8 c. 3 > 0
b. 9 < 12 or 12 > 9 d. 13 < 15 < 17
Page 148 -106- 4_g
15. 31 x 5 x 2 = 31 x (5 x 2)
16. a. {6, 12, 18, 24)
b. The intersection of these two sets has no elements.
It is the empty set.
17. a. Infinitely many.
b. one
c. one
18. a. 1
b. Four, ABC, ABE, BCE, ACE

c. Point H.
d. ED
e. The empty set.
SAMPLE TEST QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER £ (WITH ANSWERS)
1. Suppose the intersection of two lines is the empty set.

If the lines are in the same plane they are (parallel) .
If they are not in the same plane they are (skew) .

2. Through any two different points in space, how many
a. lines are there? (one)
b. planes are there? (many)
3. If A, B, C, and D are four different points in space,
no three of which are in a straight line
a. In how many planes do these points lie? Name the
planes. (k - ABC, ABD, ACD, BCD).
b. In how many planes does the line BC lie? Name the
planes. (2 - ABC, BCD).
4. If two different planes each contain the same three points,
what can you say about the three points? (the points are
on a line. )
-107-
5. In the figure at the right

a. What is CD f) plane BCF?
(point C)
b. What is plane BCF f| plane EFD?
c.
(CF)
AB fl
_
CD (the empty set)
d. ABflis the intersection of
\
plane ABC and plane .
(plane ABF)
kB
a. What is plane ABF f) plane
CDG? (the empty set)
b. What Is CD f| plane CDG?
0
(CD)
c. What is plane ABF f| plane F
ABC? (AB)
d. What is plane ADG fl plane
BFH? (the empty set)
7. In the corresponding blank to the left of each of the
following statements indicate if it is true or false.
a. (False) . The intersection of a line and a plane must
be a point.
b. (True). If the intersection of two planes is not the
empty set then the intersection is a line.
c. (True). A great many different planes may contain a
certain pair of points.
d. (True) . If two different lines intersect, one and only
one plane contains both lines.
e. (False) . Skew lines are lines that do not intersect.
8. Multiple Choice* (Use drawing at the right.)
a. AB is the intersection of
1. CB and BD
2. AC and AD
3. plane ABC and plane ABD
4. A and BC
-108-
Points C, B, and D lie In

1. plane ABC
2. plane ABD
3. CB
4. none of these.
Plane ABD f| AB is
1. Point B
2. Point A
3. AD
AC f| AD is
1. AB
2. Point B
3. plane ABC and plane ABD
4. point A
AC 0 BD is
1. plane ABC
2. the empty set

3. plane ABD
4. none of these.
Chapter 5
FACTORING AND PRIMES
5-1. Building Blocks of Arithmetic.

The
It is anticipated that this chapter will take 16-18 days.
A less able class may need more time and a more able class may
make faster progress; but it is important not to push pupils
faster than they can accept the material.
There is an opportunity here for the teacher to point out
that certain similarities and differences exist in the operations
of addition and multiplication of natural numbers. Both have
the commutative and associative properties but the distributive
property applies only to multiplication over addition. Addition
is not distributive over multiplication. The point made in the
text is that the counting numbers may be built by using 1 and
addition. They cannot be built by using 1 (or any other counting
number) and multiplication.
construct the counting numbers by addition and 1, we
To
start with 1 and add 1 as follows: 1+1=2 and 2+1=3,
and 3 + In multiplication 1.1=1 and
1 = 4, and so on.
this product multiplied by 1 is still 1 so that we cannot build
the next counting number. The reason for this is that 1 is the
identity element in multiplication. Note that zero is the
identity element in addition and we cannot use zero and addition
to build the counting numbers. Also if we use 2 and multipli
cation, we have 2 • 2=4, and 4 . 2=8, and 8 . 2 = 16.
We thus build some of the numbers but not all of them.
If the example for Exercises 5-1 is not enough, try addi
tional * and 38 = 2 • 19;
ones as 28 13
*= 7(no); 29 (no).
•
Itmay be necessary to emphasize that the factors must each be

smaller than the product. This excludes the response:
13 = 1 • 13,
In these exercises or
a response may be 12 = 2 • 6
12 = 6 . 2. The commutative property of addition may again be

called to the attention of the pupils. Also, there may be
pages 149-151 -ll0- 5_1? 5_2
different possible choices of factors as in 12 = 4 . 3 or
.
6 2.
Answers to Exerc :ises 5=1
1. 6-2; 3
• 4 10. 2 • 21; 3 • 14; 6 •
7
2. 2 •
18; 3
•
12; ll. 2 •
28; 4 • 14; 7
• 8
4 •
9; 6 • 6
3. no 12. no
4. no 13. 2 •
4i
.
5. 2 • 4 14. 5 19
6. no 15. no
7. 7-5 16. 2 •
42; 3 • 28; 4 • 2
6 •
14; 7 •
12
8. no 17. 3 •
29
9. 3-13 18. no
5-2. Multiples •
If the question arises, a number is a multiple of itself,

so that 6 is a multiple of 6 since 6*1 = 6. Zero is a_
multiple of every counting since 0 0 where n number, n • =
is any counting number. In the sieve to be made later, the

first number in a collection of multiples is circled. These
numbers are multiples but they are prime because they are not
multiples of smaller numbers different from one. All numbers
are multiples of one.
1-9. Any three multiples for each number are acceptable.

10. 1 (2) 3 K 5 $ 7 H 9 16 ll 12 13 lA 15 tf
17 l^ 19 36
ll. 4 8 10 14 16
yt>
1 2 (3) 5 ^ 7 $ 1 13
1^
}/6
17 19 20
5-2, 5-3 -llll- page 151
12. 13, 26, 39, 52, 65, 78, 91
13. 1 © 4o
@ 84 19 ^7 (63) 127 (252) 25
35 36 273 48 105
14. SSS Is a multiple of llll.

Ill = 3 •
37
The only two digit multiples
of 37 are 37 and 74,
hence E must be either 4 or 7.
If E = 4 then consider the products
(14)(74), (24)(74), (34)(74) etc.
However (l4)(74) > 1000, hence all products ( )(74) > 1000
and E cannot be 4.
If E = 7 consider the products
(17) (37) = 629
(27) (37) = 999.
W=2, M=3, E=7, S = 9
and the answer is

27
-31
999
5-2 may be supplemented and more multiples asked

Exercises for
if the pupils appear to need more practice with multiplication
facts. Here is a disguised opportunity for drill on these facts.
5-3 . Primes.
In "sieve of Eratosthenes", which should be a class
making the
exercise, the pupils have the opportunity to discover the set of
prime numbers less than 100. At the same time they are learning
to use the word "multiple". It will save class time for the
teacher to have prepared on ditto sheets the numbers from 1 to
100 arranged in columns of 10. In view of the questions follow
ing "Problem 15 of Exercises 5-3a, the numbers from 100 to 200 could
be included on the sheet. It would be wise to separate the two
sets of numbers. The word "sieve" has been used because all the
numbers that are not prime numbers, except the number one, are
sifted out and prime numbers remain. It should be stressed that
the number one Is a special number that is neither prime nor a
multiple of a prime number. The number two is the only even
page 152 -ll2- 5-3
number that is a prime number. The sifting process is complete
after the multiples of 7 are crossed out. The reason for this
is that 7 is the largest prime less than the square root of 100-
If the pupils ask for an explanation, the following is sug
gested. If the sum of two terms is n, it is not possible that
both terms are greater In the same way, if the product
than 75-.
of two factors is n, it is not possible that both factors are

greater than yn". Consequently, if we are searching for factors
of a whole number n, and find that there are none which are less
than J~n, then we may be sure that n is prime. Hence, all
numbers less than 100 which have no factor less than 10 are
prime since for all such numbers n, -fr\ < 10.
Possible explanations for not circling 1 in the list of
numbers include the statement that if 1 were circled and
may
all the rest of its multiples were crossed out, no numbers would
remain. Actually the decision to exclude 1 from the primes is
arbitrary. Some writers include It and later in theorems where
It does not apply, (as in unique factorization) specifically
speak of all primes except 1.
to 100
* *
Numbers 1
^ © # y) v*
frr &f gk & & © jser #r i*

J* © 7^ V5 3% VC & © W
$£ 9V s* 9& &r @ $& 99 yxs

5-3 -ll3- pages 152-153
Numbers 101 to 200
JL26- &2T,
X9& U9
(It Is that at least the first 6 of these exercises

suggested
should be answered in class, with discussion.)
1. The multiples of ll
were all crossed out in advance except
for ll itself.
2. The multiples of finished the crossing out process.
7
3. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 4l, 43, 47, 53,
59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97.
4. 25.
5. 15.
6. All numbers would be crossed out.
7. 10, 20, 30, 4o, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100.
8. 7, l4, 21, 28, 35, 42, hg.
9. 33, 36, 39, 42, 45, 48, 51, 54, 57.
10. 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90.
ll. a. 8
b. 3 and 5, 5 and 7, ll and 13, 17 and 19, 29 and 31,

4l and 43, 59 and 6l, 71 and 73.
12. Yes. 3, 5, 7.
13. a, b, c.
t©®4©6©8
g) @ Q 14 16 18
-^
10
20.
© 12
pages 153-15* -ll*- 5-3
d. Yes. 2.
*1*. 3, 5, 7, ll, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29.
*15. a. 8 is a multiple of 2.
b. 7 •
7 is *9, but ll • ll is (The largest prime
121.
less than VlOO is 7. See explanation under 5-3 Primes.)
questions following Problem 15 of Exercises 5-3a are

The
still more difficult and are not intended for all pupils. Some
pupils, however, may wish to continue the sieve for numbers from
101 to 200. Such work should be entirely voluntary.
There are 21 prime numbers in the set of numbers from 101
to 200. The primes are 101, 103, 107, 109, ll3, 127, 131, 137,
139, 1*9, 151, 157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191, 193, 197, 199.
Twin primes are 101 and 103; 107 and 109; 137 and 139;
l4g and 15I; 179 and l8l; 191 and 193; 197 and 199.
There are no prime triplets except 3, 5, 7 because every
third odd number after 3 is a multiple of 3.
If your pupils are curious about primes, they may be
interested in some of the unanswered questions which have been
raised. Primes seem to increase in an irregular and mysterious
way. Mathematicians have searched for years for laws about the
distribution of primes. In his book on geometry, Tuclid proved
that the series of primes never comes to an end. No matter
how big a counting number you choose, there is a prime larger
than that number.
Here is the simplest proof that there is no largest prime
number .
Let p be a prime number. Let N be the product of all

prime numbers from 2 to p.
N = 2 • 3 • 5 • 7 • ll • 13 • . . . • p.
Look at N + 1.
N + 1 = (2 • 3 • 5 . 7 •
ll . 13 •
... • p) + 1.
This number leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by any of
the prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, ll, 13, ..., p. Hence N + 1
is not divisible by any of these primes. If N + 1 can be

factored into prime factors then each of its prime factors is
5-3 -ll5- page 154
greater than p. On the other hand If N + 1 is a prime, then

it is a prime greater than p_. Thus, we have shown a method for
constructing a prime greater than any given prime.
Examples are
2 •3+1 = 7 prime
2 •
3 •
5+1-31 prime
2 ••
3 •
5
•
7 + 1 - 2ll prime
2 -•
3 •'
5
•
7 •ll + 1 = 23ll prime
3 •-
5
-•
7 •11 •13 + 1 = 30031 = 59-509
Euclid proved that there are in the series of primes as

large gaps as you please. For example, let "N" be an abbre
viation for the number:
N - 1 •
2 •
3 • 4 ,
...* 101,
obtained by multiplying all the counting numbers from 1 to 101.
In ordinary decimal notation, N is a number of about 150 digits.
Then none of the numbers
N + 2, N + 3, ..., N + 101
is a prime. For example N + 2 is a multiple of 2 since
1 . 2 ...«101 + 1).
•
3 •
... .101 + 2 = 2(1 • 3 • 4-
N + 3 is a multiple of 3, etc. Here are 100 consecutive counting
numbers which are not primes. So we have found a gap of at
least 100 in the series of primes.
In his investigation of the large gaps in the series of
primes, the Russian mathematician, Chebyshev, proved that between
any counting number and its double, there is at least one prime.
In mathematical language, if n is any counting number, then
there is a prime p for which
n £ p £ 2 • n
This is a way of stating that there cannot be too large a gap
between any prime and the next prime.
It is unknown whether there is a prime between any two
consecutive squares. As far as anyone has calculated, the
sequence of squares:
l2 =1, 22 = k, 32 = 9, 16, 25, 36, ...

pages 154.155 -1l6- 5_3
we found at least one prime between any two consec
have always
utive squares. No one has ever proved that this is always true,
and no one has found two squares between which there is no prime.
small gaps In the series of primes are also mysterious.
The
After the prime, 3, the smallest possible gap is 2.
On studying tables of primes, we find that the twin primes
become increasingly rare. The unsolved problem is: Do the
twin primes become so rare that beyond a certain number there are
no more twin primes? The other possibility is that no matter
how large a number we choose, we can always find twin primes
larger than this number.
The primes are the building blocks of the system of counting
numbers when we of multiplication, and the idea
use the operation
of "prime number" comes from the operation of multiplication.
Some of the most fascinating problems arise when we try to relate
primes to the operation of addition.
In 1742 (?) the mathematician, Goldbach, wrote to the
great Swiss mathematician, Euler. He had noticed that every
even number from 4 on seems to be the sum of two primes.
For example,
4=2+2, 6=3+3, 8 = 3+5 10 =5+5
20 = 7 + 13, 32 = etc.
13 + 19, 64 = 3 + 6l,
Goldbach wrote that he had not been able to find an even
number greater than 2 which is not the sum of two primes. He
asked Euler whether it is
true that every even number greater
than 2 is the sum of two primes. Neither Euler, not any other
mathematician up to now, has been able to prove or disprove
this statement.
1. 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96.

2. Number Twin Primes contained in this sieve Numbgr
of Twln
— Primes
a .1-16 (3,5), (5,7), (ll,13) 3
17 - 32 (17, 19), (29, 31) 2
33 - 48 (4l, 43) l
49 - 64 (59, 61) l
5-3, 5-4 -ll7- pages 155-156
2. (continued )
Number Twin Primes contained in this si eve Number of Twin

Primes
65 - 80 (71, 73) 1
81 - 96 none 0
97 - ll2 (101, 103), (107, 109) 2
113 - 128 none 0
b. Since there are series of numbers where there are no

primes we might think primes occur less often as the
series become larger.
3. A difference of 1 means that one of the primes must be even.
The only even prime is 2.
4. All other even numbers are multiples of 2.
5. (23, 29), (31, 37), (*7, 53), (53, 59), (61, 67), (73, 79),
(83, 89).
6. (89, 97) The largest difference is 8.
7. a. 5+7
b. 7 + 7, ll + 3
c. 13+3, ll+5
d. 3+^7, 7 + ^3, 13 + 37, 19 + 31
e. 73+3, 5 + 71, 17 + 59, 23 + 53
f . ll + 83, 89 +5, 83 + ll, 23 + 71
8. l8l. The sequence consists of the prime numbers that end
with the digit 1.
5-4. Factors.
The purposes of this section are to develop understandings
of the terms "factor," "complete factorization," and "composite
number.11 The unique factorization property is discussed, and
the property should be understood even if its name is difficult.
The pupils may prefer to say that
matter how the factors of no
a number are found, the same set of factors always occurs in the
complete factorization of a number. The order may differ but the

factors will be the same.
pages 156-158 -ll8- 5_4
matter of interest, the unique factorization property
As a
is usually referred to as the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic .

Notice that the definition of factor includes zero. Also,
zero has factors (of which one must always be zero). Problem 4
of Exercises 5-4a serves as a basis of discussion of zero. So
does Problem 5 of Exercises 5-4c.
In the explanation leading to the definition of a composite
number the expression "2 distinct factors" is often used. For
our readers we choose to use the word "different" to emphasize the
requirement that the factors are not alike.
As the pupils write the factors in different order, oppor
tunity arises to show how the commutative and associative prop
erties of multiplication are used to re-arrange the factors. In
the complete factorization for a prime number like 17, only one
factor is written. We do not write 17 • 1 since 1 is not a
prime number.
It is
not mandatory that pupils use exponents. They should
be encouraged to use them, however, wherever it is reasonable
to do so.

a . 5 • 3
b. 7 • 2
c. ll . 3
d. 16 •2 or 8 • 4
e. 21 •2 or 7
• 6 or 3 •
1^
f. 9
. 6 or 27 • 2 or 3-18
g. 13 • 1
h. 1 • 1
I. 0 •
any number
2. a . (1, 2, 5, 10}
b. (1, 3D
c. (1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}
d. (1, 3, 7, 21}
e. (1, 7, ll, 77}
f. (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}
g. (1, 13}
5-4 -ll9- pages 158-161
h. (1, 3, 9)
3. 13, 31
4. zero
5. a. 1, 2, 5, 30 c. 1
b. 3 d. 2, 3, 6
6. a. 5 e. 1 1. 13
b. 8 f. any number J. 17
c. 30 g. 2 k. 18
d. 0 h. 2 1. 2
Answers to Oral Exercises 5- ^b

a. 2 has factors 1, 2
b. 9 has factors 1, 3, 9
c. 26 has factors 1, 2, 13, 26

d. 6l has factors 1, 6l
e. 133 has factors 1, 7, 19, 133
f. 97 has factors 1, 97
g. 52 has factors 1, 2, 4, 13, 26, 52
h. 79 has factors 1, 79.
9, 26, 133, and 52 have more than two different factors,
26 = 2 •
13
133 = 7 •
19
52 = 2 • 26 or 4-13
1. a. Complete d. Complete
b. Not complete > e. Complete
c. Not complete s f. Not complete
2. a. composite e. composite
b . prime f . composite
c. composite g. prime
d. composite
3.
pages 161-162 -120- 5.4,5-5
d. 2 •
32
e. 33
f. 3 • 23
4. a. 26-1, 13-2
b. 38-1, 19
• 2
c. 36-1, 18 • 2, 12-3, 9
•
4, 6-6
d. 68 • 1, 34 . 2, 17 • 4
e. 81-1, 27-3, 9*9

f. 100 • 1, 50 • 2, 25 -4, 20 • 5, 10 •
10
5. a. No, zero is factor of 6 since there is not a

not a
number which, when multiplied by zero, gives a product

of 6;
b. Yes, 6 is a factor of zero since the product of 6 and
zero is zero. Thus, the definition is satisfied.
6. a. (1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20}

b. 20 - 2 . 2 • 5 - 22 •
5
c. 1, 4, 10, 20.
7. a. 3 - 52 d. 32 •
5
b. 26 e. 23 •
7
c 3*5-7 f.2.52
8. 2 •
21 7*6 3
• •
l4
2*3*7 7*2-3 3*2*7
There is
only one complete factorization for any counting
number, when order is discounted.
Here we can speak of another reason for saying that 1 is
not a prime number. If we had called 1 a prime, then 5 could
be expressed as a product in many different ways:
5*1,5*1*1> 5 . 1 • 1 • 1, — which are not unique
except for the order in which the factors are written.
5-5. Divisibility.
Divisibility is a property of a number. It is the number,
not the numeral, which is divisible
another number. by The
numeral is a way of writing the number. In base ten, a numeral
5"5 -121- pages 163-164
which represents an even number ends with an even number. In
base five this is not necessarily so. This is illustrated in
Problem 5 of Exercises 5- 5a .
that 24 = 8 • a also means 24 -f 8 = a is pre
The idea
sented here to begin the preparation of pupils for Chapter 6.
It is not necessary that it be stressed heavily at this time.
Casual treatment may be better. Each time it is touched upon
the meaning should become clearer.
1. No.
2. Even, since 0-5-2=0.
3 . a . even e. odd
b. even f. even
c. even g. odd
d . even h. odd
h . a . even d. odd
b. odd e. even
c . even f. even
5. a. even c. even
b. odd d. even
6. Divisibility is a property of a number.
See the discussion above.
7. Even. The number 2 • a (where a is a whole number)
is divisible since 2 is a factor.
by 2
In the development of tests for divisibility, it may be

necessary to use additional numerical examples for slower pupils.
In the text we do not give the test for divisibility by 3
as we hope the student will be able to discover it himself. The
test he should eventually find is:
A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of the digits
in its decimal numeral is a number which is divisible
by 3.
In the exercises the pupils are asked to develop tests for
divisibility by 10, 5, 9, ^, and 6.
pages 165-166 -122- 5_5
It
should be made clear that a demonstration which shows
that a rule works for several examples does not constitute a
proof that it
is true for all cases. Only one counter-example
is needed to show that a statement is not true in general.
Tests for divisibility for 7, ll, 13, for example, exist.
See Mathematics for Junior High School, Supplementary Units: Unit 3

1. a. yes d. yes
b. no e. yes
c. no f. yes
2. a. 27 d. 71
b. 30 R 2 e. 3334
c. 28 R 2 f . 484
3. 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100.
Each numeral has 0 in the ones place.
4. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65,
70, 75, 80.
Each numeral has 0 or 5 in the ones place.
5. Typical examples may be:
9 x 62= 558, 5 + 5 + 8 . 18
9 x 568 . 5ll2, 5+1+1+2=9

6. 128 -r 4 . 32; 28 = 7 • ^
413 + 4 = 103 R 1; 13 is not divisible by 4
5012 -r 4 = 1253; 12 = 3 • 4
109 * 4 . 27 R 1; 09 is not divisible by 4
7. a. @
~ ~ 3
(4)
. ~
5 9 10
©
10
10
10
10
10
10
© © ©
5-5 -123- pages 166-169
J. © © © 5 © 10
k. 2 3 4 5 9 10
1. (?) 3 4 (?) 9 ©
8. Yes, because 3 is a factor of 9.
9. a. Yes, because 2 • 3 is 6.
b. Yes, because 2 and 3 are factors of 6.
10. a. l44 b. 102 c. No. d. 504
Answers to Exercl ses 5- 5c
1. 5 ll. 6 •
19 20. 22- 52
2. 2 12. 2 •
72 21. 26
3. 7 13. 22. 32. 5 22. 37
4. 2 14. 2-3-43 23. 25 •

55
5. 3 15. 2 •
35 24. ll
•
6. 2 16. 22- 3 •
37 25. 23 53
. 26. 25
7. 3 17. 53 3
8. ll 18. 72
*
ll
9. 2 • 23 19. 32
10. 5 • 13
ll2, 2*-
3*>
•36,
2
34- 32, 210

22
27. 212, 37 2^ 52,

•
,
28. An even number of times. No.
29. 54, 64, 90, 12, 32

The second of an even number is an even number.
power
The second power of an odd number is odd.
-
72
52
(For example 25, = 49)

*30. The second power of primes: 4; [1, 2, 4), 9: fi, 3, 9),
25: (1, 5, 25), etc.
=6 7, i4;
4,
*31. 1, 2, 3; sum 1, 2, sum = 28

Typical example: 15: 1, 3, 5; sum =
9
1, 2,
4;
8: sum =
7
Thus perfect number is equal to the sum of all its factors

a
less than itself.

Note that If find the complete factorization of
we number
a
that is power of 10, the prime factors and appear to

2
a
the same powers in the factorization.

pages 169 -124- ^_g
That is 10 - 2 • 5j 100 = 102 = 22 •

52
1000 a 103 - 23 •
53, etc.
5-6. Least Common Multiple.

The purpose of this section is to develop skill and under
standing in finding multiples of several numbers and in
common
finding the least common multiple of several numbers. Pupils are
given the method of listing multiples of each in the text. The
method of using the complete factorization of each number is dis
cussed in Exercise ll. For very slow pupils the second way may
be too difficult.
It is recommended that the phrase, least common multiple,
instead of the abbreviation LCM be used in oral work. Stress
that "multiple" in this sense means "multiple of a counting
"
number.
Zero is not acceptable as a multiple here.
zero were If
allowed as a multiplier, then every number would have zero as
its least multiple since 0 • n = 0 for any number n.
Common multiples are investigated before the least common
multiple is introduced. The use of the LCM in work with fractions

again provides opportunity for drill in fundamentals. Exercises
5-6 use multiplication facts and here pupils may be asked to work
with multiples which involve multiplication facts they are un
certain of as they list multiples of 7, 8, and 9.
Notice that only the denominators of fractions are discussed.
The problem of writing different forms or changing to y£ is
-jj-
treated in Chapter and could not be developed here.

6
The method of using complete factorization is the direct

method. It may be too difficult for slower pupils. For teachers
who wish to develop it, the following examples are included.
Examples: Find the least common multiple of 12 and 18.
22
32
12 = x 18 = x
2
3
Any number which is multiple of 12 must have

2
a
as factor and also as factor.

a
a
3
5-6 -125- pages 169-171
Any number which is a multiple of 18 must have 2 as

p
a factor and also 3 as a factor.
Thus a number which is a common multiple of 12 and 18
must have among its factors all of the following:
22, 3, 2, 32
p
But a number which has factor certainly has 2 as a
2 as a
factor. Similarly, a number which has 3 2 as a factor certainly

has 3 as a factor. Thus any number which has the two factors
22 and 32 will have all four of the factors 22, 3, 2, 32. The
smallest number which has the factors 2 , and 3 is 2 x 3 » 36.
2 2
On the other hand, 2 x 3 is a multiple of 12 (which is
22 x 3) and it is also a multiple of 18 (which is 2 x 32) . It
is their least common multiple. Notice that the power of each
prime factor in the least common multiple is the larger of the
powers to which it
occurs in the two given numbers.
Summary of Method: (l) Find the complete factorization of
each number. (2) Notice which primes occur in at least one of
the factorizations. (3) For each prime noticed in (2), write
the largest power of it which occurs in any of the factorizations.
(4) Multiply all the powers written in (3); this product is the
least common multiple.
1. a. The set of multiples of 6 less than 100:
(6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 66, 72, 78,
84, 90, 96}
b. The set of multiples of 8 less than 100:
[8, 16, 24, 32, 4o, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, 88, 96}
c. The set of multiples of 9 less than 100:
(9, 18, 27, 36, 45,
63, 72, 81, 90, 99)
54,
d. The set of multiples of 12 less than 100:
(12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96}
2. a. The set of common multiples of 6 and 8 less than 100:
(24, 48, 72, 96}
b. The set of common multiples of 6 and 12 less than 100:
{12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96)
pages 171-173 -126-
5-6
The set of common multiples of 8 and 12 less than 100:
{24, 48, 72, 96)
The set of common multiples of 8 and 9 less than 100:
{72}
3. a . The least common multiple
i of 6 and 8 is 24.
b. The least common imultiple of 6 and 12 is 12.
c. The least common imultiple of 8 and 12 is 24.
d. The least common imultiple of 8 and 9 is 72.
4. a . 10 c. 30 e. 30 g. 42
b. 12 d. 12 f. 60 h. 72
5. a. 6
f . 26
b. 15 g. 77
c . 21
h. 39
d. 35
i. l43
e. 22
J. 30
6. The leas st common multiple of 3 numbers is the smallest
cou; nting number which is
of es ich of them. a mu ltiple
7. The least common multiple of iany set of numbers is the
smallest counting number which is a multiple of each number
of the set of numbers.
8. a. 6 b. 6
9. The least common multiple of a set of numbers is at least as

large as the largest number of the set.
10. a. 12 c. 20 e, 4o g. 60 i. 30
b. 8 d 18 f - 60 h. 60 J. 24
•ll. a. 48 c 45 e, ll2 g. 72 i. 660
b. 144 d 70 f, 60 h. 360 J. 720
*12. a. No. b. No.
c. No. Any multiple larger than a given multiple can be
found .
•13. a. The product of 2 counting numbers is the LCM of the

2 numbers when the 2 numbers have no common factors.
b. — when the 3 counting numbers have no common factors.
*l4. He placed 1 in the first cup, 1 in the second and 18 in the
third, said that all were odd since 18
and is an odd
number of lumps of sugar in a cup of coffee.
5"8 -127- pages 175-176
5-8. Chapter Review.
1. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11
2. (41, 43, 47, 53, 59)

3. Yes, 2
4. a. 8 = 5 + 3 b. 24 - 11 + 13
5. 2, 3; No, any other set of two consecutive numbers contains

a number divisible by two.
6. (10, 20, 30, 40, 50}
7. Yes. 2 is both a factor and a divisor. So are 5, 10,

and 1.
8. a. Composite d. Prime
b. Prime e. Composite
c. Composite f. Composite
9. a. (1, 2, 4, 8) d. {1, 19)

b. {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} e. (1, 3, 7, 21}
c. (1, 2, 4, 8, 16} f. {1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28}
10. a. {1, 2, 4} d. {1, 2, 4}

b. (1, 3} e. (1, 2, 4}
c {1} f. {1}
11. a. 5
*
7 d. 2 •
3 •
11
b. 2 •
2 or 22 e. 2 •
2 •
3 •
5 or
c. 3 •
3 •
3 or 33 22 •
3 • 5
f. 3-7*7 or 3 •
72
12. a. 2 . 3 • 13
b. 2 • 2 • 2 . 7 or23 •
7
c. 2-3-3 or 2 - 32
d. 2 •
5
*
5
*
5 or 2 •
53
e. 2 •
2 •
2 •
2 2-3 or 25 •
3
f. 2 •
5
" ll
13. a. Yes, 1; Yes, 1.
b. Yes, 3.
pages 176-178 -128- 5.8, 5.9
14. a. 100 b. 42 c. 44
15. b is a whole number, a multiple of 2, a multiple of c,

an even number, divisible by 2, divisible by c, and has
the factors 2 and c.
16. a. 2 © 4
© 6 9 10
b. © @ 4 5 © 9 10
o. © © © © © 9 ©
d.2 3 4
© 6 9 10
e. 2
© 4 5 6© 10
17. a. 36 d. 4o
b. 30 e. 24
c 16 f. 120
18. a. 2 d. 12
b. 7 e. 2
c ll f. 5
19.
20. Always.
21. Sometimes.
22. After 15 minutes they will strike together.
5-9 . Cumulative Review.

1. 20
2. a. Base 4 b. 32
3*
37eight
4. a. 21 b. 21 c. 31
5. Odd.
6. (2 x 103) + (3 x 102) + (0 x 10) +(4xl)

7. a. Division. b. Subtraction.
5~9 -129- page 178
8. a. Yes. b. No.
9. a. 8
b. Any whole number.
c. 0
lO. The associative property of multiplication says that If
we multiply three numbers, we may group them any way
we please without changing the final result.
a •
(b •
c) s (a •
b) • c
XI. a. 8 Is less than 12.

b. 34 is greater than 32.
c. 5 is larger than 3 and 3 is larger than 2.
12. a. CD
b. The empty set.

c. Many examples such as AB and CJ, GH and DK, etc.
d. Point D. ^
e. Point C.
Sample Test Questions for Chapter £

Teachers should construct their own tests, using carefully
selected items from those given here and from their own. There
are too many questions here for one test. Careful attention
should be given to difficulty of items and time required to
complete the test.
I. True-False Questions
(T) 1. Every composite number can be factored into prime
numbers in exactly one way, except for order.
(F) 2. The sum of an odd and an even number is always an
even number.
(T) 3. Some odd numbers are not primes.

-130-
(p: h. Every composite number has only two prime factors.
(p; ) 5. The number 51 is a prime .
(t: 1 6. All even numbers have the factor 2.
(p: > 7. Any multiple of a prime number is a prime.
(t; ) 8. 8 can be expressed as the sum of twin primes.
(t; ) 9. Even though has as factors only

1 itself and 1, it is
not considered a prime number.
(p;1 10. All odd numbers have the factor 3.
(p: 1 ll. No even number is a prime.
(T ) 12. The least common multiple of 3, 4, and 12 is 12.
(p; ) 13. The number one is a prime factor of all counting numbers,
(p;) 1^. The greatest common multiple of 2, 5 and 10 is 100.
(t: ) 15. The difference between any two prime numbers greater
than 100 is always an even number.
(f:) 16. The number 4l is- a composite number.
(f:) 17. A multiple of 6 must be a multiple of 18.
(F ) 18. The least common multiple of 2 and 6 is 12.
(t:) 19. The greatest common factor of any two even numbers
is at least 2.
II. Multiple Choice

20. Which of the following is an odd number?
^ 21five
^ 33seven
(c)
v ' 10-
two
(d) l8twelve
(e) None of the above 20 (a)
21. The greatest common factor of 48 and 60 is:
(a) 2x3
(b) 2x2x3
-131-
(c) 2x2x2x2x3x5
(d) 2x2x2x2x2x2x3x3x5
(e) None of the above. 21 (b)
22. Every counting number has at least the following factors:

(a) Zero and one
(b) Zero and itself
(c) One and itself
(d) Itself and two
(e) None of the above 22 (c)
23. In the complete factorization of a number
(a) All the factors are primes.
(b) All the factors are composites.
(c) All the factors are composite except for the factor 1.
(d) All the factors are prime except for the factor 1.
(e) None of the above 23 (a)
2^. How many different prime factors does the number 72 have?
(a) 0
(b) 1
(c) 2
(d) 3
(e) None of the above 2^ (c)

25. The least common multiple of 8, 12, and 20 is:
(a) 2x2
(b) 2x3x5
(c) 2x2x2x3x5
(d) 2x2x2x2x2x2x3x5
(e) None of the above 25 (c)
26. Which of the following is an even number?
^ (10°)three
(b) (100We
(c) <100>seven
(d) <10°)twelve
(e) None of the above 26 (d)
-132-
27. Which of the following numbers is odd?

(a) 17 x 18
(b) 18 x ll
(c) ll x 20
(d) 99 x 77
(e) None of the above. 27 (d)
28. Which of the following is not a prime number? There is

only one.
(a) 271 (d) 282
(b) 277 (e) 283
(c) 281 28 (d)
29. Let represent an odd number, and b represent an

a
even number; then a + b must represent
(a) an even number. (d) a composite number.
(b) a prime number. (d) None of these.
(c) an odd number. 29 (c)
30. If nrepresents an odd number, the next odd number can
be represented by
(a) n + 1 (d) 2 x n
(b) n + 2 (e) None of these
(c) n + 3 30 (b)
31. A counting number is an even number if it has the factor:

(a) 5 (d) 1
(b) 3 (e) None of these.

(c) 2 31 (c)
32. Which of the following sets contains only even numbers?
(a) (2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10} (d) (2, 4, 10}
(b) (2, 5, 10} (e) {3, 9}
(c) (3, 5, 9} 32 (d)
33. Which of the following is a prime number?
(a) 4 (d) 33
(b) 7 (e) None of these.

(c) 9 33 (b)
-133-
34. Which of the following is not a factor of 24?

(a) 2 (d) 9
(b) 3 (e) 12
(c) 4 34 (d)
35. Which of the following is the complete factorization of 36?

(a) 4x9 (d) 2 x 18
(b) 2 x 3 x 6 (e) 2 x 2 x 3 X 3
(c) 3 x 12 35 (e)
36. The numbers 8, 9, l6, 20, 27, and 72 are all
(a) prime numbers. (d) composite numbers.
(b) even numbers. (e) none of these.
(c) odd numbers. 36 (d)
37. How many multiples of 4 are there between 25 and 50?

(a) 5 (d) ll
(b) 7 (e) none of these
(c) 9 37 (3)
38. If a whole number has 6 as a factor, then it also has the

following factors:
(a) 2 and 3 (d) all multiples of 6
(b) 2+3 (e) none of these

(c) 12 38 (a)
39. Suppose p and q are counting numbers and q is a
factor of p; then:
(a) q is a multiple of p.
(b) p is a multiple of q.
(c) q must be a prime number.
(d) the greatest common factor of p and q must be
less than q.
(e) none of these. 39 (b)
40. The greatest common factor of 60 and 42 is

(a) 2 x 3 (d) 2 x 3 x 7
(b) 2x2x3 (e) none of these
(c) 2x3x5 4o (a)
-134-
41. The product of two factors must be

(a) a composite number.
(b) a prime number.
(c) smaller than one of the numbers.
(d) smaller than both of the numbers.
(e) none of these. 4l (a)
42. The least common multiple of two numbers is always:

(a) their product.
(b) the product of their factors.
(c) the sum of their factors.
(d) the sum of the numbers.
(e) none of these 42 (e)
43. Which of the following statements describes a prime number?

(a) a number which is a factor of a counting number?
(b) a number which has no factors.
(c) a not have 2 as a factor.
number which does
(d) a number which has exactly 2 different factors.
(e) none of these. 43 (d)
44. How many prime numbers are there between 20 and 4o?
(a) 4 (d) 9
(b) 5 (e) none of these.

(c) 8 44 (a)
45. When two prime numbers are added, the sum is
(a) always an odd number.
(b) always an even number.
(c) always a composite number.
(d) always a prime number.
(e) none of these. 45 (e)
46. The set of factors of the number 12 is
(a) (1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 12} (d) {2, 3, 4, 6, 12}
(b) {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} (e) none of these.
(c) (1, 2, 3, 4, 6} 46 (b)
-135-
47. How many different factorizations of two factors each
does 75 have?
(a) 2 (d) 5

(c) 4 47 (b)
48. The number of factors in the complete factorization of

82 is
(a) 2 (d) 5

(c) 4 48 (a)
III. Problems
^9. Find the complete factorization of each number.

(a) 16 2k
(b) 100 22 x 52
(c) 57 3 x 19
50. Find the greatest common factor of each set of numbers.

(a) 5 and 25 5
(b) 18 and 27 9
(c) 60, 36 and 24 12
51. Find the least common multiple of each set of numbers.

(a) 6 and 8 24
(b) 7 and 9 63
(c) 16, 12 and 6 48
52. Find the smallest number which has a factorization composed

of 3 composite numbers. 0
64 = 43.
53. Show that a product is even if one (or more) of its
factors is even.
54. Is the set of even numbers closed under addition? Show
that your answer Is correct.
Yes.
55. If the complete factorization of a number is 2 x 3 x 5,
what factors less than 20 does the number have?
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15.
-136-
56. Find all the common multiples less than 100 of these
three numbers: 3, 6, 9.
18, 36, 5^, 72, 90.
57. Write all the factorizations of two factors for the

number 50.
1 x 50, 2 x 25, 5 X 10.
-2 SCHOOL
MATHEMATICS
STUDY GROUP
SCHOOL MATHEMATICS
VOLUME I (Part 2)
(revised edition)
U U L7
THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN LIBRARIES

Mathamatirs
t.O.
(

MATHEMATICS
Volume I (Part 2)
(revised edition)
Mildred KeifFer, Cincinnati Board of Education

PHOTOLITHOPRINTED BY CUSHING- MALLOY, INC-

ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN-UNITEDSTATES OFAMERICA
Copyright 1961 by Stanford University-
CONTENTS
Chapter
6. RATIONAL NUMBERS AND FRACTIONS 137
6-2. Dividing Whole Numbers l4o
6-3. The Invention of the Rational Numbers . . . l4l
6-4. Fractions and Rational Numbers l43
6-5. The Meaning of Division 1^7
6-6. Rational Numbers in General 1^9
6-7. Properties of Operations with Rational
6-8.
6-9.
Numbers
Multiplication of Rational
Simplifying Fractions
Numbers .... 152
153
157
6-10. Multiplication of Rational Numbers by
Whole Numbers 159
6-ll. Division of Rational Numbers . lol
6-12. Reciprocals 164
6-13. The Division Rule and Reciprocals 166
6-14.
and Addition of Rational Numbers 167
6-15.
6-16. Subtraction of Rational Numbers 169
Sample Test Questions 172
7. NON-METRIC GEOMETRY II 177

7-1. Segments 177
7-2. Separations 179
7-3. Angles and Triangles 182
7-4. One-to-One Correspondence 185
7-5. Simple Closed Curves 189
Answers to Cumulative Review 193
8. RATIONAL NUMBERS AND THE NUMBER LINE 199

8-1. The Number Line 199
8-2. Locating Rational Numbers on the Number
8-3.
8-4.
Line
Comparing Rational Numbers
Operations on the Number Line with
... 203
206
Rational Numbers 212

8-5. Mixed Numbers 217
8-6. Complex Fractions . . < 218
8-7. Review 220
8-9. Answers to Cumulative Review . 222
Chapter
9. DECIMALS 227
9-1. Decimal Notation 227
9-3. Expressing a Rational Number in
Decimal Form 230
9-4. Arithmetic Operations with Decimals 235
9-5. Rounding Decimal Numerals 237
Sample Test Questions 2^0
10. RATIO AND PERCENT 2^3

10-1. Ratio 2^3
10-2. Proportion 246
10-3. Percent 248
10-4. Ratio as a Percent, a Decimal, a Fraction . . 252
10-5. Applications of Percent 256
Chapter 6
RATIONAL NUMBERS AND FRACTIONS
students have reached the Seventh Grade level

By the time
they have acquired reasonable facility in performing the funda
mental operation with fractions. The rationale for these opera
tions is generally developed through the daily experiences of the
students. On the elementary level, such development provides the
teacher with a concrete base for helping the student to discover
the conceptual foundations which underlie the algorithms used.
Ideally, the student enters the junior high school with adequate
competence in performing the fundamental operations with fractions.
The logical basis for the operations are generalizations formed
by observations of concrete experiences.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide for the extension
of the number system from the counting numbers to the rational
numbers. At this stage, however, the point of view becomes more
abstract. The need for the invention of the rationals is pre
sented in terms of the failure of closure of the counting numbers
under division. Once the need for the creation of a system of
rational numbers is established the student is led to conclude
that rules for operation with these numbers are necessary if
these numbers are to become a functioning part of the number
system. It is assumed that these rules are, in general, known
by the students. However, in this chapter, the abstract theory
upon which these rules rest is carefully developed. The student
learns, for example, that the rule for multiplying fractions is
not an arbitrary rule, but is, in fact the only rule which is
consistent with the preservation of the properties of multipli
cation.
The premise on which this approach is based is that, having
once seen that there are reasons for operating with fractions
as we do, the student will perform these operations
with greater
confidence and better understanding even after the exact nature
of the reasons has been forgotten. It is hoped that, having
been exposed to this treatment, the student will feel that
-138-
mathematics has a logical foundation and is not just a collection

of mystical rules to be accepted on blind faith but not to be
understood. This feeling can be established by the mere fact
that the explanations are true even though some students may
barely understand them. It is believed that this pedagogical
principle has as much validity for the less gifted academically
as for those with considerable native ability in mathematics.
The outline below is a summary of the way in which these
ideas are developed.
SECTION 1 -
student is oriented to the approach that
The
the purpose of the chapter is to understand why the rules of
operation with fractions work as they do.
SECTION 2 - It is shown that the set of counting numbers is
not closed under division.
SECTION 3 - The rational numbers are invented.
SECTION 4 - distinction
The between rational numbers and
their names, fractions, is made.
SECTION- The meaning of division as the inverse of
5
multiplication is explained.
SECTION 6 - A more usable form of the definition of rational
number is given.
SECTION 7 - It is explained that if the operations of
multiplication and addition are to be extended to operate on the
rational numbers then this extension must be made in such a way
as to preserve the characteristic properties of these operations.
The characteristic properties of multiplication and addition are
reviewed .
SECTION 8 - Product Rule is stated and applied. The

The
reason why the multiplication of rational numbers must follow
the Product Rule is shown.
SECTION 9 -
Multiplication Property of 1 is used as the
The
basis for changing the form of a rational number.
SECTION 10 - The special case of the multiplication of two
rational numbers where one of these numbers is a whole number is
treated This is applied to
. a type of problem whicn occurs
frequently.
-139-
SECTION 11 - It is shown that, since division is the inverse

operation of multiplication, the division process may be treated
from the point of view of multiplication. A Division Rule is
stated and applied.
SECTION 12 - The reciprocal is introduced and defined.
SECTION 13 - The Division Rule Is restated in terms of
the reciprocal.
SECTION l4 - It is shown that the retention of the Distribu
tive Property It
necessary to add rational numbers as we
makes
do. The First Addition Rule is stated.
SECTION 15 - The addition of rational numbers with different
denominators is treated. This leads to the Second Addition Rule.
SECTION 16 - Subtraction of rational numbers Is treated as
the inverse operation of addition. Two subtraction rules are
stated.
The points at which the greatest difficulties are to be
expected are Sections 5> 6, and 7. In Section 5 and 6 it is
explained that
b • x ■ a
means the same thing as
x = a -r b
This idea is very important in this development of the rational

numbers and is stressed in many problems both before and after
this section. These problems will very likely seem quite repe
titious but, for many students, a great many problems will be
needed to drive home the Idea so that when It is used in a
rather complicated setting in Section 8 the student will be
on familiar ground.
In Section 7 the need for preserving the properties of the
arithmetical operations extending them to operate on the
when
rational numbers is supported by an analogy. It is hoped that
the students will find this analogy convincing. The idea is
fundamental to the rest of the chapter.
In Section 8 it is shown how the formula
a - £ " a- c
b d b-d
pages 179-181 -140- 6-2
is an inescapable consequence of the properties of multiplication-

The argument has been simplified as much as possible but is it
still rather long. Some students will
able to follow this be
development only in a general way.
The teacher should be satis
fied if students grasp the main points. The class must not get
bogged down on details. This will tend to destroy the desired
effect - a comprehension of the extension of the number system
to include rational numbers and the need for defining the opera
tions as we do if the commutative, associative, and distributive
properties are to be retained. If the students can follow this
argument then they should not have too much difficulty with the
similar arguments in Section 6-8.
6-2. Dividing Whole Numbers
issue in this section is the realization of the

The main
fact that the counting numbers are not closed under division.

1. J_ 4 6
1 2 3 5 7
1 1 no no no no no no
2 2 1 no no no no no
3 3 no 1 no no no no
k 4 2 no 1 no no no
5 5 no no no 1 no no
6 6 3 2 no no 1 no
7 7 no no no no no 1
2. a. 26 e. 19
b. 15 f. 18
c. 3 g. 3367
d . 18107 h. 3367 R 1
The teacher should emphasize in part h. that, since the

counting numbers are not closed under division, we do not
6-2, 6-3 -1*1- pages 181-182
always get a counting number as an answer.

3. 18 bars, 6 bars, . He could not have shared the bars equally
unless he broke two of them into smaller pieces. 18 t I
has no solution in the set of whole numbers.
4. a. This problem is solved by dividing 16 by 2. There

are 8 boys on each team,
b. Again you may start by dividing 17 by 2. You would
not say that the answer is -?f- or &*- boys on each
team. (This answer would be rather unsatisfactory
especially for one of the boys.)
The problem has no answer since the counting numbers
are not closed under division. You do not need to extend
the number system to answer questions like this because
boys have the property of always occurring in whole
number quantities.
Contrast this problem with problem 3 where the
chocolate bars could be divided.
6-3 . The Invention of the Rational Numbers
for numbers other than the whole numbers is em

The need
phasized in this section. This need arises when we wish our
numbers to serve not only for the purpose of counting but also
for the purpose of measuring. This need is established in the
example in which a woman wants to divide 100 inches of ribbon
equally among her three daughters. She can fold the ribbon and
cut it into three pieces of equal length, but if she is restrict
ed to the whole numbers then she has no number with which to
describe this length although its plysical existence is apparent.
This dilemma is met by inventing a new number which is the result
of dividing 100 by 3. Thus, the extension of the number system
is motivated.
The teacher should realize that the numbers referred to in
this book as the rational numbers are really only the non-
negative rational numbers. Since negative numbers are not
pages 181-182 -142- 6-3
mentioned in this book until Chapter l6 it was not considered

wise to call our numbers the non-negative rational numbers.
The student may be interested to know that he has already
seen once before an extension of the number system i. e.,when
the set of whole numbers was obtained by the adjunction of the
number 0 to the set of counting numbers. He may further be
interested in knowing that after three more extensions (which
he will see in later years) the number system will be complete
for all mathematical purposes. The hierarchy of extensions of
the number system is given below:
Counting numbers
Whole numbers
Non-negative rational numbers
Rational numbers
Real numbers
Complex numbers
Three more times in his mathematical experience the student will

witness the invention of new numbers, namely:
(1) When the negative rational numbers are adjoined to the
non-negative rational numbers to obtain the rational numbers so
as to make the number system closed under the operation of
subtraction.
(2) When the irrational are adjoined to the rational
numbers
numbers to obtain the set of real numbers so as to make the num
ber system closed under the operation of taking limits.
(3) When the imaginary numbers are adjoined to the set of
real numbers to obtain the complex number so as to make the
number system closed under the operation of taking square roots.
In this section the non-negative rational numbers were
adjoined to the whole numbers so as to make the number system
closed under division (except by 0). Viewed not Just as part
of the seventh grade course but as part of one's complete math
ematical experience the presentation in this chapter should help
the student to appreciate and understand the logical and system
atic development of the number system.
6-3, 6-4 -143- pages 182-183
1. 250 miles
2. 233i miles
3. 500 miles
4. a. 64 d. 89 g. 91
b. 55 e. 91 h. Ill
c 54 f. 77 i. 77
5. About 156
6. 225
6-4.- Fractions and Rational Numbers
Fractions are names for rational numbers. Fractions are not

the numbers themselves. Fractions are symbols that we see written
on the paper. Rational numbers are abstract mathematical entities
that we cannot see. In a similar way love and hate are abstract
concepts. If
is important in this book to make a careful dis
tinction their names. It is especially im
between numbers and
portant to distinguish between rational numbers and fractions.
Failure to distinguish between things and their names
sometimes Consider the two sentences:
causes confusion.
Kennedy is the president of the United States.
Kennedy addressed the convention.
If in the second sentence we replace the word "Kennedy" by the
words "the president of the United States" we obtain:
The president of the United States addressed the
convention.
This sentence conveys the same meaning as the second sentence
above. No confusion arises.
Now consider the sentences:
John is a four letter work.

John walked down the street.
If, in the second sentence, we replace the word "John" by the
pages 183-184 _l44_ 6.4
words four letter word" we obtain:
"a
A four letter word walked down the street.
This, obviously, does not convey the same meaning as the second
sentence above. What causes this confusion? What happens here
that didn't happen in the first pair of sentences? The answer
is that in the sentence,
John is a four letter word,
we were talking about the name of a man, while in the sentence,
John walked down the street,

we were talking about the man himself. In one case we were talk
ing about a living, breathing,being; in the other
walking human
case we were talking about marks on a sheet of paper.
Mathematicians have a way of avoiding such confusion. When
they are talking about the name itself they put it inside quota
tion marks. They would write the first sentence in the above
pair as
"John" is
four letter word. a
In this sentence we are talking about the actual pencil scratches

that appear between the quotation marks. To a certain extent
this policy is adopted in this book. We say that the numbers
•x and "jr are the same, but the fractions "4" and 'V" are
not the same. avoid excessive use of quotation marks, we
To
restrict our use of them to cases in which confusion is likely to
arise without them. Moreover we seldom use quotation marks when
the fractions appear on display lines or when we specifically say
that we are talking about the fractions (or names) and not about
the numbers themselves. Students should not be required to learn
how to use quotation marks in this way, but if they inquire about
their use in the text then the teacher may give as much explana
tion as seems appropriate.
The word "express" is frequently used with the meaning
"give a name for." For example, if we were to say "divide 6
by 2" we would expect the answer 3, but if we were to say
"divide 6 by 2 and express the answer as a fraction" then
we would expect the answer
^
or y or even -jp but not 3.
To indicate the way in which fractions are used the following
6-^ -1*5- pages 183-184
discussion will be helpful. There are some who may adopt the
point of view that 5+2 is an indicated sum which is not yet
performed and that
5+2 = 7
means that 7 is the answer to the problem. In this book the
attitude is taken that 5+2 is a number and that
5+2 = 7
means that 5+2 and 7 are the same number, or in other words
"5 + 2" and "7" are different numerals for the same number.
If the question is asked, "what is the sum of 5 and 2?", then
5+2
is a correct answer to the question. What is really desired
when such a question is asked is
that the answer should be ex
pressed in
certain form.
a The ordinary way of expressing num
bers in the decimal notation constitutes what mathematicians call
a "canonical" form. This means that every member of a certain
set (in this case, the whole numbers) can be expressed in this
form and in only one way. Thus,
5 + -2, 4p 19 - 12, 7, 22 + 3,
12flve
are all names for the same whole number, but of these names,
"7" is the one and only way of expressing this number in the
ordinary decimal notation. Therefore "7" is the canonical
form for this number. Similarly the fractions in simplest form
are canonical forms for the rational numbers. That is
6 0 3 215. 3 2-5
are all names for the same number, but 'V is the one and only
way of expressing this number as a fraction in simplest form.
Therefore V" is the canonical form for this number. This
terminology is never introduced in the text but it will be help
ful to explain it to the teacher because this is the kind of
thing we are doing.
Similarly the equation
2
3
. 7
5
" li
15
page 185 -146- 6-4
can be interpreted:
"— • £" and "~"
3 5 15
are different names for of the work in the
the same number. Much
text can then be considered as solving the problem of finding
names of a certain type for numbers. In fact problems are some-
2 7
times worded in the form: "multiply -*- by je and express the
l4 is
answer as a fraction." To such a problem -r-E then a correct
is not, because though "£"
">|"
answer but •*-••.£• and are both
fractions, \"k" is no"t fraction. fraction according to
A
a
the definition in the text is an expression of the form

b a
where and are whole numbers with not equal to zero.

b
b
a
subtle point is that "ttt1 is fraction and would get by as

A
an answer to the question posed above.

It is probably not necessary to put more stress on these
points than is done in the text. It is, however, more than likely
that the teacher will find this background helpful.
750 mi.,
1. 250 mi.
3
in., in.
f
30
60
cents, cents.
5
12
700
2. mi.
3
100
b. in.
3
43
cents
12
The questions can not be answered without fractions and
those fractions above are in simplest form, but many
pupils will give 233-w-, 33^-, 34^- as answers which,
while correct, are not in form of fraction. mixed
A
a
e-k> 6-5 -147- pages 185-186
number like 23^
3-r- is actually an indicated sura of a
counting number and a fraction 233 + -*-. This distinc

tion should be made for the student.
3. a. 37, 1, —
g— , 4?
u. o 1 , ±, kj
t o> o > W
c. 37,
"37 1,
1 0,
ft 2
, j oi
2£
,
° , l:L1 , 1 , 25 , 5
3. -3- 5£ £ |
u*
2 1ll 7
' 2£ ' £
'
3
>
3 7 10 2
10 0
e. 0 ' 0
f. 37 and <i~ ; 0 and

^
•
ai ' To ' an(
1. a. 30 d. division
b. 5 e. 3
c. 250 f . 480
2. a. 30 d. 3
b. 5 e. 480
c. 250 f. 91
3. a. 5 e. 91
b. 5 f . 77
c. 8 g. 1
d. 3 h. 0
4. division
6-5. The Meaning of Division

This short section is crucial to Section 6-6 and to all the
rest of the chapter. Though it is not put in these words, the
student is in effect asked to agree that
20-4
^°-
or
is the solution of the equation
4«x = 20.
pages 187-188 .148- 6-5
Of)
What is_ said is that 20 * 4 or, what is the same thing -j—
is the number x for which

4-x - 20.
The student has already used this fact often in checking division,
but he may never have thought of it in this way. Most of the
problems in the preceding section have been designed to anticipate
this statement.
In the next section this same statement will be made in still
another way. In that section it is stated that ^
has the
property that
34=4.
In other words, the same type of statement as the above Is made
without using a letter to represent a number. student must
The
understand this statement when he sees it expressed in either of
these two ways.
The problems underscore the one idea of this section.

1. a. 3/x s £ d. 6-x = 18
b. 2-x =
£ e. 4-x » 10
c. 3_-x =
£ f. 1-X m
J
2. a. 2 c
1
f. 7
T
21
3. a. 3_
2
e.
ry
7 or
b. 4£or 8 f .
ll
5
c. ¥ g. £
6 or
rt„ 6o
10
1
d .
ôr8 h. H
4. a. 3x = 12; x is the number of cookies each boy receives,

b. lOx m 160; x is the number of miles per gallon.
c. 30x = 20; x Is the number of bags of cement per foot.
5. a. true since 13 x 13 = 169
b. false since 16 x 17 = 272
6-5, 6-6 -149- pages 188-189
c. true since 12^ x 6 - 744

d. true since 13 x 11 - 1*K3
e. true since 151 x 101 - 15251
6. The student will find by experiment that the solution

4o
13
1 +
189
8 + 9
=
189
TF or
nrl
T
21
6-6. Rational Numbers in General
The student is finally told what
a_
b
means in general. Taken cold this definition might be quite
formidable, but it is hoped that the student will take it in his
stride following the great build-up it has been given.
The horrible example is
in for the purpose of being put
incomprehensible. It is hoped that this will provide motivation
for learning the actual definition which follows. It is hoped
if he is faced with the alternatives of understanding this gobble-
degook or of understanding what is meant when letters are used to
represent numbers then the student will choose the latter. The
teacher might point out that before men developed suitable math
ematical notation they had to express themselves very much in the
style of the horrible example. This had the effect of slowing
down progress in mathematics.
The exact wording of the definition requires some analysis.
The statement is
Definition: If a and b are whole numbers with b not equal
to 0, then
b
is the number x for which b-x - a.
What this definition does in effect is to postulate the
existence of a solution to the equation.
b-x = a
for every choice of whole numbers a and b with b not equal

to 0. It is
evident that this requirement makes our number
system larger than it was before because for example the equation
pages 189-190 .150- 6-6
4-x = 3
does not have a solution which is a whole number. Since we say

that this equation does have a solution, this solution must be
something other than a whole number.
A very important word in the definition is the word "the".
By saying "the number x for which b-x m a" we require that
there be only one number with this property. If we would permit
the possibility that there could be more than one such number we
would have written, "^
is a number x for which b-x ■ a".
This point is not taken up in the text although the fact that
there is only one such number is strongly used in the later
development. It is felt that the student will most likely not
think of the possibility that there is more than one possible
value of x. If the possibility is suggested it might cause
serious confusion. The correctness of the development in the
later sections consequently rests on the use of the word "the"
in this definition. If the question does come up the teacher
should answer it of course. Perhaps the teacher can illustrate
by observing that when we say "a Justice of the Supreme Court"
we suggest that there may be more than one Justice, but when we
say "the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court" we mean that there
is only one Chief Justice.
As was remarked in the comments on Section 6-5, the last
paragraph of this section is devoted to putting the defining
property of ^ in the form:
~ has the property that b*^
= a.
The exercises provide drill* in the use of the definition.
Answers to^ Exercises 6-6
1. a. 3-2 = 6 d. 12-ll = 132

b. 5-10 = 50 e. 19-^1 = 1729
c. 7-£ = 63 f . 35 -,56" » I960
2. a. x = 2 d. x = ll
b. x = 10 e. x = 91
c. x m 9 f . x = 56
6-6 -151- pages 190-191
- .
6
3. a. d. yr v-
i
x x (or
-5-)
3 12 2,
4
b. X~ e. 22
-t
5 19
c. f. x.^(or^)
4. a.
5-f-fi d.
3-| =
5,
b.
«.&-! e.
5-^=10
c.
9-|-6 f. l4-j|-13
5. a.
a-f-T a.
a-^-i*
b. fi-i-5 e.
2-î=
ll
-
f 9-f
c. 11 «-2-
q
=
f
3
6. In ex. - many answers are possible but encourage the

j
,
pupils to give the one which follows from the definition of

rational number.
a. d. f. *.
I7§
£
4
5
b. e. 14 17963
6
s* lo" J* 509253
c
9
if 1
h.
7. Here, many answers are possible, but insist on the following.
a-
Ji-f - e- i2-.^ =
£
b. 10-&-2- f- 1*7-0
c«
i.-| -2 s. I"i ■
J5-
d. 16-^=24 h. 62973 -g§^%- 93147
8. This can be solved in fairly systematic way.

a
times EXAM must equal MATH. can't be or larger

h
E
E
because times EXAM would be at least 5-digit number.

E
Since 2, then = 3. So and x -

E
(3
E
= = 27)
M
H
>
7
9
can't by trial and error.

4,
be 1, 2, 5,
A
But = does work. 9867 = (3289)

A
x
3
pages 191-195 -152- 6-7
6-7 # Properties of Operations with Rational Numbers
that the number system has been extended from the count
Now
ing numbers to the rational numbers and the system is pretty well
established, the time is ripe for extending the arithmetic opera
tions so as to operate on the rational numbers. The student must
be told that when these operations are so extended this extension
must be made in such a way as to preserve the commutative,
associative distributive properties, the identity properties
and
of 0 and 1 and the null property of 0 4 (0-a = a- 0 ■ 0) .
Many expert teachers feel that the students will not accept with
any conviction the bold statement that the preservation of these
properties is desirable. The need for the preservation of these
properties is consequently motivated by an analogy. It is hoped
that the student will agree if a concept is extended to have a
wider meaning than it originally had, then the extension should
be made in such a way as to preserve the properties pertaining
to this concept.
The remaining sections of this chapter are devoted to
showing how the rules of operation for fractions are consequences
of these properties and the definition of the rational numbers,
i.e., the relation
a
a. v,
bT=
The exercises in this section provide further drill in
the use of the definition in 6-6.

1. (a) and (b) have many possible answers
(c) 0 ; (d) I \ , , etc.
2. All are rational numbers.
3. a. x = ~ d. 15-TET - —
lk
15 15
b. 15-TF-
15
- 1*
-■ c'
e. 1£-t4=
^15 li
c- l£.ii-
14
15
lk
6-7. 6-8 -153- pages 195-198
4. a. x =
~2
h. x =
b. 3-2 - 6 I. 7
9-£-
J. ii.IT- 18
d.
7-f-6 k. fi-i-i
e. fi-i-s 1.
5^=1
i. x _
15
m. x = I
g •
i-J-I n.
17-^-0
5. 1. b 6. g
2. d 7. f
3. e 8. a
4. e 9. h
5. g 10. c
6-8. Multiplication of Rational Numbers
In order to focus pupil attention upon the main aim of this

section the of multiplying two fractions is presented as
method
review. It is assumed that the student is already familiar with
this process. The emphasis now is upon why the process must
follow the Product Rule.
Here we introduce a method of reasoning which is used through-
out the remainder of the chapter. If the student can master this
section, he should have little difficulty with the subsequent
sections. The teacher may therefore find it expedient to spend
a considerable time on this section. If, however, the response
of the class indicates that this section is unduly difficult the
teacher may decide to proceed although complete mastery has not
been achieved. If the students can follow the general argument
they may acquire an appreciation of the approach. For some
students this is maximum accomplishment.
The purpose of the section is to show the commutative and
pages 196-199 -15^- 6-8
associative properties of multiplication, together with the defi
nition b-~ «■ a, require that products of rational numbers be
defined in the familiar way, namely
a_ , c_ _
~
a- c
b d b*d
If ( 3 •*•)• (5-f) - 2*7>
2 7
pupils have difficulty in
seeing that
emphasize the fact that "3--*-" is
another name for 2 and that
"5c"
o
is another name for 7. The product depends upon the
numbers being multiplied and not upon the numerals used to express
these numbers.
In actual fact this rule is established only for the particu
lar example
2.1.21
7 5 3-5
The reason for establishing the result only for these particular
cases is pedagogical. It is felt
able to that the student will be
understand a statement or formula in which letters are used to rep
resent numbers and that he will be able to substitute in such a
formula. But it is not considered likely that he will be able to
manipulate with formulas involving letters.
The particular method of making the crucial demonstration was
chosen after carefully weighing the merits of the numerous alter
natives. Here are the steps in the demonstration
(1) 3-|- 2 and
5-^- 7
(2) = 2-7
(3-§)-(5-£)
(3) (3-5)- (§•$) = 2-7
W 15- (f£) = 1*
2 7 —-
«-—•a>U>
14
iiiiiimi.il
(5) 3 5 15
And here are the reasons for these steps:
(1) It was seen in Section 6-6 that b*§- = a and the student
has had copious drill with this formula.
(2) The two factors on the left are respectively equal to
the two factors on the right. This is painstakingly
elaborated in the text. It is felt that this will be
the hardest step for the student.
6-8 -155- pages 196-199
(3) The factors on the left are reordered and regrouped

by means of the commutative and associative properties
of multiplication. This is the key step in the
demonstration. It is here that the properties of
multiplication are used in establishing the result,
so achieving the purpose of the section and in fact
the purpose of the chapter. The student realizes that
factors in a product can be reordered and regrouped by
use of the associative and commutative properties
(this was gone into in some detail in Chapter 3). He
will probably accept this step without reservation.
Actually this step masks some difficulties. Here is
the shortest way of showing that
(3.2). (5-1)
5'
. (3.5). (fi)
using one property at a time.
(3-|)-(5-^)
- [(3-|)-5]-£ associative
■ [5,(3*t)]"F commutative
- [(5.3)"|]«J associative
38 [ (3* 5)• T^s commutative
- (3-5)- (§"?-) associative
Most students would be confused if these details

were brought in.
(4) Here the indicated operations in the preceding step
are carried out insofar as possible. That is
3-5 - 15 and 2-7 = l2*.
(5) Here the significance of the word "the" in the defi
nition of the rational numbers in Section 6-6 becomes
apparent. We know by step 4 that
2 1
7 5
is a number x for which 15«x = 1^.
page 199 -156- 6-8
Prom the definition of the rational numbers in section

6-6 we know that -?-?.
15
is the number
lbei x with this
2 7 14
property. Therefore •*-•-
^
and yr must be the same
number .
proof that the familiar formula holds true in

The
the general case proceeds in exactly the same way:
If a, b, c, and d are whole numbers with b

and d not equal to 0 then
(1) b-r- = a and d-£ = c
(2) a-c -
(b-f)-(d-f) =
(3) (b-d)-(|.f) - a-c
W a c
" a-c
b.d b-d
If the class has no difficulty

with the demonstration
in the particular cases, then the teacher might try
presenting the general case.
The problems in this section provide drill in the use of
the Product Rule.
Answers to Exercises 6-
-3-
10
I.
0
a,
1
1. e.
30 21
1288
21 J.
9 2
b. rr
f
.
32 TTSo
10 1288
0
"So
g. k. TTiJo
15
30
6
h. 1. y-w
20
5
12 28
2. d.
12 2F
30
6
b. -£r
30
e.
a-b or
b
1
c. a_
f
b-a a> •b
.
5
6-8, 6-9 -157- pages 199-203
3 a j£ c
h 6 H
8
e. d
1
h. a. % d.
w*
7 1
t
2 5
b- -%
e-
c. f.
tj-
"g-
*5. The proof is as follows:
1. b-r- = and
d-^
=
c
a
2. (b-f)-(d-£)
= a-c
3. (b-d).(|-f)
= a-c
„ a-c
£
§.
h
• =
b-d b-d
The reasons for these steps may be given informally

by the students.
6-9. Simplifying Fractions

The word "simplify" has been used in conformity with the
definition of "simplest form". The word "cancel" has been
avoided because it is associated with mechanical deletion of
a
similar factors.
The rule
_" a«k
a_
b-k
b
is established by introducing concrete examples. The result is

shown to follow from the Identity Property of and the
1
Product Rule. Thus, the student Is given logical basis for

a
simplifying fractions.
Common denominators and least common denominators are also
pagea 203-204 -158- 6-9
discussed in this section so as to provide drill in the use of

the Simplification Rule and to prepare for the extensive use of
these notions in the addition and subtraction of fractions and in
Chapter 8.
teacher will note that the mechanics involve a three-step
The
procedure with each step supported by a logical reason.
Answers to Exercise 6-9
i£
2 3 4 10
IS- 100
1. a. •
5-
&' 12' 120
, etc .
10 a, 2 24 4
b. 10' 15' 25' g« T"> n p' 2' *
1 2 101 -„ 6 12 18 -
c. T' 2' 101'
h •
5' 10' 15'
i
I
1 2 3 4
d
1' 2' 3'
2- etc * • T* 7j">
e^c •
2"*
e £ 0
1' 24' 101 '
0
t 1
27'
£
Q
J 3' etc •
9 3-3 40 " 2-20 " 2

2. a. 21
3- g.
So •
20 1
T7^ 7 3
14 12- A. 25- 3
b-
fe" M"" F h. 100 4-25 *
12 __
~
1-12 " 1,
i. 123
* 4l-3 ~
4l
2T 2-12 2 321 107-3 107
llll
d.
«- 1-15
3-15
" 1
3
J. IT " 3-37
i-37
■
~
24 4-6 4 432
" 24-18 * 24
e. k.
T7^" 7 23T 13-18 13"
llllllll 10101-ll 10101

f. 121 11-ll " ll 1
llll 101-11 101
3
"*• a*
a £-"
3
^2-
15
d.
2 _ J_4_
1ll
b
D. lo21
5-15 e*
2
=
tB"
33 - 1 18
C.
37
llll
6-9, 6-10 159- pages
g. 2 =
| J. 2
5
- 14
35
6 12
h. 5 =
^ k. "
15 30
i. 5
»
15
1.
1
3
=
15
4 a
a# iS ^ f 2 3
k. 15- 1
5'
•
15' 15 5
* * -2-
30' 3*0
8
B*
14
2cT' * 1. IS
5
*
1
5
12 35 h 14
Bo"' * m.
TO"'
4 11
TO"
33 7* ~
16 2£ 20 18
a*
d
111' llll 1#
± on
20' 20
n. 30' 30' 3o
e -5- -t i 16 1
o.
30'
JL JL
30' 30
12 24 36 48
5. There are four answers -py, fe, ^rr, m-
6-10. Multiplication of Rational Numbers by Whole Numbers
This short section involves a special case of the multiplica

tion of two rational numbers. It was deferred until this section
in order to avoid making Section 8 too lengthy. Also, there is
application to a type of verbal problem that arises frequently.
a. ¥ d.
6 nr. 3
2
g.
T or™
30 1
1
6 12 1
b. e. h. -# or 1
1 5
c.
12
or
4
f 0 or 0
i. 0 m
or
0
.
Tj-
3 1 7
pages 206-207 -l60- 6-10
2. a. 3
.T e.
15-f
4-i f.
»•*
b. °4
a.
5 3
3. 2 k.
6
b.
2 1
4 1.
5
0. I 1
f
m.
5
28
-• n.
*
4 27
¥
e. £ 0.
4. Each son received tt- acres. The total number of acres

20 80
the sons receive is 4- "
7
7
5. 73 cents fone pen costs -f£- cents
pens cost cents or cents or 73 cents

5
-""t^ -r^2-
6. 35 cents one ounce costs rr cents
ounces cost 7*T7r cents or ^jr- cents or 35 cents

7
7. $216.25 Pay for hour is -jfep dollars

1
Pay for 50 hours is 50 -^p dollars or ^p- dollars

or 2167^
dollars
8. 48 feet The students are not expected to solve this

problem by algebra. The intent is to have
them draw pictures and experiment to find the
<
solution.
6-ll -16l- pages 207-209
6-ll. Division of Rational Numbers
technical details pertaining to the material of this

Some
section require explanation.
In Section 6-7 on multiplication it was shown that if there
is, in the set of rational numbers, a number which is the product
of ^
and £, then this number cannot be anything else but
rrr. With this in mind we made the definition

a_ c_ _" a-c .
b'd b-d
The Product Rule is therefore a definition which was motivated
by the fact that it was shown that this is the only definition
for product which could possibly be consistent with the preser
vation of the commutative and associative properties of multipli
cation.
In Section 6-5 on the meaning of division it was tacitly
stated that
r -t s
s-x » r.
This is the case when r are rational numbers as well
and s
as when r and s are whole numbers. Therefore in order to find
a_ ^
" c_
b d
we must solve the equation
K±) x .
d b
The most customary way of doing this is as follows:
W d
x ~
b
(2) ■ equals multiplied by equals

~-(d"x) c"b~
(3) (tt.t)** ■
rf associative property
(*> f£-*
c-d
" " $4-
=
c-b
Product Rule
1-x d-a A number divided by itself yields 1

(5) =
|^4
c-b
pages 207-209 -162- 6-11
•a
(6)
d
""c-b
Identity Property of 1
a •d
(7) Commutative Property
b- c
But still not finished!

the work The reason for this will be
is
apparent if the connection between the above steps is analyzed.
In passing from step (l) to step (2) the following statement is
tacitly being made:
If there is a number x for which ^--x
d
= §-
b
then
for this number x must satisfy T-(t*x) ■

Tvfr •
And the passage from step (2) to step (3) is equivalent to

this statement:
If there is a number x for which £-(f

c xd -x)'
=
fft
c b
then this number x must satisfy (~-|[)-x

=
~-7? •
And so forth. The final conclusion can accordingly be

worded .
If there is a number x for which

c a
=
d.x b
then this number x is
a -d
b-c
Note the words there is a number x..."; the result
"if
might be put: If anything will work then ^7- will. But
perhaps nothing will work. Perhaps there is no rational number
which is a solution to the equation. A dilemma!
Perhaps some reader will suggest that we do what we did
with multiplication. Since ^7— is the only possible number
a c
which t- -r -r could possibly be, then why not go ahead and de
fine r--r"i- to be ~2- . This will not do. Multiplication has
b d b* c
already been defined and division must agree with multiplication.
It would make no sense at all to call a number §"*:r unless
6-11 -163- pages 207-209
this number satisfied

d
x " b
*
The number ^"—

either satisfies this equation or it doesn't.
How can it be determined whether it does or not? By the simplest
expedient possible; by merely substituting ~-r in the equation.
Thus It is seen that
$ .«L! =
^(a>d) Product Rule
d b-c d- (b«c)
"{ "
Commutative and Associative
^ "ê" ' Properties
= #- Simplification Rule.
Most teachers will agree that It would to present this
be unwise
entire development to the student. So do the authors. What has
been done in the test is to snatch xr — out of thin air and to
b- c
show, just as above that
c a- d a
d b-c
" *
b
Then since rrrr

b- c
c a
=
d*x b
it is concluded that
a . c a«d
b"d =
b-c *
Moreover this is not done using letters, but only with specific
examples.
exact process used was to show (without giving any
The
indication of where we are heading) that
5 14 " 2
7*15 T
Consequently, since yc is the number x for which
7 3
it is seen that
14 _
= 2^ -
15 3 7
or
pages 210-2ll -164- 6-ll, 6-12
from this the rule

a_ . c
* a-d
b'd" b-c
is conjectured.

1.
33
35 7. ? 14. 7
2. 22- 8. 1 15. 1
21
-2-
3 14-
y.
9
U
25 16. |
if
TO
10. -»- 17. o
»•
33
c
D*
35
11. A- 18. 1
6. 12.
^ 2 19. 15
4 2
13. 20.
j
jj>
6-12. Reciprocals
Students come to the seventh year with the ability to perform
the process of division with rational numbers. They know the
rule that division is performed by multiplying the dividend by
the reciprocal of the divisor. The introduction of the reciprocal
at this point enables the teacher to show that the rule already
known is consistent with the treatment of rational numbers in this
chapter. If the teacher feels that the theoretical approach to
reciprocals is too formidable for students, the class may omit
the first half of Section 6-12. The class may start with the
definition of reciprocals without loss of continuity.
6-12 -165- pages 2ll-213
1
a. e. 15 1. 12 m. 1729
b. 6 f. 1
7
J. 3 n.
1
55
c.
l g. 1
k. o.
1
F 19
1
92
1 1
d. 8 h. 1. P. 92
25 255
a.
8
e.
6
i L- m.
1
1
5 17
k
b.
3
7
f. 9
J 4 n. #
c. i g.
1
k. 1 o.
14
15
i
o"
6 1^92
d. 3
h. 1
1. § P. T729
1
ll
1 1
a. rrr c. g. 7
1.
w e.
e
2 1000
b. 201
1
d. 5 f
1 * A
50
h. 34b
1
2. a. m
c. c d- r e. t
1
b. s
3. Set of reciprocals is (1, p-, •?, ^, -*> £, y. )

pages 213-215 -166- 6-13
4. a. -j c*
2
e*
100
b. 7 d. 5 f. 100
3
7
g. 1
2
6-13 . The Division Rule and Reciprocals
Division Rule is restated with the use of Reciprocals.

The
The teacher can emphasize the fact that the student now has a
deeper insight into the rationale behind the Division Rule.
1. a. » e.
^ i. ^
b. * 18
§
12 4
c. g. or K#
2
-g-
35 25
21
H1
d. h.
v,
1.
22 |f
1. a.
14
i. lit
6
q.
n
1
15 15 35
b.
£ J.
»
21 21
c. 10 s*
10
10 10
6
d. 1.
,
21 35
u#
21
10 io
6
e. 21 m. u*
35 21
21
f .
10 n. Tf v, 21
10
g.
# o.
¥
-jT w<
14 14
6
h. p* x#
15" "33
6-13 -167- pages 215-217
66 18
2. a. a. ^
g.
15 35
16 3
b.
15
e. £
2
h. &
44 10 24
c. f. 1.
21 25
2
3. a. g- m. 10
5
b. 3
h.
1
n. 1
-
7 2 3
c.
3
i. 1 o.
8 20
d.
7 J. 3
P. 2T
4 4 44
e. k. q.
3 3 *5
f. 1 1.
2
r. 2
9 3 3
4. a. T
20
d. 16 g. 2
15
b. 6 e.
2
h. -1
10(
5
c.
3
f .
* i. 1
•59
5. a.
2
d. 1 g. 3
3 5
4 4
b. e. h.
9 3"
c. 12
f
1 •
11
10
i
x • 1}
T4
6. a. 1 c. 1 e. 1
b. 1 d. 1 f. 1
6-14 and 15. Addition of Rational Numbers
Up to this point the addition of fractions with like

denominators has been taken for granted i.e., it was assumed
pages 217-218 -l68- 6"lh
y + J" = 7 . In "this section, It is shown how the familiar

2 3 5
that
rules for addition of rational numbers are consequences of the
Distributive Property. When the addends are expressed as frac
tions having the same denominator, the Distributive Property and
the Product Rule are the only tools used. Whenaredenominators
different it is necessary to invoke the Simplification Rule to
obtain a common denominator.
The addition of rational numbers expressed as mixed numbers
follows the general theory developed in this section. It is
treated in detail in Chapter 8.
a.
4
t=-
5
e.
7
8
i. 13
ll
JL f. J.
5 3
10 §
n
c.
2
•*-
3
g.
T k. *«*
1 h. 1.
»
9 3
f f i. .8-°r
6 12 rt„
or
2 3
2. Dr
■ e.
9
8 6 ™ 20 ™
3
J.
4
b. or or
J5.
~k .
.H-°r
Tj-
f
1 F
10
2
5
8
or _2_ g. or k. or
1
2
100
f
25
li ™
7
10 21 26
or h. or 1.
BTor
3
10 29
*3. r + r- ■ a-r- + c-i - Definition of the multiplication of

b
two rational numbers

a«T-+ C.t- = (a+c)-r- Distributive Property
c)«i - ^r- Definition of the Multiplication

(a
+
b
d
of two rational numbers

6-15, 6. -16 -I69- pages
pa 218-223
1. a. 2£
35
e.
22
21
1. i
24
b.
35
f. 2£
12 J. 2
3
c. | g.
12
k.
16
3
13 1 1
d. h. 1.
30 2
f. ft
1
2. a. 10 2
k.
b.
8 g. 1 1.
F
1
22 2 16
c. h. m.
f
21 7 75
I
d. _5_
12
1. & n.
e. 2£
12 J. 0.
38
9
3. 36 feet.
6-16. Subtraction of Rational Numbers
Just as division is the inverse operation of multiplication,

subtraction is the inverse operation of addition. Subtraction is
approached through the fact that
a - b

b + x = a
discussion of this fact precedes the derivation of the
A
Subtraction Rule.
1. pp- or y d* 5*
5 9
2. -y- 4-
f 6. § or 1
6-16
pages 223-226 -170-
7. 0 8. f or \ 9- T"
2 25
10. a. 2 a. y g. 100
b. | e. ^ h.
f-
c. 1 or
2 f
r. 18
^ 100

2 1
a. d. 0 g. F
1. IT
6 2
3£ h.
b.
5
e. IT F
c.
2
f. IT
14
i. 3
20
7
2. a .
11
TO
e.
2
9
i. 4
5
b.
1
F f. 4
9
J. 8
9
1 1
c.
2
g. k.
F 2 15
8 20
d.
3
h. 1.
20 3
3. a.
1
F e.
55
1
i. IT
1
b.
15
4
f. « J. F1
21
c.
13 g-
3
k. 70
15 10
14
13 h. 11 1.
d. 21 105
35
1 23 g.
4l
4. a . d. 21
T2 15
8 1
b.
1
e. h.
F 15 9
c. *• f. F1 1. JL
132
6-18 -171- pages 227-229
6-18. Answers to Chapter Review
1. a. 3 c. 5 e<
b
b. 3 d. 4
-^ . 5 f. 3
2. a.
1
e.
2
1.
34l m. 1
3 7 "3T
10 8
b.
1
2
f.
9
J. 5
n.
8
9
8 1 1
c. 2 g. k. 0.
7 15
d.
4
5
h. 8 J. 1
1 3 4
3. a. e. 1. m. 3£
2 5 9 2
b. 1 f. 3
J. 2
3
n.
3
"So
£
16 8 3
c. g. k. 2
o.
9
d. i h.
& 1.
3
B P. 16
4. a. i d.
15
g. 1 J. £
b. 12
e.
13
21
h. § k. £
c. 23
So
f .
§ 1. J 1.
23
1 1 1
5. a. 3
d.
3
g.
§ J. 5
1 2 13 4
b. 2
e. h.
30
k. 3
li
9
c. 4 f .
13
TF2
1.
12
1.
2
9
6. a. 1 e. 1 i. 12
12
1.
4
5
b.
2
3
f. 1
J. 12
1
m.
12
2 3 1 2
c. 3
g.
20
k. FT n. 3
d. £ h.
3
5
o.
43
T2
-172-
Sample Test Questions
Teachers construct their own tests, using carefully

should
selected items from those given here and from their own. There
are too many questions here for one test. Careful attention
should be given to difficulty of items and time required to com
plete the test.
I . True-False Questions
(t; 1. The
3
product w •
3
% is equal to
3
y
(P 2. Whole numbers are not rational numbers.
(F *•
3 £+Z-
7 5
12
12
(T 4. In adding rational numbers, if the denominators of the
fractions are equal we add the numerators.
(T 5. The following numbers are all examples of rational
numbers:
3 c 8 -
nl
(T 6. Zero is the identity element for addition of rational

numbers.
(T 7. The fractions —- and r- represent the same rational

number if neither a nor b is zero.
(F 8. If a and b are rational numbers, t- is always a
rational number. (Note: 0 is a rational number;

except for 0 the statement is true.)
(T 9. A rational number multiplied by its reciprocal equals 1,
(Note: If it is zero, it has no reciprocal,)

2k
(T 10. The symbol -n- stands for a number which is both a whole
number and rational number.
a
(F 11. The sum of two rational numbers whose fractions have

equal numerators may be found by adding their
denominators.
(T 12. The product of zero and any rational number is zero.
-173-
(F) 13. If fraction has a larger numerator than a second

one
fraction, the number represented by the first fraction
is always larger than the number represented by the
second fraction.
(T) lb. Even if a = 0, I is a rational number.
(F) 15. If two fractions have the same denominator, the numbers
they represent are always equal.
(P) 16. The reciprocal of «• is -TW-.

13
(F) 17. The least common multiple of the denominators of A
and i is 12.
(T) 18. In the division problem -5- divided by -*-, we are

looking for a number which when multiplied by
j
11
gives .
•£
(F) 19. In the division problem •* divided by •*-, we are seeking

a number which when multiplied by gives
?j-
-*-
.
reciprocal of the reciprocal of if
i.
(F) 20. The
3
(F) 21. Even if equals 0, ~ is rational number.

b
is equal to
b
(P) 22. The sum: + ag+ .

f
£
II Multiple Choice.
23. The sum: — + — is equal to which of the following for
all counting numbers r, s, and u:
t
+ - st + ru
r
+ su
u
s
. e. None of these
t
r
+
b*
"su
c. ^±^ 23. _^
-17^-
24. Which of the following pairs of numbers are both divisible

by the same number greater than one?
a. 7, 3. d. 5, 23.
b. 8, 9 e. None of these.
c. 7, 28 2h. J^
The product: x
— t is equal to which of the following
25. •
yr
if x, t, z and k are counting numbers:

a. x plus z plus t plus k.
b. $
zt d. (xt)(zk)
c.
xt
— T- e. None of these
zk
25. _!•
26. If f-
a
- J-
b
and a - 6 and b = 12, then
a. x a 2y d. 12x = 12y
b. y ■ 2x e. None of these
c. 6x - y
26. b.
27. If a and b are whole numbers (b ji 0) then

a
t- ia the
number x for which
a. x«a - b d . b-rx = a
b. a-b - x e. None of these

c. b«x o a
C
27.
III. General Questions

Perform the indie?
2 , 10
28. + = 3
3 15
-175-
1 ^ 2
ll
29. 3+ 5s 25.
30. 4+
9
I_
9
31.
2
7
- 3
7s
*
M-
4
32. X
£2
33.
4-* _22_
3^. There are questions on a test. If all questions are

^0
given the same value and if a perfect paper gets a grade of

100, how much should each question count? How many questions
would a student have to answer correctly to get a grade of
90 or better?
2^,
Ans . 36
35. When merchant buys candy bars, he pays cents for

4o
a
boxes holding 25 bars. If he sells them at bars for
2
cents, what is his profit on each bar?
5
Ans: Each bar costs 1.6 cents, he sells them for 2^

cents each. his profit is 0.9 cents each.
Hence This can
also be found using fractions exclusively.
36. crafts class needs type of decoration that sells for

A
1-x cents foot in one shop and at feet for 25 cents

a
in another shop. How much can be saved on each foot at the

cheaper price?
Ans: At the second shop the price is &V cents for foot
a
and hence * of cent per foot can be saved by buying

a
at the first shop.

37. group of seventh graders have promised to collect 50
A
pounds of scrap metal. They have 36k pounds; how much more
must they collect to keep their promise?
Ans: 13tt.
-176-
38. Tom needs four pieces of wood 2jj-3 feet long for the legs
of a table. Boards from which this wood can be cut come
in the following lengths: 8 feet, 10 feet, 12 feet.
What length board should he get and how much will be left
over?
Ans: He needs n feet; hence he should get the 12 foot
board and will have one foot left over.
39. A boy's car used gallons of gasoline for a 225 mile

15
trip. How many miles did he drive for each gallon of
gasoline used? Ans: 15
40. If inches on a map represents

6 90 miles, how many miles
does each inch represent? Ans: 15 miles
Find the value of x in simplest form which makes the
following true:
Answers
41. x=0 •
(J+J+J) x = 0
20
42.
*-i*-<W) X =
27
x 6
43. " X = 2
3 9
-_
x - 91 - 35
44. X = 8
?
10
45. x m product of Yn Qr,H
and jq X =
10
46. *- (3-5). (jiy) X = 1
ll ll
47. v
x " 2T „
T
T X =
1
12
2 3 1
48. x = " X =
3 5 10
Teachers1 Commentary
Chapter 7
NON-METRIC GEOMETRY II
This chapter is a continuation of the work on non-metric
geometry. The general discussion in the introduction to
Chapter 4 applies in this chapter.
7-1. Segments ♦
1. Understandings
(a If A, B, and C are three points on a line, our
intuition tells us which point is between the other two.
(b A segment is determined by any two points and is on
the line containing those points.
(c The two points which determine a segment are called
endpoints of the segment.
(d A segment is a set of points which consists of its
endpoints and all points between them.
(e The union of two sets consists of all the elements
of the two sets.
Bring out the idea that when we draw a sketch or a
picture of a line, we draw a picture of one part of the line,
ana that this is, properly, a line segment. However, we
often represent a line by a part of a line (since we cannot
do anything else). One should be careful to say that the
sketch represents a line or segment as is appropriate.
Draw a representation of a line on the chalkboard and
name two points of the line, A and B. Note that AB
means points A and B and all points between them. Name
other points on the line
various segments.
and
Review the idea of intersection of two sets.
Exercises 7-1a will provide ample experiences for the students
in applying the idea of intersection of sets in working with
segments.
pages 231-233 -178- 7.1
Develop the Idea of union of two sets using the illustrations

in the text. The idea of union is helpful in dealing with segments,
Here again, Exercises 7-1b will provide variety of application.
Answers to Exercises 7- la
1. a. AB and For AB the endpoints are A and B.
DE.
For DE the endpoints are D and E. The student
might take DC and CB or AC and CE.
b. BE, BC, or BA, BD. For BE, endpoints are B
and E. For BC, endpoints are B and C, For BA
endpoints are B and A. For BD endpoints are B
and D.
c. AD is a line, unlimited in extent in both directions.
AD is a segment, or portion of the line.
d . Point C
e. The empty set

2. a. ZX, ~ZV, ZY, ZW.
b . Point Y
c . Point V
d. The empty set
e. XY
3. a. TK, TD, TF, KD, KF, DF, TF.

b. EM
c. An unlimited number. Points K and D.
d. The empty set
e. AB, AC, AE, AR~, AC, BC, BE, BR, BL, etc.
4. a. No. S i
b. Yes, since the line XY extends beyond Y.
5.
7-1,7-2 -179- pages 233-236
6.
7. a. Yes.
b. No, because A and C are on opposite sides of +/ .

1. a. (a, b, c, d, e, 1, o, u); {a, e)
b. (1, 3, h, 5, 7, 9, ll, 16}; {1, 9)
c. The whole numbers 1 through 12; {3, 4, 5, ...10)
d. The football team; the empty set.
2.
B
a. Point B d. AC
b. BC e. AC
c. AC f. AB
3. No.
A B Q
PB, PQ, AQ, etc. all contain AB.
4. a. PR d. OS g- PR
b. OS e. PS
c. PS f. PS
5. Yes, No. Since M and C are on opposite sides of */ ,

the line joining and must intersect y
-/*
M C .
/
*
c
7-2. Separations.
1. Understandings .
(a) plane separates space into two half -spaces.

A
(b) line of plane separates plane into two half -planes.

A
(c) point separates line into two half -1ines.

A
(d) ray is the union of ha If -1ine and the point which

A
a
pages 236-239 -180- 7-2
determines the half-1ine.
Use cardboard understanding of these
models to develop
ideas. This section gives an unusually good opportunity to
emphasize relations among point, line, plane, and space. You
can expect seventh grade students particularly to enjoy this
section. It gives a certain structure to geometry on an
intuitive basis.
Draw a of lines on the chalkboard.
number Mark points
on them and talk about half-lines, rays and endpoints. Talk
about the intersection of two rays, two half -1ines, and ray
and half-1ine. If students inquire about whether a half-1ine
has an endpoint the following explanation may be given. If
a line is separated by a point then
half-1ine including
each
the point of separation is a ray. If the point of separation
is removed then we have two ha If -1ines. Each of these half-
lines endpoint, the endpoint of the corresponding
has an
ray. In the case of the half-1ine the endpoint is not a
member of the set of points constituting the half -1ine. We
speak of the graduates of a school even though the graduates

are not physically present in the school.
Also, identify representations of half-spaces, produced
by room-divider, walls in building; of half -planes, by line
on paper, lines on wall, etc., and of half -1ine by naming
a particular point along the edge of a ruler.
1. a. A plane separates space into two half -spaces.
b. A point separates a line into half -1ines.
c. A separates space into two half -spaces.
plane
d. A line of a plane separates the plane into two half-
planes.
e. A plane separates space into two half -spaces.
f. A point separates a line into two half -lines.
Should a student say that the 8-inch mark is a line

accept the interpretation that a line of a plane divides
7-2 -181- pages 239-2^1
the plane into two half -planes,
g. A line of a plane divides the plane into two half -planes.
2. a. True d. True
b. False e. False
c. True f. False
3. a. Yes. A line of a plane separates the plane into two
ha If -planes,
b. No. Since PQ is a segment it is limited in length.
It cannot separate the plane.
4. Yes. If lines k and m are extended without limit in both

directions every point on m will be on the P side of k.
5. Yes.
6. No, if half -planes from the same line, the set of
they are
points on the line will not be in the union. Yes, if you
use parallel lines and overlapping half -planes.
7. No. Yes.
1. a. The line RS. It can be extended without limit in both
directions. Line RS should be thought of as a set
of points.
b. The segment RS. This is the set of points on line RS
between points R and S and including the endpoints
R and S .
c. The ray RS. The ray has the endpoint R and can be
extended without limit in the direction of S. A ray
should also be thought of as a set of points.
2. a. PK
b . Point L
c. PK. Note to teacher — This union of two rays does not
result in an angle since the rays are on one straight
line.
3. a. AB; b. ABj c. AB; d. AC; e. CB or CA
pages 241-242 -182- • 7-2,7-3
4. There are several correct answers. One set follows.

a. BAU B?
b. BA U CD*
c. Bcfu CD"
d . BA f| BC
e . BA D C?.
7-3. Angles and Triangles.
1. Understandings
(a) An angle set of points consisting of two rays not
Is a
both on the same straight line and having an endpoint

in common.
(b) An angle separates the plane containing it.

(c) A triangle is the union of three sets, AB, BC,
and CA where A, B, and C are any points not on
the same line.
(d) A triangle determines its angles but does not contain
its angles.
Illustrate the idea of angle as two rays with the same
endpoint. colored chalk to show interior and exterior.
Use
Note how we name an angle.
In developing the idea of triangle, put three points on
the board and note them as endpoints of 3 line segments,
AB, BC, AC. Note the set of points in each segment and
that a triangle is the union of these three sets. Use
colored chalk to show interior and exterior. Emphasize the
set of points of the interior, the exterior and that of the
triangle.
Again, students may be interested in drawing angles,
triangles, shading, etc. (This is not perspective drawing.)
Drawing is a good way to show the students concrete represen
tation of abstract ideas. It also helps to develop imagina
tion and to see relationships.
In discussing the angles of a triangle bring out the
7-3 -183- pages 2^3-246
idea that although people often talk about angles of a

triangle, It is a short way of saying that they are the
angles determined by the triangle. For example, a city "has"
suburbs, but the suburbs are not part of the city.
1. a. l_ XZY, /_ YZX
b. Point Z
c. zx" and ZY
2. c. The interior of /_ ABC
3. a. /TVW
b. Point V
c. Point V

1. a. The interior of / ABC
b. The interior of A ABC
2. a. Yes. They have different vertices
b. Yes
c. The lines containing the rays determine a plane.
(Property 3A)
3. a. The point A
b. No. Half -lines or rays would extend beyond the triangle.
c. AB
d. AB
e. /BAC
4. a. Points X and W
b. A ABC, AAWX, AXCY, AYBW

c. No
d. A, B, C, W, and Y;
A, W, are in exterior of
and B AXCY
Y is in exterior of AABC
A is in exterior of ABWY
B, C, and Y are in exterior of AAWX.
pages- 246-2^6 -184- 7-3
e. Point B, Point A
5.
c. R can be on WX
6. a. b. c.
d. Not possible e,
7. a.
d. e.
i. The two triangles are such that one is superimposed up

on the other.
7-3.7-4 _185- pages 2^7-246
8. a. The points A and C
b. AB
c. The points A and B
d. The point B
e. BC
f. BC
g. The union of AB and BC
h. ÂCB
9. a. Yes
AV
No
10. BRAINBUSTER:
a. Yes
b. It may or may not, depending upon choice of P and Q.
c. Yes
d. No
7-4. One-to-One Correspondence .
1. Understandings
(a) The idea of one-to-one correspondence is fundamental
in counting
(b) One-to-one correspondence in geometry can be established
(1) Between a certain set of lines and a certain set
of points
(2) Between the set of points of one segment and the
set of points of another segment.
Review the idea of one-to-one correspondence and the
necessary condition that for each element in set A there
corresponds an element in set B for each element in
and
set B there corresponds an element in set A. For example,
if there are 5 chairs and 5 people, for each chair there
is a person and for each person there is a chair.
pages 2^7-248 -186- 7_4
This idea, while elementary, is sometimes hard to grasp.
One-to-one correspondences between finite sets (sets having
a specific number of elements as in the illustration above)
are easy to observe if they exist. Encourage pupils to
suggest examples that they observe.
Background Material for Teacher — While the following
discussion is not directly related to the material in this
chapter it presents a point of view that is useful in more
advanced grades.
are sometimes interested in a particular one of the
We
one-to-one correspondences. For the two congruent triangles

below we are interested in matching A with D, B with E,
and C with F. It is on such basis that we get the con

gruence. Ifto match A with F, B with D, and
we were
C with E we would not be noting the congruence.
For infinite sets H and K we may be interested in
two aspects:
(1) Is there any one-to-one correspondence between
H and K?
(2) Is there a "nice" or "natural" one-to-one
correspondence?
In the examples in Section 7-^> we not only show that
there isone-to-one correspondence but that there is
some
a "natural" or "nice" one. There also would be a great many
that are not "natural" or "nice."
To establish a one-to-one correspondence we need
(l) a complete matching scheme, and (2) in this particular
device it must be true that for any element of either set
there corresponds a unique element of the other set. It is
implied by what we say that if a corresponds to b, then
b corresponds to a.
7-* -187- pages 248-2^9
In effect, to establishone-to-one correspondence we

a
must have a way of "tying" each element of either set to a

particular element of the other. And the "string" we use for
tying a_ to b_ also ties b_ to a_.
Answers to Class Exercise 7-â

• P
J
1. 2.
J
3.
J
a. Yes
b. One
5. and 6. 7. and 8
6. a. Yes 8. a. Yes
b. One b. One
9. a. Yes
b. Yes
10. a. 3 e. Yes
b. 3 f. Yes
c. Yes g. Line, point, point, line,
d. Yes
pages 250-251 -I88- 7.4
Answers to Exercises 7-^b
1. a. Provided each pupil has a desk, and each desk is

assigned to a pupil,
b. No. There may be more pupils than desks. There may
be more desks than pupils. Some pupils may be absent

on a given day.
2. a. Yes
b. corresponding, right hand
3. The members of one team can be matched one-to-one with the

members of the other team.
4. Each point has an opposite side and each side has an

opposite point, as follows:
A and BC, B and AC, C and AB
5. a. one
b. one point
c. Yes
6. a. To each point there corresponds an element of

on DE
K and to each element of K there corresponds a
point on DE.
b. Similar analysis.
c. To each point on DE there corresponds a point on
XZ and to each point on XZ there corresponds a
point on DE. These corresponding points are determined
by K, the set of all the rays through Y which do
not contain points in the exterior of /_T£Z.
7. Each even whole number is matched with the odd number that
is its successor.
0 2 4 6 8 . . . .
I
1
I
3
I
5
J
7
1
9 . . . .
8. Each whole number is matched with the whole number which is

twice its value.
0 1 2 3 4 . . . .
$ % $ J $
0 2 k 6 8 . . . .
7-5 -189- pages 251-252*
7-5. Simple Closed Curves.
1. Understandings
(a) Broken-line figures such as those we see in statistical
graphs, triangles, rectangles, as well as circles, and
figure eights are curves.
(b) A simple closed curve in the plane separates the plane
into two sets — the points in the interior of the curve
and the points on the exterior of the curve. The curve
itself is contained in neither set.
(c) The curve is called the boundary of the interior
(or the exterior).
(d) The interior of a simple closed curve is called a
region.
(e) The interior of a closed curve together with
simple
its boundary is called a closed region.
(f) If a point A is in the interior of a curve and a
point B is in the exterior of the curve, then the
intersection of AB and the curve contains at least
one element.
Draw some curves chalkboard, bringing out the
on the
idea that we call them "curves" and that a segment is just
one kind of curve.
Note that a simple closed curve separates a plane into two
sets and that the curve itself is the boundary of the two
sets. Also, that any quadrilateral, parallelogram or
rectangle is a simple closed curve. Identify some of the
many curves which are suggested in the room, such as
boundary of chalkboard, total boundary of floor surface, etc.
Students enjoy drawing elaborate curves which may still
be classified as simple closed curves. Encourage their
drawing a few simple closed curves for a bulletin board
exhibit.
pages 255-256 -I9O- 7-5
1. a.
Any quadrilateral
b.
Any pentagon
c.
Any triangle
2.
00
3. d. The intersection of the exterior of Cp and the
interior of C..
e. The interior of Cp.
4. a. Yes
b. Yes
c. No. It contains 2 intersections.
5.
and DE
6.
D
c~"
7-5,7-7 -191- pages 256,259
7. Any simple closed curve, a line, an angle.
Answers to Exercises 7-7 1 Chapter Review

1. a. SR, ST or Slf
b. SR and ST, etc.
c. SR |J TU
d. S?UTu*
e . SR fl ST, etc .
f. SR fl TU
2. a. AD is the line AD. It extends without limit in

both directions. AD is the segment AD. It does
not extend beyond its endpoints.
b. AB is the segment AB. It does not extend beyond
its endpoints. AB is the ray AB. It has one endpoint,
A, and it extends without limit in the direction
indicated by starting with A and proceeding through B-
c. Point D
3. a. Point A
b. BD
c. Point C
d. The empty set

4. a. PR and QS, etc.
b. PQ and Q^, etc.
c. PQ and RS
d. PQ and RS
5. a. Rfl S - (7, 10}
b. RU S = (1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10}
6. a. G
b. A
pages 259-261 -192- 7-7
c. E
d. The empty set

e. FG
f. l_ BEG
7. a. It divides space into two half -spaces.

b. It divides the plane of the basketball court into
two half -planes.
c. It divides space into two half -spaces.
d. Point P divides both lines AB and CD into half -1ines.
8. a. /_ABC
b. A
c. Segments
d. AB
e. AB
9. a. Le
b. DC
c. EC
d. /_AED
e. The empty set
0. a. AB or PR c. Z_BQS
b. B d. Q and S
e. Q
ll. d. The exterior of Cp f) the interior of C,.

12. We can match each state with its state capital and we can
match each state capital with its state.
13. a. A c. A, D, or E
b. G and F d. /_CAF
e. AC"
1^. Each line through Z will cut segments XY and WV in

matching points.
7-8 -193- pages 262-263
Answers to Exercises 7-8, Cumulative Review
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
6. True
7. False
8. True
9. Eight
10. a. 8 b. any whole number
c. 0
11. a. J c. the empty set
<->
b. the empty d. JK
e. H
12. a. 2, 3, 4, :5, 6, 10 b. 3, 5
1
13. a. *- c.
15
3
d.
14. a. EF
b. point E
c. If 2 different lines intersect, one and only one
plane contains both lines.
EG and GF are in exactly one plane. E is a point
on EG and F is a point on GF. Therefore, E and
F are in plane EGF and EF is in plane EGF.
Sample Test Questions on Chapter J_ (With Answers)

1. Draw /_ABC. Label P a point in the interior, Shade
the P side of line
-19^-
2. Draw two simple closed curves whose intersection is a set

of exactly four points.
Draw a simple closed curve which is the- union of five

segments, no two on the same line.
DrawAPQR. Label a point A between P and

O Q. Draw
the line AR. List all triangles represented in your figure.
( APQR, A PAR, ARAQ)
5. Each point of a line separates the line into

Each line of a plane separates the plane into ______
A plane separates space into .
(two half -1ines, two half -planes, two half -spaces) .
6. Consider the figure at the right:

a. List 3 rays represented A-
(BA, AC*, CB)
b. What is A? 0 AABC? (AC)
c. is *
What AbTIAC? (Point A)
7. Draw a horizontal line. Label four points on it P, Q, R

and S in that order from left to right.
1 1 1
P Q R S
a. Name two segments whose intersection is one point.
(PQ and QR)
b. Name two rays whose union is the line (PQ and QP)
-195-
c. Name two segments whose intersection is a segment.
(PR and QS)
d. Name two segments whose union is not a segment.
(PQ and RS)
8- Label A, B, and C three points not all on the same line.

Draw AB, AC, and BC.
a. Into how many regions does the union

of the segments AB, AC, and BC
separate the plane? (2)
b. Into how many regions does the
— <- »
union of the lines AB, AC,
< >
*
and BC separate the plane? (7)
Draw a vertical line on your paper. Label points A, B,

C and D in that order from top to bottom. -A
a. What is AC" 0 BD? (BC)
-B
b. What is BA D CD? (The empty set)
cr What is the union of AB and BC? --C
d.
(A?)
What is the union of
__
AD and
_BC?
-D
(AD)
10- In the figure, set of rays from P may be
show how a
used to establish a one-to-one correspondence between
AC and BD. (Rays from P will cut AC and BD in
sets of points which may be shown to correspond.)
-196-
11, To the left

of an Item in the left-
hand column place the letter of a
corresponding item from the right-
hand column:
/ p,
B
(g 1. the union of PA and PB a. AP
(f '2
b. AB
(c 3. segment AQ c. AQ D QB
(d 4. point in interior of /_ APB d. Q
(e 5. PB e. A
(a 6. ray on
V2 f. P
(b 7. the union of AQ and QB g. /_APB

(i 8. QBflV h. the empty set
(h 9. AQfl-Zi i. B
(j 10. the union of ** , and AP j. V,
12. True or False.
In the corresponding blank to the left of each of the

following statements indicate if it is true or false.
(True) 1. Point Q is C-side of AB.

on the
(False) 2. AB is the intersection of two half -planes.
-197-
(False) 3. The union of CD and CA is /_ABC.

(False) 4. Point B separates CD into two segments
CB and BD.
(True) 5. Point B separates CD into two half -1ines.
(True) 6. Point Q is in the interior of / ACB.
(False) 7. Point Q is in the interior of /_DBA.
(True) 8. The interior of angle ABC is the intersection of
a ha If -plane containing C and a ha If -plane
containing A.
(True) 9. Triangle ABC is
simple closed curve.
a
(True) 10. A one-to-one correspondence may be established

between (a) the set of lines intersecting AC
and containing B and (b) the set of points
on AC.
13. Multiple Choice.

1. -/ n
1
and J,
a. intersect in the empty set
b. are parallel
c. intersect in one point
d. are in the same plane (a)
2. Segment QP
a. lies in plane 1YL
b. lies in plane M,
c. connects an element of M, with an element of M,
d. none of these 2 (c)
s
-198-
3. a. _/2
separates M, into two half -planes
b. Y2 D M is the empty set
c. y2 D M, is the empty set
d. y2 separates space. 3 (a)-
4. a. M2
0 Jx = P
b. m2
n m2
=
y2
c. Mp does not extend endlessly as does Y2
d. M2
contains all the points of -/ -^
5. Point P:
a. is in the intersection of M, and
J
IVU
b. lies in a half -plane whose boundary is 2
c. is not an element of PQ
dt is not an element of Y-, 5 (b)
14. Are each of the following simple closed curves?

Give a reason for your answer.
a. (No. It cannot be drawn so that it
starts stops at the same point
and
without touching some point, other
than the starting point, more than
once. )
b. (Yes. It can be drawn so that it

starts stops at the same point
and
without touching some point, other
than the starting point, more than
once. )
Chapter 6
RATIONAL NUMBERS AND THE NUMBER LINE
As the title indicates, this

chapter deals primarily with
rational numbers on the number line. A few other topics dealing
with rational numbers have also been included in this chapter.
The importance of the idea of representing numbers as points
on a line can hardly be over-emphasized. This idea provides the
basis for all graphing and for coordinate geometry and is con
stantly used in mathematical analysis. Further it provides the
motivation for the order relations between numbers and for the
invention of the real numbers. Also, this geometrical treatment
of numbers should help to clarify the meaning of the elementary
arithmetical operations of addition and multiplication. Most
persons understand ideas better when they can be demonstrated
geometrically.
8-1. The Number Line.

The placement of the whole numbers on the number line was
introduced in Chapter 3. Now this topic is presented in more
detail and the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division are .treated geometrically.
Although we begin by placing arrows on both ends of the
number line to indicate lines of infinite length, we later drop
these for convenience.
Addition is vector addition in one dimension. Subtraction
is presented as the inverse operation of addition so that the
same diagram illustrates 2+3=5 and 5-2=3. This idea
of inverse operation was presented in Chapter 3.
The method of adding is developed step by step in the text.
Although it is somewhat awkward to transfer the arrow as is done
for addition, this method not only gives the diagram for sub
traction, but also can be generalized when negative numbers are
introduced .
The student should go through each step carefully in doing
the problems. It would save time if the students were given
duplicated copies of number lines on which to do the exercises.
pages 265-266 -200- 8-1
1. 5+2
(5 + 2)
2. 2+5
(2 + 5)
H h H 1 h
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3. 3 + 7
(3+7)
H 1 H
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
*. 7+3
(7 + 3)
»j
3 -raJT-
H
I
1
2 34 56 78
1 1 1 1— H 1 1-
9 10 II
8-1 -201- pages 266-268
♦5. 0+9
9 or (0+9)
i-
0
1
I
1
2
1
3 4
1 1
5 67
1 1 1
8
1
9
1
10 II
The zero arrow has 0 length and thus the arrow for "9"
also represents 0+9.
*6. 9+0
9 or (9 + 0)
23456789
Answers to Class Exercises
+
8- lb
I
10
1. a. 10-3. 10
(10-3) !
I •r-
(10-3) I
b.
I
3+7.
2 3456 +
is
represented by the same diagram
This problem
+
78 9 10 II
except that the broken arrow begins at the lowest arrow

(arrow for 7) and ends at the arrow representing 7
placed at the end of the arrow representing 3.
2. a. 2+6.
(2 + 6)
0.23456789
b. 8-2. This problem is represented
10
by the same diagram

II
as (2 + 6).
pages 269-270 -202- 8-1
Multiplication and division on the number line are presented

as inverse operations and the diagram for 3 • 4 ■ 12 is also
the diagram for 12 + 3 = 4.
The only division problems considered in this section are
those in which the quotients are whole numbers. In the next sec
tion the same method is
applied in cases where the quotients are
not whole numbers. As a result we obtain a method for locating
arbitrary rational numbers on the number line.
1. a.
(4 +3)
0
By
I 23456789 I
this time the student should be able to see diagram in

+ +
10 II 12
this form without transferring the arrow for 3. When we

discuss the problem for addition of rational numbers we shall
have to transfer the arrow since it would not be possible to
locate the rational point without starting at 0.
b. 7-4. Same diagram as above.
2. a. 3+4
(3 + 4) »l
1
4
1
3
1
1
12 H 1-
1
i 1 1 y 1 1- 1 1 1
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12
b. 7-3. Same diagram as above.

8-1,8-2 -203- page 270
3. a. 5-2
(2 + 2+2 + 2 + 2) = 5|- 2
0
b. 10
I
+ 5
23456789
Same diagram but labeled 10 and 10 + 5 instead of 5
• 2 and 2-
4. a. 2-5
(5 + 5) = 2-5
b. 10
+
I
+ 2
23456789
+ +
Same
+
diagram but labeled

+
10 and
+
10
10*2.
8-2. Locating Rational Numbers on the Number Line.

The process of finding rational numbers by folding ribbon
parallels the motivation for the invention of the rational numbers
in Section 6-2. A much more satisfactory construction exists.
We present it here. Consider the number line:
0 I 2
Draw a ray with one end at 0.
r
pages 270-272 -204- 8-2
On this ray mark off three equal segments as indicated above.

Now draw the line through C and 5. Next draw lines through
A and B parallel to CD.
And now the lengths OE, EF and FD are in the same proportion
as OA, AB and BC. Since OA, AB and BC are equal, so
are OE, EF and FD. The points E and F divide the segment
from 0 to 5 into three equal parts and therefore the point
labeled E is in fact £ •
demonstration obviously requires a much greater

The above
knowledge of geometry than the student is equipped with at this
time.
It
should be noted that we first present as "one of
-§-
three equal parts of 5" rather than "5 of three equal parts
of one". This is in accord with the algebraic definition of
-§-
given in Chapter (i.e., *• is the result of dividing

6
by 3).
5
8-2 -205- pages 272-273
n
4 2-7 3-T 4-7
4-
3 8 10 II
^ ll Is point
1;
^ on the "11".
2. Yes. Let a be some whole number on the number line. Cut

astrip of paper this length and fold it some number of times.
Call this "b". Transfer the creases as before.
H
a
3-^
b.j3
0
b
b
0
a
l
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3. The number r- is the point "a",

•
b

1.
4 -5
0
4
3
5
2
-f- -+-
s
2.
2 -3
2
——
4
10
8
7
9
5
-+- -I- -+- -4-

y
h
2
pages 273-275 -206- 8-3
8-3. Comparing Rational Numbers
The principal reason for the utility of representing numbers

as points on a line lies in the fact that this representation pre
serves the order of the numbers. That is, if a is to the left
of b then a is less than b and conversely. It is hoped
that this section will impress this fact on the student. In
addition to this geometric method for comparing numbers the sec
tion supplies an algebraic method for comparing numbers.
In this section there is a diagram showing points labeled
with numerals in several different ways. It might be well to
emphasize here that the points on the number line correspond to
numbers and not just to the numerals. That is, although a ration
al number may be represented by many different numerals, there is
only one point on the number line corresponding to this point. In
fact there is nothing wrong with taking the point of view that the
points on the number line are the numbers. Remember that we have
never said anything concerning what numbers are. We have only
discussed the properties of numbers or the ways in which numbers
behave. But the numbers themselves are abstract entities; we have
never decided what they are. In fact we do not need to know what
they are; we only need to know their properities. This is the
idea behind the axiomatic method in mathematics.
Since we have not said what the numbers are, we are still at
liberty to decide what they are. If we find it convenient, we may
decide that the rational numbers are points on a certain line, of
which we draw pictures in this chapter. This was in fact the
point of view taken in writing this chapter (although it was not
specifically mentioned in the text nor need It be mentioned to
the students).
Theprimary purpose of this chapter is to establish the
geometrical interpretation of > and <. There has been no effort
to develop a comprehensive theory of inequalities.
8-3 -207- pages 275-278
1^9^10 ll
f T
8 . „ 4 22
-1.a- "6 < ~o"
d-
A
< s*
^
K
19 19
K
D* ii
*3"
^
<
13
T" e,12<123 ^
4
n-2T<27T
H 13 ^ l4
c,5>5 I«'9>9 ,"2^<"2"
2. a. q > r since q is to the right of r on the

number line.
b. p < s since p is to the left of s on the number
line.
c. t < q since t is to the left of q on the number
line.
d. s > u since s is to the right of u on the number
line.
e. s < q since s is to the left of q on the number
line.
f. p < t since p is to the left of t on the number
line.
g. u > r since u is to the right of r on the number
line.
h. r < t since r is to the left of t on the number
line.
i. u > p since u is to the right of p on the number
line.
1. a. 1x5
¥ 9
>
3-£=2J
T* 9
^ 20
^
9 .T " 3o"
27 v20 c
f
o
3b >
3"o" therefore >
2-
page 278 -208- 8-3
4 7 i 1_"
2
-
3
12
hi- 14
i.i
"5"
12 14
^ < ^p therefore £ <
^
21 - 10 10 2 20
c. 22 > 11 TT" 2 22
— «,-„.--„- 10
ll
21 20 21
x "5o>
22 > 22'
.
therefore 22
-
> TT
a.
rt 13 ,25 13 • 2 26
12 > 2? 12 2 2T
If ||
26
> therefore i| || >
2. 28
24
2 11 4_
4 22 2 3
JO 13
II 12
The comparison rule is given in this section. By deriving

it from the problem of comparing only the products a-d and
b*c for the rational r- and -3- , the rule for equality
numbers
is also derived. This gives the trichotomy statement for
rational numbers although this property is only tacitly assumed
for counting numbers throughout the text. There is no need to
use the name, "trichotomy",
with students.
Students might find it difficult to apply the comparison
rule. When comparing two rational numbers they will probably
find it easier to express the numbers as fractions having a
common denominator.
of each part of the comparison rule
The converse is true,
but we state only the converse for equality, since it is used
extensively in the chapter on ratios and proportion.
8-3 -209- page 279
The property of transitivity is

stated in the text but the
addition and multiplication properties of order are not stated.
They appear in a starred exercise in the next section. These
four properties: trichotomy, transitivity, addition and multi
plication properties of < are taken as axioms in the discussion
in the commentary for teachers, Chapter 3. Students should not
be held responsible for the use of the words "trichotomy" and
"transitivity".
9-3 - 27, ^-7 - 28; 27 < 28
ijA
3-7Z
Therefore or
Sr
< <
3-
d. •
IT •
13' 25 °
>
25 25-13
'
'
Therefore ^||_ or
^
fli3^
^
>
>
j. 10
5^3 10J.
^-y
7 5
.
,
05 ru
6
?9
?
,.
3
<
?
7.13
,
13
or
Therefore
J^|
^|
<
<
^°r^
^
27 _2_ . 27-17 Q--51

4
* " •
51-17 17-51
'
51 17
27-17 = ^59; 9-51 = ^59
Therefore -§4- = •£?
Some students might see that 17*3 = 51 but all of

this might be put on the board to help derive the
rule for equality.
pages 279-281 -210- 8-3
- 25_ „ 26 . 25-63 „ 26-61
25-63 = 1575; 26-61 - 1586
1575 < 1586 and

|J <
§|
6
D*
1,20-' •
7-39 ?-
20-13
13 39 13-39 39*13
7-39 = 273 ; 20-13 - 260
260 and ^3-
||
273 >
>
X21
^, = but again we do this the long way to help
x
students see the rule.)
1
ll F- 15

>
>
5
10 14
"
4
8
•1
3. ~ 11. 19. 3_5_

15 12 3> "0" 15
10
hi
6
4
4. *< 12. 20.

:
13
9
<f
11 12
4
8
¥
5. 13. 21. ~
10
15
11
h
J>
•1
6. 14. 22.
<
12
6 7
14 i£
ll <f
9
7.
19 >! 15. 23. 10 15
14
£
;
1 3
.
!<
>
'
3
5
9
8-3 -2ll- pages 281-284
o. If f <£ then
|>£.
*26.
■w
b
£
a b
Answers to Exercises 8-3e
1. a. r < t d. p > u g. u < q

b. p < q e. t < q h. p < s
c. s > p f. q > r 1. p > r
2. Yes
3. If a > b and b > c then a > c.

If a = b and b ■ c then a = c.
4. a. 5 < 12, 12 < 17, then 5 < 17
b.
3"
<
2"
' ? then
1 <
c. 5 >
\ \ , > 0 then 5 > 0
Answers to Exercises 8-3f
1. a.
1 1 i i
F < ¥ <
3
<
2
? ? 2
b. <
T <
3
5
? 3 ? 3
7
<
F <
5
< ¥
3
<
f <
J2_
10
.21
N
7 12
9 _4_ _3_ 4 14 10 v 6 2
IF
2. - 3 v
12 >
12 >
10 > c*
IF>TF>l2>15>lF
12 6 8 6 2 12 . 7 12 . 8
b. *d. v
15>F>T2>10>F 28" > lF >
32 >
2?
pages 284-286 -212- 8-4
8-4. Operations on the Number Line with Rational Numbers

So far, with numbers on the number line
our operations
have been confined to the whole numbers. Here we show that the
same geometrical methods of adding, subtracting, multiplying,
and dividing apply to any rational numbers. So as not to bring
in the added difficulty of locating the numbers on the number
line most of the examples in this section have the numbers in
dicated by letters. We are careful to state that the numbers
a, b, etc. are rational numbers, even though the methods apply

as well when the numbers are irrational. But the student has
not yet encountered the irrational numbers. When points are
selected on the number line it is necessary to specify that these
are points representing rational numbers. We will not be ready
to treat the question of whether every point on the number line
represents a number until we discuss the real numbers in a later
course.
It
should be noted that in addition and subtraction prob
lems the operations may be performed when both terms are located
geometrically but in all the multiplication problems only one
of the factors is given geometrically. The reason for this is
that geometrical multiplication, when both factors are exhibited
as points, is rather complicated and can in fact only be per
formed when the location of the number 1 is known. This
construction is given below.
8-4 -213- pages 284-286
With 0, 1, a, and given as indicated, we have drawn a

b
line through 0 and marked off, with 0 as an endpoint, seg
ments of length 1 and b. Call the other endpoints of these
segments P and Q. Next line through
we draw a P and a
and then draw the parallel to this line through Q.
Label as x the point at which this parallel intersects the

number line. From the similarity of the two triangles in this
figure we see that
a_ x_
1 b
Solving for x we have, x = a*b.
To see the necessity of knowing the location of 1 in
order to find a*b, look at the same construction with a and
b located as before but with 1 located differently
Again f- =
^
so that x = a«b, but compare with the preceding
construction!
pages 286-289 -21 4- 8-4
1. u 6. t 11. P
2. v 7. P 12. t
3. s 8. t 13. t
4. r 9. q 14. s
5. t 10. q 15. V
2.
7_
• 2
—£+3
1 1
i-
!
I = H
3 1 I
M I
c) 1 2 3 *
7
2
4
3. a. u e. y i. V
b. P f. q J. s
c. q g. r k. u
d. t h. u 1. q
Answers to Exer cises 8-4c

1. a. X e. V 1. z
b. z f. V J. w
c. w g. X k. w
d. z h. V 1. y
8-4 -215- pages 290-291
1. To locate a -*-* we first locate a -r 5 since a -=-

^
-r Then locate
5)
a -r
•§-
■ • =
3(a>-r we
.
5)
-
(a
•
a
+
+
3
|
0t4 0+4
++
a^-5 a+i a+j
+
a
To locate -r -*•
fwe first locate and then locate
4
a.
a
-f
3-(a 4).
+
in
3
-r -g" and -r 77 are located the same manner.

a
2.
+H
1
a*3 a-r a-b 3-b 4-b a+b

0
2
b
3.
*+2
-+— —
h
I
*t
4
3 4 3 4-
2f
2
4,
».a
—
h
H
fa j-a £-a fa fa
0
page 291 -216- 8-4
5. a., b.
-H—
<f* 2
2*
4?
{*♦*}
-*«
3 1
student also write 4-1
F8
The may + •«- + =
^
2
f<§
8
or
6. a. , b.
4
' 1 ' 1 ■ 1 1 iii 1 1 1 ' I
■ 1 1 1 11 1 1
1
1 1 1
or I or I?
3 9
c«
3<7
d.
(§+*)<(J+*) or ^<g
7. a.
4-+
2- *- T t
4 6
2
C " 2"
4 c 6
b.
itt;
fe"
7 9^
7}
—
h
-l
c. 2*
2-F
<
T
1.3 1.9
d.
3^27
2
*8. a. then
b
b
a
+
c
a
c
<
<
then c-a c-b

b
a
<
<
8-4,8-5 -217- pages 291-300
b. If c = 0 then a + 0 = a, b + 0 = b and the

first rule holds.
If c = 0 then o • a ■ 0 and c • b = 0 and thus
the second rule does not hold.
c. The correct rule is:
If a 0 then c • a < c •
b.
8-5. Mixed Numbers
No novelties are encountered in this section.
1. a. improper e. improper i. improper m. improper

b. improper f. proper J. proper n. proper
c. proper g. improper k. improper o. proper
d. improper h. proper 1. improper
2. e, b proper; 1, d, a, c, f improper.

1.
°4
H — i+ H
H
* ♦ V
3_
-H
,3
,
h
f 7
X 2t i is L 5
2i 3-1- 4

1.
2- 3*- 4*
H 1 i I i "h-HH h
3T 4 4| 5
!. a. {-
c. T
11
e.
23
5
g.
3
T f. T £2
13 23
b. h
d. h.
9
pages 300-303 -218- 8-5,8-6
i. * k. §1
12
m.
100
T" o.
442
21
-J. 9 1. 5£
5
n. ^ P.
362
19
, 1
3. a. 4 e.
4 i. 10& m.
1•SoF
b. •1
f. *§ J. 31rr n. ,,34
TiT
4
*
c. g.
2if k. ioi2
1021
o.
1209
d. 4 h. n| 1. P. 7l6
777
4. a. 4 d. 4 g.
4 J.
b. 5ii e. 03 h. k.
4
*
^15 ^20 10
c. f. 7ll
73o
i. "1 1.
*»
5. a. 4 c. ** e. 55 g.
4
b. 4 d.
€ 3
h. 36
55
i. 1
8-6. Complex Fractions
We included a section on expressing fractions with
have
denominator 10 to help the student when he needs to express
rational numbers as decimals. The student should see that we can
only approximate the location of t? if we locate it on a number
3
scale divided into tenths of a unit.

This seems like a good place to review the meaning of a
fraction. This meaning is used in the ninth grade course.
1. a.
8
-5
o, *5 or 1|
2
b. or
l7j
d«
y~ 15"
8-6 •219- pages 303-305
16
or
4 or
aj-
e, h. $
f , 1. £
2
g-
3
2 23
2. a, d. or
1
3 21 27
b- e.
35
5
f.
-4
10
1. a. 10
e. JL
10
20 10 i2
4
-Q-
b. " .
f
10 10 10 10
c.
i£
"
jL g- ii = + i3L
2
10 10 10 10 10
—
210
54
T
a. = + h. 15.
5
10 10 10 10
2. We have put all of the points on this number line:

1
<
9
9
-11
1-
1
1
9
2
8
s
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
for all points

4
Note that except -*- are only located

approximately.
pages 305-306 -220- 8-6,8-8
The points > 1 are located on the following number line.

You may wish to have the students put all of the points on
one number line.
3-
2
7_
3
ii4
+ + 4- +— »-
3. a.
100
100 100 4102
2000
b.
3 666| 666|
1000 1000
10v
— n
—
210000
52500 52500
c. 10,000
m
10,000
_
10
8-8. Review
Answers to Review Exercises 8-8

1. a. 4-3
—
1
I 3
1
3 j1
*\
3 ,i 1
1
3
1
1 h 1 H h H h 1 H h
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 II 12
12 -f 4 4-3
b. Same diagram for 12 4-4.
5 + 2
0
+
12 +
3
+
4 8
d. Same diagram for 7-5,

8-8 -221- pages 306-308
2.
H 1 1 H— — I I 1 1 1 1 1
0 I 2 I 3 I 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 2
3.
H I 1— I 1 1 h
0 1
3
14 1 4 3 2 5 3
3 3 2
h. a. y d. z g. X j. u
b. V e. V h. X k. X
c. X f. VT i. y 1. z
5.
623
-L
4
o± -~
^2,
*-
Z
-I— I h
0^3 I 2 3 4 £\
5
6# If rationa-1
a number is greater than 1, then when it is
expressed as a fraction its numerator is greater than the
denominator. Therefore the reciprocal has the denominator
greater than the numerator and the reciprocal is less than 1.
If the rational number is between 0 and 1, then when it

is expressed as a fraction its numerator is less than its
denominator. Its reciprocal has a denominator less than its
numerator and represents a rational number greater than 1.
7. a. b < e c. m > n e. r < s

b. e > m d. n < r f. s > u
8. a. 2-3 c.
3
e.
3
< T 7 >f lT >
3
b.
3 2
d.
6
9
k
f. ¥>&
ll
pages 308-310 -222- 8-8,8-9
9. a.
a
5 <^
3
/ 2
c.
¥<% e.
$>*
-
D*
8
12
" 10
15
d.
9
* 10
f.
M
0. 10
3
ll. 2 12.
4
15
13. Bralnbuster: Each part may be used in the following part,
a. l +
r-^T-
1 +
1+--3-- i
2 2
+
|-
D.
L_ 1 + 1 + •?" =
1 + n
■ g = *F
1 + 2- 5 5
c i +
v 11 — i x-1 + +
i-f
1+2
8-9. Answers to Cumulative Review
1. addition 5. none or zero

2. inverse 6. a. (6, 12, 18, 24)
3. counting, even counting b. This is the empty set
4. subtraction 7. (32, 36, 4o, 44, 48)
8. 70
1
9. a. 1 b. 2
c. §
1 22 21
10. a. c. e.
7 7
b.
1
19
d. 8931
6
f. 7
ll. a. A AFC, ABDE, ABGC e. point A
b. points G and C f. AD
c. the empty set
d. LBGC
8-8 -223- page 310
12. Since A Is on EB and D is on CE, then AD Is in

the plane CEB.
This set of questions should not chapter test.be used as a
Teachers should construct their own tests using carefully selected

items from those given here and from items of their own.
True of False:
T. 1. "
100 12
F. 2. If fraction has a larger numerator than that of a
one
second fraction, the number represented by the first
fraction is always larger than the number represented
by the second fraction.
F. 3. The diagram for the problem 9*3 and 27-3

are the same.
F. 4. A whole number can never have a fraction as a name.
F. 5. If two fractions have the same denominator, the numbers
they represent are always equal.
1
T. 6. — w— can be represented as a fraction with numerator and
2
denominator as counting numbers.
T. 7. A fraction is a numeral indicating the quotient of two

numbers, with denominator different from zero.
T. 8. 4_
11
~ JL 100
F. 9. The reciprocal of « 13
is
-224-
T . 10 * =§• ^
<? —
21 22
Multiple Choice
b. 1. If 4-5 > 2-2 then
a. 2 <
5
k 2
h
b- s
>
2 5
.C 4 2
2=5
d . none of these
c_. 2. If 51-3 - 17-9 then
a-
5f >TT
<
9 17
c.
9
d. none of these
jc. 3. We can change the denominator of the fraction —

5—
5
to the number "1" without changing the value of the
fraction by
a. adding to the numerator and denominator

-jr
b. subtracting -jr from the numerator and denominator
c. multiplying both numerator and denominator by

^
d. dividing both numerator and denominator by

^
e. none of these
-225-
General Questions:
1. In each case below insert one of the symbols, <, = , >,
so as to make the statement true:
a«
i
IT §
"fi*
Ans.
> e«
e»
6
on
ll
"tr"
Ans.
>
<
20 3"5
0
b.
3
F
3
9
> f. 5
0
3
3
~ 2 19 18
c. 2
-=•
3 > g.
20 19
d. 2 1 =
9 7
y
f
2. crafts class needs type of decoration that sells for
7^
A
cents foot in one shop and at feet for

cents in 25
3
a
another shop. How much can be saved on each foot at the

cheaper price?
Ans. At the second shop the price is &W cents for foot
a
hence of cent per foot can be saved by buying
£
at the first shop.
3. group of seventh graders have promised to collect 50

A
pounds of scrap metal. They have 3wr pounds; how much more
must they collect to keep their promise?
Ans. 13tt pounds
4. Tom needs four pieces of wood feet long for the legs of
a
2^
table. Boards from which this wood can be cut come in the
following lengths: feet, 10 feet, 12 feet. What
8
length board should he get? How much will be left over?
Ans. He needs 11 feet; hence he should get the 12 foot

board. He will have one foot left over*
Chapter 9
DECIMALS
The aims of this chapter are:

1. To review decimal notation.
2. To develop a method for writing rational numbers as
decimals.
3. To develop and rationalize the rules for performing
arithmetic operations with decimals.
4. To show that rational numbers may be expressed as
repeating decimals.
5. To develop the concept of rounding numbers.
SUGGESTED TIME: 8 LESSONS
9-1. Decimal Notation
This section opens with a review of decimal notation and the

expanded form. Since this work has been done in an earlier
chapter, the initial portions of the section can be covered
expeditiously. The need for the decimal point and its placement
are developed in the text. This should be carefully discussed in
class since slow students will find reading this section by them
selves a formidable task.
The explanation of changing a rational number to a decimal is
motivated by the number line and the measurement of a segment of
the number line. The main point here is that when we wish to
increase the precision of our measurement, a new unit one-tenth
of the previous unit is selected. Our positional- system of writ
ing numbers is analogous to this, since, reading from left to
right, the value of each place decreases by a factor of 10.
pages 3ll-314 -228- 9-1

1. a. 3(10) + 7
b. 2(l(T + 9(10) + 5
c. 6(103 + 4(io2) + 1(10) + 7
d. 5(102 + 0(10) + 8
e. 2(103 + 0(102) + 6(10) + 9
f. 3(103 + 0(102) + 0(10) + 5
g. 7(102 + 8(10) + 0
h. 1(103 + o(io2) + 9(10) + 0
2. a. 259 d. 6,8o4
b. 5,483 e. 1,007
c. 910
3. a . 70 d. 5,000
b. 200 e. 0
c. 2 f. 500
4. Many possible answers

swers:
a . 4536 c. 1059
b. 7509 d. 3516

a. 4,967 f. 0.483
b. 5,6l8.3 g. 372.06
c. 245.61 h. 0.0206
d. 804.359 1. 3.507
e. 5.24
2. a. 7(KT) + 8(HT) + 6(10) + 2

9-1 -229- pages 314-315
b. 4(102) + 3(10) + 7 + 9(j$)
c. 2(10) + 8 +
6(^)
-1"
+ 4(-i-)
10*
d. 3(102) + 4(10) + 7 + l(~) + 5(-^r)
e. 9(10) + 6 +
3(^r)
10
+
7(-^)
10d
+ 2(i)
10J
f. 2 + 4(i)
10
+
6{-±z) + 5(-^r)
10^ 10^
g. 3(A)
10
+ 8(-ij) +
M"^)
10^ 10J
h.
10 10J
i. 2(10) + 4 + o(i)
•10' T
+ 9(-ô)
-^ 2'
"LU
KT
J. 3(-^-)
10J
+ 9^)
10
3. a. Six hundred fifty-eight

b. Three and two tenths
c. •
Four and seventy-three hundredths
d. Fifty-eight and twenty-nine hundredths
e. Seven hundred fifty-nine and six tenths

f. Forty-eight and seven hundredths
g. Three and two hundred nine thousandths

h. Thirty-seven and one hundred six ten-thousandths.
4. a. 5.52 d. .Ik
b. 762.9 e. 2.007
c. 300.52 f. 60.07
*5. 0.5
*6. 0.6,
twelve
n
'• u,itwelve
pages 315-317 -230- 9-2, 9-3
* *, "
'?)
*8. 10.0lltwo
= 1(2) + 1 + T+ +
F+ %
2
F
F
= 2.375
-55. ." ll f. 12
3
1. a.
1
100 20 1000 250

2L
3
b. 100
g-
100
Qk _ 21
"
4
c. 10
h. TOO
~
25
5
13
i. 6k
"
8
d. 1000 1000 125
105 21
e. ~ J.
¥
1000 200 100
2. a. ôr a* or
i |
1000 500
36
b. or or
9
^
e*
100 25
-30- or
3
n
c* «*.
100 10
9-3. Expressing Rational Number In Decimal Form

a_
We purposely begun this section with fractions whose

have
denominators are factors of powers of 10 since this type of
rational number is easily changed to decimal form. The student
should develop the ability to change these numbers to fractions
by inspection. However, he should realize early that there are
many rational numbers which are not so easily changed to decimal
form. Hence, it is necessary to develop some method by which he
can understand and perform the change of any rational number to
decimal form. The teacher should emphasize that the Multiplica
tion Property of is useful and provides powerful device
1
by which we may perform this operation. The idea of multiplying

by number (other than zero) and then dividing by the same
a
number is merely an application of the Multiplication Property

9-3 -231- page 318
of 1. The next phase of this overall development is the use of

the algorithm. It is hoped that by this time the student will be
able to see why this algorithm iworks.
1.
A B C D E F
6 6oo
t
6d
*
10
.6 100
.60 1000
.600
>
f i
10
.5
55*
100
150
.55 555f
1000
1500
.555
11 1.5 1.50 1.500

•
1 10 100 1000
-
d
36 1S 1.4
l44 1.44- 1440
1.440
25 10 100 1000
i1
1 ±d2 125
e
F .1 .12 .125
lo 100 1000
' *
4
10
.1
4
100
.16
166|
1000
.166
'2 750
B 4 10
.7 100 .75 1000 .750
8
4 25 32
h
h
10
.0 100
.03 1000
.032
125
2. aB, aD, aP, cB, cD, cF, dD, dF, eP, gD, gF, hF
3. bF, fF
page 320 -232- 9-3
Answers to Class Exercises 9- 3b
10 10 Ql
! a-
a 1XJ3
^x
X " ?L.
T
•".•
10 10 10
10 30
TT IT " Q8
TT
ll
3
-
v
^ "
10 10 10
11
io 6o ft4
g x -X- - -X- - -*-
T
7 10 10 10
d •
2
* 10
5
e. * 2 10
5
10 £0
f. £x
9
x 9
10
9-
10 10
9
100 100
1"
2. a. *- 100
3
3
"
100
~
33T
100
100 300
11
- 11 " 27^
*>
-
b. x
100
100 100
11
u #
6 T"
7x 100
100
~ T
600
100
- ^100
7
d. ix j5p_
50
" _5_o_
100
20 60
e.
|x 20
~
100
9-3 -233- pages 320-324
100 00
55^
5L
9 100 100 100
1. a. .42 ; .428 ; .4285
b. .1 : .15 j .1538
2. Change 300 to 3000. Complete the division of 3000 by 7-

The quotient is then divided by 1000 rather than by 100.
3. Change 200 to 20,000. Complete the division of 20,000

by 13. The quotient is then divided by 10,000 rather
than 100.
a. .36 ; .363 ; .3636
b. .2 ; .21 .212
c. .6 ; .62 ; .6216
•5. a. 0.363636
b. 0.212121
c. 0.621621
See Class Discussion 9-3d for reasons
1. b. y was multiplied by 1000, and then by 10, altogether
multiplying by 10,000. Therefore, we must divide

by 10,000.
2. Repetition begins at the seventh decimal place. (.1428571)

3. Many possible answers.
4. The remainder 16 is the same as the original dividend.
This remainder has not yet been divided by 33. To do this
division involves a repetition of what has already been done.
If the process is continued through an additional two partial
pages 325-327 -23^- 9.3
divisions, the remainder is again

continued through 16. If
another two partial divisions, the remainder 16 again
reappears. The repetition continues endlessly.
1. a. O.llT c. O.46o" e. 0.833"
b. 0.51T d. 0.675o75 f. 0.2882BB"
2. a. 0.090 c. .272 e. 1.272
b. 0.181 d. .818 f. 2.090
g. All are repeating decimals.

p
3. a. The decimal numeral for yy- is twice the decimal
numeral for »y .
b. 3 times, 9 times, 1^ times, 23 times the decimal
numeral for yy .
4. Yes. 0.45^5
5. Yes. O.630T
6. Yes.

1. Yes, 1^2857
2. Yes
3. 0.0909
4. No.
5. Yes. By a bar over the block of digits that repeats,

that is, 0.0909.
6. Yes
7. a. Yes. b. Yes. c. Yes.
8. 0.027027
9-3,9-^ -235- pages 327-330
Answers to Exercises 9-3g
1. yt - 0.076923...
a. Seventh place.
b. No.
c. By a series of dots.
d. Yes, 076923
e. By a bar over the block of digits that repeat, 0.076923
2. a. 0.3333"
b. O.160"
c. O.llllT
d. O.363o"
e. O.^66o"
3. a. 0.500 d. 0.600 g. O.60"
b. 0.200 e. 0.87500 h. O.81BT
c. 0.7500 f. 0.800 1. 0.55

J. 0.733"
9-^. Operations With Decimals

Arithmetic
The purpose of this section is to introduce the arithmetic
operations on decimals, and for this purpose it was thought best
to work with terminating decimals.
Answers to Exercises 9-â
1. a. .8 e. 1.00302
b. 1.32 f. 23.30
c. l.*5 g. 49.22
d. 1.101
pages 330-336 -236- 9-4
2. a. 0.6 e. 0.075
b. 0.08 f. 0.375
c. 0.26 g. 1.0045
d. 0.39
3. a. 3.81 d. 12.245
b. 13.446 e. 0.1635
c. 5.634 f. 4.931
4. .45 lb
5. 5.2 seconds
6. 14.;27 Inches
*7. 3.5
1. a. 0.56 d. 0.00625
b. 0.054 e. 144
c. 0.00081 f. 0.027270
2. a. 0.501 e. 0.3
b. 0.00816 f. 1.435
c. 0.0003 g. 255
d. 0.04532 h. 702.05
3. a. 375 d. 0.375
b. 37.5 e. 0.0375
c. 3.75 f. 0.00375
4. 0.0625
5. 53. 568
6. 286
7. 163 .4 miles
9-5 -237- pages 337-3^0
9-5. Rounding Decimal Numerals

begin this section by showing the reasonableness of
We
rounding large numbers and relating the process of rounding to

the number line. This procedure is now applied to decimals.
1. a. 300 d. 900 g. 400

b. 300 e. 700 h. 1000
c. l400 f. 3600 1. 5300
2. a. 6,000 d. 15*000 g. 1^5,000

b. 3,000 e. 63^000 h. 1^5,000
c. 3,000 f. 1 44, 000 i. 326,000
3. a. 730,000 c. 70,000 e. 570,000

b. 160,000 d. 200,000 f. 90,000
1. a. the thousandths digit, 7, is greater than 5

b. the thousandths digit, 1, is less than 5
c. the thousandths digit, 4, is less than 5
d. the thousandths digit, 4, is less than 5
2. a. 48.36 c. 35.02 e. 0.01
b. 0.52 d. 6.01 f. 0.10
3. a. 16.4 d. 0.1 g. 3.1

b. 48.7 e. 0.1 h. 68.1
c. 108.1 f. 1.2 1. 43.0
4. a. 4.049 c. 0.001 e. 185.731

b. 17.107 d. 0.002 f. 62.912
5. a. 0.6 c. 0.4 e. 2.1

b. 0.3 d. 0.8 f. 3.3
6. a. 0.53 c. O.56 e. 0.71
b. O.67 d. 1.58 f. 0.17
pages 342-344 -238- 9-7
9-7. Chapter Review
1. a. 7(10) + 9
b. 4(l02) + 5(10) + 3
c. 6(103) + 0(102) + 2(10) + 8
d. 5(103) + 7(102) + 3(10) + 9
2. a. 352
b. 4,937
c. 8,094
3. a. Fifty-four and three tenths

b. One hundred sixty-nine and five hundredths
4. a. 6.9
b. 90.06
5. a. 0.30 c. 1.38 e. 2.75

b. 0.83 d. 0.22 f. O.67
6. a. 0.47, 0.44
b. 0.36, 0.35
c. 0.32, 0.28
7. a. 3.55 b. 4.66l
8. a. 0.45 b. I.129
9. a. 5.18 b. 4.456
10. a. 0.0315 b. O.OO56
ll. a. O.1897 b. 179.8
12. a. 0.2727 b. 0.77 c. 0.384615
13. a. 400 b. 1,300 c. 900

d. 12,500
9-7,9-8 -239- pages 344-346
14. a. 7,000 c. 77,000

b. 485,000 d. 5,000
15. a. 2.5 c. 96.6

b. 385.1 d. 1, 043.1
16. a. 3.27 c. 0.02

b. 489.06 d. 5,829.14
17. a. 25.095 c. 47.695

b. 3.126 d. 78.044
18. a. 0.88 b. 0.24
9-8. Cumulative Review

1. Distributive property.
2. All are correct.
3. 7x7x7x7; 24oi
4. a. True d. False
b. False e. True
c. True
5. a. I RST
b. the vertex
c. the interior of / RST
6. a. AD
b. There are several; for example, AD and EG, BC and
FH, etc.
c. The empty set
d. / EFH
7. a. 4 c. 3I or
^
or
b.
3| ^ d. 83L
page 346 -24o- 9-8
,13
e. 2lF f. 2
8. a. 2.125 d. 0.875
b. 5.25 e. 1.75
c. 0.9
9. $53.89
10. 3031 Check: 3031 x 28 = 84,868
1
11. a. d. or
1^-
2 3-
b. -
$
c.
0
, hI^8
8
id.
12
10 a. = a.
Y2 <
8
v ll
T2
7 6
v
T3
b. *
>
>
13"
c. JL
12
_ 16
2T

Note: Teachers should construct their own tests, using carefully
selected Items from those given here and from items of
their own. Careful attention should be given to diffi
culty of items and time required to complete the tests.
1. True - False
(F) a. 502 written in expanded form is 5(102) + 1(10) +

2
(F) b. = 0.13333...
-|
(F) c. 0.3 X 0.003 = 0.009
(T) d. .2 .08 - 2.5

*
(F) e. 3tt, rounded to the nearest tenth, is equal to 3.2.

-24l_
2. Complete the following:
a. In the decimal numeral 9384.562 the digit 9 occupies

the _______________ place. (thousands)
b. Written in positional notation the numeral
7(103) + 5(10) + 3 (-2*) is

10
(7,050.03
c. The difference between the sum of 1.05 and 0.75 and
the sum of 0.5 and 0.125 is

(1.175)
d. The decimal numeral for the rational number —
f is
(0.0909)
e. The decimal numeral 437,454 rounded to the nearest
tenth is (^37.5)
3. Write each of the following in words:

a. 659.03 b. 1,248.409
(Six hundred fifty-nine (One thousand two hundred
and three hundredths) forty-eight and four
hundred nine thousandths
4. Write in decimal form:

a. Seventy-six and three hundredths (76.03)
b. Five hundred two and forty-eight thousandths (502.048)
5. Perform the operations indicated:

a. 3.05 + 2.483 - 1.009 (^.524)
b. 6.015 - 3.999 + 1.076 (3.092)
6. When the Clark family started on a trip, the speedometer on

their car registered miles. At the end of the
15,467.8
first day of driving it registered 15, 802.1 miles. At the
end of the second day of driving it registered 16,189. 4
-242-
miles. How many miles did the Clark family travel on the
first day? on the second day? (334.3 miles, 387.3 miles)
7. Mr. Brown knows that, on the average, he drives 18.7 miles

on each gallon of gas. He has 7.5 gallons left in his
tank. How far can he drive on this quantity of gasoline?
(l4o.25 miles)
8. An airliner used 1 gallon of gasoline for each 1.8 miles
of flight. How many gallons of gasoline will the airliner
use in a flight of 837 miles? (465 gallons)
9. Perform the indicated operations:
a. .0658 x 375 (24.675)

b. 21 + .024 (875)
10. Find a decimal numeral for each of the following:
a. § (2.5) b. § (1.125) c. -g (O.85)

ll. Find a decimal numeral for
of the following.
each Round
the result to two decimal places.
a. ^ c.
(O.69) b.
^ (0.18) ^
(1.29)
12. Write decimal numerals for each of the following. Use a
horizontal bar to indicate the block of digits that repeats.
a. i| (O.91S)
b. ^
2l (0.2083")
C. ll
1(^
TT (0.9090
6
d. % (0.857142)
7
Chapter 10
RATIO AND PERCENT
The purpose of Sections 1 and 2 is to give a meaningful in

troduction to ratio and proportion. The important concept of this
chapter is proportion. A proportion arises when two quantities
are compared by measurement in different situations. When a
physical or mathematical law can be written as a proportion, then
this law can be used to deduce new information from old. Thus,
in the example, shadow length is proportional to height. When we
know the constant ratio and the shadow length, the height can be
computed.
A suggested time schedule for the chapter is included, but
each teacher should adapt the pace to his class.
2 days Section 10-1 Ratio
3 days Section 10-2 Proportion
4 days Section 10-3 Percent - a Special Kind of Ratio
2 days Section 10-4 Ratio as a Percent, a Decimal,
Fraction
a
10 days Section 10-5 Application of Percent
10-6 Summary
Section 10-7 Review

{Section
25 days Total.
The use of the notation a:b should not be encouraged but
the teacher may point out that the notation ": " is short for "+".
(a .• b means a-rb; and ^ means a*b.)
pages 3^7-3^9 -244- 10-1
Answers to Class Exercises 10-la

3
1. a. 10
80 8
b. or
90 9
48
c. 12
or k
3 1
d. or
12
16 h
e. 12
or
3
f. If or §
2. There is a great advantage in using the unit in the
same
numerator and denominator, but it is not always possible.
Errors may be avoided since the true relationship between
the quantities compared is evident.
o ft 1
a- d-
IT 2Tor 3"
b. Tf e. 75"
c- iSo"
or T f. &or F
3. a. 75 miles
b. 2tj inches
The answers to Exercises 10-la are given in the Initial and

simplified form. Both are correct.
If 6r = 258, then r =
^-
by our definition of
rational number.

, 48 3
1- oT= T
*•
30 T J
, 3
3.
^
10-1 -245- pages 3^9-352
6. 2<y, §- f = 2
2 1
7.
8. a. 12 T^
e.
b. 15000
25^00
= fI# -2-
10
" l8
c. 2Q
55 ll g.
s
h 1
d. h.
* ^
1
9. a. 20
b. 85 miles
10. 24" long, 16 " wide
ll
-LJ-# a
a# J-
300
b. 3600 miles
5 1
c. ^ in. or 2g- in.
12. a. 520 miles per hour b. ^°- or 520
13. 4o miles per hour
1. Depends on height of individuals. Length of shadow is

2
<*- x height.
-
pages -246- 10-1,10-2
353-355
2.
Object Shadow Length Height Ratio
Garage 3 ft. 8 ft. 3

F
3
Clothes 36 in. 96 in. F
pole
t| ft. ft. 3
Tree 20
F
3
Flag pole 54 in. 144 in. F
3
Fence 11^ in. 30 in. F
2 48 6 65 _ 13
3. a. h c. " d.
9 5 125 5 100 20
c
4. d
s
5. 5F
2k
6.
7m
7. w
10-2. Proportion
Proportion is a Essentially it has its origin
new concept.
in physical examples. If four quantities are proportional, then
any two ratios of corresponding values of these quantities are
equal, since each ratio is equal to the "constant of proportion
ality." The expression, "constant of proportionality" is not
used in the student text. We simply say that the ratios are
equal.
The Comparison Rule from Chapter 8 is
necessary in the
solutions of the problems. It may be wise to review its meaning
and application.
Good mathematics involves good organization of written work.
Encourage the students to follow the form demonstrated in the
examples with the successive steps written in vertical arrangement
and the equal signs in a straight column. It is not necessary
10-2 -247- pages 355-356
to write the reasons in every case. Knowing them is necessary.

Since percent problems may often be written as proportions, care
in solving proportions in this section will make the solution of
percent problems easier in the later sections.
3 36 3 c,
a. b.
"3^
1. 10 F
90-=
2. a. lbs.
9
b.
c. or
h
d. i5 or
i 3
9
3. 15 lbs. since 1-" 25-

15
3
Note: In Problems and the teacher should insist on the form

4
of solution demonstrated in the text.
4. a. n - b. n . 24 c. n m 30
8
5. a. = 15 b. == 42 c. = 56
s
6. It will be 124 inches long. The ratio of the width to the

10
length will proportion is " -y
4
be unchanged. The -r .
7. The rate Is the ratio of money to time. The proportion Is
8. a. cups butter cups flour

4^-
3
cups sugar tsp. vanilla

2
eggs
6
b. The ratio is 75-
eggs
3
Irs cups butter 2jr cups flour

cup sugar
tsp. vanilla
1
1-i-
pages 357-359 -248- 10-2,10-3
9. The ratio of the number of doughnuts to the number of cents
they cost will be unchanged. The proportion is -Tq-

= •—-
c m 4? .
10. The ratio is the number of candy bars to the number of cents
they cost. -£r = -— . x = 100, cost $1.
ll. The ratio is the cost to the number of bricks.
" c " 35> cost *35 .

10^0 25%0
12. b. v = 18 d. v - 85§
c. w = 35 e. w = ll6V
13. a, c, d, e, are equal
*t2i q 2 h DE 6
•14. a. W=F b. =
3- Tf
EF = 3 inches DE = 7x inches.
10-3. Percent
The meaning of percent is based on the idea that "a" %
a 1
means ^qq = a x Too* A11 three "kinds" of percent problems are
introduced informally with numbers that are easily handled. You
will notice that the three "cases" of percent are not referred to
in this textbook. Instead, all problems are set up in the form of
the proportion £- = t^t . The method of solutions of proportions
should be that of Section 10-2 which uses the comparison property
and definition of rational numbers.
Exercises 10-3a emphasize writing percents first as fractions
with 100 as the denominator, and then with the % symbol.
Another point of emphasis is that 100% stands for the number
one or the whole of a quantity.
Answers to questions in Text, Too* "TOO

or 2" ' T3o •
10-3 -249- pages 359-361
•
100'
Y 13
100'
1 1
%
37
100'
13T'
2"' 1'
3
2
%*
2. 0.17, 0.25, 0.65, 0.1, 0.08, 1, 1.5, 2
1. a. Jq e. 20%
b. 107o f. 35 7o
c '
1 JL
20*
3
10' 20
1
s# °3 %
5*
d. 1 h. 5 %
i. 100%
2. a. - e. $» 160 x^, 160%
b. 4o% f. 400 x ^q-, 400%
c. 75 x -j~, 75% g. 307o
d*
lfe' 70 x lfe' 70% h* 0,9°' 90 x °.01' 90%
1. 78 x 0.01, 78 %
12 24
3. a. Pencil or
100
24%
50
10 20
Ice Cream or 100
20%
50
11 30
S. Sch. Coll. or 100
30%
50
13 26
Savings or 100
26%
50
b. !&-
50
x
1
c. 100%
d. The ratios total 1, and the percents total 100%.

pages 361-365 -250- 10-3
4. a. jo or 6o %
b. 4o7o
c. 100 7o
5. a. All wool
b. Everyone has attended
c. Everyone In favor of a picnic
lesson in 10-3 emphasizes the use of percent for

The second
purposes of comparison, and for giving information in more usable
form. More is done with this in Section 10-5. Exercises 10-3a
and 10-3b should be done in one day.
1. a. 60 *
b. 40%
c. 100%
2. a. 50%
b. Decrease
3. a. 65%
b. Higher than the other two.
The third lesson in 10-3 is based on the idea that the

study of percent is valuable if the pupil can use the concept to
solve problems from everyday experience, and can understand and
interpret data expressed in percent. Pupils are given all three
cases of percent in the camp story. The examples of solutions
all follow the pattern -r§o • -"-n c]Lass discussion the
c- ■ esti
mation of a reasonable answer helps the pupil to understand the
relationships among a, b and c in various situations, as
well as serving as a check on an answer.
The Comparison Rule from Chapter 8 is used frequently in
the solution of problems in this section. The Comparison Rule is:
10-3 -251- page 366
If |, m j and b ^ 0, d ^ 0, then a.d - b-c.

In Exercises of estimating and asking
10-3d the Importance
if any answer is sensible and reasonable should be emphasized.
Question 1(e) picks a random answer simply to focus attention
upon how absurd some answers may be. Pupils should avoid falling
into the habit of being satisfied with any result they produce.
Each answer must be closely examined in the light of the problem.
8
1. a. ^4q- is the fraction for Q*7*
b. -^fq is the ratio of the number of pupils, n, who fail

to use their passes to the total number of pupils
who buy passes.
c. The ratios in
(a) and (b) are the same because the
problem states that 8% of the pupils were pupils who
failed to use their passes.
d. 20 pupils
e. No. ~r or 87o is less than 10% and 107© of 250

is 25. This is much less than 200. (Note. Accept
any logical response.)
120 2
2. a. 300
~
5
b. x%
X
c. Too
2 X ,vn 120 " X
d. ■
100
or 300 100
5
e. x - ho
f. 40% Yes (Accept any logical reason.)
3. a. 30 pupils c. 6 pupils
30
b« 7^77
oOO
=
~ x__
T^n
100J» 5% d. 60 pupils
>ag€ is 367-369 -252 10-3,10-4
4. 5oo
- 100 ' 6/o
5. a, 25% b.
$&--lfe> 75*7°
6. b.
J;_ =_ _x_ 10%
100 '
a>
30 10 10
4 22
7.
_n
^-sfe
50 n 0-7 c
8. a- 100
■
75
= 37'5 e. n = 69.6
b«
T§0"
' "TO"
n = 25 f. n 2
100 -TR5"
n = K
5
c,
^=^ n= 200 g.
n
100
_
=
30
25
n - 120
125 - 100
IT _
,
d, n= 8°
on
Too
9. $72.
10-4. Ratio as a_
Percent, a_
Decimal, a_ Fraction
In this section, the work on fractional and decimal equiva
lents for percent emphasizes that the equivalents are different
names for the same number. The bar over the 5 as in 0.55^
indicates that this is a repeating decimal. The sign « for
"approximately equal" should be used whenever the limitations of
notation require it. Students should not write that equals
tj-
16.7% since the two ratios are not the same.
1. 0.17, 0.02, 0.035, O.65, 1.15
JL 13 11 ,c
P
1
1
o
*• 10' 20' 20' 10'
3. 45%, 4.5% 450% 42.5%, 425%

,
,
10-4 -253- pages 370-372
°° %
a. -15-= 75% 55
1. 100 [° e. 100
b. 3§L=8o% f. & ■ 36 %
c. $T-70% g.
T&=85
7o
d. ^"T6* h. 100
- 6o %
2. a. .33 c. .38 e. .55 g. .68

b. .83 d-. .78 f. .88 h. .45
3. a. 33 7o c. 38% e. 55% g. 68%
b. 83% d. 78% f. 88 % h. 45%
4. a. .375 c. .889 e. .833 g. .257
b. .667 d. .967 f. .892 h. .838
5. a. 37.5% e. 83.3 7o
b. 66.7% f. 89.2%
c. 88.9 % g. 25.7 %
d. 96.7 % h. 83.8 %
You must round the decimal to thousandths.
Fraction in Hundred as Decimal Percent

Simplest Form Denominator
a.
b. -25 .25 25%
100
3
c. .75 75%
1 20
d. 5 100
20%
2 40
e. 5 100
.40
f. 3
5
.60 60 %
80
g. .80 80 %
100
page 372 -25*- 10-4
Fraction in Hundred as Decimal Percent

Simplest Form Denominator
1 33T
h. 3" 100 34%
or 33.3
i. J.
10
.70 70 %
66§
J. 2
3 loo 66|%
or 66.7
30
k. Too .30 30%
1 10
1. 10 Too
10 7o
m. -2- _20 .90

10 100
12±
n. 100 .125 12.5%
or 12|%
0. |or 3 3 or 3.00 300%
3 37|
P. 100 37.5%
or 37§-%
3 150
<!•
2 100 1.5
r. i .625 62.5%
or 62^ 7o
1 1
s. 100 loo
1%
87|
t. 100 .875 87.5%
or 87^%
100
u. 1
100
1 or 1.00
1
v. .160" 16|%
or 16.7%
83l 83.3%
w. lo'o' .833
or 83I7°
10-4 -255- page 373
2. _3_ _3_ 4.5_ 7_

8 5 4 5 3 4 5 6 8
■4- -+- -4- -t — I »-
,00%
I2j% 25% 33 50% 60% 75% 87^%
20% 66|% 83^-%

807c
••• •••> •••• •••<•••i •••a •*•>••••••••
•••
••a ••• ••a •••i »•••»••• i••• ••• «•«<
•••<••••••«•
•••-••-• >••«>• aa -••
••• ••• )••• i•••
••• ••• ••••••••••••
;;•; ;;*j ••••••••-••-
1••• •*• «••< '•-•* •- •i •*• •*- ( -••* ••• ••• •••I •-•«-•-•
»••• >••• •- »•- •aa i•-

•••• i••• ::: ::: • •••' •••• >•••
( ••< ••••
'•a• -.-- •••i
••-
a-
a
•
pages 373-388 -256- 10-4,10-5
a. b. c. or
^jr
fa
^.
l|
^
5. a. 52% b. 35% c. 95%
. 30 %
d
10-5. Applications of Percent
Specific applications of percent are introduced so that
pupils may use their new skills with percent and proportion.
Problems which arise in social situations dealing with budgets,
commission, discount, sports records, increase, decrease, and
simple interest are sampled. Students should realize that every
percent problem falls into the same pattern. Two ratios are
equal, as in - ~j
|
.
The examples in to be discussed in

the text are designed
class. In some cases it may be helpful to devise additional
problems for more class discussion before the students are ready
to proceed on their own.
There are certain terms used in business which the pupils
will need to understand. These should be discussed in class.
Diagrams may be used to help clarify relationships.
The sets of exercises are long enough to provide examples
for class discussion and for written assignments.
Fractional percents are developed and students are given
experience in expressing ratios to the nearest tenth of a percent,
If this is too difficult for some classes, the teacher may wish
to omit the problems in which it arises.
Many students and teachers would prefer to do the example
32% of $410 using decimals. It is possible to think of 32%
of 410 as 0.32 x ^10 since in "a fraction of number" the
a
"of" means times. However, the ratio method is useful in every

type of percent problem, and we believe that the student will be
less confused if the teacher uses the same approach for all
problems.
10-5 -257- pages 375-378
1. The total income is distributed, so the sura of the per cents

must be 100% in each case.
2. 22%
3. a.
22
d*
f =
22
f = 99
100 ^50 100
b.
f e. The actual answer is a little
^50
more than the estimate which
c. Estimate about $90 we knew was low.
4. a. 16%
b. 100
s 88
550
c. ~ of 550 is 55
i of 550 is 110
The answer to b. is between the two.
5. 100
=
300
p " 39
6-
lfe=330 t= 24'50
7' I6o
=
TÔ
h = 126
°*
8 -2 §_ s - IS
100 "300 XD
9. 4S°3
■
2M x* 2^<7° This is less than 28<7°* the allowance
in the table for an income of $550.,
J-.
1 a.
a
n_10p_
- n=40
n _ *u c.
c
n
" 52_ n- d\j
n-20
i^ 100 t^- 10Q
-
b*
n
"50
=
80
100
„
n = „
32
-
d-
n
TF0=100
65 _n = rs(i
26
pages 378-379 -258- 10-5
2- a- §§=lSo P = ^% 0.^=^ p=45%
3* a#
100
" * = ,7°
17.50
b- 100
- T*930
fc " 1,98
° "
•
27,500 ~ioo 1>375
7- *
1 _" c c = 11,400 Yes, adequate.
'
100 65b, 000 + 482,000
« „ 27 d
8- a-
100=5T9B"
Discount d m l.6l
S = $5.98 - $1.61 m $4.37
D# "
100 3775
d = 1.01
s = $2.7^
9. a. llll7 total enrollment
pk
c- nfr ife = 3l,-5%
U*
ll17
"
100 P JX°
e . 100 %
10- ^T=Io7)
t= 24o°
10-5 -259- pages 381-384
1. George
|| « .292 « 29.2%
*
Max
|| .314 « 31. 4%
*
Bill fl * ,288 28#8%
Tom
§i - .350 = 35.0% best average
2* = p = 3#7
80" 100
3. aaa.igjjj c- 18,000
*• P = 8.7%
I§0=52^
Answers to Exercises 10- 5d
b,
Tfe-ft P" 21.07.
d, jfe " P * 22.7%

T&
* 8.0%
e-
Tfe-m P (.0795)
f. 100 % Yes
2- P = 20% increase
e| =
100
16 _ p p = 10 % decrease
3# =
Too" 100
4#
_I =
J|L i „ 310 enrollment 124o + 310 = 1550
4.50 "
_ p p = 32.1cP°decrease
5. 14 100
pages 384-388 -260- 10-5
6* a*
100
=
970?000 P=.57°or \%
b- IM " 84y'500 c " 4>237.50
7«
loV-^T p-8.3% or «£%
8. Answers will vary.
9. a. Walsh: ||> . .301 or 30.1%
Schaefer: p[| = .294 or 29. 4%
b. Walsh has the better record.
10. = ___. « 28.1% increase

p
^£__
1]" = tt lJ*«3<^0 increase

p
100 1050
12* 100
=
Tyo
pw 5.6% decrease
13. a. 15 lbs. oz.

2
b. Since lbs. oz. = 121 oz.

7
increase 17 lbs - lbs. oz. » 151 oz.

7
=
llr w 125<7° increase
P
100
15. (b) is correct. The i960 wages are less than the 1958 wages.
Students may understand this result better they see what If
happens to particular amount like $100. If $100 is
a
decreased by 20% it is $80. $80 increased by 20%

,
is only $96.
lm
IBoo
= = 72
I
100
*• „| 15- r _- o6%
2
100 1250
3- =
M - 31-5°
J
9t5o
10-5,10-7 .261- Paees 388-391
k
4*
^2.5 _ _5-_ p
v = 850
p 100
c
5#
I * I- 10
250 100
10-7. Chapter Review
Answers to Exercises 10-r
1. a. "gTf
- J2 b*
"§5"
2. a. Equal c- Ec*ual
Not equal d« Equal

b.
a. - c. c - 15
_
3. c 30
- c
^00 or ll££
nl.22
b. c 57
4.
i
2^
inches high tj-^
4
- 2
^
inches, 12 inches
5. l6|
6. a. 2% c- 66|%
12|% or
7o 12. 5%
b. 5.5 d.
7. 20%
8. $2700
9. About 1^15 students
10. $980.
ll. $8.40
12. 100% increase
13. If |=f (b, d^0), then a.d = b-c
If i^-fg, then 15-36= 27-20

5^0 - 5^0
pages 391-393 -262- 10-7,10-8
14. Rm. 106 .813 or 81.3%

Rm. 107 .833 or 83.3*7©
Rm. 107 had the better score.

15. $31.50
10-8. Cumulative Review
1. a. True
b. True
c. True
2. Base Four
3. ^ 32flve b- c,
21elght 10001two
4. 31«5.2 = 31- (5*2)
- 31-10
- 310
5. a. Eight is less than twelve.

b. Thirty-four Is greater than thirty-two.
c. Five Is greater than three and three Is greater than two,
6. a + b = b + a
7. a. Infinitely many
b. One
c. One
8. a. The interior of / AEC
b. BC
9. a. jQ b. 13 c. -=£-
10. a. 8.204 b. 2.287
11. a. 807° c. 831% d. 37^0

b. 2.6%
10-8 -263- •
page 393
12. No. 72% > 67.6
13. a. 4 c. 1 e.
13
7
g. 12 i. 60
b. 11 d. 0 f. 1
h.
1
F J. 100
Note: Teachers construct their own tests, using carefully

should
selected items from those given here and from items of their own.
Careful attention should be given to difficulty of items and time
required to complete the tests.
True-False
o _
(T) 1. r? is another name for the number 32'°.
(T) 2. An increase in the price of an item from $20 to
$28 is an increase of ^0%.
(F) 3. If class has a total of 32 pupils,
a 20 of them boys,
the number of boys is 60% of the number of pupils
in the class.
(T) ^. Five percent of $150 is the same amount of money as
7.5% of $100.
(F) 5. 62.5% and £ are names for two different numbers.
Multiple Choice
1. Six percent of $ 350 is
a. $210.00 d. $2100.
b. $21.00 e. None of these
c. $2.10 b.
2. If 8% of the number 5^00 is computed, the correct
answer is
a. More than 30 but less than 90
b. More than 3 but less than 5
-264-
c. More than 5^ but less than 5^0.

d. More than 54o but less than 1000.
e. None of these c.
3. If i7o of $320.00 Is computed, the answer Is
a. $16 d. $1.60
b. $l6o e. None of these d.
c. $3.20
4. In a class of 4-2 pupils there are

boys. The number 25
of boys Is what percent (nearest whole percent) of the
number of pupils?
a. 6o% d. 6l%
b. 59% e. None of these
c. 58% a.
5. In the class of 42 pupils there are 17 girls. The

number of girls is what percent (rounded to the nearest
tenth of a percent) of the number of pupils?
a. 4o.4% d. 4o.7 %
b. ko. 6™° e. None of these
c. 39.9% e.
6. The interest on $650 for one year at 4%is

a. $2600 d. $16.25
b. $1625 e. None of these
c. $26 c.
Verbal Problems
1. What commission will a real estate agent receive for selling
a house for $15,4oo if his rate of commission is 5%?
*770
2. The sale price on a dress is $22. 80 and the marked price
showing on the price tag is $30.00. What was the rate of
discount? „/o
24
-265-
3. An increase in rent of 5% of the present rent will add

$3.50 to the monthly rent that Mr. Johnson will pay.
What is the monthly rent that Mr. Johnson now pays?
$70
4. A family budget allows 30*7* of the family income for food.
If the monthly income of the family is $^23, what amount of

money is allowed for food for the month?
$126.90
5. Dorothy was 5 feet tall
(to the nearest inch) when
school opened in September. In June her height was
5 feet 3 inches. What is the percent of increase in
her height? ,.%
6. At acertain time of the day a man 6 feet tall casts a
shadow 8 feet long. At the same time a tree casts a

shadow of 4o feet. How tall is the tree?
30 feet
MATHEMATICS
II
£36fc
I960
v-l
f«t.3 SCHOOL
MATHEMATICS
STUDY GROUP
SCHOOL MATHEMATICS
VOLUME I (Part 3)
(preliminary edition)
UUL7
THF IINIvnttlTY OF MIHHinAN I IRRARIFS

lesthsmattct
\ \
y l

MATHEMATICS
Volume I (Part 3)

© 1961 by The Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University

All rights reserved
PHOTOLITHOPRINTED BY CUSHING- MALLOY- INC-

ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN.UNITEDSTATES OFAMERICA
Teacher's Commentary
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
ll. MEASUREMENT 1
Introduction 1
ll-1.
ll-2.
ll-3.
Counting and Measuring
Properties of Continuous
Measuring
Quantities ... 4
4
8
ll-4. Standard Units of Length 9
ll-5. Precision of Measurement 14
ll-6. Greatest Possible Error 17
ll-7. Metric Units of Length 21
ll -o. Measurement of Angles 23
ll-ll.
26'
Cumulative Review 27
12. AREAS AND VOLUME 33

Introduction 33
12-1. Rectangle 33
12-2. Areas of Rectangles 36
12-3. Precision and Error 43
12-4. Rectangular Prism 44
12-5. Volume 46
12-6. Volume of a Rectangular Solid 48
12-7. Weight and Time 52
12-8. Computations with Measured Quantities . . 5^
12-10. Chapter Review 56
12-ll. Cumulative Review 56
13. PARALLELS, TRIANGLES, PARALLELOGRAMS,

RIGHT PRISMS 6l
13-1. Vertical and Adjacent Angles 66
13-2. Three Lines in Space 69
13-3. Parallel Lines and Corresponding
Angles 71
13-4. Converses 72
13-5. Triangles 75
13-6. Angles of a Triangle 77
13-7. Parallelograms 79
13-8. Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles . . 8l
13-9. Right Prisms 83
13-ll. Cumulative Review .86
Chapter
14. CIRCLES 97
14-2. Interiors and Intersection 102
14-3. Diameters and Tangents 108
14-4. Arcs and Central Angles ll3
14-5. Length of a Circle 114
14-6. Area of Circles 117
14-7 . Cylindrical Solids 121
14-8. Cylindrical Solids - Surface Area . . . 123
14-10. Chapter Review 124
14-ll. Cumulative Review 125
15. STATISTICS AND GRAPHS 131

15-2. Gathering Data 132
15-3. Bar Graphs 133
15-4. Broken Line Graphs 135
15-5. Circle Graphs 138
15-6. Averages 140
15-8. Sample Review Questions l4l
Note to Teachers
This Commentary contains several statements expressing

judgments concerning matters of grade placement. In many of
these it is appropriate to replace "grade seven" with
"grade eight".
Part and Part 4 of Introduction to Secondary School

3
Mathematics are Judged suitable for many pupils In grade
eight j pupils who might find Mathematics for Junior High
School, Volume 2, too difficuITI
Chapter ll
MEASUREMENT
Introduction
TheIdea of measurement Is of fundamental Importance In
modern life. This Is true in the day by day activities of
ordinary citizens and equally true in the activities associated
with most vocations. Newspapers and other kinds of reading
matter are full of references to measurements of one kind or
another. Consequently, there is a great deal of information
about the topic which could conceivably be taught in the seventh
grade, and which some, if not all, seventh grade pupils would
find both useful and interesting. ability
to understand what
The
other people are doing depends to a considerable extent on under
standing the kinds of things they measure and the techniques of
measurement which are used. This in turn depends upon an under
standing of the nature of the thing measured. Adequate treatment
of many techniques of measurement is therefore more suitable
content for courses in other areas, such as science, than in
mathematics .
The fundamental notion of measurement, hotvever, is common to

measurement in all fields, and the development of basic concepts
is therefore an important topic in the mathematics curriculum.
The measurement of one, two and three dimensional figures is also
essential both for development of certain geometric concepts and
for applying these concepts. Furthermore,
things which aremany
not geometric in character are measured by relating their proper
ties to linear or circular scales. In this chapter, therefore,
attention is focused chiefly upon development of basic concepts
which underlie measurements of all kinds, and upon measurements
of line segments and angles. Measurement of surfaces and solids
will treated in the following chapter.
be
While pupils entering the seventh grade have had a substantial
amount of experience with measurement, some of them may have no
clear understanding of the basic concepts and assumptions which
underlie the process. Among the concepts developed in this
chapter are the following:
1. The size of a collection of discrete objects is found
by counting and described by numbers; the size of a
continuous quantity is found by measuring and described
by a measurement which contains both a number and a
unit of measure.
2. The process of counting separate objects yields a whole
number which represents exactly the size of the collec
tion; the process of measuring yields a number of units
which is never exact, but is an approximate representa
tion of the size of the quantity measured.
3. Since all measurements are approximate, a measurement
should be reported so as to indicate its precision,
or its
greatest possible error . The precision is shown
by naming the smallest unit or subdivision used. This
implies the size of the greatest possible error, or the
interval within which the true measurement lies. Pupils
should be encouraged to report measurements which they
have made in a way consistent with this idea, but cannot
be expected at this stage to understand fully its
implications for computed measurements.
4. As suggested above, development of a method for measuring

anything rests upon understanding the aspect of it which
is to be measured. This is true of the measurement of
geometric continuous quantities to which a large part of
this chapter refers. Therefore, four assumptions regard
ing the nature of geometric continuous quantities are
stated.
5. A unit of measure for geometric quantities must be of
the same kind as the thing to be measured — a unit line
segment to measure a line segment, a unit surface to
measure a surface-
6. The size of a unit of measure is arbitrary.
7. The measure of a quantity is obtained
geometric by
subdividing it into parts the size of the unit, and
counting the number of unit parts.
8. Standard units of measure are necessary in highly
organized societies, and are established by social
agreement .
9. Just there are many names for the same number,

as
there are many names for the same measurement .
of the concepts are developed by class exercises to
Many
provide opportunity for discussion of each stage of the develop
ment, and for help by the teacher as is indicated. These sections
must be done with no omissions if the desired results are to be
obtained. Class exercise sections should not be assigned as
homework. In every case, a class exercise is followed by a set
of exercises suitable for homework to reinforce the concepts
developed.
Materials needed by each student for this chapter include
a ruler, with both inches and centimeters, and a protractor,
marked
Compasses are useful for some of the exercises in Sections 2 and
3, but not mandatory.
Classroom equipment should include yard sticks, meter sticks,
and several pairs of scissors.
Students will enjoy reading "How Much and How Many" by
Jeanne Bendick, and two pamphlets written in picture-book style:
"The Amazing Story of Measurement" available for 10^ from
Lufkin Rule Co., 1730 Hess St., Saginaw, Michigan, and "How Long
is a Rod", sent free on request by the Ford Motor Co.
pages 387-388 4 11-1,ll-2
11-1. Counting and Measuring.

of this section is to call attention to the
The purpose
difference between the process of counting and the process of
measuring, and to the kind of quantity to which each is applicable,
1. Counting 8. Yes
2. Measuring 9. No
3. Counting 10. No
h. Measuring ll. Yes
5. Measuring 12. No
6. Measuring 13. Yes
7. Yes
ll-2. Properties of Continuous Quantities.

Measuring continuous quantities is accomplished
geometric
by the process of subdividing the quantities into unit parts.
The purpose of Section 11-2 is to direct attention to four
assumptions about the nature of geometric quantities on which
the process of measuring depends. The notation property states,
"A geometric figure may be moved without changing its size or
shape." To help pupils understand this property it would be
well to suggest some illustrations which do no exhibit this
property. For example, if a rubber band is placed around a box,
both size and shape of the band will be altered. When you mold
clay, the shape of the clay changes, but not the amount of clay.
When a picture slide is projected on a screen, the sizes of the
objects in the picture change, but not the shapes. We think of
geometric figures as keeping both size and shape when they are
moved. This is important for comparison of two geometric
quantities, and also for subdividing a quantity into parts.
ll-2 5 page 388
In the comparison property there is the hidden assumption

that for two geometric quantities a and b, a = b, or a is
greater than b, or a is less than b, and that exactly one
of these relations is true. The comparison property then asserts
that by using the motion property it is possible to determine
which of these relations is true for any two quantities of the
same kind.
property is basic to the notion that differently
The matching
shaped polygons, or other simple closed curves, may have perimeters
of the same length or interiors of the same area. It leads to the
subdivision property which states the assumption that a quantity
may be subdivided without producing a change in the size of the
whole. Both of these properties are used in the process of
measuring.
Emphasize that "continuous quantity" does not mean one thought
of as continuing indefinitely like the geometric concept of a line,
but rather that within its boundaries it is unbroken.
Before beginning Section 2 it would be well to review the
concepts of point, line, ray, line segment, and simple closed
curve, which were introduced In Chapters h and J.
The ideas of Section 2 are developed mainly through exercises.
In Set ll-2a, Problems 1relate to comparison of line seg
and 2
ments and comparison of interiors of simple closed curves. In

Problems 3-5 it is necessary to cut up one of the figures and re
arrange the parts in order to make a comparison. Problems 4 and 5
direct attention to the possibility that closed curves of the same
length may enclose different areas, and that the same area may be
enclosed by curves of differing length.
The paragraphs on Subdividing Continuous Quantities Illustrate
with line segments the essential notion that a unit segment "n"
may be laid off repeatedly given segment to locate a point
on a
such that the segment remaining is less than one unit. Exercises
ll-2b develop this notion further. These problems provide the
basis for the definition of the terms "measure" and "unit of
measure."
pages 388-391 ll-2
Answers to Discussion Questions

There are many possibilities, some of which are:
1. Any representation of the length of a segment, amount of
liquid in a container, weight, span of time, temperature,
electric power.
2. Any quantity composed of countable entities: number of people,

number of coins, number of sheets of paper, number of pencils,
etc .
Answers to Exercises ll-2a

1. a. Same d. RT
b. RT e. RT
c . Same
2. a. Figures ly be pla ced in

rm a variet ;y of
C is the smallest.
A
3. a. All are approximately equal.

m
b. To compare A with B, cut along shorter diagonal of
To compare A with C, turn A over.
To compare A with D, cut as follows:
and reassemble as follows:

A
c . All should have the same area .
h. a. Curves have the same length .

1
' A
b. Interior of E is larger than interior of F.
ll-2 pages 392-396
5. Pupils will probably assemble the parts like this:

/
/ / \
•K
/ //
/ \
/ \ or \\
\
// or any other re-
Equally correct :
arrangement . Areas /
/ / of new figure and
/
area of the square are the same .
The boundary of the new curve is greater than that of

the square.
Answers to Exercises ll-2b

1. Length of 3T «s4c
2. a. Size of interior of A s«3 times size of interior of B.
b. 3
3. a. Length of curve D zzs 2 times the length of curve C.
b. Interior of curve D«3 times interior of curve C.
k. 3
5. a. DE, AF, FCT are approximately the same length.

AD, DB, EF are approximately the same length.
BE, EC, DE are approximately the same length.
b. ADF, PEC, DBE, DEP, ADEF, FDEC, DBEF, ADEC, DFCB,

AFEE, ABC.
c. A. ADF, A DEF, A DBE all have the same area asAEFC.

The interior of A ABC is k times the interior of
Aefc.
*d. Interiors of ADF, EFC, DEF, DEE have the same area.
Interiors of ADEF, FDEC* DFEB have the same area.
Interiors of ADEC, FDBC, and EPAB have the same area.
pages 396-398 8 ll-3
ll-3. Measuring.
Note that in this paragraph distinction is made between the
meanings of the terms "measure", "unit of measure", and "measure
ment". The "measure" is a number, the "unit of measure" is the
arbitrary segment (or surface or solid) with which the quantity
is compared, and the "measurement" includes both the measure and
unit to give an adequate description of the size. The Class
Exercises and the set of Exercises ll-3b serve to familiarize the
pupils with these meanings. The paragraphs which follow and
Exercises ll-3c serve to emphasize the important characteristics
of a unit of measure.

1 . a . Segment of length c .
b. k
2. a. Interior of curve B.
b. 3
3. a . 6t
b. 12t
c. Length of curve D is 2 times the length of curve C.
d. Interior of curve C is unit; interior of curve D is

3 times Interior of curve C.
4. Unit of measure was Interior of box B; interior of box A
is 3 times interior of box B.
Answers to Exercises ll-3c

1. Answers will vary but should be reasonable.
2. Answers will vary but should be reasonable.
3. Differences arise from differences in unit of measure,
i.e., length of foot.
11-4 9 pages 398-401
4. Width, thickness; width, thickness.
5. Book, chalk box, ream of paper, etc.

6. The measure is the number of sheets used but the size is
the number and the name, "note-book sheets".
7. Measures varied.
ll-4. Standard Units of Length .
The pupils exercises to demonstrate the meaning

have had many
of measurement and the arbitrary nature of the unit. This section
should establish the social need for units that are the same for
the entire group. Mass production and the convenience of inter
changeable parts provide a wealth of material for pointing out
this need. The historical material should be of interest and
show society's increasing need for standard units.
The metric system was treated briefly in this chapter because
a study of the system as a whole was considered to be more appro
priate for eighth grade. It should be stressed that our linear
units are defined, by lav/, in terms of the metric units. The
metric system is legal in the U.S. If class time permits, a
discussion of the new definition of a meter as 1,650,763.73
times the v;ave length of orange light from Krypton 86 might be.
interesting. This standard for the meter is difficult to visual
ize, but has the advantage that it can be reproduced in any good
scientific laboratory and is more precise than the platinum and
irridium tar in Prance that is the present standard for the meter.
The approximate nature of measurement has been pointed out
throughout the chapter. Continuing emphasis on the fact that
measurements are not exact should be made, although this topic
will be treated more formally in Section 5. Comparing measurements
of the same object made by different students and also measures
determined by instruments marked with varying degrees of precision
help develop the concept of the approximate nature of measurement.
pages 399-401 10 ll-4
7th grade students have difficulty reading a ruler.

Some
Through making cardboard rulers and studying the increasingly
find divisions in Figure ll->'b, it is hoped that the poor students
will overcome their difficulties while the better student is
seeing the relationship with base 2. Some of the actual measuring
of segments in Exercises ll-'l-c should be done in class so that
the teacher can Identify and work with students who have not
mastered the use of the ruler.
In the hodge-podge that is the English system of measures,
there is a variety of standard units. Conversions from one unit
to another cause a great deal of trouble both in mathematics and
in science. Conversions are treated as number sentences with a
stress on the relation between the units involved In the conver
sion. This should be developed in class and class practice should
be provided to make sure the students understand they are do
what
ing. The use of estimates and common sense are important aids in
converting units. Measurements recorded in different units but
treated as the same unit are the basis for many student errors .
Pupils should be taught to read the names of units as well as the
number of these units. Common sense is called on again to decide
which would be the better of these units to use for a particular
problem.
Answers to Exercises 11-^'a

1. This exercise is designed to show the value of standard units
to social living. Some of the questions may be answered best
by personal interview with local merchants. There should be
no insistence on every student answering every part of the
question.
a. Most bread is sold by v/eight . Loaves are baked in
various sizes.
b. The size of food cans is related to volume. Since a
packer could leave space at the top of the can, the law
requires that each can have the v;eight of the contents
printed on It .
ll-4 11 pages 401-402
c. Men's hats are sized by Inches of diameter.
d. Women's hats by inches of perimeter

e . Socks by length of foot -
f . Round cake pans by diameter; rectangular pans by length

and width .
g. Light bulbs by watts of power used,
h. Bicycles by diameter of wheel.

I. Movie film by width of film, measured in millimeters.
2 and 3. material will be saved if students are supplied
Time and
with cut strips of cardboard. Four scales can be placed on
two strips. Cardboard rulers can be checked with commercial
rulers .
4. a. % 2în.; c. « 2 in.;
b. » 3i in.; d. ~ 4 in.;
e. "zz 3 in.
5. a. * În.j c. ^ in.;
2-|
b. « 3j (or 3^); d. ^ (or

*)
4^
e. cs in.
3
6. a. atf 2g- in.j . ^ (or

c
2-jj- 2^-);
b. ~ 3g in.; d. ~ in.;
4g-
e. si3 in (or In.)

2§
7. Answers will vary-

ths
8. si
8ths of an inch since the divisions come closer to matching
8
the line segments -

pages 402-404 12 11-4
Answers to Class Exercises ll -4b

1. The need to measure segments smaller than an Inch.
2. Into 2 parts
3. Each section of the inch on the left of any given inch
(except the 6 inch) is divided into two parts.
4. Each section is divided into two parts.
5. 4; 8; 16. (The third inch lies between 2 and 3.)

6. Theoretically, there is no limit to the number of divisions.
Discussion of Figure ll-4d should stress the advantage of

comparing the end of a segment with a ruled mark rather than the
end of a ruler. Especially is this an advantage if a ruler is
improperly cut or has become worn. Practice in this means of
measuring may need to be supplied.

rj " o
f
O II It
1. (A) (c) 2H
" "
3 1
(B) 1§" (D) 3jj or 3± (P) 5"
(0) 5§"
"
7
l|"
2. a. £ d. or l|»
"
b. e.
§5
i£-
"
"
°r
1
§5
2.
3.
IN-
0
b.
8
c. The divisions on the line picture the meaning of 5+4;

there are pieces.
8
II-1* 13 pages 404-405
a.
£■'
4. '
Tp1 I
TV' '
5-"
'
^2
'4
16
6
"
a. c. „
g.
2~ 1
e.
^3
^
5. 5|"
,
b. d. f. h-
2^
3|-
1^"
§
6. a. AB
%^ FG ^ 1"
"
"
13
~
1
BC
IF GH
\
« »
"
M
HI
^
CD
§
-*"
^ IJ ~
5
DE ^4r
EF
~f
"
Is possibility of slight discrepancy
l
b. There a
a
(-*-£-
)
due to the approximate nature of measures .
7. Base 10 Base
2
1
2" 1
10
_^_
"7 1
100
"5 1
lUoo
l
To" 10,000
'8. Since all divisions are obtained by dividing existing

divisions by 2, the number of sections increases by
powers of 2, or, in base notation, by adding a
2
zero to show the number of divisions.

pages 407-^09 14 ll-5
Answers to Exercises ll-4d
1. a. 48 in. f- 6 ft.
b. 9 yd. g. 21,120 ft.
c. 8l ft. h. ^ ft.
d. 300 ft. 1.
if yd.
e. 40 yd. J. |yd.
2. 1760 yds.
3. Answers will vary.
4. Classrooms, halls
other lengths can also be measured.
and
It would be wise for the teacher to have a good idea of the
measures assigned.
5. a. l\ in. d. l\ in.
b. 7 in. e. 6yg-in.
c. 9 in. f . 7tt- in.

There may be some slight variation in above lengths.
6. a. Length « in.
5i-'00 (Answers in feet are
Width est 900 in. acceptable. See part b.)
Height ^ 5/!0 in.
b. Length ^ ^50 ft. 'S^ 150 yd.
Width ^ 75 ft. ^ 25 yd.
Height ^ 45 ft- s; 15 yd.
11-5. Precision of Measurement .
This section is the first attempt in this book to formalize

the approximate nature of measures . Precision is introduced
through work with the ruler. Students may need help in measuring
"to the nearest half inch". No attempt is made to develop a
formal definition of precision tut students should gain some
11-5 15 pages 409-410
familiarity with the meaning of a "precise" measure as one made

with a small unit. The purpose of Class Exercises ll-5c is to
show a method of recording a measurement that will indicate the
precision of measurement.
A more complete understanding of precision is possible after
greatest possible error has been discussed.
Answers to Class Exercises ll-5a

1-4
Segment 1 in. 1
2~
in.
-
I in. k ln-
AB 3
J2 4 4
CD 2
© 4 ©
EF 3
*2 4 4
GH 3
© 4 ©
IJ 3
\l) \<i) \l)
Circled measures show the form in which students
probably will write them. A better means of indicating
these measurements will be developed in Exercises ll-5b.

The length of I J, to the nearest inch, could be written
as 2 inches or 3 inches, since the segment appears to
be 2-7$
inches long. In this problem and others of the
same nature, the convention of rounding upward has been
followed in the answer section.
5. a.
3
.3
3tt
1
(tt - inch measurement)
c , Divisions come closer to matching the line segments.

pages 410-412 16 ll-5
6. In measuring CD, GH and TT, the. measurement with tt

precision Is no closer to the true length than that with
-j- - inch precision. The precision of a measurement does
not always indicate how near the true length of a given

segment that measurement is. We come no closer to the true
length of IJ, for example, by measuring with tt - inch
segment than with x - inch or -»• - inch segments. The
precision does, however, tell the range within which the

end-point of a segment may be. The section on greatest
possible error will make this clear.
7. By measuring with a ruler marked with - inch or smaller
^-?-
subdivisions .
8. Theoretically, there is no limit.

1 1 1 1
1. a. H
c .
To
e -
100
g.
1000
b.
1
d
i p
1
h. 1
10 10
7± in. 4 .6 mi
3i ft- f. 24 in-
12
in. g. 5jg in,
c- in.
11-6 17 pages 412-414
Answers to Class Exercises ll-5c

1-4
Segment 1 In. \ in. *T F ln.
AB 3 3i 3¥
q3
3H
CD 2 2^ l3 i6
^2
EF 3 2i
^2 4 2§
GH 3
32" 4 4
IJ 3 2i
^2 4 4

1. a. 1 ft. c .
T in- e. \ ft. g.
lfein-
b. 1 in. d. .1 mile f . 1 mile h. £in.
2. KLc^5§in.; în.j 4^
In.; ^ ln.
MNfts^ln.; 5§in.; 5§in.; 5^ In.
(See note about rounding under Answers to Class
Exercises ll-5a.)
11-6. Greatest Possible Error .
of the greatest possible error is directly

The concept
related to precision. It is the error permitted in one direction
from the point that names the measure and is, therefore, one -half
of the indicated precision.
The precision of a measurement is sometimes indicated by a
possible error notation. For this a "plus or minus" symbol "+"
is For example, if a segment 2 inches in length is
used.
measured with yz- - inch precision, the measurement would be
--
pages 414-417 18 ll-6
written 2 + -*-«- in. This means that the segment might he as long
31
as
1
2-5TK- in. or as short as l-^ in. Figure ll-6b helps make this
clear.
Approximation in measures is a new and difficult concept for
7 graders. The treatment is intended to be groundwork for
future understanding. Enlarged drawings of inches and their sub
divisions on the chalkboard as well as practice with the material
is needed.
Answers to Class Exercises ll-6a
2. 375-
in.j 2i in.
3. i inch
5 . 2j in . ; 2^
in .
6. -j- inch
7 . a . tt inch
b. yr- inch
o
8.
1
£-
in.;
-
în.;
1 - 1,
în.; y£ in.
1 -
9. Greatest possible error is always half the unit of measure

ths
1. 1 ! , , i , i i 1 , . I (Divided into 8 of an inch.)
2. I i i , I ■ ■ i I (Divided into *J-ths of an inch.)

11-6 19 page 4l8
3.
Figure (1) (2) (3)

-^"
marks Error -o-" marks Error yz-" marks Error
o3n oTn -13,,

3" or
_.„
2T 2F 2IF
X
In
»•
1
1
IF
ii
(a) 32
-.1,, 3tl
or -i
6
3
ii
ii
T
%
t
W
XF XTF
o
2^"
or
1
2" 2"
li
2IF
J
in In
,1
1
(b) IF o 111
32
2^"
2" or
w 2"
IF
__, 0|| t3m _„ -il2-il
l|"
or or
3
2" or-
ilF ln
II
^
-I
T
1T
J!
1^
ltt ii
l
(c) IF 32
1" or 1"
J"
o5ll „„
4"
2F
or Q10'l
2IF
^2
in
Jl
in
m
1
(d)
In
IF 12
°r
i"
k"
w
2"
h
Part. Measurement Precision Error .
a. o2n In I.1
3f
l F
In
#'
.1
b. IF 32
In
4" 4"
IF
ii
.
c
In In
d. IF
l F
-alOn in
,1
e. IF 32
f. in
IF
.,
1
7F
l F
o
1
.,
,,
3
it
S- 232 32 FT
page 419 20 ll-6
5. The real length lies between
b.
dT§-^ OT
iff" and
dii # « #"
+
ajl" and (2§4-X)

;H" W or 513ti
"IF
i<
or or
e.
<3T§-32-) 331
and
(3$+^) 3|
and
(7^+^) or 7^"
Note: These rectangles

could be drawn so that
there Is a border on all
four sides also.
7.
Note: These squares

could be drawn so that
there is a border on all
four sides also.
11-7 21 pages 419-421
ll-7. Metric Units of Length .
The metric system is treated in this chapter principally as

another group of measuring units which have the advantage of a
decimal relationship. There should be no attempt to teach the
system as a whole. Only three units, the meter, centimeter, and
millimeter, are introduced. Pupils should have an opportunity to
study a meter stick to visualize the relationship between these
units, so that they develop a mental picture of each. The two
sets of exercises introduce the names of the units slowly and
provide practice in measuring segments in centimeters and milli
meters.
Answers to Exercises ll-7a

1- £
■ ■
4 Cw-
'
6 Cm--
2. C-rrv-
'
7 Cm,-
2. Length as 28 cm. czz 27.9 cm.

Width ss 22 cm. -=» 21.6 cm.
Some variation should be permitted in the .1 cm. measurements.
3. AB ai 11 cm. »; 10.6 cm.

BC s» 7 cm. »s 6.9 cm.
AC « 15 cm. 15.3 cm.
^=i
Totals « 33 cm. «s 32.8 cm.
DE as 13 cm. ?=r 13.4 cm.

EF C52 5 cm. « 4.6 cm.
FG » 9 cm. « 8.7 cm.
DG ^ 7 cm. ^j 6.7 cm.
Totals ss 34 cm. as 33.4 cm.
pages 422-423 22 ll-7
a. 200 cm. e 60 cm.
b. 700 cm. f 5 cm.
c . 650 cm, g 32 cm.
d. 120 cm. h 128 cm-
a . 3m. e .5 m.
b. 7 m. f 4.50 m,
c . 2 . 56 m . S .75 m.
d. I.85 m. h .08 m.

AB « 106 mm DE « 134 mm
BC as 69 mm EF « 46 mm
AC a* 153 mm FG =» 87 mm
DG « 67 mm
a. 30 mm e. ll50 mm
b. 120 mm f. 174 mm
c . 28 mm g. 1000 mm
d . 63 mm h. 3500 mm
a. 4 cm. e. 15.6 cm.

b. 10 cm. f. 200 cm.
c. 1 m g. 2 m
d. 3.2 cm h. 20.4 cm
ll-8 23 pages 424-425
ll-8. Measurement of Angles .
In Chapter 7 the pupils have been introduced to the concept

of angle as the set of points on two rays with a common end-point,
and have learned to describe the position of a point as being on
the angle, in the interior of the angle, or in the exterior of the
angle. The measurement of an angle follows essentially the same
ideas as measurement of a line segment; that is, (l) the unit for
measuring an angle must be itself an angle; (2) the Interior of
the angle is subdivided by drawing rays which form angles like the
unit angle; (3) the measure of the angle is the number of unit
angles into which it is subdivided. After these ideas are devel
oped in Exercises ll-8a, the standard unit, the degree, and the
scale for measuring angles in degrees, are introduced. The unit
angle is determined by a set of 360 rays with a common endpoint,
which divide the plane into 360 angles of the same size, each of
which is an angle of one degree . The scale is established by
numbering the rays in order from zero to 360. Figure ll-8a shows
such a scale.
The most common type of protractor shows the scale only from
0 to 180, and usually contains two such scales, one with 0 at
the right end and the other with 0 at the left end of the semi
circular scale. Each pupil should have a protractor and should
become proficient in using it, both to measure a given angle and
to draw an angle of a specified number of degrees.
The angle is defined as having a measure greater than 0
degrees and less than 180 degrees. The exterior measure of an
angle is found by subdividing the exterior into unit angles .
Since the complete plane is thought of as divided into 360 angles,
each of one degree, the exterior measure can also be found by sub
tracting the measure of the angle from 360.
Angles are classified as acute, right, or obtuse, according
to their measures. pupils should practice estimating the
The
number of degrees in an angle by comparing it with a right angle.
Perpendicular rays are defined as rays which form a right
angle and the term "perpendicular" is also applied to lines, seg
ments, and to combinations of these.
pages 425-430 24 ll-8
Answers to Exercises 11 -8a
1. The size of /, RST -zz 3u.
2. The size of [_ ABC ss: 5u.
3. The size of [_ FDE « 2u.
4. size of sj 7u.
The /_ KML
5. a. The size of the exterior of / RST » 15u.
b. The size of the exterior of /, KML » llu.

6. a. The exterior measure of /_ RST is larger.
b. l8u
7. a. The exterior measure of /_ KML is larger.

b. l8u
Answers to Exercises ll -8b

1. 50° 3. 90°
2. 100° 4. 80°

1. a. 15° d. 90° g. 60° J. 85°
b. 35° e. 100° h. 145° k. 140°
c. 60° f. 25° i. 40° 1. 65°
2. The size of /_ A « 50
o
The size of / B « 90°
The size of /_ C « 120°
The size of / D « 75°

11-8 25 pages 430-432
3. Exterior measure may be found by measuring to 180 on scale,

then turning the protractor to measure the remaining part of
the exterior and adding the results. Exterior measures are
as follows:
ZA, 310 /_ C, 240

ZB, 270 [_ D, 285
•• The size of l_ BAC s« 35°
6. Subtract the measure of the angle from 360 to find its

exterior measure .
a. 340 c 299 e. 230
b. 315 d. 270 f. 181
7. 180

1. a. The right angles are /, B and [_ E.
b. The acute angles are /, A and [_ C.
c. The obtuse angles are [_ D and [_ F.

3. a. 0, 90
b. 90, 180
4. a. Obtuse angles: /, BAF, /BAG, /_ BAH

Acute angles: /, BAC, [_ BAD
Right angles: [_ BAE
b. Acute angles: /. EAD, /, EAC, /_ EAF, {, EAG, /_ EAH

Obtuse angles: none
Right angles: /_ EAB, /_ EAK
c. Right angles: /. KAE
Obtuse angles: /. KAD, [_ KAC
Acute angles: /_ KAH, /_ IÂG, / KAP
■
pages 432-436 26 ll-8, ll-io
[_ ABC is acute /_ JML is obtuse

[_ EDF is a right angle [_ PRN is a right angle
[_ HKG is acute [_ QTS is obtuse
See part (c)

The size of [_ ABC c^ 10
The size of /. EDF ^s 90
The size of [_ HKG ^ 65
The size of /_ JML
« 120
The size of / PRN cs 90
The size of /. QTS ^ 130
6. There are many examples which the student may suggest.
Answers to Exercises ll-8e

1. a. Drawing 3
b. Drawing 5 (3 and 1 could be so interpreted also)

c . Drawing 2
d . Drawing 1
e . Drawing 6
f. Drawing 4
2. Edges of a book, edges of intersecting sidewalks, Intersecting

edges on a rectangular prism, etc.
3. Diagonal parking line and curb, hands of a clock in many
positions, etc.
Answers to Review Exercises ll-10

1- Count d, e- Others must be measured.
2. Length of AB ^ kf in.; >'£ in.

« in.;
3?r
Length of CTJ 3-n- in.

11-ll 2? pages 437-438
3. a. ll.9 cm.; 8.7 cm.
b. ll9 mm. ; 87 mm.
4. b, d
5. 180 > obtuse angle > right angle > acute angle.
6. a. obtuse
b. right
c. acute
d. acute
7. 105°, 90°, 4o°, 670
8. inch, foot, yard, mile, meter, millimeter, centimeter, many

others could be suggested.
9. degree, hour, minute, second, ounce, pound, and others.

10.
8^
in.; 8§ in.
ll. b, d
12. a. 350 cm. e. .24 M.
b. 156 in. f. 4 yd.

p
c. -*- ft . g. 1 mi.
m
d. 240 mm h. .750 M
Answers to Exercises ll-11, Cumulative Review
1. a. 9-3+9-2
b. 7-6 + 11-6
2. a. Yes
b . No
3. a. 6 < 8 d.
i| | >
y>
b*
1 /
*^
l8 3 s
>
25
Tfo
2" "ST 7T
9 20 f 15,28
c* <
^ * ^
PT 3T 18 32
pages 438-439 28 ll-ll
4. Could be any base greater than 5.
5* 37eight
6. a. 4: CDA, CDB, ADB, ABC
b. 2: CDA, ABC
c. point A
d. If 2 different lines intersect, one and only one plane

contains both lines.
7. a, 14
IF d.
4
* 3
e. *&
1
3
12
f. Xl6
8. a. lo| d. P1
*b. Q11 e.
3^ ^3
c 3|f f. 1
9. 66 = 2-3-11
10. The number 47 is a composite number.
11. 110 ft.
12. 20 per cent

I . True -False questions
(F) 1. The counting numbers are all that are needed for both
counting and measuring.
(T) 2. Perpendicular lines always meet so that right angles are

formed at their intersection.
(T) 3. All measuring units can be sub-divided.
(T) 4. A ruler is one form of a number line.

(T) 3. This number sentence would be used in changing 5?'6 in. to
feet
«=76 .
* - n
29
(P) 6. An obtuse angle is smaller than a right angle.

(T) 7. A measuring unit may have any size we choose.
(T) 8. Base 2 is related

to the subdivisions of an inch on
the ruler commonly used in school.
II. Multiple Choice, Completion, and Matching
(c) 1. To measure a line segment, you must use as a unit:

(a) An inch (d) A square inch
(b) A foot (e) None of these
(c) A line segment
(a) 2. Choose the best v;ay to complete the statement, "standard

units of measures are used because:
(a) It is important for people to use the same unit in
dealing with each other."
(b) Standard units give

accurate measurements
more than
units which are not standard."
(c) People have alvvays used them."
(d) They all fit base 10 numerals very well.

(e) None of these
3. Estimate the lengths of the following segments:
5 ±T±
A I lB
Cl !_^ iD
h--6 in. (a) The length of AB % in., or cm.

10-16 cm.
(b) The length of CD « in., or cm.
l£-2g- in.
3-7 cm.
If the measurement of an angle is 75°, the measurement
•''
(e)
.
of the exterior of the same angle is:

(a) 15° (d) 105°
(b) 95° (e) None of these
(c) 100°
30
(b) 5« The markings on a ruler divide each inch into 8 equal

parts. The correct way to report one measurement made
with this ruler is:
(a) 3^ In.
(b) 3§ in.
(c) 3-jr in.

(d) None of these
(c) 6. The rays on a protractor are numbered:
(a) From 1° to l80°
(b) From 0° to 360°
(c) From 0° to l80°
(c) From 10° to 90°
7. Below is a list of things, some of which can be counted

while others must be measured. Underline those which
must be measured.
(k)j(c) (a) Crowd at a meeting

ana (d)
should be
^ Ti;Tie ±t takes to ;.-alk home
(c) Weight of a brick

under
lined. (d) Capacity of a gas tank
(e) Coats in your closet
8. Change these measurements to the other units.
(a) k ft. (a) >!8 in. = ft (d) ,>k irii- = ya.

(d) i| yd.
(b) 3
7cm(b) 3?' mm. = cm. (e) 18 in ft.
(e) i— -ft
(c) rt
(c) 12 yd. =
(f) kb\ = cm.
(O i!00 cm
31
9. The instrument used to measure an angle is called

a .
protractor
10.
acute represents a (an) angle.
right represents a (an) angle
obtuse
ll.
\ represents
© C
a (an)
© D (?)
angle ,
What number on the scale corresponds to:

n1" (a) Point B
4" (b) Point C
4" (c) Point D
12. On the number scale for Problem 6, mark the point which
corresponds to the numbers given below and label them
with the letter indicated
(a) S
3^"
(b) ^" F
(c) 2§" G
32
13. Measure to the nearest 16

these segments inch.
Report the results so that the correct precision is
indicated.
o 4 ii
(a)
2,0,,
IF (b)
8 II
45
T
(c)
14. Measure each of these angles.
(a) (b)
(a) 38°
(b) 142°
(c) 74°
(c)
Chapter 12
AREAS AND VOLUME
Introduction.
The work in this chapter is a natural outgrowth of the work
Just completed on measurement . The student should find it
relatively to extend his thinking from linear units of
simple
measure to both square units and cubic units of measure. The
measurement of two and three dimensional fingures is just as
essential as the measurement of one dimensional figures in the
development of certain geometric concepts and their applications.
In this chapter, then, attention is focused upon development of
basic concepts which underlie measurements of surfaces and solids,
Sufficient exercises given so
on each new concept have been
that the student will have ample practice with the new ideas and
allow him to gain confidence in his own ability to succeed.
12-1. Rectangle .
The two primary aims of this section are to develop the

pupils1 space perception, especially as it relates to perimeters,
and to develop the methods of finding these quantities for a
rectangle by computation when the length and width are known.
Emphasis on estimating lengths and perimeters will help to develop
a feeling for size. As often as possible have estimates made of
lengths and then have the students actually measure them to check
the accuracy of the estimate. This emphasis will necessarily
come largely from the teacher, since such questions can only be
suggested occasionally in
the text.
It has been emphasized in Chapter ll
that the measure of a
quantity is the number of units it contains. However, in describing
the result of a measurement it is meaningless to give the number
without specifying the unit. Thus when we speak of a length or a
perimeter we shall mean the number together with the unit, as a
page 441 34 12-1
length of 5 ft. or a perimeter of 36 inches. On the other

hand we should keep clearly in mind that wherever literal symbols
are introduced, they stand only for numbers. We add and multiply
numbers, not units. Thus if we consider a rectangle whose length
is j? inches and whose width is 3_ inches, and if we wish to
use the notation of the number sentence p - 2( jl + w), we write
Jl = 5, w = 3, and p = 2(5 + 3). We conclude that the perimeter

is 16inches. Note that we do not write J/ = 5 in. or p = 16 in.
Here again, the student may in the future, without permanent harm
to his character, write such mathematical slang as p = 16 inches,
but at this point it has seemed better to distinguish clearly
between a length, which requires specifying a unit, and the number
of units J
in this length.
The question about the relation of squares to rectangles in
the first paragraph of this section has two purposes. The dis
cussion should first serve to clarify any doubt as to exactly
what a square is. Then, bringing out that such a figure is a
special case of a rectangle gives a good example of one set con
tained in another. The question in the second paragraph is
intended to bring out that a segment is measured by a number line
of segments and our model of this is a ruler. However, the closed
region bounded by the rectangle is not a segment and therefore
cannot be measured by segments. It must be measured by using
another closed region something of the same kind. Some pupils
may argue that you could measure a rectangular closed region with
a ruler by seeing how many times the ruler could be fitten In It.
In a sense this is true, but point out that you are no longer
considering the ruler as a model of a number line but are using
just Its numbered edge. You would actually be using it as another
closed region.
12-1 35 pages 441-443
Answers to Class Exercises 12-la

This set of exercises is part of the development work and
should definitely be used and done in the class itself.
1. The cover of this book measures 11 in. x 8k in.
The measures of the window pane and chalkboard will depend
upon the individual classroom.
2. The perimeter of the bookcover is 39 in.

The other perimeters will, of course, depend upon the
measurements obtained in Problem 1.
3. Equal .
4. The other two sides are then 6 inches and 4 inches, and
the length of the perimeter is 20 inches.
5. The number of units in the other two sides are Jl and w.
The number sentence could be any of the following.
p=J? + w+ J( +w
p = 2J?+ 2w
p =
2(i + w)

1. 1200 ft.
2. $2000
3. 50 ft. or 16 yds.
4. 38 ft. It does not matter where the doorways are located.
5. a. 12 ft. by 12 ft. - no; there is not enough fence.
b. 8 ft. by 3 ft. - no; all the fence is not used.
c. 8 ft. by 4 ft. - yes.
d. Any of the following lengths and widths will work:
ll ft. by 1 ft. 10 ft. by 2 ft.
9 ft. by 3 ft. 8 ft. by 4 ft.
7 ft. by 5 ft. 6 ft. by 6 ft .
pages 443-447 36 12-2
6. 700 inches; 19 yds.

3
7. 2Jf miles.
8. Cost % $687.50
9. a. li miles
b. He saved nothing in distance.
10. a. The length is 7, cm.
b. The width is 3 cm.
c. The perimeter is 20 cm.
ll. a. The length is JO mm.
b. The width is 30 mm.
c. The perimeter is 200 mm.
12. The side opposite the given side is 40 ft. long; the other
two sides are each 80 ft. long.
12-2. Areas of Rectangles.
primary aims of these sections are the same as those of

The
Section 12-1, except that they are related to area. In develop
ment of the perception and geometric feel for size, it is important
that models be constantly in sight. Perhaps drawings of the actual
sizes of the square inch, square foot, and square yard could be
kept always on the chalkboard as soon as area has been introduced.
Possibly models could be placed on the bulletin board for ready
reference. Here too, estimates should be made of areas and then
computed to check the accuracy of the estimate. It is interesting
that most people are quite surprised to see the actual size of a
square yard.
12-2 37 pages 444-447
Two points of terminology should be clarified.

1. By its definition a rectangle is a collection of segments.
Such a set of points does not properly have an area (or
possibly it should be said to have area zero). The area
with which we are concerned is generally the area of the
closed region determined by the rectangle. In order to
emphasize this, the text has pointed out that "area of a
rectangle" really means the area of the closed region
determined by the rectangle. Although "area of a rectangle"
is mathematical slang, we feel the terminology will be
easier for the student and he may use that language provided
he understands its full meaning.
2. It has been pointed out in Section 12-1 of this commentary

that the measure of a quantity is the number of units it
contains. This same notion is true when we speak of the
measure of the area, when we speak of an area, we shall
mean the number with the unit, as an area of 5 square feet .
When we use the number sentence A =J?w, we should again

keep clearly in mind that these literal symbols stand only
for numbers and that we multiply numbers, not units .
The fact that instrument, such as a ruler, by

we have no
which we can directly measure areas should provoke useful dis
cussion. Someone may well point out that you could have a network
of squares (or whatever figure you use as a unit of area) marked
on transparent plastic and Just place this on the rectangle being
measured. This is quite true, and is both an interesting and
valuable idea. However, it
should be pointed out that in using
this you would actually have to count up the squares ahead of time
so that you can just look at the number attached to a "last"
square and say that is (approximately) the desired area. The
difficulty is that while all segments have the same shape in the
sense of being fitted by a number line (ruler), areas may occur
in all sorts of shapes so that no prearranged pattern can be
designed to fit all the shapes to be measured in such a way as
pages 444-447 38 12-2
to read off areas at sight. Your pupils may be interested to

know that there are instruments which can be run around the
boundaries of a simple closed curve and give at once an approxi
mate value for the area enclosed. One such instrument is the
planimeter, but its theory is far beyond the level of our work
here.
In developing the method for computing areas of rectangles
from the length and width it is noted that different ways of
counting the unit squares of area illustrate the commutative
property of multiplication.
It is hoped that class discussion will bring out the ad
vantage of having a unit of area which is a square, one unit of
length on a side. In the case of the illustration of the rectangle
6 units by 3 units, notice the effect of using, as a unit of
area, a square 1» units on a side. There is no trouble about
covering the rectangle with these unit squares, as shown below.
r
UNITS
UNITS
6 UNITS
However, the number of squares in each row is no longer the
number of linear units in the length (6), and the number of rows
is no longer the number of linear units in the width (3). Thus
we would lose the relationship of finding the number of square
units of area by multiplying the numbers of linear units in the
length and width. It certainly would be possible to devise methods
of computing the number of these new square units of area, but it
would certainly also be more complicated.
12-2 39 page 448
exercises are developmental in nature, leading to the

These
method for computing area of a rectangle from the numbers of
linear units in the length and width. Since these exercises lay
the groundwork for the material on area which follows, they are
designed to be done in the classroom so that the teacher may
guide the student in arriving at proper conclusions .
1. 11; 5; 55; jg sq. in.; -jg sq. in. or 3^ sq. in.

2. The numbers ll and 5 are the numbers of quarter inches
in the length and width. Thus they are the numerators when
the length of is written as
ll and when the width of
2^
Itt is written as
^-.
It is not necessary to draw the figure to find out how many

squares were in each row.
3. a. Small square inch by inch.

^
2
b. 11;
9
c. or
^
24|
Figure not necessary to do problem, Use method of Problem
1
above .
2
pages 448-449 40 12-2
-— — 5 i
Z
"
- —— >-
4.
{1
1
|
1
1
4
1
1
1
-
1
T
I"
The division of the unit squares is suggested by the fractions

in which measurements are given. Each rectangle is = t- sq.in.
There are ll x 14 = 154 rectangles, so the area is —£— sq.in-
Note that ^- is exactly
^ i£
•
.
5. The number of square units of area in a rectangle is the

product of the number of units in the length by the number
of units in the width.
6. A = J?w
Answers to Exercises 12 -2b
In connection with the first exercise of this set recall the

comments made earlier about emphasizing space perception. Esti
mating areas of doors, windows, chalkboards, etc. in the various
units of area and then measuring to check estimates is very
valuable experience. Following this first exercise, which
furnishes the information necessary* many of the problems call
for conversion between various units of area. The process is the
same as for linear units, but it may be well to Illustrate it for
12-2 41 page 449
the class. For example, since 1 sq. ft. = 144 sq. in., then
1 sq. in. = yjnr sq. ft. Thus to change 360 sq. in. to square
feet we write 36o sq. in. = 360 • 1 sq. in. = 360 •
ypr sq. ft.
=
*nnr sq« ft* =
2^
sq. ft.
Problems 2 and 3 are designed to clarify the common confusion
between the 3 inch square and the area of 3 square inches, and
to emphasize the different possible shapes an area of 1 square
inch may take. Problems ll-14 are a connected group and are
extremely important. They emphasize the effect of doubling the
dimensions of a rectangle either separately or simultaneously.
1. a. 1 square foot contains 144 square inches,

b. 1 square yard contains 9 square feet.
2-
i'
Three- inch square. An area of three square inches.

The 3 inch square is larger. Its area is 9 square inches
(These figures are not full size but to a scale with •* inch
representing an inch.)
3.
1
2"
2 inches
1
4 inches
pages 449-^51 42 12-2
4- 108 sq. ft., 12 sq. yds.
5- 8100 sq. ft., 900 sq. yds.

6, Area is 3600 sq. ft. This is less than half the area of
li
the baseball diamond. Actually it is -^
of It.
7- a. 100 square millimeters b. 1 square centimeter
8, a. 5 cm. b. 2 cm. c. 10 sq. cm.
9- a. 50 mm. b. 20 mm. c. 1000 sq. mm.
10, Area of the smaller inside rectangle is 2*3 = 6 square units,

Area of the larger inside rectangle is 6*3 = 18 square units,
Area of the outside rectangle is 8*3 = 24 square units.
a. Yes, the larger area is the sum of the other two.
b. This suggest the Distributive Property.
24 = 6 + 18
8*3 = 2*3 + 6-3
8-3 =
(2 + 6)-3
11
Original Rectangle with

rectangle. doubled length,
Rectangle with
doubled height
12-3 43 pages 451-452
Original area is 6 square units. Both new areas are 12

square units. New areas are double the original one. The
dotted lines are drawn to show geometrically why this is
true. They are not part of the drawing asked for in the
problem.
12. No. Doubling one measurement (length or width) of any

rectangle doubles the area of the rectangle.
13.
Original
rectangle ,
New rectangle.
(Dotted lines not a part of required drawing, but are shown
to make clear the geometric relationship) . Doubling both
measurements (length and width) of any rectangle multiplies
the old area by 4.
14. Perimeter of original rectangle is 10 units.

Perimeter of new rectangle is 20 units.
Doubling both measurements (length and width) of any rectangle
doubles its perimeter. (The drawing of Problem 17 makes clear
that this relation does not depend on the particular measure
ments.) The ratio of the larger perimeter to the smaller
perimeter is 2 to 1.
exercises are primarily exercises in finding areas and

These
perimeters and in converting units, with emphasis that such
answers must generally be considered approximate. This section
could provide further opportunity for estimating and verification.
Pages 452-455 44 12-4
Problems 7 and 8 illustrate finding areas as a difference of

known areas.
1. The perimeter and area will be solely dependent upon the
desks In your particular classroom.
2. a. Area %
1
17ry sq. ft. b. Perimeter % 17 ft., 5§
2
yd.
3. a. Area * 396 sq. ft. b. Cost fe $237. 60
3
4. Area % p-r sq. mi.
5. 14 lbs.
6. a. Area fc 3240 sq. in. b. Area * 22rj sq. ft.
7. Area % 171 sq. ft. or 19 sq. yds.
8. a. Floor area sq. ft.
fc 570
b. It does not matter where the opening is.
12-4. Rectangular Prism.

Just as a rectangle is composed of the points on its segment,
so a rectangular prism is made up of the points on its faces, i.e.
on its surface. Thus if a brick is suggested as an example of
this figure, point out that the prism consists only of the surface
of the brick. For this reason we do not speak of the volume of a
rectangular prism, but the volume of a rectangular solid, since we
have defined a rectangular solid in Section 12-5 as the set of
points consisting of a rectangular prism and its interior. When
we speak of the area of a prism we will be speaking of the area of
the faces of the prism, which is the surface area. As in the

previous sections, the stating of a measurement requires both the
number and the unit used, but any letter in a number sentence
stands only for a number.
rectangular prism with its 6 faces,
The 12 edges, and 8
vertices will need to be shown to the class with models and
illustrations. The approach is frankly intuitive. However, once
it has been agreed that the faces are rectangles, this can be used
to deduce the fact that opposite faces have the same measurements.
12-4 ^5 page 455
For example in the following figure:
A c/
/
D
•/E
A B
EF* and A"B have the same length because they are opposite sides
of rectangle ABFE.
ATS and CE have the same length because they are opposite sides
of rectangle ABCD.
Cl5 and GH have the same length because they are opposite sides
of rectangle DCGH.
Thus the four segments AT5, 7515, EF, GlT all have the same
length. Similarly AT?, T3FT, CG", and B"F have the same length
and AT), EH", W, and B"C have the same length. This shows
that any two opposite faces have the same measurements.
These exercises probably be difficult, not because of

will
the arithmetic, which is easy, but because of the spacial
visualizing required. It is suggested that in doing these problems
each pupil keep a box or other model in front of him to help
visualize the problems that are presented. Except for the diffi
culty of visualizing, the problems are applications of work on
rectangles in the last section. There is further drill on change
of units. Problems 3 and 6 give further practice on finding
areas by subtraction. Problem 9 introduces the term cube.
In discussing the choice of a unit of volume bring out that
its edges are units of length and its faces units of area, while
its interior is the unit of volume.
pages 455-457 46 12-5
1. 52 square units
2. 152 square inches
3. 230 sq. ft., 35§ sq. yd.
ft.
-7
4. Area of glass is 200 sq. in. =
1-jW sq.
23
Area of wood is ll00 sq. in. =
7-^
sq. ft.
5. a. 180 squares of tile,
b. 720 squares of tile.
6. 396 sq. ft. No, it does not matter where windows are placed,
7. 3 quarts.
8. 312 in., 26 ft., 8|yds.
9. a. square b. 1944 sq. in. c. 13?j sq. ft.
*10. S = 2jg w + 2wh + 2J0h or S =
2( Jjw + wh + Jl h)
12-5. Volume.
Section 12-1 about development of space

The remarks under
perception should be repeated here, only louder. The concept of
volume sizes of different units of volume need much
and the
reinforcing. Models of cubic inches will be constructed but
models of cubic feet and cubic yards are necessary also and
practice in estimating volumes should be very helpful. A
framework for a model of a cubic yard can be formed from 12
yardsticks. Most adults are astounded at the size of a cubic
yard when they see one. One teacher had students bring in
cardboard cartons that could be cut to the size of a cubic foot
and assembled a model cubic yard from 27 of these boxes.
Grocery cartons which are partitioned by cardboard dividers may
be helpful in visualizing the subdivision of a volume into units
12-5 47 pages 458-459
Answers to Class Exercises 12-5

Except for Exercise 2, the exercises of the set should be
done wholly in class. It is extremely important that the pupil
see and be able to visualize that the effect of doubling the
length of a rectangular prism amounts to laying two prisms end
to end, both just like the original one. Similarly, doubling
two of the measurements amounts to putting four such prisms
together and doubling all three measurements is equivalent to
putting eight such prisms together. It is this visual perception,
not a counting up of the cubes used, that is really significant.
Also the models formed here show nicely the layers of cubes which
are used in the next development.
1. Cubic foot - volume of a cube each edge of which is 1 ft.

Cubic yard - volume of a cube each edge of which is 1 yd.
3. 24
4. The number of cubes for each of the new solids created in

parts (b), (c), and (d) is just double that in the original
solid.
5. a. Doubling one measurement (length, width, or height) of
any rectangular prism doubles the volume of the solid.
2
b. The ratio is y .
6. b. Ratio of the number of cubes in the new prism to the

number in the original prism is y . That is, there are
h-
4 times as many.
c. The result would be the same if any two of the measure
ments are doubled.
7. Doubling any two measurements of any rectangular prism

quadruples the volume of the solid, (i.e. multiplies it by 4)
8. b. There are eight times as many cubes

o
in the new figure.
That is, the ratio is y .
9. a. Doubling all three measurements of any rectangular prism

yields a prism whose volume is 8 times that of the
o
original solid. The ratio is y .
pages 460-461 48 12-6
12-6. Volume of a Rectangular Solid.

If the student has gained the visual concepts with which he
was working in the last section, he should readily see that the
volume of any rectangular solid may be found merely by multiplying
the area of the base by the height. Once this idea is established,
it should be relatively easy to see that the volume may also be
found by multiplying the measures of the length, width, and height
because the base is a rectangle. Emphasis should be placed on
the fact that any of the faces may be used as the base of a
rectangular solid. Here is an opportunity for the teacher to
review the commutative and associative properties of rational
numbers as is indicated in the paragraph preceding Exercises 12-6b.
In the discussion of dimension some of your better pupils
may raise the question of describing the location of the sugar
in other ways than by motions parallel to the edges of a room.
For example in the second figure in the section under Dimension
it may be suggested that the fly at A might simply point out
the direction of S and tell his friend to crawl a certain
distance in that direction. This is an excellent idea. However,
note that these directions still call for two numbers, one des
cribing the angle telling the direction in which the fly is to
crawl, and the other giving the distance he must crawl. A precise
definition of dimension involves very substantial difficulties
beyond the scope of this course, but you will find that any
"reasonable" way of describing location of points in the different
sets will use the same number of numbers in the description,
so that concept of dimension has meaning.
These problems have all been designed to emphasize the

relation symbolized by the number sentence V = Bh. They have
been diliberately chosen in such a way that the actual shape of
12-6 49 pages 461-463
the base is not known in any of them. This is to lay the

foundation for the discussion later of volumes of prisms and
cylinders, as well as the specific case of the rectangular
prism which is discussed next.
1. 85 cu. ft.
2. 20 cu. ft.
3. a. The number of cubic units of volume in a rectangular
solid is the product of the number of square units of
area in its base and the number of linear units in its
height .
b. V = Bh
4. 2 ft.
5. 20 sq. ft.
6. Volume of the room is 1600 cubic feet.
30 children would require 1500 cubic feet, so that 30
children is a legal number.
Greatest legal number of children is 32.
1. 24 cu. ft.
2. 1260 cu. in.
3. a. Area = 187 sq. in. b. Volume = 7^8 cu. in.
4. 9 cu. ft.
5. a. Volume = 8l cu. ft. b. 3 cu. yds.
6. The number of cubic units of volume in a rectangular prism

is the product of the numbers of linear units in the length,
width, and height.
7. V = J0wh
pages 464-465 50 12-6
8. a. The number of inches in each edge of a cubic foot is

12, so the volume is V = 12«12«12 = 1728, or
1728 cu. in.
b. There are 27 cubic feet in a cubic yard.
9. a. The volume is 27 cubic inches.
b. This volume is larger than 3 cubic inches.
10. ?y inch.
ll. 10,080 cubic feet.
12. a. Volume ■ 120 cu. in.
b. The ratio of the volume of the new box to the old
is I .
27 3
13. a. Volume = -rf- cu. in. or 3^-
cu. in.
b. Area of one face * * sq. in. or 2-jr square in.
27
c. Surface area = sq. in. or 1
13£ sq. in.
=£-
14. 3520 cu. ft.
1. Weight % 1000 lbs. or ton.

\
2. a. Volume fc 189,000 cu. ft. b. 7000 cu. yds.

3. Weight of gold is 2250 lbs. The men can lift 2000 lbs.,
so they could not lift the chest.
4. a. The tank contains approximately 2880 cu. in. of water,

b.. Approximately
Approximati gallons of water.
b
12^
5. cu. inches.
8
6. The number of lbs. of water % 390&.
7. minutes.
2
12-6 51 pages 466-471
8. 64 cubic inches.
*9. Volume * 183^

cu. in.
*10. Depth * lp ft., or 18 in.
1. 154 sq. ft. of carpet. Volume = 1386 cu. ft.

2. Volume of the pantry is 498 cu. ft. or l&V cu. yd.
3. Doubling each dimension makes the new volume 8 times the

original . The motor should have 8 times the power of the
original motor.
a. 1 dim. f. 3 dim. k. 3 dim.

b. 2 dim. g. 1 dim. 1. 3 dim.
c. 1 dim. h. 2 dim. m. 2 dim.
d. 2 dim. i. 2 dim. n. 3 dim.
e. 2 dim. J. 2 dim.

231 3
1. a. —
jp cu. in. or 57^-
cu. in.
b . Yes .
c. Often there is
roof -shaped top containing the pouring
a
spout but not filled with milk.
2. Less than a quart by 2&1 cu. in. (Volume of container is

54S cu. in.)
3. The same volume of different materials have different weights
The old saying is roughly true for water.
pages- 471-474 52 12-7
4. a. 6'L gn cu. in. (Remember, however, this result is not

as accurate as the form makes It look.)
b. 67^
cu. in.
c. No.
5. a. 35^-
cu. in.
b. 33^ cu. in.
c. The box holds
1^
1-itw cu. in. more than it should.
6. Presumably in measuring dry quantities such as berries and
the like, there are air spaces not filled with anything, so
this is paid for by increasing the total volume which is to
be called a quart.
7. $1.07
8. a bushel costing $3.50
9. Since 1 gal. = 231 cu. in., then 3jx3jxh= -g=- .
*10. 3 in. by 7 in. by ll in.
12-7. Weight and Time.
Although weight and time are things which can be measured,

they have no connection with space. However, they are tools
which the student needs and they have been included for this
reason. Admittedly, they seem to fit better in Chapter ll,
however due to the length of that particular chapter they have
been included here. Furthermore, they should prove to be easy
for the student and will provide him with a "breather" from the
visual concepts which he has Just completed.
12-7 53 pages 474-475
1. a. 6 hours 40 minutes
b. 400 minutes
c. 50 minutes each period
d. 57 minutes (nearest minute)
2. 1240 hours.
3. 10 days.
4. 4 hours for recreation.

5. 109§
lb.
6. Brand B has 2 oz. more.
7. a. 420 oz.
b.
26| lb.
c. 15 cans of Brand A
d. 14 cans of Brand B
e. Brand A $6.30
Brand B $6 . 16
Brand B will cost 14/ less.
8. a. 8 tons
b. 16,000 pounds
9. A cubic foot of water will weigh more, since a cubic foot

of water will make more than a cubic foot of ice.
12-8. Computations with Measured Quantities.

Students should not be left
with the impression that length
is the only Item that is measured. This chapter has dealt
largely with area and volume. Students are familiar with time,
temperature, and weight as measured quantities. The limitation
pages 475-^77 5^ 12-8
of time forces a choice between a casual and Inadequate treatment

of many measures and a more thorough treatment of a few. A real
understanding of measurement concepts should make any future work
with other measures simpler.
Seventh grade students have had experience adding and
some
subtracting measured quantities. The explanation given here
should be treated as review. Subtraction provides an excellent
opportunity to strengthen the student's understanding of place
value and the base of a number system. This can be brought out
by showing that in subtracting measures, a procedure similar to
subtracting numbers is used. In base ten, when a digit in the
minuend is too small for the step in subtraction a one in the
next larger place is exchanged for ten of the smaller. Similarly,
when necessary in subtracting measures, one large unit is ex
changed for its equivalent in smaller units. The complete lack
of system in the relationships between various units of measure
offers an opportunity to review number bases by showing what
bases would be convenient to use for a specific set of two
related units. This should appeal to the brighter student.
Multiplication and division of measured quantities will be
new for most 7th grade students, but should cause little
difficulty. of the better students will benefit from dividing
Some
composite quantities without changing to the smallest unit. An
interpretation of the meaning of the remainder should be required.
Practice in simple conversions is an essential part of this
process, since remainders must be changed to the next smaller
unit in order to complete the problem.
Some of these conversions provide considerable practice in
fundamental arithmetic operations ; units of area and volume
require large numbers.
12-8 55 pages 477-480

Addition:
1. 10 hr. 10 min. 4. 28 hr. 6 min. 8 sec.
2. 7 ft.
: ll in. 5. 13 sq. yd. 2 sq. ft.
3. 15 gal. 2 qt. 6. 57 cu. ft. 807 cu. in.
Subtrai ctlon■•
7. 2 yd. 2 ft. ll. 3 lb. 7 oz.

8. 1 min. 35 sec, 12. 6 cu. yd. 1 cu. ft.
9. 2 gal. 2 qt. 13. a. 22, 2 ft. 4 in.
10. 7 in. b. Yes, but in one case the
"exchange" gave 10 of the
smaller units; in the other
it gave 12. Numerals are
not alike.
Multiplication:
14. 31 hr. 30 min- 17. 37 hr. 6 min.
15. 80 ft. 9 in. 18. 102 T. 804 lb.
16. 28 qt. 19. 728 sq. ft. 46 sq. in.
Division:
20. 47 min. 23. 1 gal. 4 qt,
21. 2 yd. 1 ft. 24. 39 sq. in.
22. 1 T. Il60 lbs. 25. 58 cu. in.
26, a. Subdivisions inch of an

b. numbers of feet and yards
c. numbers of ounces and pounds
d. numbers of seconds, minutes and hours
27- Total weight is 3 ounces. Since -jr of the apple weighs
Tf
oz., the whole apple will weigh 4 x 3
or 3 oz.
pages 482-483 56 12-10, 12-ll
1. a. Perimeter = 250 ft. b. Area = 3750 sq. ft.

2. a. Volume = -rp- cubic inches or 15* cu. in.
b. Surface Area =
37-p sq. in.
3. 10 yd. 1 ft.
4. 1 hr. 34 min. 5^ sec.
5. 56 ft.
6. 69 T. 400 lbs.
7. 4 gal. 2 qt.
8. 6 sq. yd. 6 sq. ft.
9. a. 6 faces b. 8 vertices c. 12 edges
10. A 3 inch cube is larger. It is 24 cubic inches larger.

11. 336 sq. ft.
12. The rug costs $729.
12-ll. Cumulative Review .

1. There are none. This is the empty set.
2. 0, 24, 48, 72, 96, 120, etc.

3. a. False
b. True
c. False
4. [1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50}
5. a. XXIII
b. XIX
6. (1, 2, 4}
12-ll 57 pages 483-484
7- 361.25 miles
8- a. 3 > 0
b. 13 < 15 < 17
9- 4216
10- a and d
11- a. Surface Area is about 190 sq. in-

b. V % 150 cu. in.
12- a.
b, A * 8^ sq. in.
13. a, The set of whole numbers greater than 0 and less than
10.
The family including both parents and children.
14. a, Point C c. "CT5
b- EF d. BF
e. the empty set
8
8| in. in. in
15. a, b. 8tt c. 8yr
58

Multiple Choice, Completion, and Matching.
1. A hall is feet long and 2~ feet wide.

6 How many
square yards of carpet will cover it?
d.
o ^
5-S-
(b) b.
.
Ifc
t e . None of these
2. The interior of a 4 inch cube is:

a. The same as 4 cu. in.
b. Smaller than 4 cu. in.
(e) c. 16 times as large as 4 cu. in.
d. 4 times as large as 4 cu. in.
e. None of these
3. All rectangles with perimeters of 20 inches:
a. Have the same interior measure.
b. Have interior measures that increase as the base
increases in length.
c. Have interior measures that increase as the height
(e)'
v
increases in length.
d. Have the same interior measure as a square with a
20 inch perimeter.
e. None of these.
4. 2 cu. ft. is equal to:
a. 24 cu. in. d. 18 cu. yd.
(b) b. 3456 cu. in. e. None of these
c. 266 cu. in.
5. Choose from the right-hand column, the term which best describes
each term in the left-hand column and write its number on the line.
a. Face of a cube (7) 1. Ray
b. Side of a rectangle (2) 2. Line segment
c. Side of an angle (1) 3. Point
d. Intersection of edges of a 4. Line
rectangular prism (3) 5. Plane
e. Face of a rectangular prism (6) 6. Rectangle
7. Square
59
A rectangular prism has (6) faces, (12) edges, and

(8) vertices.
7. The rectangular prism is (3) dimensional
interior of a
while any one of its faces is (2) dimensional.
8, If the length and width of a rectangle are doubled, the
interior of the new rectangle is (4) times that of the
original one.
If the length and width of a rectangle are doubled, the
perimeter of the new rectangle is (2) times that of the
original one.
10, Which of the units in the right-hand column would be the
best to use to measure the thing listed in the left-hand
column? (A unit may be used more than once . ) Write the
number of the unit in the right-hand column on the line
in the left-hand column.
a. Air space in a room (4) 1. Degree
b.
c.
Linoleum needed to cover a shelf
Amount of water in a small
ill 2.
3.
Foot
Square foot
aquarium (4) or (9) 4. Cubic foot
d. A clothes line (2) or (7) 5. Mile
e. Space in a refrigerator (4) 6. Square mile
f. An angle (l) 7. Yard
8. Square inch
9. Cubic inch
ll. The point on a line can be described by

position of any
(l) number(s). The position of any point on a plane
surface can be described by (2) number(s). The position
of any point interior to a solid can be described by
(3) number (s) .
60
12. Jim has 26 feet of left-over fencing to use around a

small garden. Give two different sets of dimensions he
could use. Find the area of the garden in each case.
(Any two lengths that add to
13'. Areas will vary.)
13. A rectangular prism is 8 ft. long, 2 ft. wide and
3 ft. high. The area of the largest face is (24) sq. ft.
The volume of the interior of the prism is (48) cu. ft.
14. An area is found to be 18 sq. ft. This is the same as

(2592) sq. in. or (2) sq. yd.
3
15. a. Draw a rectangle 2tt in. by 3 in.
b. Find the perimeter of this rectangle. (104 ")
c. Find its area. (7w sq. in.)
16. A sand box is

feet wide and
3 4 feet long. How many
cubic feet of sand are needed to fill the box to a depth
of 10 in.? (10 cu. ft.)
17. An aquarium is inches wide, 22 inches long and
14
holds 12 gallons of water. How deep is the water?
(1 gal. = 231 cu. in.) (Answer: 9 in.)
*l8. A rectangular playground is 180 ft. by 330 ft.
a. What is its in square feet?
area In square yds?
(59*400 sq. ft. --6, 600 sq. yd.)
b. What is its
perimeter? (1020 ft.)
c. What would it cost to put blacktop on the playground
at 90/ a square yard? ($5,940)
d. A fence is to be put around the two short sides and
one long side of the playground. What would this
fence cost at $2.25 per foot? ($1552.50)
19. A chest is 30 inches wide, 2 feet high, and 5 feet
long.
a. Find the area of the surface. (55 sq. ft.)
b. A small can of stain will cover 30 square feet. Is
one small can enough to stain the top and sides? (No.)
Chapter 13
PARALLELS, TRIANGLES,
PARALLELOGRAMS, RIGHT PRISMS
"informal geometry" as presented In this chapter, is con

cerned with the discovery of geometric principles through experi
mentation and, where feasible, the verification of empirical
conclusions by deductive reasoning. Students perform as scientists
in collecting data and then perform as mathematicians in the
analysis and interpretation of the data they have obtained. Data
needed to formulate a statement of a geometric property are
obtained by measurement, with protractor or ruler, or by super
imposing one figure on another.
Pupils are introduced to the use of deductive reasoning as
a method for ascertaining what it true about a geometric figure,
arguing from previously stated principles and definitions. We
reserve for a later time the systematic organization of geometry
as a deductive system, starting with postulates and undefined
terms, and developing theorems and definitions on this basis.
The specific purposes for which this chapter was planned are
these:
1. To develop awareness of the occurence of points, lines
and planes and their intersections.
2. To introduce certain geometric concepts and relations
as listed below.
3. To give the pupils experience in verification of
experimental results by informal deductive argument
on the basis of previously stated principles.
The major topics are:

1. Some angle relationships in the figure formed by
parallel lines their transversal.
and
2. The angle and side relationships in a triangle.
3. The angle and side relationships in a parallelogram.
4. Areas of parallelograms and triangles.
5. Definition and volume of a right prism.
62
Some General Observations and Suggestions.

AsIn other chapters, precise terminology is emphasized
throughout the text material. It is necessary to make this
emphasis because many of the words that are casually used by
seventh graders are not as clearly understood by their users as
we hope. At this level, the consequences of casual language are
not always serious but may become so as students proceed in
their mathematical studies. All of the terminology developed in
previous chapters should be used whenever such usage clarifies
and simplifies geometric statements but care should be exercised
that in our attempts to be as exact as possible, we do not make
a complicated thing out of what may be, essentially, a very
simple idea. To avoid this situation, it is suggested that
meanings be given first in words of common usage and then in the
more precise terminology. The translation from common usage to
precise usage then becomes an exercise in analytical thinking.
Ideally, once a word that is commonly used is pre-empted for
a special meaning in a new vocabulary the new meaning must be
adhered to from that point on. In actual fact, however, it is
often difficult to convince a seventh grader that he should do
this. In this case we should accept, for the time being, his
way of speaking, evaluate and discuss what ideas he is attempting
to present, and then encourage him to rephrase his statements
according to the more precise wordage .
Since students often learn best by imitation and habit
formation, it is suggested that the teacher become thoroughly
familiar with the new terminology and use It at every possible
occasion. Through the simultaneous use of both the common and the
precise ways of speaking it is hoped the student will become more
and more proficient in the latter and grow to appreciate its value
until he eventually uses it as a matter of course.
Some particular terminology used In the text may need further
clarification, "intersect in the empty set" and "are parallel" as
applied to lines have the same meaning and may be used interchange
ably where the lines are understood to be in the same plane.
63
"intersect in the empty set" or "are skew" have the same meaning
when applied to lines that are not in the same plane . The front
edge of the ceiling and the side edge of the floor are skew and
have no point of intersection, which of these phrases to use in
a particular context depends on the conlusions one wishes to draw.
If the questions is, "What are all the possible intersections
of lines in space?", one of the possible intersections is
two
"the empty set". This is a phrase that might seem preferable to
"non-parallel lines have no intersection". On the other hand,
if the question is "How are the opposite sides of a parallelogram
related?", then "they are parallel" might seem preferable to
"they intersect in the empty set". Use your own judgment in
matters of this kind. It may be noted that the authors at times
say "the lines do not intersect" even though this is not strictly
so in the precise
set terminology. We say "the lines may inter
sect in the empty set". Since the phrase "do not intersect" is
so commonly used, it seems desirable to use it here. It is also
thought that there is some advantage in presenting some idea in
more general terms, which set language permits.
The chapter includes a few deductive developments of a more
or less informal nature. One of the problems arising in such a
development is that pupils usually fail to appreciate the need
for justifying statements with reasons previously adjudged
acceptable to the group as a whole. One proposal that might
impress them with the fact that only previously stated and
accepted properties, definitions, and reasons should be used is
to suggest that football and basketball games would be much more
interesting if in each game the rules were changed without
consulting anybody and that new rules be made up as the game
goes along! It might be an interesting game but hardly a fair
one! An occasional reminder about "making up rules as you go
along" is usually sufficient to make the point desired.
Frequently students are asked to make a general statement
about a property or the results obtained through experiment. In
the text such statements are partially written so that the
61*
grammatical form of the statement is suggested without hinting

too strongly at the mathematical ideas involved. Before con
sidering these, students should be encouraged to formulate their
own of principles and properties but such statements
statements
should be very closely examined to ensure that the meaning is
precise and clear. When a statement seems satisfactory to all,
then show pupils the formulation in the answer section for
comparison. then may use these statements
They as models in
future work in this chapter.
All of the "Experiments" should be performed in class so
that the number of trials will be sufficient to support the
conclusions drawn. If it is not possible to do this, those
experiments assigned as homework should include an additional
instruction to perform a greater number of trials than indicated
in the experiment itself. Some experiments require paper cutting-
To avoid loss of class time, it is possible in some cases to
either assign as homework whatever cutting out must be done or
give to each pupil the necessary cut-out already prepared.
About a week prior to the introduction of this chapter,
pictures and ariticles pertaining to plane geometry could be
placed on the classroom bulletin board to arouse curiosity and
supplement the historical facts briefly mentioned in the first
section. Here are two puzzles that will add interest to the
display:
1. Drawing a triangle is easy but
can you draw a triangle so that
each of the dots lettered A,
B and C are midpoints of its <
sides?
A/
/ ^ c
I
A . .C
/ ■^L ^-
/
IA
B
B
II SB
II W
i, ll W
65
2. A very thrifty
cabinet-maker
wished to construct a table
top two feet square out of a
piece of plywood shaped as in
the figure. He was able to
do this with only two sawings .
If you are as clever as the
cabinet-maker, you can do the
same.
Pictures and geometric diagrams suitable for posting are not

always easy to find but some good ones can be obtained from such
magazines as "Scientific American", "Fortune", "Popular Science",
"Popular Mechanics", "Life", and, of course, some technical
magazines. A pattern of "oak tag" paper might be posted along
with a completed model for the construction of a regular tetra

hedron as an activity in equilateral triangles.
following hints are given about applications for the

The
purpose of motivation. These may be supplemented by material
found in the introductory chapters of plane geometry texts that
are available.
There is never an over-supply of good thinkers. The world
needs people who can begin with a body of facts, relate them, and
think through to logical conclusions. The study of geometry
helps to train such people. In the aircraft industry there is a
great demand for workers trained in geometry because there is a
pages 487-^88 66 13-1
considerable amount of geometric knowledge involved in the

construction of an airplane. The main problem is to find out
how air will flow about an airplane of given shape moving in a
given direction at a given speed. Prom this the lifting force and
the air resistance may be calculated. The parallelogram of forces
may be used for an illustration. In order to find the single
force equivalent to two forces acting simultaneously at a point
we can draw a diagram like this in which the given forces are
represented in magnitude and direction
by the segments A"T5 and A"c. We
complete the parallelogram, and the

diagonal AD gives the magnitude
and direction of the resultant
force. A B
Geometry is also used to figure out the forces in an
electromagnetic field, and why rubber is elastic, and how an oil
company should schedule its production. In the theory of
relativity and in the design of agricultural experiments completely
different concepts of space are used. Today, the physicist, the
chemist, the biologist, the engineer, the economist, the psychol
ogist, and the military strategist use geometry in ways far
removed from surveying, some of which were not even discussed
or dreamed of only fifteen years ago.
13-1. Vertical and Adjacent Angles .
Concepts to be developed:
1. When the intersection of two lines is not empty, four

angles are determined.
2. Two angles which have a common ray and whose interiors
have no points in common are called adjacent angles.
3. Non-adjacent angles determined by the intersection of
two lines (in a single point) are called vertical angles .
k. The angles in a pair of vertical angles are equal in
measure .
13-1 67 pages 489-490
Suggestions.
Review very briefly the possible intersections
of two lines
in space using two meter sticks, pointers, or pieces of coat-
hanger wire to represent a pair of lines intersecting in space.
If the intersection is not the empty set, both wires should be
grasped in one hand at their point of intersection so that the
other hand is free to indicate parts of the figure. Use this
same device to suggest adjacent angles and vertical angles. By
this procedure, students will be encouraged to think of these
ideas in terms of "general" space and not just that portion of
space represented by the chalkboard or paper. Also, it is often
more convenient and more time-saving to carry a geometric figure
to the students in this way than to have the students carry them
selves to the same figure drawn on the chalkboard.
Answers to Exercises 13 -la

1. In Figure 1: z EAD, Z DAC, ^CAB, /_ BAE.
In Figure 2: Z YXR, Z RXH, ^HXW, /, WXY.
2. c.
3. a. They do not have a common vertex or a common ray.
b. They do not have a common ray.
4. a. Z* b.
Z2, Z3
Z3, z*
Z5
Z5, Z6
Zi ~l
5- a. b.
c Zi» Z 3; Z 3, Z i.
*->
4>
Z2^ Z
Z
Z
2>
pages 491-494 68 13-1

1. b. No. A requirement for vertical angles states that they
cannot be adjacent angles.
3. ^ COF, /, EOD
/_ AOC, l_ BOD
l_ AOE, /_ FOB
4. l_ FOA, l_ BOE
/_ COE, £ FOD
/ AOD, / COB
5.
Answers to Exercises 13 -lc

1. m/_
A - 38
m/_ B
= 90
m^/ C - 50
2. 180, 180
3. 180, yes, no.

If the union of the interiors of two adjacent angles and
their common half -line is a half -plane, then the angles are
supplementary angles.
4. (a), (d), (e).

5. /_ CAB, /_ SHE; /, BAE, /_ EAD; /_ EAD, /. DAC; /_ DAC, /_ CAB.
6.
13-1 69 pages 494-^99
7.
n □L
8. 6
Answers to Exercises 13 -Id

1. c.
2. a. 180 d. m/_ x = 180 - mZ y
b. 180 e. m/_ z
= 180 - mZ y
c. By subtracting mZ
y f. m/_ x =
rn^Z
z
from 180.
13-2. Three Lines in Space.
1. A line which intersects two or more lines in distinct

points is called a transversal.
2. In any figure consisting of lines whose intersections
are not empty, there are at least two pairs of vertical
angles and at least four pairs of adjacent angles.
3. Two angles whose measures add up to 180 degrees are
called supplementary angles .
4. Supplementary angles are not necessarily adjacent.
5. Two different angles whose interiors lie on the same
side of a transversal such that a complete ray of one
is contained in a ray of the other, are called
corresponding angles .
pages 499-500 70 13-2
It will prove helpful to make a demonstration model con

structed of three flat sticks free to turn on pivoted connections
made with rubber bands, small round-head bolts, or of clinched
tacks or nails.
On the chalkboard represent parallel lines in other than

horizontal positions at first. Otherwise, students get the
habit of thinking of parallel lines as being horizontal and have
difficulty seeing them in complicated figures where the parallel
lines are not horizontal. Colored chalk lends interest to a
chalkboard drawing and is effective in calling special attention
to certain portions of a figure.
1. c.
2. /_&, £e>, /, c, l_ g; l*>, l?; l&> l*.
3. a. A ray of one is not a part of the other.
b. Their interiors are not on the same side of the
transversal.
c. Their interiors are not on the same side of the
transversal .
4. No. A ray of one could not be a part of a ray of the other.
Yes.
13-3 71 pages 500-503
5. No.
Yes. m^ a ■
m/_ c
= 80 Property 1
m/_
d = 100 ^ a and ^ d are supplementary
and m/_ d is that number which
added to 80 gives 180.
m/_ d
=
m/_ e
= 100 Property 1
6. m^ a and n\/ c are two names for the same number m/_ b.
7. a. Yes c. Yes
b. Yes d. 12; 12; 12; 12.
13-3. Parallel Lines and Corresponding Angles.

1. when a transversal intersects two lines in the same
plane and the corresponding angles have unequal measures,
then the two lines will intersect.
2. When a transversal intersects two lines in the same
plane and the corresponding angles have equal measures,
then the two lines do not intersect.
Suggestions .
The emphasis should be on the children discovering the

relationships by their own observations. Be careful not to "kill"
their interest by telling them the answers. Ask leading questions
and try to draw the answers out of the students.
If class time is short,
in this section may
the experiments
be speeded up if each student is assigned the measuring for two
cases and then reports his findings for tabulation on the chalk
board. It might be well to carry out other experiments in this
same manner.
If projector is available, by all means use it
an overhead
for this section. On one piece of plastic film, draw with china-
marking pencil line rg and transversal t. On another piece
draw line r, . By superimposing the second piece on the first
and projecting the image on the chalkboard, line r, can be
s
pages 503-505 72 13_^
rotated to different positions through Point A and observations

as to angle measures and intersections be tabulated on the chalk
board. Since the figure is projected on the chalkboard, marks
may be erased without obliterating the figure.
1. (a), (c), (d), (e). Property 2a
2. (b), (f) Property 2
3. No. j?i and -£2 w1ll not intersect. This they must do to
form a triangle. Property 1 and Property 2a, in that
order, show that the lines will not intersect.
4. a. Yes. m/_ 1
=
m^ 2
Agreed upon
m/_ 3
=
m/_ 2
Property 1
m/_ 1
=
m^ 3 Two names for the same number
m£ 2.
b. 4.
13-4. Converses .
1. A converse of an "if — then" sentence may be formed by

reversing the order of the "if -clause" and the "then-
clause".
2. A converse of true or false regard
a statement may be
less of whether the original statement is true or false,
Suggestions:
Caution students that the meanings of words used in the
sample statements of the text are to be understood as those in
widest use. "Mary" and "Sue" are not names of ships or
horses!
It might prove helpful to clarify the meaning of "true" or
"false" before taking up the exercises. Without going into
details of logic, it should be sufficient to propose that a
13-4 73 pages 503-505
"false" statement is not considered true if at least one counter

example can be found.
For example, examine the statement: "The set of whole
numbers is closed under subtraction". As a counter-example one
might say, "there is no whole number which added to five gives
three and, therefore, (3 - 5) is not a name for a whole number".
This one counter-example is all that is needed to deny the
quotation. Emphasize that only one counter-example is needed to
prove a statement false.
While one counter-example to show that a state
can be used
ment is false, it is a great deal more difficult to show that a
statement is true. In this section we do not expect that the
students or teacher will prove that statements are true. At the
end of Section 13-7 a geometric proof, of sorts, is given for
the theorem: exterior angle of a triangle is equal in measure
An
to the sum of the measures of the two non-adjacent interior
angles of the triangle.
In "if — then" statements, the "if" clause is
considered to
be the postulate or postulates. In mathematics it is recognized
that even a formal proof is based on postulates and that the
property to be proved is true only if
the postulates used in the
proof are true. Mathematicians do not recognize any absolute
truth in mathematics. A mathematical agreement, based on postu
lates which may not necessarily even be in agreement with experience
is considered a proof, provided deduction is used correctly. Again,
it is recognized that the validity of the proof does not determine
the truth of the property. The truth of a property is completely
dependent on the truth of the postulates.
1. No
2. a. False d. True
b. True e. True (if no amputees)
c. True f. True
page 506 7* 13-4
3. a. If Blackie is a cocker-spaniel, then Blackie is a dog.

(true)
b. If we cannot see the sun, then it is night. (false)
c. If it is a holiday in the United States, then
it is July 4th. (false)
d. If Robert is the tallest boy in his class,
then he is the tallest boy in his school. (false)
e. If an animal has four legs, then the animal is
a horse. (false)
f . If an animal has thick fur, then the animal is
a bear. (false)
4 . a. True c. False e. False
b. True d. True f. True
5. a. If figure is a simple closed curve, then the

a
figure is a circle. (false)
b. If a figure is a triangle, then the figure is
a simple closed curve composed of three line
segments. (true)
c. If two angles are right angles, then the angles
have equal measures. (true)
d. If lines do not have
two a point in common, then
the lines are parallel. (In a plane --true;
In space--false)
e. If two angles are adjacent, then they are
supplementary. (false)
f. If two angles are supplementary, then they are
adjacent right angles. (false)
13-5 75 pages 507-508
13-5. Triangles .
1. A set is determined in accordance property.
with a common
2. There are three sets of triangles determined according
to the measures of their sides.
(a) The set of isosceles triangles has as members
triangles which have two sides that are equal
in length.
(b) The set of scalene triangles includes triangles
which have no two sides with the same measure.
(c) The set of equilateral triangles includes triangles
which have three sides equal in length.
3. An angle and a side of a triangle are said to be opposite
each other if their intersection contains just the end-
points of the segment referred to as side.
4. If two sides of a triangle are equal in length, the
angles opposite these sides have equal measures.
5. If two angles of a triangle have equal measures, then
the sides opposite these angles are equal in length.
6. An equilateral triangle is a special isosceles triangle.
Students should try to answer questions in the text as they

reach them and not read ahead for the answers . Answers are
included in the text so that, if desired, all or a portion of the
text may be assigned for reading outside of class.
Have a number of soda straws measured and creased before
class begins. This exercise may beem easy to most pupils but
even the brighter ones will jump to incorrect conclusions about
a straw divided into three pieces of 2", 3", and 5". Soda-
straw figures give the class an opportunity to handle triangles
in regions of space other than the chalkboard or the drawing
paper. Make certain that the soda-straw figures are understood
to be merely representations of triangles and not actual
triangles.
pages 508-509 76 13-5
Answers to Class Discussion Problems
Yes.
Scalene: No two angles of the same measure.
Isosceles: At least two angles of the same measure.
Equilateral: All three angles have the same measure.
Di s ad vant age s : a- Protractors are not as generally
available as are rulers .
Angle measure is more difficult to
estimate for many people than linear
measure .
1. m/_
A =
m/_ B 1. Agreed upon.
2. m B"C* = m AT? 2. Converse of Property 3.
3. m/_ C
=
m^ B 3. Agreed upon.
4. mIS = mI? 4. Converse of Property 3.
5. m B"C* = m ATT 5. All names for the same
= m AT5 number m A"C*.

1. Isosceles
2.
3. Scalene. No two sides have the same length.

4. a. Isosceles.
b. Equilateral. All three sides would have the same length.
5. a, Equilateral .
b, Isosceles. At least two sides have the same length.
6. a, Isosceles d. Isosceles
b, Scalene e. Equilateral
c - Equilateral
13-6 77 pages 512-516

1. a. mffi = mffi b. m AU = m BC~ c. m ST = m 35
2. a. m£ A
=
m^/
C b. m£ R
=
m/_ Q c. m^/
X =
m^ Z
3. Isosceles
4. /\ IE, EC", "dT.
A B
5. Yes. Equilateral triangle has at least two sides equal in
length.
No. Equilateral triangle must have three sides of equal
length but an isosceles triangle needs only two.
6. a. Converse of Property 2a.
b. Property 3
c. m/_ 1
=
m/_ 3
7. Equilateral. Property 3 can be used to show that all sides

have the same length.
13-6. Angles of a Triangle .

1. The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle in
a plane is 180.
2. Property applies to any triangle in a plane.
k
3. The properties of one set of angles may be discovered by
experimenting with another set of angles in which these
properties are preserved.
The paper cutting in the experiment of this section can be
assigned a day previous so as to save class time. Notice that two
triangles are used in this experiment . This is done for two
reasons: (a) To introduce a new symbol, (b) To show that a
set of angles has properties which can be discovered Indirectly
by experimenting with another set of angles. This method may
have another advantage in that the student always has a complete
triangle before him.
pages 516-519 78 13-6
1. The sum of m/_ 1, m/_ 2, and m/_ BAC, in degrees, is 180.
2. After step (3), the measures of the angles of the original

triangle have a sum of 180 as shown by the fact that the
corners determine a half -plane.
3. a. m/_ x = 92 c. m/_ x - 110
b. m/_ x = 29 d. m£ x = 16
4. a. ml x = 40, ml y = 40 d. x = 30, y = 48
I
m/_ ml_
b. ml x = 45 e. m. x = 150, ml y = 75
c. ml X = 48
5. 60
6. a. 65 and 65 or 50 and 80
b. yes 1
7. a. ml x = 45 c. ml x = 63
ml y - 100 vol y
- 63
ml z = 35 m^ z = 77
b. ml x = 28 d. m/ x = 27
ml y = 130 m^
y = 35
ml z = 22 m/ z = ll8
8. a. ml X = 37 b. m^/
x = 30
ml y ml y
= 37 = 30
ml z = 53 ml z = 60
9. ml a = 101
mZ b
= 39
ml c = 53
-0. ml a = 120 ml f = 60 m/ k = 60
ml b = 60 ml g = 60 m/ 1 = 60
ml c 60 ml h 120 60
= = =
ml m
ml d = 60 ml i = 60 m^/
n = 120
ml e = 120 m/ J = 120 m^/

o = 60
m^/
p = 120
13-7 79 pages 520-521
13-7. Parallelograms .
1. The shortest segment to a line r lies
from a point A
on a line through point A perpendicular to line r.
The measure of this segment is called the distance from
point A to line r.
2. If jl , and J} are parallel lines, then the distance
J
2
from a point on , to Jl 2 is the same as the distance
from any other point on J -, to J£ 2 •
3. The distance between two parallel lines is the length of

segment on a line perpendicular to both given lines and
having an endpoint on each.
k. A polygon is a simple closed curve which is the union

of segments.
5. A quadrilateral ispolygon with four sides.
a A
pentagon is a polygon with five sides.
6. Opposite sides of a quadrilateral are those which have

no point in common. (They do not intersect.)
7. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides
are parallel.
8. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal in length.
9. The interior ofparallelogram may be separated by a

a
diagonal into two triangular regions of the same size
and shape.
Suggestions.
It Is intended that as much as possible of the development
be done in class.
Because in developing Property 5 the drawing of parallelo
grams by the large amount of time, It
class would take up a
would be advisable to have prepared an ample supply of parallelo
gram cut-outs cut on the paper cutter.
pages 521-527 8o 13-7
1. c.
2. c.
3. a. and c.
b . Not the union of segments .
4. c. It has five sides.

5. ABEF, BCED, ACDF.
6. a. AT), B"C
b. EE, Ec"
c. Al), B7T
d. "Kb, dc

1. a., d.
2. ABPE, BCDE, ACDF
3. AJGF contains AJID, AJHE, DIHE, DIGF, and EHGF.

BMEK contains BKIL and ILME.
4. Yes. Because each is one of two equal parts.
1.
2. Yes. Because of Property 5.
3. Determined. All points of the angle rays are not points of

the parallelogram.
4. Their measures are equal.

13-8 8l pages 530-537
Answers to Exercises 13 -7d

1 ii 1
1. a. 1" b. 1" c d. 2"
n
2. a.
a 2"
-^
d. S"
3 „
b. §" e.
c. 1" f.
3. a. 2"
1 ii
b.
.
r
4.
20 yd.
(a)!
50 yd.
!(b)|(c)| 20 yd.
1
1
1
1
1
£"
2" 1
a.
a b.
ii
5.
1
6. a. 1 and
and
d
1
.
b . 1 and 5n
o'
and
e
3»
.
„
c. j~
13-8. Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles .

1_ The area of
parallelogram may be determined, given the
a
length of a base and the length of the altitude to that
base.
2. Any side of a parallelogram may be considered its base.
pages 538-541 82 13-8
3. The interior of a triangle may be considered as half of

the interior of a parallelogram whose base is the base
of the triangle and whose altitude is the altitude of
the triangle to that base.
4. Any side of a triangle may be considered as a base, and
for each base there is a corresponding altitude.
Suggestions.
Chalkboard of triangles and parallelograms should be
drawings
so made that rarely do the altitudes discussed lie on a vertical
line. Every effort should be made to have pupils realize that the
altitudes of figures do not always extend in a vertical direction.
1. a. A, B, C, D.
b. TS, BIT, T!T>, T5E.
c . A"B", 15c .
d. No.
2. a. AT5 or B7T c. EST or H§

b. Y? or HZ d. any side.
3. a. ABCD, HMRS, UVTQ.
b. Yes. The distance between a set of parallel lines
remains unchanged.
4. a. ABCE, ABFD.
b. AE , BC.
1. a. 15 sq. yds. d. 36 sq. ft.

b. 12 sq. ft. e. 50 sq. in.
c. 18 sq. in.
2. 7^
sq. in.
3. a. (4)(3) + (4)(2) + (4)(1) = 24 sq. in.
b. (4)(6) = 24 sq. in.
13-8 83 pages 541-546
4. a. (3)(a|) +
(2)(a|) +
(D(4) = 15 B*- in-
b. = 15 sq. in.
(6)(a|)
5. All have the same altitude and base. The area Is 20 sq. in,
for each.
6.
3 /
2
/ 1
1. a. 10 sq. in. d. 136 sq. in.

b. 32 sq. cm. e. 65 sq. in.
c. 28 sq. yd.
2. 30 sq. yd.
3. No. The openings have a total area of 4 sq. ft., which is
8 sq. ft. less than is required.
4. Area of window = sq. ft.
60
60 sq. ft. at $50 per sq. ft. =
(60) (50) = 3000
Cost of window =
$3000.
5. 3750 sq. ft., ll,250 sq. ft.

6. Area =2 sq. in.
pages 5^6- 5^8 84 13-9
13-9. Right Prisms.

1. Definition of right prism as a figure obtained from
a
two suitable related polygons of same size and shape
lying in parallel planes.
2. Meanings of terms edge, face, vertex, base, height, as
applied to a right prism.
3. Method of obtaining volume of the interior of a right
prism from the area of the base and the height .
Suggestions.
Section 13-9 has been written from a quite intuitive point
of view. In particular, no explicit discussion has been given of
the concepts of lines perpendicular to planes or of perpendicular
planes, although both are strictly involved in the idea of a
right prism.

1. Figure 1: a. triangular right prism
b. A, B, C, D, E, F.
c. ABCE, BCDF, ACDE.
d. ABC, EFD.
Figure 2: a. pentagonal right prism
b. A, B, C, D, E, A», B», C, D», E».
C. ABB'A', BCC'B', CC'D'D, DD'E'E, EE'A'A.
d. ABCDE, A'B»C'D'E».
Figure 3: a. triangular right prism
b. A, B, C, X, Y, Z.
c. ABYX, BCZY, CZXA.
d. ABC, XYZ
13-9 85 pages 5^8-553
Figure 4: a. rectangular prism

b. A, B, M, H, C, F, R, D.
C. ABCD, BMFC, MFBH, HRDA, ABMH, DCFR.
d. ABMH, CFBD, or any other pair of opposite
sides.
Figure 5.. a. triangular right prism
b. A, X, Y, V, H, T.
c. AXHV, XYTH, YTVA.
d. AXY, VHT.

1. a. 8 sq. in.
b. 8 sq. in.
c. 5 in.
d. 40 cubic Inches
2. a. 32 cubic inches
b. 18 cubic inches
c. 37-o" cubic inches
3. a. 30 cubic inches
b. 56 cubic inches
c. 86 cubic inches
k. a. 216 cubic inches

b. 18 fish
5. a. No. Volume of tank is 40 cubic feet, ten cubic feet
short of requirements.
6. a. Triangular right prism.
b.
d. ll4 cubic inches

pages 560-562 86 13-ll
13-ll. Cumulative Review.
1. (1, 7, 49}
2. One of the factors is zero.

3. 640
4. a. P
b. T
c. T
5. a. 0.3B" ...
b. 0.0714285 ...
6. a., e.
7. a. Separates space into two half -spaces.

b. Separates ~Kl) into two half -lines.
c. Separates plane ABC into two half -planes.
8. As lines are drawn through R (as shown) they will cut
both lines ST and VW insets of points which can be
matched one-to-one.
9. V = 336 cu. in.

10. 90
ll. a.
12. a. .027
b. 17.56
13. (0, 21, 42, 63, 84}
14. $105.30
15. 38^
ft.
16. 15 sq. in.
17. The area of the triangle = •* the area of the parallelogram,

87

True -False
F 1. Nothing has been added to geometry since It was first

invented .
F 2. If of an isosceles triangle has a measurement
one angle
of 66°, one of the other two angles must have a
measurement of 66°.
T 3. A statement may be true while its converse is false.

T 4. Pairs of corresponding angles with equal measures are
formed when a transversal intersects two parallel lines.
T 5. A statement and its converse may both be true.
T 6. If a triangle has two sides with equal measures, then it

has two angles with equal measures .
T 7. The sum of the degree measures of the three angles of a

triangle is equal to 180.
P 8. An equilateral triangle is also a scalene triangle.

F 9. The converse of a false statement is always false.
P 10. If a triangle
only two sides with equal measures,
has it
can have three angles with equal measures.
T ll. An equilateral triangle is also an isosceles triangle.

T 12. In the figure at the right,
A, B, and C are symbols
for the vertices of the
triangle. A
T 13. All parallelograms are quadrilaterals.
F 14. In the four sided figure at

the right, if m(AB) =
m(CD)
and if AD and BC are
parallel, then the figure is
a parallelogram.
86
T 15. A triangle may never have two angles whose measures are
90°.
F 16. If the measures of the four sides of a parallelogram
are equal, then the figure is always a square.
P 17. In the figure at the right, z, »Y
if WX and YZ are parallel,

then WXYZ is a parallelogram.
w^ /X
F 18. It is possible to draw a triangle whose sides measure
4 inches, 2 inches, and 1 inch.
The figure shown at the

right consists of two pairs
of parallel lines. Use the
figure in marking true or
false.
T 19. m/_ a
=
m^/
8
F 20. n\/ 3 =
m^ h
T 21. The figure contains more than 16 pairs of equal angles,

T 22. If m/_ 7
=
m^ 8 all
the measures of the angles
then
shown in the figure are equal.
T 23. The triangles shown below all have the same area.
89
Multiple Choice-
1. If a transversal intersects two lines in the same plane
and the measures of the corresponding angles are equal,
then the two lines are
a. parallel lines.
b. skew lines.
(a) c. perpendicular lines.
d. intersecting lines.
e . none of the above answers is correct .
2. If of one angle of a
the measure scalene triangle is 50,
which of the following statements is always true?
a. One of the other angles has a measure of 90.
b. One of the other angles has a measure of 50.
(c) c. The sum of the measures of the other two angles
is 130.
d. Two of the sides are equal.
e. One of the other angles has a measure of 130.
3. In the figure shown at the
right, how many transversals
intersect lines m and n?
a. 1
b. 2
(b) c. 3
d. h
e. 5
90
4. If the measure of triangle is equal to the

one angle of a
measure of another angle in the triangle . . .
a. the measures of the three sides of the triangle
are equal.
b. none of the measures of the sides are equal.
(d) c. the measures of the sides opposite the angles
whose measures are equal are not equal.
d. the measures of two sides are equal.
e. none of the above statements is correct.
5. If sides of a triangle have lengths of three inches
two
and four inches, the third side could measure . . .
a. one inch.
b. seven inches.
(e) c. less than one inch.
d. more than seven inches.
e. none of the above answers is correct.
6. If three lines are drawn on the same plane and no two of
these lines are parallel, the figure formed could include
a. exactly three angles.
b. exactly two points of intersection.
(c) c. a triangle.
d. two closed curves.
e. a rectangle.
7. In the figure at the right,

which angle forms with e
a pair of corresponding
angles?
a. a
b. b
(a) c. c
d. d
e. e
91
8. In the figure above, lines x and y are parallel if_ ..

a. angle a has the same measure as angle d.
b. angle c has the same measure as angle e.
(d) c. angle b has the same measure as angle d.
d. angle e has the same measure as angle a.
e. angle a has the same measure as angle b.
9. In the figure above, if the measure of angle e is 100,

the measure of angle c is . . .
a. 100
b. 80
(e) c. 20
d. 10
e. unknown
10. In the figure above, an angle adjacent to angle a is

a. b
b. d
(a) c. e
d. angles b, and d are all angles adjacent to

angle a.
ll . A polygon may have . . .
I. one side.
II. two or three sides.
III. three, four, or five sides.
IV. one, three, or five sides.
a. I and II are correct.

b. II and III are correct,
(e) c. Ill and IV are correct.
d. IV is correct.
e. none of the answers given above is correct.
92
12. The area of the parallelogram

shown at the right may be
found by ...
a. adding ll and 7.
b. multiplying and 7. ll II'
c. multiplying and 7 ll
(e) and dividing the product
by two .
d. multiplying (ll + 7) by
e. none of the above answers

is correct.
13. The area of the triangle shown
at the right may be found by . ,
I. ll x 7
7
II. 2 x ll x 7
III. |(ll x 7)
IV. 7 x i x ll
a. only I and III are correct.
b . only II and IV are correct .
(e) c. only I and II are correct.

d. only I, II, and III are correct,
e. all of the above are correct.
93
Completion.
In the figure at the right lines

a and b are parallel and have
transversal j[ . What are the
measurements of each of the
following angles? Note: the
measurement of one of the angles
is given in the figure.
1. angle 6 (53°)
2. angle 2 (127°)
3. angle 1 (53°)
4. angle 5 (127°)

the length of segment DF is
(3 in.) .
One of a pair of vertical angles measures 40; the other one

would measure (40) .
Two lines Intersect at point A. If the measure of one

angle formed is 70, an adjacent angle has a measure of
(HO) •
8, In the triangle at the right, ^-A

m/_ ABC
= 30, m/_ BCA 70.
=
What is the measure of angle

CAB? (80)
Corresponding angles have interiors on (the same) side of

the transversal.
9*
In the figure at the right, lines

x, y, and z are parallel. What
is the measure of each of the
following angles?
10. angle a (50)
ll. angle b (60)
12. angle c (70)
13. angle d (130)
14. angle e (50)
15. when a line intersects two other lines in distinct points,

it is called a (an) (transversal) of those lines.
Using the figure at the right,
predict whether lines w and z
will be parallel or will inter
sect. If they intersect, indicate
which side of t (above t or
below t) the intersection will
occur. Fill in the space which
correctly completes the following statements. (Do not write on
this paper. Indicate answers on answer sheet.)
intersect intersect be
above t below t parallel
16. If m/, a = 75
and m/_ e
=
75* then
the lines will ( ) ( ) (X)
17. If m£ b
= 100
and xa/_
e = 80,
then the lines will ( ) ( ) (x)
18. If m/_ c
= 120
and m/_ g
= 100
then the lines will ( ) (X) ( )
95
19. If 111/(1
= 60
and m£ e = 80,
then the lines will ( ) (X) ( )
Find the areas of the following:

20.
13"
T
6ii
PARALLELOGRAM (78 sq. in.)
21.
(12 sq. ft.)
4"
(240 cu. in.)
96
23. Area of the interior of the hexagon is 2tj square feet,
(45 cu. ft.)

Chapter 14
CIRCLES
The main purposes of this chapter are:

1. To acquaint the pupils with the circle, its length
and area, and with some of its elementary applications
to cylindrical solids.
2. To develop precision of expression and thought, and
to develop geometric awareness and intuition including
understanding of appropriate methods of study.
Except for the study of the circle itself, the general
purposes of this chapter are like those of Chapters 4, J, and
13. The teacher may choose to reread the introduction to the
commentaries for these chapters .
An effort has been made to use accurate statements concerning
the distinction between length and measure of a length. This is
done in the spirit of Chapter ll. The number r is not the
radius but rather the measure of the radius .
Because in ordinary speech distinctions have not been made
between length and measure of a length many teachers may find
themselves interchanging these terms. An important distinction
is that we multiply numbers but not lengths as such. For many
purposes this Idea is not too important for seventh grade pupils.
Teachers are advised to note such subtleties of thought and to
make some effort to use precise language. They should not be
alarmed at their own failure to do so consistently. They should
not insist on more than reasonable precision from students.
14-1. Introduction.
wish to begin this chapter by calling attention to
You may
the prevalence of the circle in Industrial and in decorative
design. Some pupils enjoy bringing in pictures illustrating the
use of the circle. In the history of civilization, discovery
of the use of the wheel is ranked in Importance with discovery
pages 563-565 98 14-1
of a method for producing fire.

Exercises l4-la and 14-lb are planned to provide practice
In following directions for drawing and labeling figures, and in
use of the compass. It is important that each pupil have a
compass and learn to use it correctly and with some dexterity.
In following the directions for drawing figures, pupils should
learn to label the figure at each stage, as subsequent directions
are given in terms of the labels specified.
Answers to Exercises l4-la

1.
Yes YK is a radius of the circle.

14-1 99 page 565
2. a.
b. "GK Is 2rj- inches long. Any radius drawn in this

circle will be
2^
inches long-
3. a.-c.
d. Yes. The length is 2 inches.

page 566 100 14-1
Answers to Exercises 1^-lb
1 . a . -b .
c. The intersection seems to be a single point,

d- • EL • "*c •
f. The points are S and P

14-1 101 page 567
3. a.-f-
g. HFKG seems to be a rectangle. (HFKG is a rectangle.

If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are the same length,
and also bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is a
rectangle . )
4. a.-d.
e. Intersection set is two points,

f. Point X
pages 567-568 102 14-2
14-2. Interiors and Intersections.

This section is designed to help the pupils to discover what
is meant by the interior of a circle and the exterior of a circle-
They should be able to decide when a point is in the interior of
a circle point is in the exterior of a circle. There
and when a
is an opportunity to review the notion of intersection and union
of sets. Pupils should be repeatedly encouraged to translate the
written idea into a diagram in a step-by-step manner as they read-
This cannot be overemphasized, for it applies throughout geometry-
Answers to Exercises l4-2a

1. The center of a circle is in the interior of the circle.
2. The point A is in the interior of the circle.
3. The point B is in the interior
of the circle.
4. The location of points
C, D, E, and F will
vary . However, each
point is less than 2
inches from the point Q.
5. Each distance is less

than a radius of the
circle .
6. A point is in the
interior of a circle if
the distance from the
center of the circle is
less than the radius .
7. §3" is longer than the
radius of the circle.
8. ÊT is longer than the radius of the circle.
14-2 103 pages 568-570
9. Student may select any point outside the circle.

10. A point is in the exterior of a circle if its distance from
the center of the circle is greater than the radius .
ll. This figure is for Problems ll - 17.
•B
12. The point A is less than r units from the center P.
13. PC is less than r.

14. The interior of a circle of radius r is the set of all
points at a distance less than r units from the center
of the circle.
15. The point B is more than r units from the center P.
16. The distance "PT5 is greater than the distance r.
17. The exterior of a circle of radius r is the set of all
points at a distance greater than r units from the center
of the circle.
It necessary to review more of the work on inter

may be
sections and unions. Sufficient material can be found in
Chapters 4 and 7 on Non-Metric Geometry.
Answers to Exercises l4-2b

1. a. Yes. The single point Q lies on the circle and also
on PQ.
b . Circle P O PQ = Point Q
pages 568-571 104 14-2
2. a. Circle P O QP = Point Q and one other point. (The

second point needs a label.)
b. Two.
3. a. The set of points in the interior of circle M consists

of all points less than lrj- inches from center M.
b. The set of points on circle M
consists of all points 1^-

inches from the center M.
The set of points in the

exterior of circle M
consists of all points
more than 1-g inches
from the center M.
4. The intersection of the circle and its interior is the

empty set.
Answers to Exercises l4-2c

1. The intersection of D and PQ is the segment ^R*.
2. D O PQ = Z5R" and PQ circle P = The two points Q
and R.
3.
14-2 105 pages 571-572
k . a. one
b. two
c. No.
d. If Slies in the interior
of the circle, the number of
points is 0; if S lies
on the circle or outside the
circle, the number of points
is 1. The answer depends on
the choice of S.
Answers to Exercises l4-2d

1.
2. a. Circle P D H = the set of all points on Arc AFB not

including the points A and B.
b. The points A, G, and P do not belong to the
intersection. The point F does belong to the
intersection.
c. You cannot count all the points of the intersection.
f
pages 572-573 106 14-2
3 . a . -b .
c. Intersection of the circle and the angle MKN consists

of the three points M, N, and K.
d. The intersection of the two interiors has been shaded.
Answers to Exercises l4-2e

1. Yes.
2. No. More than two points
cannot belong to the inter
section. These can be less
than two points. (See
Figure 2.)
Figure 1 Figure 2
3. The intersection of
the two circles is
the point P.
14-2 107 pages 573-574
4. a. Consists of two points.

(They are labeled D
and E here.)
b. Yes; no; two points
determine just one
line.
c. Horizontally shaded in
the figure.
d. Vertically shaded in
the figure.
e.
5. a. Same as interior of angle BPF.
b. Intuitively, the quarter-circle in the upper right,

excluding the endpoints B and F.
c. Four of the quarters may be identified. Besides the one
in (b), we have the intersection of the circle and the
Interior of the angle APF, in the upper left; the
intersection of the circle and the interior of ^/APG; the
intersection of the circle and the interior of ^/BPG. In
each case, a quarter can also be described as the inter
section of the circle and two half -planes; for example,
the lower left quarter is the intersection of the simple
closed curve, AFBG, that A-side of FG, and the
G-side of AB.
pages 57^-575 108 14-3
d. Four portions of the circle might be called halves. The

upper half, for example, is the intersection of the
circle and the half -plane H. In the next section, we
learn that this intersection together with its endpoints

A and B, is a semicircle. Another is the lower half,
the intersection of the circle and the G-side of AB.
Another is the intersection of the circle and J. The
fourth one shown is the intersection of the circle and
the A-side of FG. In each of the four cases, the curve
together with its endpoints is a semicircle. The pupils
may wish to include the endpoints when they describe a
"half" of the circle. This problem helps blaze the trail
for certain notions In Section k of this chapter.
6. a. Empty set.
b. Intersection of the interior of the outer circle and the
exterior of the inner circle.
7. Same as the exterior of the outer circle.
8.
14-3. Diameters and Tangents .
The six radii shown in the figure are TK, PTJ, PTT, PE,
W, and TO.
length of the diameter is twice the length of the radius
The
of the same circle. Pupils should learn the relationship
d = 2r, r =
£d .
14-3 109 page 576

1.
The diameter of the circle is 6 Inches.

2.
The radius of this circle is 2 inches.

3. Pupil should think the statement is true.

1. In circle A, if r = 3, then d = 6.
2. In circle B, if d = 10, then r = 5.
3. In circle c, if r =
k^t
then d =
£.
4. In circle D, If d = 3, then r =
1^
.
S
page 577 110 14-3

1 . a. one
b. one
2. 9
3.
h. a.-f.
g. Should be the same.
(The drawing is hard to
do with enough care . )
h. A diameter of the
circle.
14-3 111 pages 578-579
The next set of class exercises should enable the pupils to

understand the three possibilities for the intersection of a
line and a circle. Namely,
1. The intersection may be the empty set. In this case

there is no point on the circle that is also on the line,
2. The intersection set containing a single point.
may be a
In this case we say the line is tangent to the circle.
We call this point, the point of tangency.
3. The intersection may be a set containing two points.

This case may be the one the pupil usually thinks of
when talking about a line and a circle intersecting.

1. a. The empty set.
b. The interior of the circle.
2. Yes.
3. No.
k. Four; one; E, F, S
Answers to Exercises l*l-3e

1. Thirty-two: each of the 8 circles has four lines tangent
to it.
2. 21
3. a. Consists of four points R, S, T, U.

b. Consists of point T.
c. Point of tangency.
d. 3: HE, EF, FG.
e. R, S, T, U.
pages 579-580 112 14-3
4. a,
b. Empty set
c, Intuitively it is of the four corner regions.
composed
An attempt on the pupil's part to give a careful descrip
tion is the one quoted in the problem: "the intersection
of the exterior of the circle and the interior of the
square EFGH." A purpose of this problem is to point out
the advantages of our vocabulary in enabling us to say
just what we mean with the greatest ease.
As in the preceding part, the best word description is
given in the problem Itself. The intersection is shaded
in the figure.
*5« a. Yes. The pupil's answer may be based on the notion of

symmetry, but there are many ways in which he can express
his thoughts .
b. Yes.
c. Right angle.
d. Perpendicular.
*6. The lines are perpendicular.
*7. Each diameter is different radii on one line,
the union of two
If the intersection of two segments on one line consists of a
common endpoint, then the length of their union is the sum of
the lengths of the two segments . Since all radii have the
same length, the measure of a diameter is twice the measure
of a radius in the same circle. Since this applies to all
diameters, all of them have the same length.
14-4 113 pages 580-584
14-4. Arcs and Central Angles.

This section extends the idea of separation started in
Chapter 7. There the pupil learned that only one point was
necessary to separate a line into two half -lines. Here the pupil
should see that one point is not sufficient to separate a circle
into two parts.
Definitions qualifying descriptions which are especially
and
important in this section are arc, symbolism for arcs, and
central angle.

1. a. No.
b. Two points.
2. Yes.
1. AMB
2. ANB
3. BMA and BNA
4. a. Into two equal arcs,

b. semicircles.

1. a. None
b. A, B
c. None
2. a. BC d. The point D
b. DF e. DE
c. CD" f. ABCDEF or £p
page 584 114 14-5
14-5. Length of a Circle.

The relation between the length of a circle and the length
of its diameter is developed by means of two experiments. The
first method consists of measuring the circumferences and diameters
of circles, examining the measures for a possible relation, and
observing that, in any circle, the ratio 4 is approximately the
same number. It is a good procedure to have the pupils report
their measurements, tabulate them, and then propose relations
which might exist. This is to be preferred to guiding them too soon
and too firmly toward the ratio.
The second method is important as a basis for underlining
the notion that f is a number, and that the symbol "tt" is to be
regarded as a numeral. This is the first number of the set of
irrational numbers the pupils have met. They should develop the
notions that (l) such numbers to points on the number
correspond
line, and (2) that a decimal expression for the number, to any
desired precision, may be written. Although ir is not a rational
number, the assumption is tacitly made here that it behaves like
an ordinary number in combining with other numbers; that is, the
commutative, associative, and distributive properties for addition
and multiplication hold. Many pupils are interested in the fact
that mathematicians have studied the properties of this number
for centuries, continue to do so; and are entertained by
and
seeing the decimal for tt to so many decimal places. A decimal
expression for tt to 10,000 decimal places was published in
the year 1958. This is mentioned in an aritcle by F. Genuys
In Chiffres 1 (1958), 17-22.
Pupils may be interested in seeing certain decimal expres
sions for tt. Here is the decimal for ir to fifty -five places.
3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 41971 69399 36510 58209..-
(The three dots at the end indicate that the decimal expression
continues indefinitely . )
Pupils may be amused by a mnemonic device for remembering

the first figures in the decimal for tt. It is a rhyme In which
the number of letters in each word indicated the digit:
14-5 115 pages 585-586
"See, I have a rhyme assisting

My feeble brain, its tasks sometime resisting."
Pages 24 and 25 of The Wonderful World of Mathematics by
Lancelot Hoghen should provide interesting reading for pupils.

1. a.-c. Answers will depend on measurements obtained.
d. Differences are not the same.
e. Ratios will vary but should be distributed around 3.1
or 3.2. If a correctly computed ratio is larger than
3.4 or smaller than 2.9, suggest that the object be
measured again.
f. The results should suggest that the circumference of each
circle is about 3_ times as long as its diameter.
g. They seem to be about the same.
2. b.-c. A B
d.-e.
f. Between
0
3 and
12
■
4.
I
Estimates
,
will
l^L^
3
1
4-
probably vary from

3.0 to 3.3.
g. IE
h. IE
i. Length of the circle is about 3.0 - 3.3 times the
length of the diameter.
Results should agree fairly closely.
pages 588-589 l1^ 14-5

1. a. 3.14 X 100 = 314. £r X 100 = -^2°- = 314.28
The answers are both close to 314.

b. The quotient is 3.142 which is very close to 3.14.
2. 21.98 ft. or 22 ft.
3. 94.2 ft. or 94 ft.
4. d
"ITT
5. r =-227
6. 3.82 ft. or 3.8 ft.

1.
a. Radius 5 in. Circumference 31.4 in, or 31 in.
b. Diameter 8.4 cm. Circumference 26.376 cm, or 26 cm.
c. Radius 3.98 ft,

or 4.0 ft. Diameter 7.96 ft,
or 8.0 ft-
d. Radius 6.25 in, or 6 in. Circumference 39.250 in, or 39 in-
2. a. 14 in.
b. 132 ft.
c. 42 in.
d. 7 ft.
e. 66 in.
3. ll0 in.
4. 37.71 in., or 38 in.
5. 691.42 ft., or 691 ft.
6. 19.72 in., or 20 in.
7. 94.2 ft., or 94 ft.
*8. a. 62.0 in.
b. 7.75 in., or 8 in.
14-6 117 pages 589-591
*9. 12.56 in., or 13 In.

*10. a. Length of circle C ** 44 in.
Length of circle D * 31.4 in., or 31 in.
b. The linear measure of arc QR is 8.8 inches or 9 in.
The linear measure of arc ST* is 6.2 inches or 6 in.
14-6. Area of Circles.

Chapter 12 explains the basic method for finding the area of
a closed region. prefer to have a
In the case of a circle we
method for computing the area in terms of the radius. Only one
p
approach to the development of the relationship A = irr is
presented in this section. This is an application of the basic
method of measurement and yields a rough approximation.

1. The Poj Lnt
2. a. rac liu
b. 2 • r
c. 2 • r
d. 2 •
r
e. (a] is by definition of a radius.
| uses the relationship, d = 2 • r.
(c: and (d) uses the fact that since ABEF is a
square all of its sides have the same length.
3.
4. Yes . The area of square ABEF is the area of square

AZPV is r2.
5. a. The area of the circle is less than the area of square
ABEF.
b. Yes.
pages 591-593 118 14-6
6. Inspection should reveal that the area of the circle is

more than two -thirds as large as the area of the square.
As for three -fourths, this is a rather subjective decision
and different children may answer differently. The exact
v
ratio -£ is only slightly larger than 3
^-.
Pupils review on units of measure and what is
may need
meant by unit of area. Once the basic notion of area is
a
recalled, the pupil should be able to find the area of circles.

In counting the units of area, you may take advantage of the
symmetry and count in just one quarter.
In the upper right
quarter, for example, 69 square regions lie entirely within
the circle (by rows, from the top to the middle of the figure,
9). An additional 10
8,
8,
4,
6,
0, 7, 9, 9, 9,
square regions have the property that the larger portion is
inside the circle (again, by rows, from the top, 3, 1, 1,
1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1). After counting (69 and 10),
assign the measure 79 to the area of a quarter. Thus for the
whole circle, the measure of its area is 316. Note that the
value 79 is the best possible counting number that can be
expected, since the theoretical measure is 78.54, to the
nearest hundredth.

1. 10
2. 100
3. 316
4. 3.16
5. Yes; ir
14-6 119 pages 593-59^

When the children draw their own circles and measure with
this counting procedure, there may be considerable variation in
the results because of inadequate drawing performance and/or
equipment. Most of the development should be based on the
professionally drawn diagram in the book.
You may wish to use a second method to help pupils to
p
understand the meaning of the formula A = irv . Have pupils
do the following.
1. Draw a circle on a piece of heavy paper or cardboard.
2. Draw a diameter of the circle.
3. Draw radii to make an equal number of sectors in each
of the halves of the circle created by the diameter.
4. Cut the circle along the diameter.
5. Then cut the sectors formed by the radii in each of the
two halves . These angular portions should hang together
like teeth.
6. Place the sectors together to form an approximate

parallelogram .
pages 594-595 120 14-6
The area of the parallelogram equals the length of the base

(which is w of the circle) multiplied by the height (which is
equal to a radius of the circle) . The base of the parallelogram
is t*c . The height is r. Then the area is equal to r times
•k c . Since the length of the circumference is ird or 2-wr and
the base of the parallelogram is equal to ?y of the circumference

then the area of the parallelogram and of the circle is:
r times
1
.* 2 irr or ir r 2.

1. 154 sq. ft.
2. ll3 sq. ft.
3. r d c A
20 40 124 1240
4 8 24.8 49.6
0.015 0.030 0.093 0.0006975
12 24 74.4 446.4
4. The circular skillet has the greater frying surface since

50.24 > 49. Area of circular skillet % 50.24 sq. in.
Area of square skillet % 49 sq. in.
5. Approximately ll3 square inches.
6. First method; yes.
7. a. Approximately 12. 56 square inches.

b. Approximately
c. The area of a circle that inches is
has a radius of 4
about 4 times as large as the area of a circle that has
a radius of 2 inches .
8. Approximately 154 square feet.
9. Approximately 39 square feet.

14-7 121 pages 595-598
10. Approximately 1231 square inches.
ll. a. Approximately 15^ square feet,

b. Yes. Area of square * 196 sq. ft.
of the area of square a* 147 sq. ft.
-jr
which is just a little less than 15^- sq. ft.
*12. a. The area is multiplied by 4.

b. The area is multiplied by 4.
o
*13. 40 •
30 - 7
• tT , to the nearest square foot, 1046.
*14. a. 16tt e. &V
b. 16 f. 4tt
c. 4 g. 8 f 4t
d. 8
*15. 3
14-7. Cylindrical Solids.

pupil is already familiar with methods of finding the
The
volume of prisms. This section will extend the principle learned
for prisms to a solid having two circular bases. The pupil should
realize that no new process is involved. The pupil should learn
the principle that the measure of the volume is the measure of the
area of the base times the measure of the altitude.

1. a. two d. parallel
b. circular e. above
c. equal f. point
2. and 3. Lists will vary depending upon the classroom, area of
the country in which the pupil lives, etc.
pages 606-601 122 1^-7
Answers to Exercises Ik-Jb

1. Area % 12. 56 square inches.
2. Yes, because the altitude of the cylinder is 1 inch.

3. 12.56
4. Approximately 25.12 cubic inches.
5. Approximately 37.68 cubic inches.
6. a. twice
b. 3
7. 226.08 or 226
8. Volume is 62. 80 cu. ft., or 63 cu. ft.
Sometimes it is a good idea to use tt as a numeral instead

of a decimal approximation. We say the answer is expressed in
terms of tt.
At other times you may encourage your students to delay the
use of a decimal approximation for ir until the last step of
the arithmetic.

1. V 3391.2 or Volume is 3391.2
% cubic feet.
(3391, 3390, or 3400 could be used.)
2. V % 198 or Volume is 198 cubic inches.

3. r d h V
5 10 12 300-rr
1 2 20 20-ir
9
4 891
4 p1 16 25?r
14-8 123 pages 601-605
4. The can that is 3 Inches high and inches in diameter

4
holds more. volume is Its 37.68 cubic inches. The volume

of the other can is 28.26 cubic inches. 37.68 > 28.26.
5. Volume is 6 cubic feet.

6. 47 gallons (or 45 gallons if one computes from 6 cubic feet.)
7. V % 90tt
8. V % l80ir
9. V % 360ir
10. V % 720tt
♦ll. a. multiplied by two (or doubled)

b. multiplied by four
c. multiplied by eight
♦12. 56,520
*13. V *fc 3768 or Volume is about 3770 cubic inches.

1. b. rectangular
c. height or altitude
d. length or circumference
e. ir
f. tt • d • h
g. 2 •
tt • r • h
2 . Yes .

1. The lateral area is 1256 square feet.
2. The lateral surface area is 75.36 square centimeters.

p
3. a. ir • r c. 2 •
ir • r • h
b. 2 •
trr2 d. 2irr + 2irrh
pages 605-608 124 14-8, 14-10

1. The total area is about 377 square inches.
2. The total area is about 1884 square feet.
3. The total area is about 89.49 square centimeters,
4. 3.5 gallons.

a, A circle is a simple closed curve.
b, Any line segment through the center of a circle and
having its end-points on the circle is a diameter of
the circle.
The diameter of a circle is twice as long as the radius
of the same circle.
d. Any part of a circle is called an arc.
e. The length of a circle is called its circumference .
f. A circle whose diameter is 5 inches has a radius that
is inches
2^-
g. line that Intersects a circle in exactly one point

A
is called tangent .
a
14-11 125 pages 608-610
3. r d c A
14 28 86.8 607.6
7 14 43.4 151.9
8.2 16.4 51 208.44
17.5 35 IO8.5 949.38
10 20 62 314
4. Circumference is about 154 inches.

5. Diameter is 24 feet.
6. C ** 47.10 (or circumference is about 47 Inches.)
7. 4| feet.
8. 3.5 Inches.
9. a. Area is 1256 square feet.
b. Area is 314 square feet.
c. The area of the circle with radius 20 feet is four
times the area of the circle with radius 10 feet.
10. The area of the table top is about 572 square inches.
ll. Area is about 346.19 square inches.
12. Area is about 12. 56 square inches.
13. Volume is about 62.8 cubic inches.

*l4. Approximately 19 .

1. (b) A multiple of a prime number is also a prime number.
2. (1, 7, 11, 77}
3. 3+23, 7+19, 13 + 13
4. 12
5. 1
6. a. 0.048
b. 628.38
14-ll 126 pages 6lO-6ll
7. a. 1653.2
b. 0.3491
8. 4%
9. $1.25
10. a. 16T 500 lb.
b. 2 gal. 2 qt. 1 pt.
ll. a. /_ ABF d. the empty set
b. EC" e. Point E
c . Point D f. Points D and E
12. The region that is doubly shaded is the intersection of the

exterior of Cp and the interior of C-
1*
13. a. 720 cm. c. 20^

ft.
b . 4.7 cm . d. 23760 ft.
14. b
15. There are 16 of each kind.

16. The length is about 207 inches.

1. In the figure at the right,
find an illustration for each
term in the column at the left,
and write its name on the line
after the term.
a. Diameter EE
b . Radius PF* or W or W
c. Arc EF or AF or DA or DF, etc.
d. Tangent ab"
127
e. Semicircle DAE (or DE)
f. Obtuse angle
L DPF
g. Two line segments

of equal length dT, Wr TE
h. Central angle l DPF, L FPE
i. Two points which

separate A and E D and p
j. Acute Angle L FPE
Ellen's belt is inches long and just

21 Answer:
fits around her waist. If her waist were 6.7 in.
a perfect circle, what would its diameter
be?
A value for ir used by the ancient Answer:
Egyptians is yyi-. How different is this Same to two
from the value we use, to two decimal decimal
places.
places?
*4- A merry-go-round has three rows of horses, Answer:
the outer row being 6 feet farther out 12tt feet
than the inner row. If you sit on an
or
feet.
37.68
outside horse, how much farther do you
ride in oneturn of the merry-go-round
than if you sit on the inside horse?
The diameter of certain circle is 60

a Answer:
centimeters, what is the area of this 2826 square
centimeters,
circle? (Use the decimal approximation
to tt to the nearest hundredth.)
Draw a circle and two segments such that One possible
of the is answer:
each segments tangent to the
circle.
128
7. Shade of the interior

the Intersection
of the longer circle and the exterior
of the shorter circle.
Answer:
8. Draw a circle and an angle such that One possible

their intersection consists of four answer:
points.
>9. The simple closed curve in the figure

consists of a semicircle and a segment
The radius of the circle is r units
of length. Find the area of the in
terior of the simple closed curve.
(The answer should be expressed in Answer:
terms of r.) units
of area.
129
10.
Given the arc shown above, determine the following:

"~~""
a. BE H CF Answer: a. CDE
b. AF 0 DE b. DE
c. AC H BF c. BC
d. CE O DE d. DE
ll. With the aid of a sketch, define "arc".

X Answer:
The points x and y
determine arc on the
an
circle. The arc includes
its end -points x and y-
These two end -points
Y determine two arcs .
12, Find the volume of the inside of a Answer:

pipe whose length is 8o" and the 15.70 cu. in-
radius of whose inside base circle
is ^". Use ir 3.14.
fc
13, Find the total surface area of a Answer:

cylinder the radius of whose base 6820 square
circle is 10 centimeters if the centimeters .
altitude of the cylinder is

100 centimeters. Use ir fc 3.1.
130
14. Find the amount of paper needed to make Answer:

labels (without overlapping them) for 226.08 sq. in-
3 cans each of height 6" and of base
circle radius 2". Use tt * 3.14.
15. Find the volume of a cylindrical solid Answer:
the diameter of whose base circle and
whose height are each 3 meters .
T
27 or
Leave your answer in terms of ir. 6.75tt cubic

meters .
Chapter 15
STATISTICS AND GRAPHS
15-1. Introduction.
This chapter is Included as an attempt to accomplish the
following objectives.
1. To develop some facility in the elementary uses of
statistics through a study of some data collected by
the government, by business, and by the students
themselves .
2. To develop an appreciation of the important use of

mathematics in social studies, thereby motivating and
strengthening both.
3 . To illustrate tabulated and the
how data may be
information contained in the data represented by
different kinds of graphs.
4. To give instruction in reading information from a
graph for which no table of data is given.
5. To develop some skill in finding measures of central
tendency, (modes, arithmetic means, and medians.)
The National Industrial Conference Board, 460 Park Avenue,
New York 22, will supply good supplementary material for this
chapter at your request .
A very informative and pleasantly written book on statistics
is Danell Huff's How to Lie With Statistics, W. W. Norton and
Company, Inc., New York, New York.
Many of the data used in this chapter were found in the
Statistical Abstract of the United States. This has been published
annually since 1878. It is the standard summary of statistics on
the industrial, social, political organization of the
and economic
United States and is prepared under the direction of the Bureau of
the Census .
Statistics has two main aspects. One is the organization,

analysis and interpretation of a mass of collected data. The
other consists of studying a total population by analyzing a
pages 613-615 132 15-2
sample of that population.

The use of statistical terminology in non-statistical
literature is increasing and it is essential for the general
reader to have a correct understanding of the most common terms
and ideas.
15-2. Gathering Data.
The pupils might tables of local statistics.

be asked to make
There is the possibility that the local chamber of commerce could
provide some interesting information. The school or city
librarian could furnish statistics on numbers of volumes of
various kinds. Prior to the study of this unit, pupils might be
asked to keep records such as test scores, temperature, attendence,
etc. Information of this nature provides excellent material for
the graphs later in the chapter.

1. 65 inches
2. 52 inches
3. 3
4. 2 boys are 55 inches tall.

2 boys are 54 inches tall.
5. 6
6. 8

1. 143,433; 1930
2. The population seemed to be increasing.
3. The population seemed to be decreasing.
4. No.
5 . No ; No .
15-3 133 pages 616-620
15-3. Bar Graphs .
These may be the simplest graphs for pupils to understand.

Choosing appropriate units may be difficult and time should be
spent at the beginning emphasizing this topic.

1. Pupil Height in Inches
1 68
2 64
3 59
k 57
5 57
6 55
7 53
Pupil may use actual names of other pupils in first column

of table.
HEIGHTS OF 7 SEVENTH GRADERS

70-
rn 60-
kD
ffi
§H 50-
55
h 4o-
1
E-i
S 30-
w
3
20-
10-
n-
3 4 7
PUPILS
page 621 134
j
15-3
2. a. Grade 7
b. 1000
c. Grade 12
d. 600
e. Yes, grades 9 and ll
3.
THEATER ATTENDANCE
800 "
9
o 600 -
Ph
Pe, 400 -
O
200 -
PQ
Men Women Children
4.
5. )> These answers will vary depending upon the school,
6.
*7.
ACCIDENTAL DEATHS DURING 1956

Motor
Vehicle
Falls
o
M
O
O
Fires
o
§ Drowning
w
Railroad — i—
-i—
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
NUMBER OF PEOPLE KILLED IN THOUSANDS
15-4 135 pages 627-628
In exercises requiring bar graphs only one is shown. It

is possible to have either a horizontal bar graph or a vertical
bar graph for these problems.

1. a. December
b. June
c . Months Inches of Rainfall
January 3
February 4
March 4
April 4-
May 1
1
June 2"
July 1
August 2
September 1
October 3
November h
December 4
2.
GROWTH OF SCHOOLS IN UNION COUNTY
25
9
o 20
o
K
o
CO 15
o 10
K
5
0
1920 1930 19^0 1950 i960 YEAR
pages 628-629 136 15-4
3.
ENROLLMENT IN FRANKLIN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, 1952-1956
250-
Eh 200-
S5
150-
h3
O 100-
K
W
50-
1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957

YEARS
*4. National Monument Acreage Acreage in Thousands
Katmal 2,697,590 2,698

Glacier Bay 2,274,248 2,274
Death Valley 1,879,048 1,879
Joshua Tree 505,132 505
Organ Pipe Cactus 328,691 329
Grand Canyon 193,040 193
Dinosaur 190,962 191
White Sands 1 40,247 140
Badlands 98,686 99
Canyon de Chelly 83,840 84
15-4 137 page 629
>5. GROWTH OF LOS ANGELES
Census Population Population in Population in

copulation
p nu-iat1 n
Year in Thousands Ten Thousands Hundred Thousands
1880 ll,183 ll 1 0
1890 50,395 50 5 1
1900 102,479 102 10 1
1910 319,198 319 32 3
1920 576,673 577 58 6
1930 1,238,048 1,238 124 12
1940 1,504,277 1,504 150 15

1950 1,970,358 1,970 197 20
6.
JO
7ft
36
_
'/
y "-"-^
34
/
32
)
30 1-
28 /
26
f^
24 -/■
="--- t
T
w
O
22
20
\
\— T
/ "
//
/
a
// \ \
' '
18
"7
s 16
14
5
12
W 10
0 8
6
4
1928 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60
P RESIDE NTIAL 1SLECTK )N YEAFIS
REPUBLK :an pai *TY
D EM0CRAr nc pai
pages 630-634 138 15.5
15-5. Circle Graphs .
for presenting circle graphs is to show the

The main reason
components of a total. This graph is found frequently in news
papers and magazines. Most of your students will have seen circle
graphs. They are not easily misinterpreted. The circle graph
lends itself well to the comparison of the parts of a total with
each other and with the total itself.
The notion of central angle that was first mentioned in
Chapter 14 will be strengthened as the student works with circle
graphs .
It is plan to have students make a table before

a good
drawing a circle graph. The table should indicate the following:
1. What fraction (or per cent) each item is of the total.

2. The size in degrees of each corresponding central angle.
It is anticipated that most pupils will
special help need
in the use of the protractor for construction of successive central
angles of the required number of degrees . Be sure that pupils
label each of the sectors as well as the entire drawing.
Pupils should understand that circle graphs are approximations,
and rounded figures are sufficient as a basis of construction.

1. Percent Number of Degrees
60 216° {60% of 360° = 216°)
30 108° {30% of 360° =
108°)
10 36° {10% of 360° =
36°)
SCHOOL-RELATED ACCIDENTS, 19^9
60%
fIN SCHOOL BUILDINGS
ND FROM HOME
139 page 634
15-5
2. Percent Number of Degrees

36 130° (36% of 360° = 129.6°)
5* 194° (54% of 360° = 194.4°)
10 36° (10% of 360° = 36° )
SCHOOL RELATED ACCIDENTS, 1956
10%
TO AND FR0M\H0ME
3.
Fractional
jprac-Gionax -0*™***- Number
1NUIUUC1 of
u
Items
x. o
Amount Spent
4_
Fercent Degrees
Part of Total
= 35 126
Lunch $1.75 500 20"
150 _" 3
30 108
Entertainment $1.50 300" To
100 „
" 1
20
Carfare $1.00 72
5(5o" 5
50 _ 1
10 36
School Supplies $ .50 W5
~
To"
1
18
Miscellaneous $ .25 =
"50"
5
Totals 100 360

$5.00
LUNCH
35%
ENTErfrAINMEN1:
30%
5% Miscellaneous
'20%' SCHOOL SUPPLIES
'CARFARE
pages 635-640 140 15-6
15-6. Averages.
The measures of central tendency are presented here. They

are the arithmetic mean, the median and the mode. All three
measures are averages. There are certain advantages and limita
tions to each. The nature of the particular distribution of
measures as well as the purpose for which the average is chosen,
will determine which of these averages should be used.
or arithmetic mean is frequently called the average.
The mean
A few very large or very small numbers can change a mean
considerably.
The median is not difficult to find, but only tells that half
of the numbers are below it and half are above it.
The mode interesting figure, but tells us nothing
is an
about the distribution of the data.
1. a. 74
b. 1995
2. 196
3. 159
4. 17464 sq. ft.
1. a. 94 b . Mode : 85
91 c. Median: 8[
85 d. Range: 25
o^
e. Arithmetic mean: -^4 = 83
82
81
79
74
69
15-6, 15-8 141 pages 640-642
2. a. Mean: $6100
b. 3
c. 7
d. No.
e. If there is an even number 2n of items (as there are
10 in this problem) the median is taken to be the
average between the nth and (n + l)th items.
$5000 + $5500 m
45230
f. Median is better
than mean, since the mean gives the
impression that the salaries are higher than they are.
The mean is affected by the large salary of $12,500,
but the median is not .
3. a. Mean: 56.5
;
b. Median: ^9
c. Range : 38
Answers to Sample Review Questions 15-8
1. 2
2. 4
3. (6, 8, 10}
2
4.
5
\
5. 4
6. or ill l8 27 ai_„
etc*
2 ' **r> TJ-' "5"'
7. Check to see if ad = be.
8. -jr inch
9. 10.5
10. & or 76
ll. 58°
pages 642-643 142 15-8
12 . Mode
13. 15 Inches.
14. a. a = 45
b. r = 40
15. 1^.5 hours.

16. xa£ X = 130
17. a. 7.016
b. 405.07
18. a. 57,500
b. 686,000
c. 15.04
d. 0.1
MATHEMATICS
*A
II
S362.
I960
|M^4 SCHOOL
MATHEMATICS
STUDY GROUP
SCHOOL MATHEMATICS
VOLUME I (Part 4)
Tur iiMi\/rDciTV nr MinuiPAM MDDAniro

gath«m-'
/ I
I960
V . \

MATHEMATICS
Volume I (Part 4)

© 1961 by The Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University

All rights reserved
PHOTOLITHOPRINTED BY CUSHING- MALLOY, INC-

ANN ARBOR-MICHIGAN.UNITEDSTATES OFAMERICA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
16. OPERATIONS WITH RATIONAL NUMBERS 1
16-1. The Number Line and Applications 1
16-2. Numbers "to the Left of Zero" 3
16-3. Addition on the Number Line 4
16-4. Subtraction of Rational Numbers 9
16-5. The Multiplication of Rational Numbers . 14
16-6. Division of Rational Numbers 24
16-8. Answers to Review Exercises 25
16-10. Sample Test Questions 28
17. EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES . .. 31

17-1. Open Phrases 31
17-2. Open Sentences
....
35
17-3. Formulas 38
17-4. Graphing Truth Sets of Sentences 39
18. COORDINATES IN THE PLANE AND THE

PYTHAGOREAN PROPERTY 51
18-1. Locating Points in a Plane 52
18-2. Coordinates in the Plane 56
18-3. Graphs in the Plane 6l
18-4. Other Equations, Other Lines 64
18-5. Distance 77
18-6.
18-7.
18-8.
A Property of Right Triangles
A Proof of the Pythagorean Property
Back to Distance
... 8l
83
85
18-ll. Answers to Cumulative Review 89
19. REAL NUMBERS 95

19-1. Number Systems
....
99
19-2. Locating Numbers on the Number Line . . . 102
19-3. /5~ as a Point on the Number Line 102
19-4. Irrational Numbers ll0
19-5. Real Numbers ll2
19-6. The Location of Rational Numbers
on the Decimal Scale ll4
19-7. A Decimal Expansion for /|5 and /2 . . ll7
19-ll. Sample Test Questions 123
Chapter
20. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION, DECIMALS, AND
THE METRIC SYSTEM 127
20-1. Large Numbers and Scientific Notation . . . 127
20-2. Multiplying by Powers of Ten 129
20-3. Dividing by Powers of Ten
....
131
20-4. Multiplication: Large and Small Numbers . 133
20-5. Division of Large and Small Numbers 133
20-6. Use of Exponents in Multiplying and
Dividing Decimals 135
20-7. TheMetric System 137
20-8. Conversion to English Units 140
20-10. Answers to Chapter Review l4l
20-ll. Answers to Cumulative Review 142
Chapter 16
OPERATIONS WITH RATIONAL NUMBERS
16-1. The Number Line and Applications

This section begins with two applications of number lines
with which pupils are very familiar. They have had experience
with degrees below zero, or being in debt, or going "into the
hole, " or with some situations which used "numbers to the left
of zero." It would be helpful to have pupils enumerate similar
experiences. The questions for class discussion should be used
after pupils have their ideas.
exhausted
After the pupils have discussed familiar situations in which
they have used "numbers to the left of zero" on the number line,
a more formal development of the rational numbers and operations
with them is begun.
The sections are as follows:

l6-l. The Number Line and Applications
16-2. Numbers "to the Left of Zero"
16-3. Addition on the Number Line
16-4. Subtraction of Rational Numbers
l6-5. Multiplication of Rational Numbers
16-6. Division of Rational Numbers
16-7. Summary
Three weeks seem like a reasonable time allotment for
this chapter.
In Chapter 6, we have seen the necessity of inventing the
rational numbers to solve the equation ax = b. In this chapter
we have an analagous situation. The equation a - b = x has
a solution in the set of positive rational numbers only if a > b.
If a b, then x = 0, but If a < b there is no solution.

=
By extending the number system to include all numbers to the left

of zero on the number line we have a set of numbers that is
closed under subtraction.
After we have extended the number system, our problem is to
extend the operations so that the properties that were true for
the set of positive rational numbers are retained. The chapter
pages 1-4 -2- 16-1
concerns itself
with the extension of the operations to the set
of all rational numbers and in the summary we show that the
rational numbers satisfy the axioms of an ordered field. These
are not labeled "field axioms" in the text, but are given simply
as a listing of properties.
By the end of the discussion of properties of the number
line the students should realize:
1. There are numbers to the left of zero on the number line,
2. The counting numbers associated with points increase in
size as the distance from zero increases.
3. All negative numbers are smaller than zero. For nega
tive numbers, the larger the counting number is, the
smaller the number is.
k. The comparison property holds for the enlarged set;
i.e., for all rational numbers a and b only one
of these relations is true:
a = b
a > b
a ^
^3,6
2 3 2 7
12
ll7
,
b* 2 > . < T"
5
-5 i_i 10 p 30,,-
4. a. Any number which is
greater than zero and which can be
represented as the quotient of a whole number and a
counting number.
b. All except 0.
16-2 -3- pages 4-7
16-2. Numbers "to the Left of Zero"

This section strengthens the concept of negative numbers,
provides some interpretations of these numbers, and introduces
symbolism and the concept of opposites.
Teaching Suggestions: It is Important that new ideas are
understood clearly. A review of the ideas In 16-1 is essential.
Students need to make the vocabulary used In the text active. A
short time spent on the meaning and spelling of new words is

valuable. The concept of opposites provides an opportunity to use
a compass to measure segments of equal length and to transfer them.
This idea has been used in preceding work. Occasionally draw
vertical number lines on the board to familiarize students with
this variation.
(Class Discussion)
1. (Done in the book)
2. 1
3. 1 unit
4. Drawing is completed following Problem 6.
5. "to the left of"
6. a. 0
7- •>
-3
_t, , , 1
8« -3-4 ~T 4' 3-4 4-6

-L 1 < 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 , 1 ►_!

1. a. "l c. 3
b. "k d. "4
2. A positive number or zero.

pages 7-9 -4- 16-2,16-3
"(8)
654321012
(3-5)
3.1 i i i i 1 1 i i i i i 1 1 - 1 - 1 1 1 1
8 7 3 4 5 6 7 8
yes and and

""(-£) I7J- ^
4. "6, "*» (•£)* ""(^)> T' F* T

x is the greatest number
3
"6 Is the least number
16-3. Addition on the Number Line

The number line is
for explaining the operation of
the basis
addition. Students are familiar with this use of the number line
from Chapter 8. There should be no difficulty in showing that
the sum of two negative numbers is the opposite of the sum of the
absolute value of these numbers. However the term, "absolute
value" is not used.
It is more difficult for students to see the result of
adding a positive and a negative number. The sum is the difference
of the absolute values of the numbers and is positive if the num
ber with the larger absolute value is positive and negative if
this number is negative.
The method of adding rational numbers is summarized only
informally. The primary reason for this is that an accurately
stated rule requires the use of absolute value. The development
of absolute value is left for the work in the ninth grade. Many
students will have an intuitive concept of this idea, however.
In one exercise the students are asked to state a method of
addition. Answers should be judged on the insight into the opera
tion rather than its precise statement. The number line may creep
into the students1 explanation even though the directions ask them
to think about addition without the help of the number line. Any
answer that shows understanding should be accepted.
Teaching Suggestions: The time required to draw number
lines discourages students. It is helpful if the teacher dupli
cates number lines or uses graph paper, because the time required
16-3 -5- pages 9-10
to do the assignment is decreased, and the students' attention is

concentrated on the addition rather than the drawing of lines.
Since sheets of number lines will be useful in other sections in
this chapter, quite a few copies should be made.
In addition to the explanation in the text, the class members
should do one addition problem of each type before attempting the
homework. Give the problem, using small numbers. Allow time for
most students to finish, then do it correctly on the board or let
a student do so. Each pupil should do the problems; it is not
adequate to watch someone else.

1. Right
2. Left
3. All arrows point to the right; the second arrow starts at
the head of the first arrow. The answer arrow starts at
zero and goes to the head of the second arrow.
^. All arrows point to the left. The arrangement is the same
as in 3.
5. The first
arrow starts at zero. It may go right or left.
The second arrow starts at the head of the first arrow; it
goes in
the opposite direction. The answer arrow starts at
zero and goes to the head of the second arrow.
6. Use an arrow for each addend. Each arrow is slightly above
the preceding arrow. The answer arrow runs from zero to the
head of the last arrow.
7. An arrow for 3. A dot may be used for zero and an answer
arrow added for emphasis.

1. a. 6= 2+4
4
i
2 - k i
1
1 -
page 10 -6- 16-3
b.
c.
7 ="5+-£
-8
d.
"8 = ~4 -i--4
I—
I—
*-•-
a -7
e.
0=4+"4 .
-I H H H H h- -4-
O I 2 3 4 5
f.
g-
3 = 4+1
i i H 1-
16-3 -7- pages 10-11
h.
~4=2 +"6
1.
"4 ="7 + 3
2
^
« 1 — zz
j.
O ="6 + 6
H*-
"7
"
2 "1 0 12 3
a. 0 e. 12
b. 4 f. 2
3
c. "6
g.
1
2
d. "1
h. 0
a. '5 e. 2
b. 3 f. "4
3
c. g. 25
2
h. "a, the opposite of the

d. "(*> number a .
a. + f.
b. - g.
c. - h. +
d. + 1.
e. _ j.
k.
pages ll-12 -8- 16-3
a. January $5000 April $1000

February $2*K)0 May $"3000
March $"1000 June $"2000
b. $2400
c. $400
BRAINBUSTER:
1st boy: Taking 2 steps per second requires lk seconds
when the steps are not moving. During this time the esca
lator has moved half-way down. Boy requires 28 seconds
when the escalator is moving. Since the boy goes up 2
steps while the escalator goes down 1 step, his actual
rate is 1 step per second.
2nd boy: Goes up 3 steps while the escalator goes down
1 step. The boy's actual speed is 2 steps per second.
Time required is lk seconds.
1. a. d. 10
10f
b. e. 7|
xof
c. 10
2. a. 'k e. -7*
b. -«f f. "4
c. -4 g.
"*
d. -4
3. a. "1 f. *
b. "2 g. *
c.
-* h. "Si
d.
■4 i. 0
e.
*
16-3,16-4 -9- pages 12-17
4. The wording of these statements is less important than the

understanding. Informal description of the addition process
will be found in the text following the exercises.

1. The number line has limited use. It takes too much time to
draw the lines, and it is impossible to make line
a number
long enough to show all problems. It is very useful in
developing a method of addition.
2. a. Parts (a) and (b) of Problem 1, Parts (c) and (d) of

Problem 2 and Parts (c) and (d) of Problem 3 illustrate
the commutative property of addition.
b. Parts (c) and (d) of Problem 1, and Parts (e) and (f) of
Problem 2 illustrates the associative property of addition-
Also Parts (f) and (g) of Problem 3.
c. Part of Problem 1 and Part (g) of Problem
(e ) 2
illustrate the addition property of zero.

3. a. 0 b.c. 0
0
k. The numbers in each part are opposites, or additive inverses.

The sum is zero in each case.
5. Yes.
16-4. Subtraction of Rational Numbers .
There are several possibilities in using the number line to

show subtraction of rational numbers. The method used in the
text has some advantages. First, it shows the relation of addi
tion and subtraction, namely, that a + b = c and c - a «• b
are two statements of the same relationship. Second, there is
no essential change from the method of picturing addition; the
diagrams but the answer is in a
look the same different location.
As in addition, there is no formal rule for the method used
to subtract. There are exercises that bring out the fact that
the same results are obtained by subtraction as are obtained by
adding the additive inverse of the subtrahend. It is important
for the student to develop a feeling for the operation, not a
pages 15-17 -10- 16-4
mechanical manipulation.
and meaningless
A very important concept for the students to get is that
with the extension of the number line to include numbers "to
the left of zero", we can now subtract any two rational numbers.
In other words, we have a set of numbers that is closed under
subtraction.
Teaching suggestions: In the pupils' later study of
mathematics the operation of subtraction is not necessary. The
addition of the opposite of a number gives the same result.
When presenting subtraction stress the fact that a + b = c
and c - aare two statements for the same relation. After

= b
going over the explanation in the text with the students, give
some of the practice problems in Exercises l6-4a (Class Dis
cussion) as written work. Check to see that the students under

stand the process and know the difference between addition and
subtraction. The results become more meaningful to students if
situations tailored to fit the problem are given, as is done in
the text. It may help also to make the "answer" arrow darker.
Again the time-consuming task of making number lines dis
courages students and diverts their attention from the ideas of
the lesson. The teacher is urged to provide duplicated number
lines assigning problems in which they are used.
when
After considerable practice in using the number line to
find answers to subtraction problems, shorter methods might be
discovered. The teacher should be sure that the pupil
understands whatever method is used.

1. 5-3 = 2_
5-
-ll- pages 17-18
5+3 = 8
6
I-
I I
H
"2-10
1 1
123456789
1— I 1——I 1 1 1 1 I
C5) + (-3)*CG) _
"& -5-4-3-2-1 O \ 2. 3 4 ■9 "8 "7 "6 "5 "4 "3 "2 "I 0
d. csw-3)»"a C"5) + 3»'2
I -i
h V
I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-6-5-4 -3-2 "\ O I E 3 4 6-5-4-3-2-I 0 I 2- 3 4 5
2. The result is the same when a number Is subtracted and when the
opposite of the number Is added.
3. Yes. c + b = a.
2+3 = 5
5=5
4. a. 5 - ("3) = 8; 8 + ("3) = 5 True
8 = 8 5=5
b. "5-3 = "8; "8+3 = "5 True
"8 = "8 "5 = "5
c. 5-8=3; 3 + 8 =5 False
"3^3 11/5
d. ("5) - ("3) = "8; "8 + ('3) = "5 False
"2 ft "8 -ll ft "5
e. ("5) - ("3) = "2; "2 + ('3) = "5 True
"2 = *2 "5 = "5

page 18 -12- 16-4

a.
b.
I"-
c. 6
II
8 10
d.
hJ
e.
r-
f. ~4
"10 1
~1 1
L_ 6 , 1
1 1
1 1 — 1 1 1 1 1
16-4 -13- page s 18-19
1. g-
IO
h.
-/ 1
if
-+- .+.
-5 ~
3 -a o 3
2. a. 2 e. "10 i. 2 m. "7
b. 4 f. "6 J. 12 n. 13
c. "7 g. "ll k. "7
d. 10 h. 12 1. 11
"1 4o
3. a. "10 c. 2
e.
8
5
f. 51
b. 100
d. "1
9
4. a. 3 b. "13 c. 13 d. "3
5. a. 3 b. "13 c. 13 d.
6. Adding the additive inverse of a number gives the same

result as subtracting the number.
After considerable practice in using the number line to find

the answers in subtraction problems, pupils may devise
shorter methods of arriving at the answers.
7. a. x = 3 e. x
-(H) or -^
b. x = 4 f. x = l4
c. x = "ll g.
«-*
d. x - 15 h. X. "5
8. Positive; negative.
pages 20-21 -14- 16-4,16-5
9. a. + 25° a. "9°
b. "3 e. "14, 777 ft.
c. + 200 ml.
16-5. The Multiplication of Rational Numbers
multiplication of
The a positive and a negative number is
developed in this section.
product of a negative number multiplied by a positive
The
number is easy to demonstrate on the number line. On the other
hand, the interpretation of multiplying a positive number by a
negative number has little meaning. The commutative property is
used to make such products meaningful. There is occasion to
show that the associative property holds also.
While the product of 3 • ("2) is the same as the product
of 2 •
("3) , this is not an illustration of the commutative
property; both factors are different. Students should be aware
of the difference.
0 7 8
~8 ~7 S ~5 "4 ~3 ~2 "I O
The commutative property for multiplication.

16-5 -15- pages 21-22
^. No- The product Is the same but the factors are different,
5. "6

1. a. 20
-J
1
IIII4III)II|II|
O I 2- 3 4- 5 6 7 8 9
I
I
10 II li 13 » 15 16 17 6 19 20 21
b.
—
4
—I
'
* -^—^
-— n
'
4 I
4
— — »— i i
i
i
i
i
d. -\z
-3
r ~3 I
i 1
' ~3
i 1
*
~3
i 1 I
-I 1 1 1 1 1- -> 1 I 1 1 I 1 1-
13 "\Z -II "10 ~9 "8 "7 ~6 "5 ~4 "3 "2
i HE
i J
%
I S- *
pages 22-24 -16- 16-5
1. f.
m
m
-1
±± 7
7 J5L
3"
-H
"15
"
"1+ "13
2. a. "9 c. .5
b. "12 d.
3. a. Positive
b. Negative
4. a. "30 d. "105
b. "30 e. 42
c. "105 f. 42
5. The associative property of multiplication.
The Product of Two Negative Numbers
This concept, in contrast to the products in the last section,

is usually difficult for pupils. The section is divided into
several sub-sections, each of which attempts to provide a reason
able basis for the fact that the product of two negative numbers
is positive.
The product of two negative numbers is first approached
16-5 -17- pages 23-2^
from multiplication tables. By showing only a small section,

the stage is set for enlarging the table. All students should
know the part that is filled in. Use of Exercises l6-5c is made
to fill in the products of positive and negative numbers.
Finally the number patterns developed in the table are extended
to the missing part. The teacher will need to work with students
if they are to follow this development. The class discussion
that follows helps with this idea. It would be most unusual if
a large number in the class accept this idea at this stage. The
initial presentation is followed by a set of situation problems
designed to show that a positive product is a reasonable result
of multiplying two negative numbers. This should be developed
orally also. Finally, an adaptation of a mathematical explana
tion is used to strengthen the concept.
Teaching suggestions: with the class the explanation
Read
of the table. If your students are not familiar with this type
of table, be sure they understand how the table works. After
the explanation is read, use Class Discussion l6-5c Give the
students time to do Problem 1, then let them look for patterns.
If necessary, the students can be helped by copying one column
and /or one row from the table as shown here. ~9
'6
"3
12 ie
0
3
From the discussion, students should find that numbers

decrease by constant amount as one moves from right to left
a
or bottom to top. This will probably be stated in reverse order.

Since the extension is to the left and up, try to have the stu
dents verbalize the relationships when moving toward the blank
corner. Pupils may think it reasonable that a pattern exists,
but they find it hard to believe that the product of two negative
numbers is a positive number. However, after other approaches
are taken, the fact will seem more convincing.
pages 24-26 -18- 16-5

1. See completed chart In text.
2. The difference between any two adjacent numbers in any row
Is the same as the factor at the left of the row. The
difference between two adjacent numbers in any column is
the same as the factor at the top of the column. For the
right column: each number is 4 more than the number above
it. For the bottom row: each number is 4 more than the
number on its left.
3. 4 3 2 1
4. The column under "1.

5. Successive numbers decrease by 2, 3, or 4.
6. See completed chart in text.
7. 6
8. Positive.
1. a. The product of two positive numbers is a positive

number .
b. The product of a negative number and a positive number

is a negative number.
c. The product of two negative numbers is a positive
number.
2. a. 0 f. "245 k. "60
b. "8 g. 54 1. 576
c. "20 h. 600 m. "66
d. "24 i. 903
e. "34 J. 0.84 n. (^)or
-(16
K
3 "53^
o. "16
3. a. "2 d. "4 g. "1
b. "3 e. 4 h. 0
c. "10 f. "10 1. "l

16-5 -19- pages 26-27
J. "6 n. 2
k. "9 o. 10
1. "6 P. 2
m. 9
a. "30 d. $70.56
b. "3 e. "8 ; / "$5.76
c. "2
Sections l6-5e and l6-5f provide an opportunity to develop

further the meaning of the product of two negative numbers.
Both parts need careful development in class. Demonstrating
that properties of operations observed with non-negative rational
numbers hold for the negative numbers is the key to the method
developed in Exercises l6-5e.
Answers to Exercises l6-5e

1. 0
2. 0
3. "3.2+ "3("2)
4. See Problem 2.
5. "6
6. 6. In Problem 4, it was shown that ("3) • 2 + ("3) ("2) = 0.
From this, "6 + ("3) ("2) = 0.of two numbers is
The sum
zero if one is the additive inverse of the other. Then
("3) ("2) must equal 6, because "6+6=0.
7. Any number can be used, with steps similar to Problems 4-8.
The purpose (Class Discussion) is to

of Exercises l6-5e
lead the students informally through an informal proof that the
product of two negative numbers must be positive if the distri
butive property is to hold. The following general proof may be
pages 27-28 -20- 16-5
of interest to the better students.
b + "b - 0 The sum of a number and its

opposite is zero
a(b + "b) = a • 0 The two numerals are names

for the same number.
a • b + a •
"b » 0 Distributive property and
multiplication property of
zero
a • "b = "(a •
b) If the sum of two numbers is
zero, each is the opposite
(or additive inverse) of the
other.
Answers to Exercises l6-5f

1. a. "2 (1) = "2 and 1 ("2) = "2
b. "3 (0) =0 and 0 ("3) = 0
c. "4 (5) = "20 and 5 ("*) - "20
d. 15("6) - "90 and "6 (15) = "90
2. [("2) ("1)] 5=2.5 and "2[("l)5] - "2("5)

= 10 =10
3. a. "4 . (3 + 8) - -4(3) + ("4) (8)

- "12 + ("32)
= "44
Check: (3 + 8) = 11 and "4 • 11 . "44
b. "2 [("3) +6] - "2 ("3) + ("2)(6)
=6 + ("12)
= "6
c 5 [4 + (-7)] = 5 (4) + 5 ("7)
= 20 + C35)
= "15
16-5 -21- pages 28-29
d. "10 [("8) + ("1)] = "10 C8) + ("10) ("1)

= 8o +10
= 90
e. 6 [("3) + ("9)1 = 6 ("3) + 6 ("9)

= "18 + (-5*)
= "72
f. "4 [("2) +7] = "4 ("2) + ("4) (7)

=8 + ("28)
="20
4. a. n = "12 d. n = 10
b. n = "15 e. n = 4
c. n . "5 f. n = 2
5. a. 6o k. 12
b. 15 1. 42
c. 300 m. 23
d. "192 n. "585
e. 192 0. 585
f. 0 P. 0
g.
h.
"16
1000
q.
r.
-*
"180
1. "66 s. 60
J. "24o t. "420
6. 2905
7. a. "0.1
b. miles
"35
c. 385 miles
(Note: A reading of 0.9 for a measured mile actually has
an error of "O.lT. corrected odometer would
The
register 388. 8F. It will be a most unusual student
who brings this up. Unless students bring this up,
ignore it. )
pages 29-30 -22- 16-5
8. a. $12 richer or +$12
b. $12 poorer or "$12

c. $12 poorer or ""$12
d. $12 richer or +$12
Answers to Exercises l6-5g

1. a. "3142 d. 2322
b. 3864 . e. 32,487
c. "II85 f. "2516
2. a. [C3) ("5)] (-4) = "3 [(-5) (-4)]

15 ("4) = "3 (20)
"6o = "60
b. [("5) (6)] ("2) = "5 [6 (-2)]

"30 ("2) = "5 ("12)
60 = 60
[("4) ("5)] (3) = "4 [("5) 3]

20 (3) = "4 ("15)
60 = 60
d. "2 [("I) ("3)] = [("2) ("I)] ("3)

"2 (3) = 2 ("3)
"6 = "6
"4 [(-2) (-2)] = [(-4) (-2)] C2)

"4 C4) = 8 (2)
16 = 16
f. (-3) [C2) (-5)] = [C3) ("2)] (-5)
"3 (10) = 6 (-5)
"30 = "30
16-5 -23- Pase 30
3. a. ("3) [(-5) + (-4)] = (-3) ("5) + ("3) ("4)

"3 ("9) -■ 15 + 12
27 =27
b. [("5) + 6] (-2) = C5) (-2) + 6 (-2)
1 ("2) = 10 + ("12)
"2 = "2
C 3 [(-4) + (-5)] = 3 ("4) + 3 C5)

3 ("9) - "12 + "15
"27 = "27
d. ("2) ("I) + ("2)("3) = "2 [("I) + C3)]
2 + 6 = "2 ("4)
8 =8
e. ("4) ("2) + 2 ("2) = [(-4) + 2] ("2)
8 + ("4) = (-2) (-2)
h =4
f. 7 (5) + 7 ("3) = 7 [5 + ("3)]
35 + ("21) = 7 (2)
14 = 14
*4# a. Because of the distributive property and the fact that

7 and [10 + ("3)] are two expressions for the
same number.
b. "5 (7) = ("5) [10 + ("3)]
Since "5 (7) = "35
"5 [10 + ("3)] = "35 Different form of 7
("5) (10) + ("5) ("3) = "35 Distributive property
"50 + ("5) ("3) = "35
If "50 + x = "35 we are finding a number to add to

"50 to have "35. This number is 15. Therefore
("3) ("5) = +15.
pages 30-32 _2^- 16-5,16-6
5. Brainbuster; The trains would collide at Hicksville since

2 (6o) - 120, and 2 (45) = 90.
16-6. Division of Rational Numbers
When students understand multiplication of positive and

negative numbers, division offers no problem. Division is
presented as the inverse of the multiplication. If b • x » a
then x =
|.
Teaching suggestion; Review the relation between b • x = a
and x =
f- using
specific numbers. Use Class Discussion l6-6a
to bring out the relationship between positive and negative
factors and their products.

1. a. Both positive
b. Positive
c. Positive
2. a. One positive, one negative
b. Negative
c. Negative
3. a. Onenegative, one positive
b. Negative
c. Positive
4. a. Both negative
b. Positive
c. Negative
5. a. 56; 56 -s- 7 = 8
b. -54j (-54) - 6 = "9

c. '48; ("48) + ("4) = 12
-
d. 45; 45 -5- (-9) = '5
6. a. Positive
b. Negative
c. Positive
16-6 -25- pages 32-36

l. a. True c. True e. False
b. False d. True f. True
. 2. a. "28 d. "72 S. "3

b. 12 e. 72 h. "4
2
c. "12 f. 735 1.
5
3. a.
b.
"4
"k
d.
e.
"24
"8
g.
h.
-*
"10
c. "6 f. "21 i. ~#
4
4. a. 3
c. "1 e. -4)
b.
- 4
d.
4
f. l
3 3
(a) and (b)

2 6 "
6. R = f1
[F' 3' 1, 5' "1, ij), "(j))
7. a. 2 g. 5 1. "25
b. "5 h. 3 m. "36
c "5 1. "4 n. 21
d. 5 J. 3 o. "22
e. "5 k. 0 P. 13
f. 5
8. a. "$1.96 c. lb. or lb,

1^-
<jj-
b. "$3 d. "7 oz.
Answers to Review Exercises l6-8

1. a. 10 c. e. 44
0
b. "4 d. "1 f.
5
2. 57 per doz.
/
3. Top parking level, floors below the 1st floor.

2
pages 37-39 -26- 16-8,16-9
4. a. "3 c. 4 e. 3
b. 4 d. 12 f. "24
5. "8830 ft.
6. +154 ft.
7. a. 3000 c. -^5 e. "180
b. "56 d. 63 f. 391
8. a. '18° b. -6°
9. a. "5 c. 3 e. or -<4t)
-10|
b. d.
f. 203
10. "30
1. a.
§ c.
27
e. I or 1±
d. 3
2. 1.4 and S
3. a. .003 c. 4.50 d. 333.3"
b. 0.22
4. a. 0.002888 b. 0.02 c. 6.37
5. a. a| or 2.5 c. J or .25 e. 2100
b. 216 d. 10
6. a. 36 cu. ft. b. 66 sq. ft.

7. m(/ A) = 75
8. Area of square - Area of circle = area wasted

4 - tt.1
2
* 0.86 sq. ft.
Or: 4 „ 22
T =
7
6 sq. ft.
l6-9 -27- pages 39-4o
9* a* = n =
100 100* 1> lC^>
K
b*
n
= I „
n =
100 o 77 OCT?
3%
100 3F» -35"=2.7T >
c. 1§0
=
^TT">
n " 528,000 3
528,000 %
10. a. 4 c#
f or °.h e* 26°
b. 0 d. 27
ll. a. 4 c. "9 d. 2
b. 7
12. a. 54 d. $K
5^ g. "10
1
b. "5^ e. -48
"48 h. F
c. "54 f. "21
13. a. "12 c. "6 d. 5
b. "3
l1*. a. 4 d. 4 g. 30
b. "4 e. "9 h. "3

c. "4 f. "6
-28-
16-10. Sample Teat Questions

selected items from those given here and from items of their
own. Careful attention should be given to difficulty of
items and time required to complete the test.
True or False: Decide whether the following statements are

true or false.
(T) 1. We can associate with points on a line.

rational numbers
(T) 2. The sum of positive two and negative two is zero.
(T) 3. The number zero does not have an opposite.
(T) h. There is no greatest number on the number line.
(P) 5. All negative rational numbers are associated with points
on the number line to the right of zero.
(T) 6. The point on the number line associated with 2 and the
point on the number line associated with "2 are the
same distance from the point on the number line
associated with 0.
(P) 7. The rational number "3 is greater than the rational
number "2.
(F) 8. The quotient of two negative numbers is a negative number.
(T) 9. All negative numbers are smaller than zero.
(F) 10. The integers are made up of the set of counting numbers
and zero.
Completion:
1. The sum of 4 and "6 is ("2)

2. The point on the number line midway between 4 and "6 is (**l) .
3. The difference h - ("6) is (10) .
4. The product of 4 and "6 is ("2*0 .
5. The quotient k -5- ("6) is "(!•)
6. If "5 is subtracted from 5 the difference is (10) .

-29-
7. The numbers whichwith points to the left of

we associate
zero on the number line are called (negative numbers)
8. On the number line, the rational assigned to two

numbers
points the same distance from zero are called (opposites)
9. The opposite of "6 is (6)
10. The origin is the point which corresponds to the number

(zero) on the number line.
Multiple Choice; Select the letter of the answer that is correct-
(d) 1. The sum of "3 and "6 is

a. 3 b. "3 c.9 d. "9 e. none of these
(a) 2. The difference "3 - ("6) is

a. 3 b. "3 c.9 d. "9 e. none of these
(c) 3. The product of ""3 and "6 is

a. 9 b. "9 c. 18 d. ""l8 e. none of these
(b) 4. The quotient ("3) -s- ("6) equals
a. 2 b. -*• c. "2 d. ( -*•) e. none of these
(d) 5. The number that you multiply "3 by to get 1 is

a. 3 b. "3 c« T d« (t) e« none of these
(a) 6. 4 •
(1 - 2) equals
a. "4 b. 8 c. "12 d. 4 e. none of these
(d) 7. The difference 3-2 is the same as:

a. 3 - ("2) c. 2 + ("3)
b. 2 - 3 d. 3 + ("2)
e. ("2) + C3)
-30-
Choose the missing number to make a true statement.
(c) 8. h + -5 + ( ) = 0
a. 9 b. "9 c.l d. "1 e. none of these
(a) 9. "8- ( ) - -16
a. 2 b. "2 c* p" d*
"?
e* none of these
(b) 10. "15 - ( ) - 8
a. 7 b. "23 c. 23 d . "7 e. none of these

Chapter 17
EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
Introduction
This chapter on equations and inequalities has been designed
to achieve the following objectives:
1. To give the student an intuitive feeling for solving
equations and inequalities. At no time is there an
attempt to formalize the solution of open sentences.
It is the feeling of the authors that the formal solution
of open sentences can best be done in an algebra class.
2. To to learn how to trans
give the student the opportunity
late words into mathematical symbols and also to trans
late mathematical sentences into word sentences.
3. To vocabulary which will be meaningful and useful
build a
in later courses in mathematics.

h. To make that the number line, with
the student aware
which he is so familiar, is a useful device to display
the truth sets of equations and inequalities.
5. To introduce the concept that a formula is merely a type

of equation and to give the student practice in applying
a formula to a particular situation.
It is estimated that this chapter will take from 12 to 15 days.
17-1. Open Phrases.

objective of this section is to teach the meaning of
The
algebraic expressions, or "open phrases." The term "open phrase"
Is used here to agree with terminology used later in SMSG texts.
The teacher may wish to use additional examples to insure that the
pupils understand that a phrase represents a number. When a letter
is used in a that the phrase represents any one, or
phrase so
several, or all of a set of numbers, the term "open" phrase is
used. Whenever a specific value for the letter is chosen, an
open phrase becomes a definite number.
pages 4l-43 -32- !7-1
Sufficient exercises have been provided to give the student

practice in translating word phrases into symbolic language, and
in translating symbols into words. The authors have purposely
avoided the use of such words as "increased by", by", "decreased
"more than", "less than", and "difference" in an attempt to mini
mize difficulties brought about by words such as these. The
individual teacher, however, may wish to introduce some or all of
these words during various class discussions.
The use of negative numbers throughout this section and in
the remainder of the chapter will allow the student to maintain
and strengthen those concepts which he learned in the previous
chapter.
In the exercises the pupil is sometimes asked to find the
value of an algebraic expression using a given value of the un
known. It might be pointed out to the pupil that the number
represented by the phrase may be different if a different value
for the unknown is used. This may help him understand the idea
of "open" phrases.
1. a. 13 f. "7
1
k. 4 or
l|or |
b. 3 g. 1. 4
2
c. 12 h. 1 m. 4
i.
f
d. 0 17 n. "1
e. 3§or J. 11 o. "3
2. a. x + 5 or 5 + x
b. 8 • x or 8x
c. x+3 or 3 + x
d. x+9 or 9+x
e. n+6 or 6+n (The student may choose any letter
he wishes)
f. n - 6
3. The translations listed below are only examples. There are

many correct ways to express these ideas.
17-1 -33- pages 43-44
a. The sum of a certain number and 2.

b. A certain number minus 11.
c. Three times a number.
d. A number divided by l4.
e. The sum of a number and negative 6.
f. 15 divided by a certain number.
4. a. 3, "10, 3, pj-, '5, 15
b. "3, "16, "15, '(&), "11, "3
c. "1, "14, -9, -(^), -9, -5
d. 2, "ll, 0, 0, "6, not possible
e« ^c>
1-43 10c> "c",
1
yq-*
-
5c*
4
75
f. "13, "26, "45, -(^), "21, "1
g. 8, "5, 18, 0,
|»,
h.
6,
14, 1, 36,
|,
i. *
6,
7, 15, 1,
3
J. ll, "2,
3 5-
27, *'
3
PT-
»
Answers to Exerc ises 17- •lb
1. a. x - e.
X
1.
X
4
b. x + f. x + 10 J. x -
6
7
c. 30 - x g. 7x k. x -
9
d. 15x h. x - ll
2. a. e. i.
8
6
3
b. 19 f. 22
1
c. 18 g. 84 k.
3
d. 180 h.
1
pages 44-45 -34. 17-1
3. The translations given are only samples. There are other

correct ways to write each of these. Strive to get a variety
of answers.
a. The sum of a number and 1.
b. Three subtracted from some number.
c. Twice a certain number.
d. Eighteen divided by a number.
e. Four times some number.
f. The sum of a number and "6.
4. 7 d. 3
3 e. 24
12 f. 0
5. "1 d. "9
"5 e. "8
"4 f. "8
6. 6 + a f. 2f + 3
8b g. 5(g + 2)
8c + 1 h. 10 - 7h
-
8d 3
i. i 12
+ 1
8e"
Tj- or 2e J. (J + 3)(J + 4)
7. 3 f. "3
"24 g. "5
"23 h. 31
"27 i. "6
"6 j. 0
8. A number minus six.

Four times a number.
Five added to two times a number.
A number subtracted from five.
Twice a number plus fifteen.
Twice a number added to fifteen.
Nine minus three times some number.
A number added to twelve, then divided by two,
17-1,17-2 -35- pages ^5-49
i. Seven times the sum of some number and one.

j. Five minus twice a number.
a . 15 f. h
b. "5 g. 6
c. 5 h. l
d. 7 i. 8
e. 3 J. "1
10. a. 6 d. "9
b. 3 e. 5
c. 9 f. 8
17-2. Open Sentences

When the student completes this section, he should have a
reasonable understanding of the difference between an open phrase

and an open sentence. He should certainly recognize the difference
between an equation and an inequality and understand what is meant
by the truth set of an sentence. The teacher should stress
open
the fact that when we solve an equation we are finding its truth
set. The student should now be able to translate simple situa
tions into mathematical language.
To stress the significance of a truth set, the teacher may
wish to introduce such examples as:
x = x + 3
or 0 • x = 1
which are false no matter what number x is.

In contrast, the number sentences
x + 5 = 5 + x
or 7x = 7 • x
are true no matter what number x is.
Again, the exercises are to be used only to give the student
an intuitive approach to solving equations and inequalities. No
attempt should be made to formalize a method to solve certain
types of equations. The student should leave this section with
the realization that some sentences have only one solution, and
others have many solutions.
pages 46-49 -36- 17-2
This section lends itself nicely to "I am thinking of a

certain number" games in class. For instance, a student may pro
pose the following:
"I am thinking of a certain number. If I add 3, the
result is 10. What is the number?"
This type of approach will
give each youngster the opportunity of
creating a problem which might puzzle the entire class. Through
this technique the student may develop insight into solving more
difficult equations because of a personal interest. Interest and
participation may be better if the puzzles are developed spontan
eously, rather than through a homework assignment.

1. a. X = 2 d. m = 6
b. y a 7 e. s = 25
c. k = 2 f. t = "5
2. a. X = 9 d. X m 9
b. y =3 10 e. P a 14
c. n a 11 f. X = 8
3. a. b = 3 d. m a 8
b. a = 3 e. X = "1
c. w = 7 f. y ■ ~8
a. n — 6 d. d = 18
b. a m 16 e. h = "15
c. k = "16 f. s = 21
5. a. X m "1 J. m = "9
b. X = 18 k. m a 0
c. m = 4 1. n = 0
d. n a 13 m. n = 15
e. X = "32 n. X a 3
f. y = 7 o. any number
g. g = "4 P. X = 0
h. X = "14
i. X = 2
17-2 -37- pages ^9-50

1. a. x + 5 - 13 f. 7x = "35
b. x - 3 = 7 g. x - ll = "5
c. 8x = 24 h. x - 6 = 15
d. $- 9 i. --
2
"7'
e. x + 10 =i 21 J. 2x + 6 = 4
2. a. (8) f. ("5}
b. (10) g. [6]
C {3} h. (21}
d. (36) i. ("1^3
e. (ll) J. ("D
3. a. x + 2 > 4
j-
b. 5x < 10
c > 2
d. x 3 > 6
e. x - 5 < 13
f. 3x > "9
g. 3x - 2 > 7
4. a. The set of all numbers greater than 2.

b. The set of all numbers less than 2.
c. The set of all numbers greater than l4.
d. The set of all numbers greater than 9.
e. The set of all numbers less than 18.
f. The set of all numbers greater than "3.
g. The set of all numbers greater than 3.
5. a. The sum certain number

of a and two Is five.
b. The sum of a certain number and negative three is seven.
c. The product of a number and 2 is equal to negative ten.
d. If five is subtracted from a number the result is greater
than nine.
e. The product of five and a number is less than fifteen.
f. If a number is subtracted from seven, the result is two.
pages 50-51 -38- 17-2,17-3
g. If three is subtracted from a number, the result Is less
than four,
h. If a number Is divided by 3, the quotient is greater than
nine,
i. If 7 is subtracted from a number, the result is negative
two.
j. If a number is divided by "30, the quotient is six.
6. a. [3)
b. (10)
C ("5)
d. The set of all numbers greater than l4
e. The set of all numbers less than 3
f. (5)
g. The set of all numbers less than 7
h. The set of all numbers greater than 27
i. (5)
J. ("180)
7. There are many such sentences. A few are listed below,

y + 1 = 6 y - 2 = 3
3y = 15 y_ _" 1
X
5
17-3. Formulas
of the work with formulas is to give the student
The purpose
a general review of formulas with which he is already familiar and
to help him see how a formula is related to an equation. For

those formulas that the student knows, the teacher may wish to get
word translations from the class during a discussion period.
The teacher should insist that the student write each formula
and show his substitutions before attempting to simplify his re
sult. The exercises should serve as a review of evaluating open
phrases. There should be little stress here on memorizing the
particular formulas used in the exercises.
17-3,17-4 -39- pages 51-56
1. 22 feet
2. 49 square Inches
3. 225 square inches
4. 2400 sq. ft. and 234o sq. ft. The difference is 60

square feet.
5. 21 feet
or square feet.
jj-2-
6. —
156^
7. -K- or 2*% square feet
8. $135.00
9. 62.8 inches
10. 81.64 inches
ll. a. 24o feet
b. 3600 square feet
12. 585 miles
13. 530.66 square feet
14. The square is larger. 3.44 square feet

15. 8l square feet
16. a. ll cubic feet
b. Capacity is gal.
82^-
17. a. 32°
F
b. 212°
F
c. 98. 6°
F
17-4. Graphing Truth Sets of Sentences
After graphing truth sets on number line, the pupil should

a
be able to understand better the ideas involved in the meaning of

"truth set". Relations of numbers should be much easier to under
stand when truth sets are viewed as representation on the number
a
line. These representations should be especially helpful in ex

plaining truth sets of inequalities:
pages 5^-56 -ho- ij-k
Since the student may tire quickly of drawing number lines for
these graphs, it is suggested that the teacher prepare ditto sheets
with number lines on them for class use. In fact, many of the
exercises might be done in class with various youngsters writing
their solutions to certain problems on the board. Colored chalk
can be effectively used to emphasize the truth set on a particular
graph.
No attempt has been made to deal with compound sentences
because it is felt that these are too difficult at this time. The
teacher, however, may wish to use the compound sentences as extra
credit problems, or as a brainbuster for some of the more ambitious
students.
Answers to Exercises 17-**-
1. a. {4}
b. ("4}
C (3}
d. {all numbers less than 1}
e. (all numbers greater than 5)

f. ("53
g. {all numbers less than 5)
h. {all numbers less than 3]
2. a. ♦n — I—I— 1— 1— 1— 1— 1—1— I— 1—• —I—I— — I—h*

1
b.
12
+1 1 1 1 1— • 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 H*
"6 ~5 "*4 "3 ~2 "l 0 3
c"«-i — I 1 I
—
1 I —I
1 1 —I
1 1 —♦—1—I
1 —
1 I 1 1-
<l 1 1 I 1 1 —
1 III 1 CD
— — — — — —1—4-
1 I I I 1 I
17_4 -^1- page 56
— — — — — — — — —H-H — — — —
12
e« +-\ 1 1 I I 1 1 I I I • I I CD I I l»
"2 "l 0 3 4 5 6
f. — ——— ———— —I —I-*

12
-H 1 I t I 1 1 I I 1 l I I I 1 1 1
"6 ~5 "4 "3 "2 "l 0
S*«H
01 1
23456789 1 1 1 O 1 1 1 1 ►
h. «
.0
I
123456789
I 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 ►
3. a. {all numbers)
b. (all numbers greater than 1)
c. {all numbers less than 1}
d. The empty set. (The sentence has no solution.)
e. {-5}
f. {"D
g. ru
*h. {"2}
4- a*
i|
12
1 1 1 I l 1 1 I I l 1 I I I l I 1 I I I I >
"5 "4 "3 "2 "l 0 3 4 5
h"*-i ——— ———— — CD

12 l»
1 1 I I 1 I I I I 1 I I I 1 I I I I I
"4 "3 "2 "l 0 3 4 5 6
c« < I
"4
1 —
1
~3
|l ~2
1 1
"l
1 I
0
I I CD
12
I ——
1 I
3
I —
1
4
I
—
1
5
I h*
— —— — — —
12
d"«H 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I I 1 *—i 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1-»-
"4 "3 "2 "l 0 3 4 5
e,*i — — » I 1 ——— 1 I I 1
———— I I I I 1
—I
1
————
1 I I 1 I h*
pages 56-57 -42- 17-4
f. *H 1 1 1 1 1 1 ♦- .i 1 1 1 1 1 »- H *-♦
g. «*H 1 h H 1 1 ♦ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 h*
*h. -*H 1 1 1 1 1 —I 1 1 1 1
—I
1 1 h h — —h* I
"4 "3 "2 "l 0 I 2

5. a. {-5}
b. (2)
c. (all numbers greater than 4)
d. (all numbers less than "1)
e. {"3}
f. {all numbers)
g. (6)
h. (all numbers less than 6}
i. ("3}
j. (all numbers greater than 8}
6. a.
« I t —h
1 H — — — — — — — — —H
l 1 1 I I I l I h — — — — — — r-»
1 1 1 l I
~3 "2 "l 0 I
*>.* ^
—— 1 1- •i 1 1 1 1- H — I— 1— I—I— ♦—I— I— 1—I- +"••
c. *-l — —h
1 l -i 1 1—I 1 1 1 10 11 +-4»
d. * 1 — —h—
1 1 1- 1 0 — I— h
I H — — — — —I- I I I 1
«• +-\ — — — — — —h
1 1 ♦ l 1 H —I h H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 h"*
f. * I l 1 -+— 1 1 I I I I I I I l I I I I »
rM -43- page 57
g. —,
12
+4 , , , 1 , , , 1 , , , , 1 1 1 1__^+
~2 "l 0 3 4 5 6
h. « I
"2
I I
J
"l
I ' I
0
l
12
I I I l
3
I i I
4
I
5
I | (D
6
|>
— — f— ———— —I—I— I— I —
12
*-• *H 1 i I 1 I I I I J 1 1 I !♦
"4 "3 "2 "l 0 3 4
J* *H — I
0
1
123456789
—I
1 1 1 — I 1 — I 1
— I 1
—
1 I 1 1 Q —I
I 1 !-►
10
7. a. 7 + x - 14
b. (7)
c. — — — — — — — — — — — f—I—►
23456 78
•*-» i i i ■ i i i i i i
"4"3"2"IQ I
8. a. 2x + 6 = 10
b. {2}
c*
+-\ — i— I— I ————
1 i I I i h—* —I i—i— i—I—h-*
"8 "7 '6 "5 "4 "3 "2 "I 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9. a. 5x > 0
b. (all numbers greater than 0}
c*
*-l— i— i— 10 11 | | | | >
"4 "3 "2 "I 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II
10. a. x - 3 < 1
b. [all numbers less than 4)

c.
« i I i i I i I i i (D
— i— i—r*
"5 '4 "3 '2 "I 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
ll. a. 3x + 2 > 8
b. {all numbers greater than 2)

c*
*H—i— i— i— I— ►— |— 9 i i i i i l »
'5 "4 "3 "2 "I 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
pages 57-59 -**- 17-*, 17-6
12. a. x + 2x = 12
b. [k]
C*
*H 1 1 1 1 1 1
—I
1 * 1 1 1 \-+
"5 ~4 "3 ~2 "I 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
13. a. x + x < 4
b. (all numbers less than 2}
c. —t— —

3. a. The sum of two times a number and nine.

b. A certain number minus "2.
c. Twelve divided by three times a number.
4. a. 15
b. 5
c.
12
Tor 7op
k
lj
,1
5» An equation will have the verb " = ".
6. a. 16 + y = 12
b. x + 14 > 15
c. 3x - 6 < 12
d. 4x = 20
7. A truth set is the set of numbers which will make an open

sentence true.
17-6,17-7 -45- pages 59-60
8. a. C~4)
b. (all numbers greater than 1)
c. {all numbers less than 6}
d. (5)
9. y + 1 > 3, y-2>0 are just two possibilities
10. l6j feet
ll. -^ or
39^5-
square feet
12. A graph of an open sentence is a picture representation of the

truth set of an open sentence.
13. a.
« 1 t— 1 — —h 1 -I —l 1 1 1 1-*
'5 ~4 *3 "2 "I 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
b. — (P
-•H 1 1 1 1 H -1 I l 1 1 1 1 '
"7 "6 "5 "4 "3 "2 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
c. « I I 1 I I 1 I I 1 1 CD -t-*
"5 '4 "3 "2 "I 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
d. H 1 1 1 1 »- -i —I I » 1 1-+
6 5 "4 "3 "2 "I 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7
"8 + 10 + 0 + "1 + "3 " "2

1.
5 5
2. a. ôr 4| d. JL
20
b. 16 e. ôr 37|
c,
ôr % f. 6
3. 0.60, 0.6, 60%
4. a . 1000
b. 987.65
5. a. 13.712 c. 1704.5
b. 0.17045 d. 2.1
/-
pages 6o-6l -46- 17-7,17-8
6. 1
7. a. 0
b. 123
c. 320
d. "0.8
8. 7g> 7F
9. a. 8 Inches
b. 8 Inches
c. 32 Inches
10. a. / d
b. /_ a or / d or ^ e
c. / c
d. m(/ b) = 165
m(/ c) = 165
m(/ d) = 15
m(/ e) = 15
17-8. Sample Test Questions for Chapter 17
Note: Teachers should construct their own tests, using carefully-

selected items from those given here and from items of
culty of items and time required to complete the test.
True-False
(t) 1. If two numbers are unequal, then one must be greater
than the other.
6 • p
(T) 2. 4(5 - 2) and — y
— are different- names for the same
number.
(t) 3. A phrase may represent one specific number.
(F) 4. The expression x + 5 is called an open sentence.

-47-
(F 5. 3(| + 5) < 17
(F 6. | .
0 - 8(J)
(T 7. (3x - 4) is a phrase.
" " " "

(T 8. ", = > ", and < are used as verbs in open
sentences.
(T) 9. x(3 + 4) = (4 + 3)x is true for all values of x,
(T) 10. An inequality may be an open sentence.
(F) ll. If x = "10, then 2x + 8 = 12.
(F) 12. If x = 3, then x + 0 = 4X.
(T) 13. If z = 8, then # < f .
Multiple Choice
1. Write a number phrase for the following.
"Multiply the difference between eight and two by three."

a. 8 - 2 • (3)
*b. (8 - 2)
•
3
c. 8*2-3
d. 3(8) - 2
e. none of these b.
2. Which of the following open sentences is an inequality?

a. 17 > x + 2
b. 3 < 2 + x
c. x + .10 < 0.1
d. all of the above answers are correct
e. none of the above answers is correct d.
3. The phrase (2 •
5) + 4 represents which one of the following?
a. 8 b. 10 c. l4 d. 18 e. 4o
-48-
4. If x is the number of years in my age now, then my age

seven years from now will be:
a. 7 + x d. x - 7
b. 7 - x e. none of these
c. 7x a.
If y is the number of inches in the width of rectangle

a
whose width is one-half its length, then its perimeter is
a. 2y(y) d. 3y
b. 2y + y e. 2(2y + y)
C ^y + y
e.
The area of a square whose side is s can be expressed as

a. 2s d. 2s •
s
b. s • s e. s + 4
c. 4s b.
"A number plus four times the number is sixty, " expressed
in symbols is:
a. 4X = 6o d. 6o - 4X = 4
b. x + 4 = 60 e. x = 6o(4)
c. x + 4x = 6o c.
8, Express the following in symbols. "Ten yards of cloth will
cost more than 12 dollars" (x is the cost per yard in
dollars) .
10
a. x > 12 e. x > 12
b. x + 10 > 12
c. lOx > 12 f. ^>12
c.
Which of the representations on the number line below
represents the truth set of the sentence x > 3?
— -i —»
a. _ < t— i
I 0 2 3 4
b. — *—+- I 9 i <+•+-
-I0 2 3 4 5
C. <H- -4- 1— * 1 h-
"I 0 2 3 4 5
-t—$ » H
2 3 4 5
-49-
e. —i— i— |— i— i t »
"10 I 2 3 4
b.
10. Which of the following is the truth set of the equation
x + 7 = 3?
a. [M d. ["10)
b. {"4} e. none of these
C (*, "^} b.
Completion
1. Translate each of the following into phrases using symbols.

a. Three subtracted from the product of 30 and
a number. (30x - 3)
b. Five multiplied by the sum of ten and a number.
5(10 + x)
2. Find the value of the unknown in each of the following
equations.
a. x - 8 = "3 (5)
b.
(f)
3x = 5
c. 10 + x = ("3)
7
x
~
. = 21 (1*7)
d
3. Use the formula for the area of trapezoid,

a
= oMa + b), and find the area of trapezoid whose

A
altitude is 4l feet and whose bases are 35 and 57 feet.

(1886 square feet)
4. Graph the truth set of each of the following sentences on the

number line.
a. 2x -© —
3 h
2
<
4
2
b. x + "2 =
1
4
2
3
c. x - =
1
4
3
2
*■♦
d. x "1
l
I
I
>
"I
4
0
2
3
5
Chapter 18
COORDINATES IN THE PLANE

AND THE PYTHAGOREAN PROPERTY
This chapter is devoted to the subject of "analytic" or

"coordinate" geometry of the plane. The first idea is that of
employing numbers to express the position of a point in a plane.
Two motivational examples are discussed in Section 1, and then
the general problem is considered in Section 2. Sections 3 and
4 are devoted to graphs of equations. The only equations dealt
with in the text are the equations of the form y = bx whose
graphs are straight lines through the origin. In the problems
at the end of Section 4 there are two problems involving graphing
of other types of curves, namely, the parabola y = ix2 and the
12-
rectangular hyperbola y = -— .
A
One observation made about the lines y = bx is that they
may be used to solve multiplication problems graphically. Finally,
in a class discussion exercise at the end of Section 4, the line
y = ("2)x is considered, and it is seen that, using this graph
ical method of multiplication, the product of two negative
numbers is seen to be positive. It is hoped that this develop
ment will make it plausible for the student that the product of
two negative numbers is positive.
Section 5 is devoted to the subject of distance in the
plane. Here the distance between two points is found when they
lie on the same horizontal line or on the same vertical line.
It is seen that these methods will not suffice when the two
points are otherwise situated. Therefore, it is necessary to
develop more machinery in order to finish the problem of distance.
This machinery is developed in Sections 6 and 7 which are devoted
to the Pythagorean Theorem (Property) . In Section 6 the theorem
is stated and its veracity checked by measuring in particular
instances. In Section 7 the theorem is proved..
In Section 8 the subject of distance is returned to and
completely solved by means of the Pythagorean Theorem. Segments
of length v65, v6l, J5, etc., are exhibited. No hint is
pages 63 18-1
52
given that these numbers are irrational. This idea is reserved

for In Chapter
Chapter 19. 19 it is proved that /fT is
irrational, and this fact is used as one of the cornerstones
for the development of the real numbers.
There are numerous class discussion exercises in this
chapter. The teacher may decide to work part of them in class
and assign the rest for homework.
The suggested time allotment for this chapter is 13 days.
18-1. Locating Points in a Plane.

This section is devoted to two simple examples with which
the student is already familiar, showing how a pair of numbers
may be used to express the position of a point in a plane. The
examples are: the seats In a classroom, and the street corners
in a city.
Because it felt
advisable to keep the discussion short,
was
these examples were not exploited to the utmost. Only points
with non -negative integer coordinates (this work is not intro
duced until Section 2) were discussed. It is possible for the
teacher to extend the city to the left of North Street and ask
the student how coordinates could be assigned to corners so
situated. In this way, coordinates such as ("3, 2) and ("4, 5)
could be obtained. (East Avenue now becomes less aptly named.)
Or perhaps the teacher will want to invent a new town with
Main Street and Broadway intersecting at right angles in the
center of the town, thus obtaining corners in all four quadrants
so as to have all possible pairs of signs, ( , ), ( , "),
(", +), ('»')» represented.
Another possible direction for generalization of the example
of the city is to bring out the fact that street locations other
than corners are given by number pairs in which Just one of the
numbers is a whole number. For example:
18-1 53 page 63
(4.3, 4)
.(3,2*)
All of these extensions take time, and the teacher will have to
decide for himself whether- they are necessary.
Symbols of the form (a, b) are known in mathematics as
ordered pairs. It should be observed that the ordered pair (2, 3)
is quite different from the set (2, 3}. As we know,
(2, 3} » (3, 2)
while (2, 3) ji (3, 2).
On the other hand, we have
/*)
(f,
(§,
2)
since ■§ and /4 = 2.
Although the term "ordered pair" is not used in this text,

it is emphasized that (3, and (2, denote different points
2)
3)
pages 64-66 54 18-1

1 . a. Eve
b. Nell
c (2, 4)
d. (4, 2)
2. {(1,5), (1,2), (2,2), (2,1), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5),
(4,3), (4,4), (*#5), (5,1), (5,4)}.
3. a. They all sit in the 4th seat of each row.
b. {(1,4), (2,4),
(3,4), (4,4), (5,4)}
c. The second number of each pair is the same.
4. a. They all sit in the 3rd row.

b. ((3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5)}
c. The first number of each pair is the same.
5 . a. Gary
b. (3,4)
6. a. {John, June, May, Carl}
Emma,
b. They lie on a diagonal line that runs from the
front right corner of the room to the back left
corner.
7. a. {Ann, Ray, Fred, Kay, Ed, Pete, Mike, Gary, Nora, Eve}
b. They lie above the diagonal line mentioned in Problem 6.

1. a. (IE, 5N)
b. (IE, IN)
c. (5E, 3N)
d. (5E, 2N)
e. (4E, 2N)
18-1 55 pages 66-67
2. a. 1[5E, IN)
b. 1[5E, 5N)
c. [2E, IN)
d. 1[2E, 2N)
e. [IE, 2N)
f. 1[3E, IN)
g. <[3E, 3N)
h. I[3E, 2N)
3. (5,1] >, (5,5), (2,1), (2,2), (1,2), (3,1), (3,3),

4. a. 1:o,4) f. (*,3)
b. (;o,i) g. (3,3)
c. 1
:ô) h. (0,2)
d. I;s,4) 1. (1,2) or perhaps (3,5)
e. 1;2,o) J. (0,0)
5. a. Office Building
Telephone Company
Museum
Hospital
Zoo
b. They lie on a diagonal line running in a Northeast
direction.
6. a. City Hall
Drug Store
Library
Kindergarten
Elementary School
Jail
Supermarket
b. They lie above the line mentioned in Problem 5.
7. a. Zoo, Veterinarian, Yacht Club

b. (5,5), (5,4), (5,2)
c. All number pairs have the same first number.
■
pages 67-68 56 18-1, 18-2
8. a. Library
Museum
University
Yacht Club
b. (1,2), (2,2), (3,2), (5,2)
c. All pairs have the same second number.
9. a. 4
b. 3
c. 7
10. 5 blocks
18-2. Coordinates in the Plane.

In this section we aim to show that:
(1) every pointin the plane may be represented

by a number pair;
(2) every number pair represents a point in the
plane .
We are on safe ground in statement (2), but in statement (l)
we are cheating somewhat. We are tacitly assuming in statement
(1) that for every point on the number line there is a corre
sponding number. Remember that so far the only numbers considered
in this text are the rational numbers, and it is not true that
every point on the line has a corresponding rational number.
The student is not expected to notice this defect, and it should
not be pointed out by the teacher at this time. In Chapter 19
the assumption is made explicitly that there is a corresponding
number for each point on the number line, and that the set of all
such numbers is called the set of real numbers. When this is
done, statements (1) and (2) become indubitably correct with
"number pair" meaning "real number pair" instead of "rational
number pair."
It is
possible that the student may have difficulty in making
the transition from positive coordinates considered in Section 1
18-2 57 pages 68-72
to the positive and negative coordinates of this section. The

teacher should then point out that we restrict ourselves toif
positive coordinates, we shall only be able to assign coordinates
to points in a quadrant of the plane, and not to the entire
plane.
It is hoped that in Exercises l8-2d, Problems 1, 2, 3, 7*
and 8 will be especially helpful in showing theu3efulness of
coordinates in the plane. In Problem 7 the positions to be
located are not exact points, and the answers should not be
considered incorrect if
they err by one or two tenths .
Answers to Exercise l8-2a
Point A B C D E F G H I J K L M
X- coordinate 3 2 "3 2 "2 3 "3 "2 7 9 "2 "2 10

Y-coordinate 2 3 2 "3 3 "2 "2 ~3 "5 4 "5 2 2
1. Point A B C D E F G H
Coordinates (3,2) (2,3) C3,2) (2/3) ("2,3) (3,-2) (-3,"2)f2,-3)
I J K L M
(7,15) (9,4) ("2,-5) C2,2) (10,2)
2. a. They lie on the same vertical line,

b. The X-coordinates are the same.
3. a. They lie on the same horizontal line,

b. The Y-coordinates are the same.
pages 72-75 58
18-2
4. Y"
T Z S
.0
"8 "7 "6 "5 -4 "3 _2 "I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
"2
U
X. "4
"5

1. positive, right; positive, upper,
2. negative, left; positive, upper,
3. negative, left; negative, lower,
4. positive, right; negative, lower.
Ans wers to Exercises l8-2d

,
"4
/
1.
Si
7
0, 5
^.8
4
L E
M^- 7 3
l — \d
1
X
*/
-I-b/S -4 "3 -2-_,
V-
-3
1
1
G
2 3 4 5\fi
\f 7
-4
-5
IS
I -7
') f
H
18-2 page 75
59
2.
a. I d. Ill g. Ill J. Ill

b. IV e. I h. I k. II
c. III f. II I. IV 1. III
pages 76-77 60 18-2
5.
Y ■
E 6
5
4
3
6
2 .A
X,
'
D *J
-S-7-6-5-4-3-2-L. 12 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
• * •
"2 c
H
"3
"4
S
•
F
"•
I
2
1
X
-7-6-5-4-3-2-L, 12 3 4 5 6 7
EL
-2
-3 •C
•B -4
"5
"6
a. (0, '4.3)
b. (7.3, 2.5)
c. (1.5, "3) (3, •1.2)
d. ("1. 2.5)
e. (0.5, "5.5)
f. C3, -5)
g. (1.5, '3.2)
(Answers to within two tenths of the above should be
considered as correct.)
18-2, 18-3 61 Page 78
8. a. The island
b. The railroad grade crossing
c. The crossroads on the right bank of the river
d. The wharf
e. The station
f. The school
18-3. Graphs in the Plane.
In spite of the title, the only graphs considered are the

graph of the line y = x and the two half -planes determined
by this line. It was felt that very little
motivation could be
found for setting out to find the graph of the set of those
points (x, y) for which y = x. Would we use this graph to find
the value of value of x is given? This would
y when the
seem pretty silly when we already know that y = x. Consequently,
we studied the problem the other way around. We- took the attitude
that points in the plane provide a useful way of studying geometry.
We therefore drew the line through the points (0, 0) and (5* 5)
and tried to find what we could about the coordinates of points

on this line.
We found that for every point (x, y) on this line we had
y = x, and conversely, that every point (x, y) with y = x
lies on this line. When we say we found these facts, we do not
mean that we proved them. We "found" them inductively; that is,
we made the generalization from a number of examples. This is
about the best that can be done without a considerable treatment
of similar triangles.
Problem 2(d) in Exercises
l8-3b shows an important property
of this line, namely, that it bisects the angle formed by the
positive X-axis and the positive Y-axis. In Problem 1 of this
exercise, the students may not realize which is the greater of
two negative numbers. If they do not realize, for example, that
"2 > "4, then they will learn an Important lesson when they
pages 78-82 62 18-3
check this graphically in (c). In

Problem 2 (a), (b), and
Problem 3, students will have an opportunity to find, graphically,
the coordinates of the point of intersection of two lines .
Answers to Exercise l8-3a

1.
Point A B C D E F
X-coordinate 0 5 2 "4 "2 4
Y-coordinate 0 5 2 "4 "2 4
2. The X-coordinate is equal to the Y-coordinate.
3.
Point G H J K L M N
X-coordinate 4 -4
1
3 | "3
2
"1
2 "|
4 "4 "3 "1
1
Y-coordinate 1 § 7 2 "1
4. Yes.
5. All points on this line have equal X- and Y-coordinates.

1. a. above since 7 > 4 f. below since "1 < 1
b. on since 1 = 1 g. below since "4 < "3

c. above since 1 > "1 h. above since "2 > "4
d. below since 1 < 3 I. on since "7 = "7
e. above since 2 > "2 J. below since "3 < "1
18-3 63 page 82
.
/
Y
2. 7 .A
6
5
4
3
b/ •D
X
/\
-7-6-5-4-3-2--1/ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
.F
H.
,// G -5
'6
/ "7
'
d. The measure of the angle is 45.

Emphasize that the line y = x bisects the first and
third quadrants.
3. 1
7 Y /
6
S
a/
4
3 / S^^
^^/^
2
B/ x
~6J>ar-r3 "2 -i 1/23456
"2
-3
:;
"6
"7
c. The point of intersection is (3, 2).

pages 82-83 64 18-3
4. 5. Y
-
lY 4
t
4 6 H
3
3
F
2
1 E I
x X
,
-5-4-3-2-1, 1 ; 13 4 5 -5-4-3-2
ti 1 2 3 4 5
-2 "2
-3 "3
"4 "4
EF is a line parallel GH is a line parallel

to Y-axis . to X-axis.
6.
8-4. Other Equations, Other Lines.

There are three main aims in this section.
The first aim is to show through a series of class discussion
questions (Exercises l8-4a) that for various values of b, the
equations
y = bx ,
have graphs which are lines through the origin. The teacher will
probably wish to point out that the equation y = x considered
18-4 65 page 83
in the last section is the special case in which b = 1.

The second aim is to observe that lines through the origin
enable us to do multiplication problems graphically. To motivate,
we illustrate
must with an example which must satisfy these five
conditions: (l) it must be an applied problem; (2) it must
involve multiplying a whole list of numbers by the same factor;
(3) this factor must be such as not to make the multiplication
trivial; (4) the list of
contain both negative and
numbers must
positive numbers; (5) we must be able to use the same scale on
both axes and obtain a line which is neither too steep nor too
flat. To meet all these conditions, it was decided to treat
the problem of changing elevations in kilometers to elevations
in miles.
The third aim is to fortify the conviction that the product
of negative numbers
two is a positive number. This is done by
going on with the development of the idea that the graph of
y = bx gives us a geometrical way of multiplying by b. This
time (in Exercises l8-4b for Class Discussion) we take b = "2
and find that the values of y, read off the graph for the
products ("2) • ("3), ("2) . ("1.5), ("2) • ("4), etc. are
indeed positive numbers. No mention is made of the fact that we
are trying to drive this point home. It is felt that the lesson
will be more effective if
the students notice it and comment on
it themselves. If the students do not notice it themselves,
then the teacher will have to take the necessary steps to see
that they do.
The general problem of lines not passing through the origin
is not treated in this chapter (though it would not involve a
great deal of extra work to do so.) Problems 1 and 2 of Exercises
l8-4c exhibit some examples of such lines, but the methods do
not easily generalize to show that
y ■ bx + c
is the general equation of a line.

Ifteacher wishes to teach the general equation of the
a
line, the following approach, given here in skeleton form, might
page 83 66 18-4
be used. Consider the two equations
(1) y = 2x
and (2) y = 2x + 5 .
For each value of x, the Y-coordinate of the point on the

second curve is 5 more than the Y-coordinate of the point on
the first curve. If the point on the first curve is "moved up"
5 units, we get a point on the second curve. If this Is done
for each point on the first curve, the effect Is the same as if
the whole curve y = 2x is moved up 5 units. Therefore, the
graph of y = 2x + 5 is a line parallel to the graph of y = 2x,
and is 5 units above it.
Particularly important problems are numbers 3 and 4 of
Exercises l8-4c in which the parabola y - ix and the
12
rectangular hyperbola y -^- are graphed. Here the student
=
Jit
encounters equations whose graphs are not straight lines, and
this fact should be emphasized. In Problems 5 and 7 of
this set, curves are drawn from empirical data. The curve in
Problem 5 is a line, and that in Problem 7 is a parabola.

1.
Point A B C D E F G H J K L
">§
X-coordinate 3 "4 2 "3 0 4 P1

■4 "2
1
"4
Y-coordinate "8 "6 "7 "4

6
2
0
8
4
5
18-4 67 pages 83-84
2. I Y
& y
7
6 a/
g/
5
4 c/
3
z y
' -g~7 "6 "5 1-3 -2-1/1
1
/ 1 2 3 4 5 S 7 8
x
"
/2
V'3
/
"4
7
"5
D/ "6
H/ -7
B/ "8
' '
The points lie on a line through the origin. The teacher

may wish to remind the class that "curve" in mathematics
includes lines and broken-lines. In Chapter 7 "curves"
were thought of as special sets of points which can be
represented by a pencil drawing without lifting the pencil.
4- The Y-coordinate is "2. ("1, "2) satisfies y = 2x.
5- The set of points (x, y) for which y = 2x lie on the line,

6, a.
Point A B C D E F G H J K
2 -1
X-coordinate "2 "22 P2
"3 1.5 "1
2J
23"
2
0
2"
3"
Y-coordinate "9 4.5 _6 "3 "8 "1.5

6
8
2
b. The points lie on a line through the origin. All the

points this line for
y)
on have coordinates (x, which

= 3x.
y
page 84 68 18-4
c. 1
Y
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
X
-5*4-3-2-1 J \ z 3 4 5
■4
S
"6
"7
"8
7. a.
1.2
-1
X-coordlnate 0 4 "10 7 "4 "5 2.8 "6.6
"1
Y-coordinate 0 2 "5 4 "4 "P1
22"
1.4 '3.3 0.6
b. .
6 V
5
4
3
2
1
X
-10-9-5-7 -6-5 -4 -3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
~XX[
^^ "2
^-^ -3
^^ _4
x"^ ~5
"6
'
18-4 69 pages 84-88
8. Any points whose coordinate satisfy y =

-gx are correct,
Answers to Questions in Text

4
The coordinates on y =
-j x are
A("3, _4), B(3, 4), C(5, 6§), D(l|, 2)
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION ELEVATION IN ELEVATION IN ELEVATION IN

KILOMETERS MILES (graph) MILES
Matterhorn, Switzerland 4.5 2.8 2.79

Mount Everest 8.9 5.5 5.518
Dead Sea -0.4 -0.2 -0.248
Deepest Point in Pacific -ll.0 -6.8 -6.82
Mount Whitney 6.2 3.8 3.844
Deepest Oil Well -5.0 -3.1 -3.10
Deepest Ocean Descent
by Man -10.9 -6.8 -6.758

1. Point X-coordinate Y-coordinate
A 0 0
B 4 "8
pages 88-89 70 18-4
\\ 8
1
\\
2. and 3. 7
6
\\
5
4
3
V
-6-5-4-3-2-1.! y 1 3 4 5 6
~2.
"3
"4
"5
"6
"7
A \
4. X 1 3 2.5 "3 "1.5 3 "2 "2.5 "4
(~2)x "2 "6 '5 6 3 "6 4 5 8
This example gives a very nice illustration that the product

of two negative numbers is a positive number. The teacher
should be certain to emphasize this.

1. a. X-coordinate "4 "3 "2 "1 0 1 2 3 4
Y-coordinate '9 "7 "5 "3 "1 1 3 5 7

b.
c. on a line.
18-4 71 page 89
2. a. X- coordinate "4 "3 "2 "1 0 1 2 3 4
Y-coordlnate 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
This graph is a line.
b. X-coordinate "4 "3 "2 "1 0 1 2 3 4
Y-coordlnate 9 7 5 3 1 '1 "3 "5 "7
VA 7
\\ * 6
\
^
\V
5
4
This graph Is a line.
r X
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 \i 2 3 4 56
-2
-3
-4
~S
page 89 72 18-4
c.
X-coordinate "4 '3 "2 "1 0 1 2 3 4
Y-coordinate 7 5 3 1 '1 "3 "5 "7 "9
The graph is a line,
3. a.
X-coordinate "4 '3 "2 "1 0 1 2 3 4
1 1
Y-coordinate 4 21
2T 1 0 1 21
2T
4
b. Y
S
\
\\ 4
3
X
"6 "5 "4 -3 "2 "l_ 1 2 3 4 5 6
"2
"3
"4 •
"5
c. (This curve is called a parabola.)

18-4 73 page 89
k. a.
X-coordinate "12 "9 "6 "4 "3 "2 "1 0
-4
Y-coordinate "1 "2 '3 "4 "6 "12 none
7
X-coordinate
Y-coordinate 12
12
II
10
9
6
7
6
5
4
3
E
*£-\l TO -9-8-7-6 "5 -4 "3 "2 "I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 O II 12
c. (This curve is called a hyperbola.)

Call attention to the fact that when x = 0, y is not
12
defined since ^r-
has no meaning. On the graph there
is no point whose X-coordinate is zero.
page 90 74 18-4
5. a. and b,
body temperature
20 40 60 80 100 Centigrade
The points lie on a line. The teacher will

realize this can be predicted from the formula
F = 2 C + 32, but students should find this linear
relation after plotting the points.
98.6°F is the same as 37°C.
18-4 page
75 90
6.
"l£0 "IOO -QO "60 ~40 20 40 60 ao 100 120
a. No, not through quadrant IV-

b. about "18°C .
c. about 58°C .
-£QO,
d. about "68°C .
page 91 76 18-4
7. a. 240
220
ZOO
180
160
140
120
fOO
SO
60
40
20
20 40 60 80
b. The curve is not a line.

c. about 50 feet, about ll0 feet, about 150 feet.
d. 53 miles per hour, 25 miles per hour.
18-5 77 pages 91-95
18-5. Distance .
The principal purpose of this introduction to distance is

to motivate the Pythagorean Theorem. learn that the distance
We
between two points on the same horizontal line is the difference

of their X-coordinates, the greater minus the lesser. For
example, the distance between (3, 5) and (9> 5) is 9-3 or
6. The distance between (a, b) and (c, b) is a - c or c - a,
whichever of these two numbers is positive. Distance is never
negative . If we had the absolute value notation at our disposal,
we would say that the distance between (a, b) and (c, b)
is ja - c| or (which is the same thing), |c - a|. It is in
general true that the distance between P and Q is equal to
the distance between Q and P. These points are not belabored
in the text, but if
problems arise, the teacher will have to
explain in more detail as given above.
When we come to the problem of finding the distance between
two points not situated on the same vertical or horizontal line,
the best we can do at this point is to construct a ruler and
measure the distance . It is pointed out in detail that the unit
on the ruler must agree with the unit employed in constructing
the coordinate plane. A device not mentioned in the text which
the teacher might use is to have the students tear off a piece
of graph paper to use as a ruler.
This method of measuring is pointed out to be unsatisfactory
as it will not give the exact distance when the coordinates of
the points are given exactly. We need another tool with which to
solve the problem of distance. This tool is the Pythagorean

Theorem.

1. a. distance 5 horizontal e. distance 8 vertical
b. distance 7 vertical f. distance 3 horizontal
c. distance 5 horizontal g. distance 15 horizontal
d. distance 8 vertical h. distance 2 vertical
page 95 78 18-5
2. a. e. (2,7)
(0,0) (5,0)
(2,-1)
b. f. Y
.(2,73
.(-6,-0 .(-3/0
,fco> x
c. g-
Y
(3,4) (fl, 4)
.("8,2) (7,2).
d. h.
.(3,9)
(3,4)
.(-4,-6)
.(-4,-fl)
18-5 79 page 95
3. a.
Y
4
3 ^B
I
c \A X
l 2 3 4 5
b. 4
c. 3
d. 5
4. a.
6 Y
5
C
4
3
2
\b
1
A x
i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
b. TE = 6, IS = IE = 5
page 95-96 80 18-5
5. a. Y
4
3
\
B 0 A
1
X
-3-2 ' 2 3 4 5 6
C
* 0
C D
-4
b. AB - CD = 4 AD = BC = 5
c. a rectangle
(0,
~\)
e.
6. a.
Y
4
T
U
v£> <?
•*^
1
-4 "3 ~z
4
-1
a
3
I
"2
-3
"4
c. SV =
5
d. TV =
5
e. a parallelogram
f. (0,2)
18-5, 18-6 81 page 8 96-97
7.
Y
\l
4
•>
y\
/ x
"4 -3 "2 -t_, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
"2
"3
The lengths of the parallel sides are 3 and ll.
18-6. A Property of Right Triangles.
The Pythagorean Theorem stated and verified

(Property) is
by measurement in some particular cases . In our presentation,
the theorem was not "discovered" inductively since a great deal
of induction has been used in this chapter already, and further
more, a deductive proof of the theorem is to be given in the
next section.
The wish to present here the following historical
teacher may
material which is taken from another SMSG text.
The ancient Egyptians made use of this property of right
triangles in the following way in order to make "square" corners.
They took a loop of rope 12 units long.
page 98 82 18-6
Then they grasped it at three points which divided it into pieces

3 units, k units and 5 units in length. Then they pulled
it tight to form a triangle.
6
Then they took the angle opposite the largest side to be a right
angle. We have already seen that a triangle with sides of
length 3, 4, and 5 satisfies the condition
a2 + b2 = c2
since
32 + 42 = 52.
Although the Egyptians made use of this property they did
not prove it.
It is thought that Pythagoras looked at a mosaic like the
one pictured in the first figure below. He noticed that there
are many triangles of different sizes that can be found in the
mosaic. But he noticed more than this. If each side of any
triangle is used as one side of a square, the sum of the areas
of the two smaller squares is the same as the area of the larger
square. In the second figure below two triangles of different
size are inked in and the squares drawn on the sides of the
triangles shaded. Count the number of the smallest triangles in
each square For each triangle that is inked in, how does the
.
number of small triangles in the two smaller squares compare

with the number In the larger square? If you draw a mosaic like
this, you will find that this is true not only for the two
triangles given here but for a triangle of any size in this
mosaic.
18-6, 18-7 83 pages 98-103
0^
<\ lit
N/ \s
x
X >
sS
ssSK s y^
\^
1 \j" CK
\S
AB = 13 AB = 17
c. d. 22
20-
*
IB
10
16
8 B
14
6
4 12
I 10 N■
^-Â 8
C z 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 16 lt> 21 24- 6
I
AB = 25 \A
c 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 16 33 11
AB = 29
2. a. a2 + b2 = 13 AB % 3 .6 AB2 = 12.96
b. a2 + b2 = 41 AB % 6 A AB2 = 40.96
c. a2 + b2 = 7k AB % 8 .6 AB2 = 73.96
page 103 84 18-7
18-7. A Proof of the Pythagorean Property .
proof of the Pythagorean Theorem given here will seem

The
most delightful and, in fact, unforgettable to people who have
only seen the more difficult and eminently forgettable traditional
proofs. We hope that the proof is so nice as even to be appealing
to 8th grade students encountering the theorem for the first time.
The proof will probably be more significant to the student if
he actually cuts out the four copies of the right triangle and the
square with edge a + b and performs the coverings as indicated.
It can be repeated with a number of different right triangles.
Another useful pedagogical device would be for the teacher
to have constructed in the shop seven blocks as shown and a box.
The students may then be shown how the blocks may be fitted
into the box in the two ways.

1. a. 25
b. 169
c. 625
d. 200
18--7, : L8-8 85 pages 103-104
2. a. 144
b. 225
c. 441
d. 224
3. a. 8 f. 30
b. 15 g. 100
c. 13 h. 40
d. 12 1. ll
e. 10 J. 50
4. 90 yds.
5. 30 in.
6. 10 ft.
7. a. 13"
b. 14 ra.
c. 80 '
8. No, because the diagonal of the base is only 34 in.
18-8. Back to Distance .
that we have the Pythagorean Theroem, we are ready to

Now
show how to find the distance between any two points in the
plane whose coordinates are given. This distance formula is
expressed in the text as
2 2 2
AB =
(difference of X-coordinates) + (difference of Y-coordinatesf
This formula is usually written
Distance between (x1, 3^)
and
(x^ y2)
=
/ (xg-x^ +
(a^-S^)
It wasthat this notation would be too difficult for the
felt
students to master.
The square root symbol is encountered for the first time in
this chapter. The teacher should note that
pages 105-109 86 18-8
denotes the positive number whose square is b. So, while
22 = 4 and ("2)2 - 4
we have
/T = 2 but J~K £ "2.
This convention is in universal use today. In former times one

frequently saw statements such as /4~= - 2. Such statements
are incorrect according to our definition. The reason for this
convention is our symbol to stand for a definite
that we want
number and not Just some indefinite member of a set of numbers.
If we wish to denote the negative number whose square is 5*
we must write ~/~5~.
The student encounters numbers in this section such as
/5 9 v/ol* /65 which are not integers.
not even It is
hinted that these numbers are not rational. This is the province
of Chapter 19. The student is supplied with a table of approxi
mate decimal square roots of the numbers from 1 to 100. The
fact that these square roots are approximate should not lead the
student to conclude that the numbers are Irrational, since
numbers such as
7 cannot be expressed as terminating decimals
either.
table referred to contains squares of numbers as well
The
as square roots, and thus lists all perfect squares between
1 and 10,000.
1. a.
a 8
b 6
c 10
18-8 87 page 109
b.
a 4
b 3
c 5
c.
a = 5
b = 12
c - 13
20 Y C ft
d. 16
a 15 16
/4
b 20
12
c 25 /O
6
6
4
a
2 4
/ 0 M 14 16
x
18 20 22
6/ ^8
e.
a = 3
b = k
= B
c 5
ud
pages 109, HO 88 18-8
2. a. 50
b. 29
c. /l3~
d. 9
e. 5
f. 25
g. 10
h. /52~
3. a. 3 f. 1
b. 5 g. 100
c. 7 h. 60
d. 13 1. 18
e. 20 J. 17
4. a. 4, 9, 2, 3 or 2 < /6"< 3
b. 64, 81, 8, 9 or 8 < /W < 9
5. a. between 2, 3 e. 8, 9
b. 3, 4 f. 5, 6
c. 7, 8 g. 4, 5
d. 6, 7 h. 31, 32
6. a. 9.85
b. 7.07
c. 8.66
d. 95 (exact) These perfect squares appear in the table.
e. 64 (exact)
7. 9.8 ft.
8. a. The distance from (2, 5) to ("3, "5) Is /125 * 11.
is /98.5
2^)
b. The distance from (0, "4) to (7*y, ~ 10.
9. /296 - = 17
7
18- -10, 18-ll 89 pages ll2-113
18--10. Chapter

1. horizontal
2. vertical
3. upper
4. x, negative
5. half -plane
6. line, origin
7. I, III
8. II, IV
9. 9
10. a. IV d. II
b. III e. IV
c. I f. Ill
ll. /2"
12. 41
13. a. 6.557 d. ll
b. 5.196 e. 67
c. 9
14. 5 inch.
It is parallelogram.
a
The lengths of opposite
pairs of sides are 4,
and 5.
pages ll3-114 90 18-11
2. a-
A
b- 2T
c. 2
3. ("10, "1.1, "1.099, 0.001, 0.009, 0.01}
*•
t! <
5i Since 9 x 44 < 12 x 35 or 396 < 420
5. "1
6. a. X
b. "3
c. 1
7. 2 gal. 2 qt. 1 pt.

8. Capacity of storage tank 15 x 12 x 9 - 1620 cu. ft.
o
Capacity of truck r X 3 X 10 * 282.6 cu. ft.
Since 5 < 1620 4- 282.6 < 6, it will take 6 loads.

9. a. 55
b. 55
c. isosceles
10. a. Volume
>8xirx|x|> 50tt cu. ft.
or % 157 cu. ft.
b. Surface area =5ttx8 +
2xtx|x|= 52^
ir sq. ft.
or % 164.85 sq. ft.
91
18-12. Sample Test Questions for Chapter 18.

Note: Teachers should construct their own tests, using care
fully selected items from those given here and from
items of their own. Careful attention should be given
to difficulty of items and time required to complete
the test.
True or False
F 1. The point whose coordinates are (3, 2) is the same as

the point whose coordinates are (2,3).
F 2. The point (~4,"l) is located in the second quadrant.
F 3. Each point on the line y = 2x has its X-coordinate
twice its Y-coordinate .
T 4. The graph of an equation is the set of points in the
plane whose coordinates belong to the truth set of the
equation.
F 5. A right triangle may have two right angles.
T 6. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is less than the sum
of the lengths of the other two sides of the triangle.
T 7. The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right
triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths
of the other two sides.
F 8. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is on one of the rays
that form the right angle.
F 9. The Y-coordinate of points lying on the Y-axis is zero.
T 10. All points lying in the upper half -plane (above the X-axis)
have positive Y-coordinates .
F ll. The Pythagorean relationship is true for all triangles.
F 12. The length of the diagonal of a square is equal to the
sum of the lengths of two of its sides .
F 13. The point whose coordinates are ("1,1) lies on the line
y = x.
T 14. The point whose coordinates are ("4, "2) is above the
line y = x.
F 15. The point whose coordinates are ("4, "2) lies on the
line y = 2x.
92
Multiple choice
1. The points A(2,"3), B(2,2), and C(2,8)
a. are the vertices of a triangle
b. lie on a line parallel to the X-axis
(e.) c. lie on a line that passes through the origin
d. lie on a horizontal line
e . none of the above is correct
2. The distance between A(6,0) and ("4,0) is
a. 0
b. 2
(c.) c. 10
d. 24
e. none of these
3. The graph of the inequality y > x
a. is a line through the origin.
b. contains all points Y-coordinate
whose
is equal to its X-coordinate .
(c ')
v
c. is a half -plane lying above the line y = x.
d. is a half -plane lying below the line y = x.
e. is none of the above.
4. The point (3, "l) lies
a. in Quadrant II
b. in Quadrant III
(c . ) c . in Quadrant IV
d. on the X-axis
e. none of the above is correct
5. Which of the following is a right triangle, if a, b, and
c represent the lengths of the sides?
a. a = 1, b = 2, c = 3
b. a = 2, b=3, c = 4
(c.) c. a = 3, b = 4, c = 5
d. a = 4, b = 5, c=6
e. a = 5, b = 6, c = 7
93
6. Given the two numbers 5 and 12, the sum of their squares
is
a. 13
b. 17
(e.) c. 25
d. 289
e. 169
7. If you know the length of the diagonal of a square, (choose

the best response)
a. you can find the length of the side of the
square .
b. you can find the area of the square.

/- \ c. the Pythagorean property gives a relationship
between the length of the diagonal and the
length of the side of the square.
d. all of the above are true.
e. none of the above is true.
Completion
1. The Y-coordinate of the point (3, "7) is ("7) .
2. (~4, "3) names a point located in the (III) quadrant.
3. Each point in the coordinate plane has (2) numbers

associated with it.
o 2 2 2
4. a. Find c when c = a + b and a = 6 and b = 9. (ll7)
b. How could you represent the value of c in part a.?
(/Tl7)
5. The graph of y = 2x is a (line) .
6. The point of intersection of y = x, y = 2x, y = 3x is

(the origin) .
7. The distance between (3, "4) and ("7, "4) is (10)

8. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 25 units in length,
and one side is 24 units in length. The third side is
(7) units in length.
94
9 . State the Pythagorean Property in words .
10. The graph of y > x is (a half -plane) .
ll. Find the distance between the points whose coordinates are
(1,3) and (6,15). (13)
Chapter 19
REAL NUMBERS
This chapter is
intended to give the student an overview of
the number systems he has studied thus far, as well as to extend
this development through the set of real numbers. In so doing,
we acquaint him with a set of numbers which will suffice for
almost all of the mathematical operations which he will encounter
in his future studies. One additional extension of the number
system (to include the complex numbers) will finish the develop
ment of the number system. At the same time the student is
finally able to see a one-to-one correspondence between the
elements of the set of real numbers and the points on the number
line.
The approach given in this chapter is one which begins with
a review of the rational numbers and their properties. The
review involves more than a mere repetition of what was done
previously. Students were introduced to the number systems in
the following order: counting numbers, whole numbers, non-
negative rationals, rationals. In this development, the set of
integers was introduced, but it did not fit conveniently into
the system of organization. In the review, the set of integers
is rightfully considered as a subset of the set of rational
numbers. The distinguishing properties of the set of counting
numbers, the set of integers, and the set of rational numbers are
emphasized. The density property of rational numbers is used to
set the stage for the amazing conclusion that is reached later
in the chapter, i.e., in spite of the fact that the rational
numbers are everywhere dense, there are points on the number line
which do not correspond to rational numbers.
Students are accustomed to associating points on the number
line with numbers. The possession of this geometric interpre
tation of numbers means that students already have an intuitive
grasp of the assumption- -every point on the number line corre
sponds to a number. This assumption is the basis for the develop
ment of the real numbers in the chapter. For this reason, it has
96
been verbalized in the student text . The distinguishing

properties mentioned in the preceding paragraph are interpreted
in terms of the number line. It is this interpretation which
leads to the definition of irrational numbers.
In the chapter it is shown that there is an infinite number
of rational points on the number line. Furthermore these points
are so distributed that, between any two rational points, we can
always find a third rational point. This is the familiar property
of density, which is described but not named in the student text .
As the text points out, one is thus tempted to conclude that
there are no other points on the number line except rational
points. As a matter of fact, the whole approach to this chapter
is to lead the student to adopt this point of view on a tentative
basis. Thus, one might ask such informal questions as "Do you
think that every point on the number line is occupied?", or
"Do you think that there are any gaps in the number line after
we plot all of the rational points?"
The student is led to believe that surely every point on
the number line must be associated with a rational number since
there is an infinite number of rationals, and between any two
there is a third. At this time, we spring the big surprise on
him by producing a number which is not rational. This is done
by means of an actual geometrical construction where a segment
of length 5/ is found. A point is then located on the
number line which corresponds to this number. Apparently, this
number must be rational. But such an assumption leads to a
contradiction, thereby causing us to conclude that ylT is
not a rational number.
By actually exhibiting a segment whose length is /~5 we
provide the groundwork for showing that irrational numbers do,
In fact, exist and are as "real" as the rational numbers with
which the student is familiar.
Once we have proved /~5~ is not rational, we have estab
lished the existence of other points on the number line besides
those that correspond to rational numbers. After demonstrating
97
several of these we conclude that there are infinitely many

irrational numbers, and that each one corresponds to a point on
the number line.
The union of the set of rational numbers and the set of
irrational numbers produces the set of real numbers . Our develop
ment is now complete: every real number corresponds to a point
on the number line, and every point on the number line corresponds
to a real number. That is, there is now a one-to-one correspond
ence between the set of real numbers and the points on the number
line; every length can now be expressed as a real number. This
property of real numbers, not enjoyed by the set of rational
numbers, is often known as the completeness property.
The last half of the chapter discusses procedures for
finding decimal expressions for real numbers and for locating
real numbers on a number line with a decimalized scale. It is
important for the student to realize that:
(1) Decimal approximations can be found for every

real number. These approximations can be made as
accurate as one cares to make them. However, no
matter how the approximation is expressed, the
decimal itself is a rational number.
(2) Only real numbers which can be expressed exactly as
terminating decimals can be located exactly on
a number line with a decimalized scale by ordinary
measurement .
(3) Every rational number can be expressed exactly as

a repeating decimal.
It is true that every repeating decimal represents a
rational number. However, this conclusion is not discussed in
the chapter. If you feel that It should be done, feel free to
do so.
Another major objective of the chapter is to give students
some feeling for proof. The proof that /IT is Irrational is
an example of an indirect proof.
98
The time needed for the average class to complete this

chapter is estimated to be 12 days.
The treatment of the real number system in the following
references will provide much worthwhile supplementary material:
1. Bell, E.T. MEN OF MATHEMATICS: New York. Simon and
Shuster, 1937.
Life of Georg Cantor, Chap.
29, pp. 555-579.
2. College Entrance Examination Board; Report to the
Commission on Mathematics, College Entrance
Appendices:
Examination Board, c/o Educational Testing Service,
Box 592, Princeton, N.J. Part 1, Algebra. See especially
pp. 28-35* a classroom approach to Irrational Numbers.
3. Courant, Richard and Robbins, Herbert. WHAT IS MATHE
MATICS? New York. Oxford University Press, 1953.

Chapters 1 and 2.
4. Gamow, George. ONE, TWO, THREE ... INFINITY. New York.
Viking Press, 1947. Chapter 1, Big Numbers. See
especially pp. 14-23.
5. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Twenty-third
Yearbook: INSIGHTS INTO MODERN MATHEMATICS. Washington,
D.C., 1957. Chapter II,
The Concept of Number.
6. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Twenty-
fourth Yearbook: THE GROWTH OF MATHEMATICAL IDEAS,
Grades K-12; Washington, D.C., 1959. Chapter 2, Number
and Operation; Chapter ll, Promoting the Continuous
Growth of Mathematical Concepts.
7. Niven, Ivan. NUMBERS: RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL. New
York. Random House, Inc., 1961.
8. Richardson, M. FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS: New York.
Macmillan, 1941.
19-1 99 page ll7
19-1. Number Systems .
teacher should note that we have used the word "system"

The
as an Intuitive notion of a collection. By a number system we
mean a set of numbers together with at least one operation. For
example: the set of counting numbers and the operations of
addition and multiplication form the Counting Number System.
Comments Concerning Exercises 19 -la.
The exercises should remind students that:
(1) There is no largest counting number.

(2) The smallest counting number is 1.
(3) In the set of counting numbers, for any given number
there is a next larger number (successor) which can
be obtained by adding 1 to the given number.
(4) In the set of counting numbers there is, for any given
number except 1, a next smaller number (predecessor)
which can be obtained by subtracting 1.

1. Answers will vary; n - 1, n + 1.
2. Yes. The counting number 1 has no counting number

preceding it .
3. Yes. The smallest counting number is 1. No.
4. a. Yes b. No c. Yes d. No
5- 2, 999, none. No.
Comments Concerning Exercises 19-lb.

"smaller" and "larger" or "greater" and "lesser"
The terms
need to be extended if
students are to answer the questions
concerning integers. It is difficult for students to think of
"300 as a smaller number than "200.
Zero is the only integer which is neither positive nor
page ll8 100 19-1
negative .

1. Answers will vary; n - 1; n + 1.
2. No; every integer has a successor and a predecessor.
3 . No ; no .
4. a. Yes b. Yes c. Yes d. No
5. 2, 999* none, no.
6. Integers Counting Numbers

Always has a predecessor Does not always have a predecessor
Closed under subtraction Not closed under subtraction
These are the differences specifically resulting from above

discussion. Pupils will suggest others.
Comments on Exercises 19-lc.

of this set of exercises is to get students
The main purpose
to discover that between any two distinct rationals there is
always a third rational number.
Problems 7-10 are review problems. Exercises 19-lc can
be divided into two homework assignments, Problems 1-6 in
one assignment, and Problems 7-10 in the second assignment.
Answers to Exercises 19-lc

a. Yes
b. Yes
c. Yes
d. Yes (except division by zero)
a. 14 e. 1
b. 10 f. None
c. None g. "24
d. 0 h. None
19-1 101 pages ll9-120
3. No. Your answer may be a non-integral rational number.
4. a. 4
b. -
f. -<iog)
c. ■d|) g.
ad + be
2bd
5. Yes. If a and b are rational numbers, then a % is

also rational, and lies midway between a and b.
6. a. The sum of two odd or two even integers is always even.
Therefore, there is an integer midway between the two
Integers in such cases . However, one integer is if
even and the other odd, the sum is odd. In this case,
there is no integer midway between the two.
7. a. \ b. | °.
T d. "^
8. 1
9. 0
10. |-§ if ad = be.
Comments Concerning Exercises 19-ld.

These are review exercises which emphasize the differences
between the set of integers and the set of rationals.
Answers to Exercises 19-ld

1. and 2. As we have seen in Exercises 19-lc, there is no next
smaller or next larger rational number. (Since between any
two rational numbers there is always another.)
3. No, no .
5. Infinitely many, Infinitely many, Infinitely many, Yes.

pages 120-123 102 19-2
19-2. Locating Numbers on the Number Line.
There is one major concept to be developed in this section,

namely that every point on the number line corresponds to some
number. Points which correspond to rational numbers are called
rational points. At this stage of his development the student
may assume that every point on the number line corresponds to a
rational number. It is therefore very important that you develop
Class Discussion Exercise 19-2b wherein we find the measure of a
segment to be /"5~. We thus set the stage very carefully for the
main event: to show that /~5~ can be located as a point on the

number line, and furthermore that this point does not correspond
to a rational number.
The use of the paper folding technique to locate a rational
number on the number line should be accomplished with little
expenditure of time. Students have had experience with this
device .
1. and 2. Standard folding ribbon technique. (See Chapter 8,

Vol. I.
Comment Concerning Exercises 19-2b.

If you prefer you may use a compass or a pair of dividers
rather than the precedure described in the exercises.
k. Measure of EG is /~5~ .
19-3. _/jT as a Point on the Number Line.
proof developed in this section

The is a difficult one
because of its indirect approach. Thus, we assume that /IT
19-3 103 page 123
is a rational number and can therefore be expressed in the form

j| . We find that this leads to a contradiction. Therefore, our
original that
assumption,
/5~ is rational, is false. It is
advisable to have students read through the proof in the test
the first time without much regard for details; the whole
purpose of the chapter may be defeated if the pupil is allowed
to become mired in the details. It is far more important that
the students be convinced of the irrationality of J"5 than
that they master the proof to the point of being able to
reproduce It.
After the general trend of the proof is clear
to the student,
it may be helpful to spend time on a discussion of the nature
of this "indirect reasoning" (indirect proof). It may also be
helpful to cite examples of its use in other connections. The
following material is made available to those teachers who wish
to explore the method of indirect proof with their students.
Indirect proof involves the following steps:
(1) All possibilities must be listed.
(2) All possibilities except one are rejected by showing
that they lead to contradictions.
(3) Therefore, the one remaining possibility must be true.
It is easy to apply indirect proof to prove the following state
ment:
A triangle cannot have two obtuse angles.
All Possibilities:
(1) A triangle cannot have two obtuse angles.
(2) A triangle can have two obtuse angles.
Let us suppose that a triangle has two obtuse angles. This
would mean that the sum of two angles would be greater than l8o°.
This is not possible since we know that the sum of the three
angles is equal to l80°. Therefore, possibility (2) is false
and possibility (l) must be true.
page 123 104 19-3
Indirect reasoning is common in everyday life, but the

results of such reasoning are seldom as conclusive as they are
in mathematics. In everyday life it is seldom possible to list
all possibilities. If it is possible, it may be difficult to
eliminate all but one of them. Below are listed a few places
in which indirect reasoning is applied in everyday life.
(1) It is difficult for a murder suspect (who is really
innocent) to prove his innocence directly. It is much easier
to establish an alibi based on indirect reasoning. The line of
argument follows this pattern: Either I am guilty or I am not
guilty. Suppose I am guilty. Then I would have to be at the
scene of the crime at the time the crime was committed. But I
have proof that I was somewhere else. I cannot be at two different
places at the same time. Therefore, my assumption that I am
guilty is false.
(2) One Saturday afternoon Max was listening to the broad
cast of a football game between Ohio State and Michigan. At the
end of the third quarter when the score was tied Ik to 14,
Max had to go to work. When he got home again he found that
Ohio State had won the game 17 to 14. He concluded by the
use of indirect reasoning that Ohio State won by a place kick.
Possibilities for getting points in football are:
(a) Touchdown, 6 points
(b) Field goal, 3 points
(c) Safety or running play after touchdown, 2 points
(d) Place kick after touchdown, 1 point

All possibilities except (b) lead to scores not with in agreement
the actual score. Therefore, possibility (b) is what took place.
The final example is a puzzle which the more capable student
might enjoy.
(3)Oscar, a practical joker, smeared the faces of Tom,

Dick, and Harry while they slept. On awakening, the three men
beheld each other, and all laughed. Suddenly one of them stopped
laughing. He concluded that his own face was smeared. What was
his reasoning?
19-3 105 page 123
Tom thinks: If my face were not smeared,
Tom
Dick Harry
then Dick and Harry would still

laughing at each other. But be
quite quickly Dick will realize that his face must be the one
that Harry is laughing at; then Dick would stop laughing. In
the same way Harry would realize that his face was smeared and
stop laughing.
Tom concludes, since Dick and Harry have not stopped laughing,
that my face must also be smeared.

1. 2 •
2 •
2 •
7 or 23 •
7
2. 3 • 3 •
13 or 32 • 13 1
3. 5
•
3 •
5
. 3 or 52 • 32
4. 5
•
17
5. 5
• 2 •
5
*
2 or 52 • 22
6. 2 .
2 • 2 •
3 •
13 or 23 -•
3 -•
13
7. 7
pages 125-127 106 19-3
Answers to Exercises j 19-3b
b Complete Number of Complete Number of

factorization factors in factorization factors in
of b complete
of b2
complete
factorization factorization
of b
of b2
f i
30 2-3-5 3 (2-3-5) •(2-3- 5) 2 - 3
ll 11 1 ll •ll 2 - 1
35 5- 7 2 (5 -7) '(5-7) 2 • 2
32 2.2-2-2-2 5 (2 • 2 • 2- 2 -
2)- -(2-2-2 •2-2) 2- 5
5 5 1 5 •
5 2 - 1
42 2-3*7 3 (2- 3- 7) •(2 -3- 7) 2 - 3
18 2-3-3 3 (2-3-3) •(2 - 3 •

3) 2- 3
45 3-3-5 3 (3-3-5) •(3- 3 •

5) 2 • 3
120 2-2-2- 3-5 5 (2 - 2 • 2 •

3 •
5) -(2-2-2 •3-5) 2- 5
1 . and 2 .
measure of AT = /2~
3. Irrational. There is no rational number *- such that

2
a
(t-) = 2. We can use an argument similar to the one used
to show that 75 is Irrational.

4. Lay off the distance /2~ twice to the right of 0;
3 times to the right of 0; three times to the left of 0,
5. Irrational.
19-3 107 page 127
6. a.
2 3
Measure of ftp = /lb"
*b. Students will probably work it as follows:
i i
I /2/3 2 3 4 5
Measure of 57 /3"
However they may work It as follows,
*c. Students will probably work it as follows:
Z /5 /6 3
Measure of 7TF = /6
page 127-128 108 19-3
However they may work It as follows
O I 2
Measure of A"§ = J"6
Let are positive integers,

*7. (1) 1= /s" where a and b
b / 0.
a2 =
(2) 3
(3) i2 -
a- = 3b'
2
(4) and 3b are different names for the same number.
The number of prime factors of a
2
and 3b
2
will be
the same.
2
(5) a has an even number of factors.
(6) Since 3 is a prime factor 3b has an odd number

of factors.
(7) Steps (4), (5) and (6) are not all true. Something
is wrong! The assumption in Step (l) leads to a
contradiction and is false. Therefore /3~ is
irrational.
8. BRAINBUSTER.
a. It is possible to that
show /8 is Irrational by a
procedure very similar to the one shown in *7. Although
8 is not a prime factor, the prime factorization of 8
contains an odd number of factors .
19-3 109 page 128
b. It is not possible to show that /6 is irrational by

a procedure as short as for /8 or /3~. Six is not a
prime number and its prime factorization contains an
2 2
even
— _~" number of factors . Since in the statement a ■ 6b
o p
both a and 6b contain an even number of factors
in their prime factorization, no contradiction is
immediately apparent. Proof that /6~ is irrational
is given below.
Proof that / 6 is irrational.

A that the prime factors in
basic idea in this proof is
the complete factorization of a perfect square occur an even
number of times.
Assume that *6 is rational.
(l) tt = /o where a and b are counting numbers.
(2) 4
b^
" 6
(3) a2 = 6b2
(4) Every prime factor in the complete factorization of

p
a occurs an even number of times .
2 2
(5) 6b = 2 • 3b Since in the complete factorization
.
of b^ a prime factor occurs an even number of times,

the 2 and 3 each are contained an odd number of
times in 6b .
2 2
(6) Since a and 6b are symbols for the same counting
number, they must have the same complete factorization
except for order- -Unique Factorization Property.
Statements (4) and (5) are contradictory.
Therefore the assumption that /~6~ is rational is false,
and y~6 is an irrational number.
pages 128-129 ll0 19-3, 19-4
Comment concerning Exercises 19-3d.

These are review exercises. They are not needed in the
development that follows.

1. No. There is no third integer between "1 and "2.
2. Yes, No.
3. No, Yes.
(_113
4.
5*
No,
"200'
No.
"4"00* TJoo
6*
TR? To"' B75
*7 • One method: find the average of the two given points,

finding a third;
then find the average of the third and
one of the given points. Continue the process three more
times .
3 5 9 17 33
213077' 70750"' 57507?' 16000"' 32000
8. 101
9. None exists because if we were to select a rational number

which we think is next, we can always find another rational
number between the one we selected and 100.
19-4. Irrational Numbers .
to this point the only encounter the student has had with
Up
irrational numbers has been in connection with finding the square
roots of numbers. This section, through the experiment developed
in Exercises 19-4a, shows that a point can be found on the number
line to correspond to t. The student is then told that ir is
irrational, the proof of which is beyond the level of this text.
The measure of a diagonal of a rectangle is not always
Irrational if
the measures of the sides are integers. For
19-4 1ll pages 129-131
example, the rectangle whose sides have measures 3 and 4 has

a diagonal with measure 5. This was discussed in more detail
in Chapter 18.

6. r = tt, length of circle is ir, circumference.
Comments Concerning Exercises 19-4b.

The main purpose of this lesson is to bring out ideas
concerning tt. An interesting activity that the students might
perform is
described below.
Suppose a needle 2 inches long is tossed and allowed to
land on a large sheet of paper marked with parallel lines that
are 4 inches apart. Students would find that after many tosses
the ratio of the number of tosses to the number of times the
needle touches a line is very close to tt.

1. No, 3.14 is a rational number, tt is not.
2. a. 3.142857, two decimal places.
22 22
b. -y- is the more accurate, -7- > 3.14.
c. 3.142 Sr > 3.142
3. a. 3.14085, 3.14286
b.
^
4. a. /5 e. 13
b. /Ic7 f. 25
c. /l3 g. /ll3
d. 5 h. 10
pages 131-132 112 19.5
5. No. Several examples of rational measures for a diagonal,

if sides are rational are given in 4(d), (e), (f), (h) .
19-5- Real Numbers.

We finally arrive at the goal we have been seeking through
out the year, namely to exhibit a set of numbers which can be
placed In a one-to-one correspondence with the set of points on
the number line. We call this collection the set of real numbers,
At this point it is wise to stop and let the student look back
along the trail which he has covered. Thus he sees that the
real consists of the union of the set of rational numbers
numbers
and the set of irrational numbers. The set of rational numbers
consisted of the non -negative rationals (zero and positive
rationals) and the negatives. The non-negative rationals include
the whole numbers and those that cannot be expressed as whole
numbers. The whole numbers include the counting numbers and
zero. The counting numbers were the numbers the students first
encountered.
In the past we have possible to add,
shown that it is
subtract, multiply, and divide rational numbers geometrically.
Exercises 19-5a are provided to show that these four operations
can be performed geometrically for the real numbers as well.
The section terminates with the listing of all of the prop
erties of the real numbers developed to date. These should be
discussed in detail and illustrated, where possible, by specific
cases.
Answers to Exercises 19"5a

5 ±g> .
1. a. —1 — ——— — — ——— — —— —— — ——
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
"2+3
"~
3
"2024
-*- -2-
b. -i — ——— — — —
1 1 1 1 1 1 »-
19-5 ll3 pages 132-135
2. Yes.
a. By procedure described in Exercises 19-2b segments can
be reproduced which have true measures of /2~ and /fT.
Si ••5 ,
*_
<%-
"4-2024
—I 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1
6
1—
3. a.
J-6
1 1 I 1 I 1 1 f— I 1 1—
-4 'Z- O Z 4- 6
b.
2
4
3
>
-i 1 rt 1 1 I K H 1 »-
"4
Yes.
I I I 1 1 I— — ( 1 I 1-
-4 -a
a. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, ll, 14
b. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ll, 14
c. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ll, 12, 14
d. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, ll, 13, 14

pages 135-137 ll4 19-5, 19-6
2. rational b, c, d, f.
irrational a, e,
3. radius is U 0.3183
19-6. The Location of Rational Numbers on the Decimal Scale.

The major point developed in this section is that every
rational number can be expressed as a repeating decimal. It is
appropriate here to make a big fuss over the fact that a listing
of many supporting examples is not acceptable as mathematical
proof. We could not possibly list the decimal expansion for
every rational number. Instead we offer some supporting evidence
and then accept the conclusion without proof. This point is
made in several places within this section and should be emphasized-
The latter part of the section has been written to let the
student see that we can locate an irrational number on the
number line to any degree of accuracy desired.
If you wish to have students realize that every repeating
decimal represents a rational number you can demonstrate with a
few repeating decimals how one can determine the rational number
it represents. The three examples below should be simple enough
for the students to follow.
(1) Let n - .337
lOn = 3.337
9n - 3.337 - .337
9n - 3
«
n - 3 =
1
=S 7
Therefore .337 = i
(2) Let n = .09^
lOOn = 9.090£
99n = 9.090"2 - .090"9
Therefore
=^
=
.0901?
TT
= i
19-6 ll5 pages 137-138
(3) Let n = .132132

lOOOn = 132 .132
999n = 132.132132 - .132112
999n = 132
_ _ 132 __ 44
Therefore .132132 =
Jtr?
Of course, students should again be reminded that this demon

stration does not comprise a mathematical proof.

1. a. 2.250" f. 1.0240
b. 0.20833 g- 0.378378
c. 0.428571 h. 0.01210T21
d. 0.0837142 i. 0.01219512155
e. 0.02439024390 J. 0. 0588235294117647
2. a, c, d, g, i
3. a. 2
c. 2 •
2
d. 5
g. 2-2-2
i. 2 •
5
4. a. 0.142857 d. 0571428
b. 0.285714 e. 0714285
c. 0.428571 f. 0857142
pages 139-142 ll6 19-6

a. 32 = 2-2-2-2-2 or 2->
b. 100 = 2-2-5«5 or 22-52
c. 9 = 3-3 = 32
d. 50 = 2-5-5 - 2-52
e. 35 = 5-7
f. 80 = 2-2-2-2-5 = 2^-5
g. 15 = 3-5
h. 120 = 2- 2. 2- 5-3 = 23-3-5
i. 160 = 2-2-2-2-2«5 = 25-5
j. 48 = 2-2- 2-2-3 = 24-3
k. 56 = 2-2-2-7 = 23-7
1. 56 = 2-2-2-7 = 23-7
The fractions in parts (a), (b), (d), (f), (i) have

denominators whose complete factorization contains only
2, or 5, or both as factors. Parts (g), (j) and (k) can
be simplified to this form.
a. 2, 4, 8
b. 16, 20, 25, 32, 40
64 and 80, 100

1. a. 1.372 1.379 1.385 1.493 5.468
b. "9.426 "5.630 "2.765 "2.763 "2.761
c. "0.15475 0.15463 0.15467 0.15475 0.15598
2. a. none c. all but "(
"0.15475
b. all but "0.15475 d. all but "0.15475
"(
e. 0.15475 0.15467 0.15463

19-6, 19-7 117 pages 142-143
3.
A A & a 4_ J&-
0 )
4. a. | = 0.33... , ij = 0.3400... , ^ = 0.400"... .
b. | = 0.65". .. , j^q = 0.6700". . . ,

-^
= 0.700"... .
c.
I = 0.4'J8571... ,
3
= 0.4T... .
|i|
d. = 0.456T^... , = 0.45651T^5...
^||
.
19-7. Decimal Expansion for 73" and /2~.
A
arithmetic computation in this section can become quite

The
tedious. The main point, however, is not the computation. Rather
we wish to show that we may find decimal expansions for irrational
numbers to as many decimal places as desired. If the teacher can
make this point without spending an excessive amount of time on
the computations, this will be quite satisfactory.
You may wish to teach students a procedure for finding the
square root of any number. If you do, it is strongly recommended
that a procedure be used which students can understand reasonably
well. procedure which students should be able to understand
A
is illustrated below:
Problem: Find the square root of 1296.
1. Interpret the problem as: Find the measure for the side of
a square with area equal to 1296.
S=?
Figure
1
page 143 ll8 19-7
What is the measure of the side of the largest square that

can be placed completely within the square in Figure 1?
Consider only those squares which have sides with measures
divisible by 10. Answer: 30
What is the area of the

shaded region in Figure 2?
Answer: 1296
-900
396
__^^
Figure 2
4- Rearrange the shaded region as in Figure 3.
5- How many units long must the

length of the shaded rectangle
be in Figure 3? Answer: 60 30 \ goo
V*A
?£%%&
Figure 3
6- Calculate an approximate width for the shaded rectangle.

(Figure 3) Answer: 396 4- 60 % 6 .
7- What is accurate measure for the length of the shaded

a more
rectangle than the first estimate? Answer: 60 + 6 = 66 .
8- The measures of the rectangle are assumed to be
shaded
66 and 6. Such a rectangle would have an area of 66 x 6
or 396. It so happens here that all the shaded region in
Figure 2 has been accounted for.
What Is the measure of the side of the square?
Answer: 30 + 6 = 36 . Therefore 36 is the square root
of 1296 .
After this type of thinking has taken place and the answer
has been determined for several problems, the computation can
19-7 ll9 page 143
be abbreviated as follows:
6
36
30 }
/1296
900
66 I 396
-£ 3^6
If is
to be determined for a number which is
the square root
larger than 10,000 and which is a perfect square, the general
process above is repeated until there is no remainder to account
for. If the number is not a perfect square, the general process
is repeated again and again until the square root is determined
to the desired degree of accuracy.
A final note: If this procedure is used in class, students
will first need some practice determining the number of digits
in the square root (accurate to the units place) of any number.
For example, the square root of 12,356 has 3 digits; square
root of 98 has 1 digit. If students are to learn the process
for finding square root, they should spend at least 3 lessons
on it. The lessons might be as follows:
Finding square roots of perfect squares with 3

/
(1)
or 4 digits. For example, /961 , 75.24
(2) Finding square roots of perfect squares with 5

and 6 digits.
(3) Finding square roots of numbers that are not
perfect squares.
Answers to Exercises 19-7&
1. 1 and 2 4. 1.4l4 and 1.415

2. 1.4 and 1.5 5. 1.4142 and 1.4143
3. 1.41 and 1.42
pages 145-146 120 19.7
1. a. 5 < /30~ < 6 .
b. 9 < /&9 < 10.

c. 15 < 7253 < 16.
d. 65 < A280 < 66.
e. 96 < /9315 < 97.
2. a. 3
b. 2.999824
c. 3.003289
d. .000176 .003289
e. 1.732
3. (1.73)2 = 2.9929, (1.74)2 = 3.0276, 1.73 is the better
4. (3.87)2 = 14.9769, (3.88)2 = 15.0544, 3.87 is the better
5. (25. 2)2 = 635.04, (25. 3)2 = 640.09, 25.2 is the better
6. 3.2
7. 12.2
8. 14. 9
9. n =
/To 2 3.2
10. n =
/149 * 12.2
To summarize what this entire chapter

has been the theme of
we note that the real numbers were necessary, and are sufficient
to express exactly the measure of any line segment. However this

measure sometimes proves to be an irrational number. In practice,
however, we use a rational approximation for this measure, and
this approximation can be as close to the real measure as we wish.
Thus, in the problem earlier in the chapter, the measure of a
diagonal of a rectangle proved to be /~5". We may use any one of a
19-9 121 pages 149-150
number of rational numbers to approximate this, such as 2.2,

2,23, 2,236, etc.

1. a, yes c. no
b, no d. no
2. closure (+, x) b. closure x

commutative (+, x) commutative x
associative (+, x) associative X
identity + identity x
distributive order
order
2 7 4
3. "*. 0, g, 0.41,
"(7)* 5' To"' 7
4. a, b, d, e, f, *h.
228<
(3§§||
=
£)
5. a. 3.142 c. 1.414
b. 2.236 d. 5.385
6. a. 5 (The counting numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
b. 6 (The whole numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
c. 8 (Integers, "2, "l, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
d. infinitely many
e. infinitely many
7. 15.1 and 15.2

8. b, c, e, f, h
9. a. 0.12 e . none
b. 0.0707 f. 0.4375
c. 0.0070757 g. none
d. 0.32432T
10. a and f
pages 150-151 122 19-9, 19-10
ll. d and '
12. a. 2
b. 2
c. 2
d. none
13. a. none
b. 0
c. 0
d. none
19-10. Cumulative Review.
1. "*
I 7♦ 1 1 « 1—* » t
-2 -1 3
2. a. tj> d.
-g-
17
4
or
S
b* e*
T2" 42"
"5
a.
3
3.
T
63
b.
c.
7
255"
4. a. 7^844.55
b. 105
5. Hi ||y 3ince 2l6 x l61 126 x 284

<
<
or 34,776 35,784
<
6. a. c. "5 e.
3
1 5
f.
.%)
b. d.
0
19-10 123 page 152
7. a. 28 - x
b. 3x
c. 7(5 + x)
8. a. 0, 90 b. 90, 180 c. 90
9. 70 cu. ft.
10. 15
ll. Area - ir • 22 - 2 • ir • l2 = 2ir sq. In. or fc 6.28 sq. In,

The teacher should encourage the exact answer 2tt rather
than approximate answer 6.28.
19-ll. Sample Test Questions for Chapter 19 .

selected items from those given here and from items of
culty of items and time required to complete the test.
True or false;
F 1. Every real number can be written as a rational number.
T 2. The smallest positive integer is one.
T 3. y~2~ is a number which when squared is equal to 2.
T 4. Three and one -seventh rational number. is a
T 5. Every repeating decimal is a rational number.
F 6. The square root of 7 is approximately equal to 1.6^5.
T 7. Every real number can be represented by a point on the
number line.
F 8. The number zero is not a rational number.
F 9. There are 12 integers between 15 and 27.
P 10. If a number is a real number then it is also a rational
number.
T ll . A rational number may be expressed as an integer divided by
a counting number.
124
T 12. 2 J~2~ is both a real number and an Irrational number.

F 13. Irrational numbers can not be located on the number line,
T 14. The square of any counting number greater than one can
be factored into an even number of prime factors .
F 15. 1760 is the perfect square of an integer.
F 16. Zero is a number that is both rational and irrational.
Completion.
rational number midway between

1 ... -. ,.
is -(J)
1. The 1-jr and "3
2. Find two numbers between X and J4 . (Many answers are
71 l4l
possible. Some are -^, j^, 143
j^, \
etc.)
3. what is the decimal name for t£-? (.0625)
4. Write the closest integer to 4r that is larger than y£.

(3)
5. Write a rational number between 4 and 0.62^6. (Many
possible answers, such as .6251, .6252, etc.)
125
6. Consider the following numbers and fill in the blank with

yes if they belong to the set and no if they do not .
set of set of set of set of set of set of

counting whole integers rational irrational real
numbers numbers numbers numbers numbers
0
(no) (yes) (yes) (yes) (no) (yes)
3"
2
(no) (no) (no) (yes) (no) (yes)
7
(no) (no) (yes) (yes) (no) (yes)
-<!>
3
(yes) (yes) (yes) (yes) (no) (yes)
3"
0.33" (no) (no) (no) (yes) (no) (yes)
1.30" (no) (no) (no) (yes) (no) (yes)
JT (no) (no) (no) (no) (yes) (yes)
4 (no) (no) (no) (yes) (no) (yes)
*/* (no) (no) (no) (no) (yes) (yes)
TT (no) (no) (no) (no) (yes) (yes)
.313ll311 13... (no) (no) (no) (no) (yes) (yes)

3
0"
(no) (no) (no) (no) (no) (no)
Multiple choice:
of the following is
2i
1. Which between -«- and
2
a. e. none of these
14
b.
T6
c. 15
(d.) To-
d.
126
2. Which of the following is equal to 4 ?
a. 0.63
b. 0.750
(c) c. 0.625
d. 0.562
e. O.580
3. Which of the following is not a rational number?
12
a.
T
b.
3
0
(d.) c.
5
5
d. 0-
e. 4
4. Which of the following is the largest number?
a. 0.01002
b. 0.009
(c) c. 0.0102
d. 0.0100899
e. 0.00999
5. Which of the following are not real numbers?

a. 0
b. 2
(e.) c. 0.090"9"
d.
e. none of the above answers are correct
6. Which of the following are not irrational numbers?

a. /2"
b. tT
(e.) c. \r*
d. JT + JT
e. /2 x 2
Chapter 20
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION, DECIMALS, AND THE METRIC SYSTEM
For this chapter It Is assumed that the student has had some
acquaintance with the names of numbers, the decimal notation, and
finding products involving decimals and percents.
It is intended that the class discussion exercises be done
during class time. The procedure for getting each answer should
be discussed before continuing to the next problem.
This chapter should take about 13 days.
20-1 . Large Numbers and Scientific Notation

This section seeks to cultivate the ability to read large
numbers, an appreciation of them, and ability to write them in
scientific notation. Some people prefer to use the term "standard
form" instead of "scientific notation. " A certain amount of
estimation is also included.
Of course there is no largest number and two knowledgeable
boys would play the game described to a draw by the simple process
of adding one, multiplying by two or in some other way increasing
the number which their opponent had just given.
Some of the more thoughtful students may wonder why we do not
write 93 million, for instance as 93 x 10 where the exponent is
used to indicate the number of zeros in the numeral. There is no
point in trying to hide the fact that in many cases this is really
a little simpler.
1. a. 1,000,000,000 d. 1,000
b. 1,000,000,000,000 e. 10,000
c. 1,000,000,000,000,000 f . 100
2. a. 109 d. 103
b. 1012 e. 10*
c. 101* f. 10S
pages 155-157 128 20-1
3. a. 7 x 103 d. 1* x 106
4 6
b. 5 x 10 e. 375 x 10
c. 3 x 106 f. 48 x 1010
It is also correct to have other answers than the above.

3 2
For example, (b) might be expressed as 50 x 10 , 500 x 10 ,
5000 x 101, or even 50,000 x 10°.
1. a. 7.6 x 10 f. 4.835 x 102

b. 8.59 x 102 g. 8.412 x 102
c. 7.623 x 103 h. 9.7836 x 103

d. 8.463 X 103 *i. 3.412789435 x 106
e. 7.64 x 10
2. a. No, because 15 is not between 1 and 10.

b. Yes, it satisfies the definition.
c. No, because 12.0 is not between 1 and 10,
3. a. 5.687 x 103 d. 2.7 X 10
b. 1.4 x 10 e. 6.13 X 102
c. 3.5 x 106 f. 2.05 X 102
4. a. 3,700,000 d. 10,000
b. 470,000 e. 1600
c. 5,721,000 f. 8,300,000,000
Exercises 20-1c
1. a. 102 f. 7.832 x 103

b. 103 g. 106
c. 10 h. 7.81 X 109
d. 6.87 x 10
2
i. 6 x 103
e. 6 x 103 J. 9 x 109
20-1, 20-2 129 pages 157-158
2. a. 1000 e. 630
b. 100,000 f. ^36,000,000
c. 583 g. 1,000,000,000
d. 30,000 h. 1,730,000
3. a. Seven hundred eighty-three

b. Seven million, five hundred thousand
c. Sixty-three thousand seven
d. Three hundred sixty-two and thirty-six hundredths
e. Two hundred eighty-four and sixty-three hundredths
f. Pour and two hundred fifty-six thousandths
4 . a . 600 d. 70900
b. 100 e. 600
c . 1200 f. 362,400
5. a. 6 x 102 d. 7.09 x 10
b. 102 e. 6 x 102
c. 1.2 x 103 f. 3.62^ x 105
20-2. Multiplying by Powers of Ten

objectives of this section are a continuation of those
The
in the first with the added skill of multiplying, using
scientific notation.
Here again, some students may prefer to multiply 93,000,000
by ll,000, for example, by writing the former as 93 x 10 and
3
the latter as 11 x 10 , then forming the product
Q
1023 x 10^ ,
and then it
into scientific notation: 1.023 x 10 .
putting 12
The teacher may prefer this, too, in which case he should use it.
3
To see that 1.023 x 10 = 1023 one could refer to the rules
for multiplying decimals or the teacher might prefer to go back
to first principles. One way to do the latter would be:
1.023 = 1 + -j—q- and, since 103 - 1000,
1.023 X 103 - (1 + -j2^) x 1000
* 100° +
IU0T)X 100° * 100° + 23 = 1023.
pages 159-160 130 20-2
However, the student should realize that multiplying a number by

10 is to moving each digit one place to the left.
equivalent
In Problem 4 in Exercises 20-2a notice that the speed of the
space ship is about a mile per second, which is about 32 million
miles a year.

i
1. a. 101C e. 107
b. iq5 f . 1020
i
c. 101C g. 6 x 1010
d. 1011 h. 101*
2. a . 8 x w5 g. 4 x 108
b. 5 x io7 h. 3.7 x 108
c. 2.3 X 105 i. 5.12 X 105

d. 4 x !06 j. ^ x 107
e. 5.* x 105 k. 6.72 x 109
f. 106 1. 4.5 x 109
3. a. 7.2 X 10* miles b. 1.728 x 10 miles
4. a. 7.2 X 10 miles c. 6.3072 x 10' miles

b. 8.64 • X 10' miles d. No.
1. a. 6 x 1010 e. 7.63 x 107
b. 1.2 x 10l8 f. 2.16 x 105
c. 3.5 x 1013 g. 9.3 x 108

d. 3 x 107
2. a. 6.3 x 10ll c. 4.65 x 109

b. 109 d. 1.1 x 109
20-2, 20-3 131 pages 160-163
3. a- 4 x 107
b- » 2 X 1010
c. i 1.2 x 106
q
*. 7- ,2 x 10^ miles
o
5. About 6.132 x 10 miles or 613,200,000 miles.
6. BRAINBUSTER: Yes, you could have made 63,072,000 marks.
60 x 60 x 24 x 365 seconds is one year.
20-3 . Dividing by Powers of Ten

This class discussion should lead the pupils to discover the
division operation of numbers in exponential form. If the examples
in the text are not sufficient for this purpose, use additional
examples until the students discover that in dividing numbers
written in scientific notation, the exponent in the denominator
is subtracted from the exponent in the numerator.
-
xf_
b
a

1. 103
2. 10*
3. 102
4. Perhaps several students

discovered the met will have
subtracting exponents at this point, namely that
"
-
b
10a -r- 10b 10a

5. 106
6. 103, 102, 101

J.U •
42- -
J-
1
,
10
1. a. 10 c. 107 e. 109 g. 103

"6
b. 10 d. 162 f. 105 h. 1019
pages 163-166 132 20-3
2. a. or 1000
e.
10s 1027
1 1
b. or 10,000 f. 1
10f
1 1
To11
c. or 10,000,000
10' g.
1 1
d. or 1,000,000
10
h.
10 529
Answers to Exercises 20- 2c
1. a. 9.3 X 10 f. lS2
b. 10* g. 7.006 X 10"
c. 106 h. 9.07 X 107

d. 10° 1. 6 x 10°
e. 6.21 X 103 J. 4.5 x 103
2. a. 0.000093 e. 0.007065
b. 0.107 f. 0.1
c. 0.000001 g. 0.00000143
d. 0.0005 h. 0.00038576
3. a . 6.3 X 105 e. 3.6235 x 10'

b. 1.57 x 104 f. 4.32 x l33
c. 2.4 x 106 g. 3.05 x i59

d. 5.265 X 105 h. 6.95 x 10°
4. a. "3 e. "1
b. 6.3 f. "3
c. "7 g. 21300
d. 5 h. 2130
*5. The number zero, since a product Is zero only when one of
the factors is zero. Neither a "power of ten" nor " a number
between 1 and 10" can be zero.
20-4, 20-5 133 pages 166-169
20-4. Multiplication of Large and Small Numbers
The development in this section should lead the students,

in easy steps, to the conclusion that:
+ b
10a x 10b = 10a
whether a and b are positive or negative.
1. a. 107 e. 7 x 107
b. 3 X 103 f . 5.7 x 1010

c. 1013 g. 102*
d. 8 x 105 h. 1?
2. a . 2.88 x 108 d. 3 x l510
b. 5.4 x 109 e. 4.56 x 106
c. 1.4 x 107 f . 5.6896 x 106
3. a. 102 c. i36
n~2
b. 10 d. w7
4. 3.4594 x 101
5. 4.125 x 105 dollars

6. 9.939 x 109 dollars
20-5. Division of Large and Small Numbers
1. a. 109 b. 105
a. io5 b. Because 7-2 equals 5

2.
c. The same number
3. a . 9 c. Both equal 109
b. 109
pages 169-171 134 20-5
4. a. lCr b. Yes. Both equal l(r.

5. Yes. Each side equals 10 .
" b
6. I0a
a. b. 101
7. 1016
c. 1512
8. Yes. Yes.
9. a. 3 x 10ll b. 2 X 101
c. 3 X 107
1. a . 103 e. 102
b. 102 f. 1010
c. 1010 g. 106
d. 105 h. iS1
2. a. 107 e. 102*
b. 10* f. 1030
c. 1018 g. 1018
d. 102? h. 107
"24
3. a . 107 e. 10
b. 10* f. 1030
c . 1018 g. 1018
d. 1029 h. io7
4. a . 103 e. 10"
b. 1010 f. 105
c. 102 g. 1010
d. 106 h. 101
20-5, 20-6 135 pages 171-173
5. a. 2 x 103 d. 2.4 x 102

b. 7 x 107 e. 4 x 106
c. 1.2 x 109 f. 4 x 103
6. a. "2 and "1 d . "3 and "1
b. "2 and "1 e. "1 and 1
c. 2, "2, "2 f. "1, 3, "1, and 4
7. 9.2 x 10 . Treat as problem in equations,
ToV " 2.76 x 1q6
8. No, since It will take 100 years to spend this sum of

money .
9. About ll80 days. (Rounded to nearest ten)
10. $20,000. Treat as problem in ratio.
ll. 4o %. Treat as problem in equations,
14 x 106 =
^ (35 x 106)
20-6. Use of Exponents in Multiplying and Dividing; Decimals

Note that division is handled somewhat differently here.
Powers of 10 are used in such a fashion that in formal division
a whole number is divided by
whole number. Many people find
a
this easier to follow than the procedure which uses a decimal as

the dividend .
There are too many problems in the exercises to be given

as one assignment. of the students
Some may need the extra
practice and will need two or more days.
1. 6.14 = 6l4 x 102

x 0.42 = x 42 x 102
1228
2456
25788 x 104 =,
2.5788
pages 173-175 136 20-6
2. 0.625 625 x 103

x 0.038 = x 38 x 103
5000
1875
23750 x 10 - 0.023750
3. 649.3 6493 x 101
x 14.68 - xl468 x 102
519^
38958
25972
6493
9531724 x 10 = 9531.724
4. ll.4 ll4
x 101
"4
X 0.0031 = X 31 x 10
ll4
342
T53T x 105= 0.03534
1. a . O.I8063 d. 399.529
b. 0.0684 e. 7.2
c. 7500
2. a. "2 e . 63700
b. "3 f. 2,1
c. 4 g. 0.0412
d. "3
3. a . 300200 c . 0 . 000007
b. 6.1 d. 160

1. a. 135 x 6 x 102 - 810 x 102 = 8.1
b. (76 x 103) x (3 x 103) = 228 x 106 = 228,000,000
c . (18 x 103) x (3 x 104) = 54 x lO1^ 5.4
d. (35 x l54) x (l6,301 x io3) = 570535 x l6^ = 0. 0570535
20-6, 20-7 137 pages 175-176
e. (6 x 10 ) x (275 x 10 ) . 1650 x 10 = 165,000

f. (7 x 102) x (3 x 102) x (2 x 102) x (6 x 103) . 252 x 101
= 2520
2. a. (63 x 10*)-»-(3 x 101) - 21
b. (78 x 102)-(13 x 10°) =6xl?= 0.06
e. 8750 x 10° m 10xl02= 1000

875 X 10*
x
d. 1^70 ag m 196 x l52, 0-l96
75 x 10*
e. 27 x 102 J 84402 x 105 - 3126 x 103 = 3.126
f. 18 x 102 I 216 x 101 - 12 x 103 0.012
.3. 6_x_840
.04
m
5040 x
4
if
x 10*
m 126o x 1Q2 _ 126ooo
It is necessary to make 126,000 pieces.
4. Bralnbuster:
5
^X (6.3 x 1012)
2|c
—
x (63 x 1013)
—
16 x 21
: 77= h = =10.5
100,000 x (3.2x10') lO3 x 32 x 10 32
It will take about 10.5 years to go one way, 21 years

round trip.
20-7. The Metric System

"The invention of the Hindu-Arabic decimal system of numera
tion is of man's outstanding achievements.
one With it, for the
first time in history, masses of people were able to learn the
art of computation. Later Simon Stevin simplified the processes
of computation still further by the introduction of the decimal
fraction. Today, the decimal fraction should be called the
-
pages 176-177 138 20-7
commonfraction, so widely is it used in commerce and technology.

"Still later came the metric system of measures, based upon
the units, meter, liter, and gram, which are also decimal. ...If
the selection of a system of measures were optional with educators,
they would unhesitatingly choose a decimal system. They are well
aware of the tremendous efforts required to learn, for example,
the relationship between linear units in our system: 1 inch
1 foot - •*-
1 1 2 1
yard,
=
-Tp foot> 1 yard =
^ rod, 1 rod ■ -r^rr mile.
In contrast, they appreciate the simplicity and ease with which
the pupil could learn: 1 millimeter - 0.1 centimeter,
1 centimeter a 0.01 meter and 1 meter =» 0.001 kilometer.

"Prom the point of view of teaching and learning, it would
not be easy to design a more difficult system than the English
system. In contrast, it would seem almost impossible to design a
system more easily learned than the metric system."
The above quotation from the Twentieth Yearbook of the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics served as a motivation
for this section.
The brief historical sketch is intended to help the pupils
see the decimal foundation and origin of the metric system.
Although the pupils have had a brief introduction to the
metric system in the 7th grade, we urge you to have them "live
metric" for a few days. Postpone any attempts at converting
from metric to English measures or vice versa. The pupils
should have a metric ruler at hand in order to get well acquaint
ed with the linear units.
Because of the length of this chapter we are only able to
introduce the linear metric scale. You will also note that we
have not developed in any detail the two systems now in vogue,
namely, the MRS (meter, kilogram, second) or the CGS
(centimeter, gram, second).
Clark, John R., Note on the Yearbook,"

"A The Metric
System of Weights and Measures, Twentieth Yearbook of National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Bureau of Publications,
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 19^8.
20-7 139 pages 177-179
We highly recommend the Twentieth Yearbook of the National

Council of Teachers of Mathematics as a rich reference text for
both your professional library and your pupils1 mathematics
library.
The original definition of
the meter was used until October 15,
i960 when delegates from 32 nations agreed on a new standard
definition. The meter is now defined in terms of the orange-red
wave-1engths of Krypton gas, and one meter is defined as:
1*650,763.73 orange-red wave-1engths
in a vacuum of an atom of the gas Krypton 86.
This new definition has the advantage that it can be measured
accurately by an interferometer anywhere in the world. The old
method of using a standard bar of platinum-iridium was not exact
throughout the world.

1 and 2. There is no standard answer to these questions, but
many interesting opinions should come from the class
and stimulate interest in the metric system.
1. a. 10 d. 10,000
b. 100 e. 100,000
c. 1,000 f. 1,000,000
2. a. 500 f. 325
b. 2000 g. 3.5
c. 0.5 h. *.7*
d. 25. ^ i. 55
e. 1500 J. 625
*3. a. 4 x 107
b. h x iob
c. 4 x 105
pages 179*181 140 20-7, 20-8

1. 11.ll x 103 = 0.0llllll
2. 5.34 x 102 = 534
3. 24.5 x 103 - 0.0245

4. 0.52 x 103 = 520
5. 643.2 x 103 = 0.6432
6. 202.2 X 102 - 20,220
7. 0.015 x 103 =» 15
20-8 . Conversion to English Units

ratio conversion was chosen
The as a reinforcement of what
the student learned in Chapter 10.
1. Solve the proportion by the comparison property (Chapter 10),

x - 22.86 cm.
2-
23*= ¥> Xss 38-10
3-
1 v
,2T5*=27T97r; y ' 272^ ; y-n
Q4
4-
23* -T^' y=
1l^; yss5
5. Change 5 feet to 60 Inches then we have --rW ■ ~- J
x . 152.40.
6. Change 9 yards to 324 inches, then we have -ttt ■

"^r~ >
X m 822.96 .
1. a. 20.32 c. 48.26 e. 274.32 g. 457.20

b. 60.96 d. 68.58 f. 91.44 h. 731.52
20-8, 20-10 X4! pages 182-184
2. a. 2 c 7 e. 12 g. 3
b- , 14 d. 8.5 f. 15 h. 5.5
3. a. « ll0 b. » 220 c. -x- 44o d. =* 880

e. S3 1650
4. a. 6 mi. b. 3 mi. c. 60 mi. d. 300 mi.

e. 600 mi.
5. Approximately 8839 meters
6. Approximately 155,000,000 km.
7. 21.59 cm. by 27.9^ cm.
8. Answer depends on students' height.

A boy 5'2" or 62" = 1574.8 mm.
= 157.48 cm.
■ 1,574,800 microns
20-10. Answers to Chapter Review
1. a . 5 X 102 d. 5.67 X 105
b. 5 X 103 e. 5.67 X 108
c . 5 X 10
4
f. 5.67 X 10ll
2. a. 10,000 d. 930
b. 483 e. 536,000,000
c. 300,000 f . 1,530,000
3. a. 105 d. 10° or 1
b. 6 x 109 e. 10
c. 1017 f . 1010
4. a. 1? d. 10*
b. 102 e. 109
c. 10* f. iS1*
BdSBd S8T-ir8i SÎ '01-03 TI-03
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-
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©outs CT x 9$ < IT x ZM
*i7 ir-
20- ll, 20-12 lif3 pages 185-186
5. a. "12 e. "16
b. "3.6 f. 3
c. 3
g. "1
d.
F
"5
h. or 24
•| c2
6. a. 9 d. 0
b. ll e. "l4
c .
7
3
f. tt
24
or >2
"11
7. 7 hr. 35 mln.
8. Area - 34 sq. ft.

9. a. 4567.22 sq. ft c. or sq. ft
1^-
^
b. 655.36 sq. cm. d. 1.376 sq. mm.
10. 75 - ird
diameter - 25- *s
TT
24 in.
length of spoke ~ 12 in.
ll. More, since 365 x 10 109

3^-
x
>
20-12. Sample Test Questions

This set of questions is not intended as chapter test.
a
Teachers should construct chapter test carefully by combining

a
selected items from this set of questions and questions of their

own writing. Care should be exercised to avoid making the test
too long.
True-False:
In the is
3
(P) 1. symbol 10 the exponent 10.
(P) 2. 102 X 10 = 102
(T) 3. 105 X 105 m

1
(T) 4. 1,000,000 - 106

144
(T) 5. l|%= 1.5 x 102
(T) 6 JL =
1
10
l
10 10 10 10
1 1 l
io5
(T) 7. 2.76 billion is 2.76 x IO9.
(F) 8. IO3 - 102 + IO5
(F) 9. 93,000,000 =» 9.3 x 10
(F) 10. IO3 x IO3 =» IO9
(T) ll. 10 means 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
(F) 12. ll x 10' is written in scientific notation.

Completion;
1. The closest star to us is 24,500,000,000,000 miles away,

Write this distance using scientific notation.
(2.45 x IO13)
2. Perform the indicated operations and give the answer in
scientific notation.
a. (7 x IO7) x IO17 (7 x IO10)
b. 6 x IO5 x 9 x IO3 (5.fr x IO7)
c. 19.6 x 0.028 (5.488 x IO1)
d. 0.787 x 200,000 (1.57^ x IO5)
3. Fill in the blanks with the correct power of ten.
a. 7.81 - 781 x IO1—

1
("2)
'
b. 61320 = 613.20 x IO1— (2)
c. 1% = 1 x IO1"3 ("2)
d. 7.60 x IO3 = 7.600 x 10a (3)

145
4. Pill in the blank with the correct number:
a. 7 m. m cm. (700)
b . 400 cm . » mm . (4qoq)
c. 100 m. - km. (0.1)

d. 2.54 cm. - mm. (25. 4)
e. 1.5 km. - mm. (1.500.000)
Multiple Choice:
1. Which one of the following represents a number between one
million and one billion?
(b) a. 2(103 + 103)
b. 2 x 10
c. 200,000
d. 2 X 109
e. 2,000,000,000
2. The product of 10^ and 10 is equal to
(e) a. 10x:?
b. 1015
c. 108
d. 102
e. none of these
3. Which is the largest number?
(b) a. 0.01
b. 1.4 x 102
c. 15 x 10
d. 15.5 x 104
e. 0.ll x 102
y *
-jf
1+
146
4. 3.l4 x 10 is how many times larger than 3.l4?

(d) a. one
b. two
d. ten
d. one hundred
e. none of these
4 "4
5. 10 x 10 is the same as
(c) a. 10
8
c 10
o
e. none of these
b. 10l6 d. 10
6. Which number is not in scientific notation?

(d) a. 3.1 x 10° c. 106 e. 3.1 x 10
b. 3 x 105 d. 31 x 102
7. 10 is the same as all of the following except
(b) a. -4 c. 104 x 102 e. 10 ^3 + 3^
b.
10°
10
"4
+10
"2
d.
11
«-±~ x
10" 10
8. 0.427 divided by 0.07 is equal to
(b) a. 6l c. 0.6l e. none of these

b. 6.1 d. 0.610
9. — tt is equal to all of the following except

10^
(e) a. 102 c. ^ e. 100%

b- °.01 d. lO^xlB1
10. 10-5- 102 equals
4 8
(c) a. 10 c. 10 e. none of these
"12 "3
b. 10"^ d. 10J
67 3b A A 30
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Introduction to secondary school mathematics.

School Mathematics Study Group.

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Tl IP llftlli jr-r\sM<vi# ni-

INTRODUCTION TO SECONDARY SCHOOL

Commentary for Teachers

Prepared under the supervision of a Panel consisting of:

V- H- Haag, Franklin and Marshall College

Mildred Keiffer, Cincinnati Board of Education

Oscar Schaaf, South Eugene High School, Eugene, Oregon

M- A- Sobel, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, New Jersey

Marie Wilcox, Thomas Carr Howe High School, Indianapolis, Indiana

A- B- Willcox, Amherst College

National Science Foundation-

Copyright 1961 by Stanford University- ™OToutw>fwnt«» by cush™ - mai^oy- «c-

ever this text is not offered as appropriate content for the

Reading. This text is written with the expectation that it can

Precision of Language. Ideally, pupils snould be encouraged to

Discussion Questions. text provides discussion questions

Discovery Approach. student usually gains a better understanding

Exercises. The text has an ample supply of exercises. They are

Assignments. Assignments for this group should be made quite

Extent of Course. A teacher should not necessarily feel

Content. The title of

This chapter is intended to give the pupil appreciation

frequently to discover the solutions themselves. They should not

1-1. Mathematics as a Method of Reasoning.

1-2. Mathematical Reasoning.

It might provide an additional

♦Inductive reasoning should not be confused with mathematical

A single case that contradicts the conjecture disproves it. The

Answers to questions in 1-2.

Answers to Exercises l-2a

1. e.g., One of the students

2. Illustrate possibilities as in the birthday problem discussion.

Exercises l-2b which follow are usually difficult for the

Answers to Exercises l-2b

times (9 steps) and is at that time 3 spaces ahead. Two

Stand How many steps

2 men 2 bo: -(A) Two boys go over-

1 boy -(B) One boy comes back-

1 man -(E) Steps A-D are

AB DEF — Step 1: Boat C enters bay G.

AB DEF — Step 2: Boats DEF pass G.

AB DEF C — Step 3: Boat C goes on its way.

AB DEF C •Step ^: Boat DEF returns to

A DEF C •Step 5-9: The same operation

4. Two sons cross; one returns. Father crosses; other son

The following problems will be done by the class by trial-and-

6. Yes. This depends on the fact that 8x + 5y = 3 has

gallons left in the 8 gallon jug.

8. Yes. This depends on the fact that 8x + 5y = 1 has solutions

the 5 gallon jug 5 into the 8 gallon jug

Point out that the first solution is best.

1-3. From Arithmetic to Mathematics.

In this series the middle number (*0 is the average of the

individual numbers of the series. The sum is the product of the

Some pupils may prefer to think of the series as

and 5, or 4fr. Then the product (4~) x 8 = 36 is seen to

Answers to Exercises 1-3

That is, the sum is the same as: + + + + = 5x3= 15.

This can be called the "averaging method".

Averaging method: x = 20.