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Mathematics for junior high school.
Prepared under the supervision

of the Panel on 7th and 8th Grades: R.D. Anderson [and others]
School Mathematics Study Group.
[New Haven? 1960-
http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015003898049
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PROPERTY OF
ARTES SCI EN TI A VE RITAS

MATHEMATICS FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Volume II (Part 1 )
(preliminary edition)
Prepared under the supervision of the Panel on 7th and 8th Grades of the
_School Mathematics Study Group:
R. D. Anderson, Louisiana State University
J. A. Brown, University of Delaware
Lenore John, University of Chicago
B. W. Jones, University of Colorado
P. S. Jones, University of Michigan
J. R. Mayor, American Association for the Advancement of Science
P. C. Rosenbloom, University of Minnesota
Veryl Schult, Supervisor of Mathematics, Washington, D.C.
28
Financial support for the School Mathematics Study Group has been provided by the
National Science Foundation.
1960 by Yale University.
Lithoprinted in U.S.A.
EDWARDS BROTHERS, INC.
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Transfer
to UGL
-JUN 2 0 1977
The preliminary edition of this volume was prepared at a writing session held
at the University of Michigan during the summer of 1959, based, in part, on ma
terial prepared at the first SMSG writing session, held at Yale University in the
summer of 1958. This revision was prepared at Stanford University in the summer
of 1960, taking into account the classroom experience with the preliminary edition
during the academic year 1959-60.
The following is a list of all those who have participated in the preparation of
this volume.

B. H. Arnold, Oregon State College
Kenneth E. Brown, U.S. Office of Education
Mildred B. Cole, K. D. Waldo Junior High School, Aurora, Illinois
B. H. Colvin, Boeing Scientific Research Laboratories
J. A. Cooley, University of Tennessee
Richard Dean, California Institute of Technology
H. M. Gehman, University of Buffalo
L. Roland Genise, Brentwood Junior High School, Brentwood, New York
E. Glenadine Gibb, Iowa State Teachers College
Richard Good, University of Maryland
Alice Hach, Racine Public Schools, Racine, Wisconsin
S. B. Jackson, University of Maryland
Lenore John, University High School, University of Chicago
Houston Karnes, Louisiana State University
Mildred Keiffer, Cincinnati Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio
Nick Lovdjieff, Anthony Junior High School, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Sheldon Meyers, Educational Testing Service
Muriel Mills, Hill Junior High School, Denver, Colorado
Elizabeth Roudebush, Seattle Public Schools, Seattle, Washington
Veryl Schult, Washington Public Schools, Washington, D.C.
George Schaefer, Alexis I. DuPont High School, Wilmington, Delaware
Allen Shields, University of Michigan
Rothwell Stephens, Knox College
John Wagner, School Mathematics Study Group, New Haven, Connecticut
Ray Walch, Westport Public Schools, Westport, Connecticut
G. C. Webber, University of Delaware
A. B. Willcox, Amherst College
FOREWORD
The increasing contribution of mathematics to the culture of

the modern world, as well as its importance as a vital part of
scientific and humanistic education, has made it essential that the
mathematics in our schools be both well selected and well taught.
With this in mind, the various mathematical organizations in
the United States cooperated in the formation of the School
Mathematics Study Group (SMSG). SMSG includes college and univer
sity mathematicians, teachers of mathematics at all levels, experts
in education, and representatives of science and technology. The
general objective of SMSG is the improvement of the teaching of
mathematics in the schools of this country. The National Science
Foundation has provided substantial funds for the support of this
endeavor.
One of the prerequisites for the improvement of the teaching
of mathematics in our schools is an Improved curriculum- -one which
takes account of the increasing use of mathematics in science and
technology and in other areas of knowledge and at the same time
one which reflects recent advances in mathematics itself. One of
the first projects undertaken by SMSG was to enlist a group of
outstanding mathematicians and mathematics teachers to prepare a
series of textbooks which would illustrate such an improved
curriculum.
The professional mathematicians in SMSG believe that the
mathematics presented in this text is valuable for all well-educated
citizens in our society to know and that it
is important for the
precollege student to learn in preparation for advanced work in the
field. At the same time, teachers in SMSG believe that is it
presented in such a form that it
can be readily grasped by students.
In most instances the material will have a familiar note, but

the presentation and the point of view will be different. Some
material will be entirely new to the traditional curriculum. This
is as it should be, for mathematics is a living and an ever-growing
subject, and not a dead and frozen product of antiquity. This
healthy fusion of the old and the new should lead students to a
better understanding of the basic concepts and structure of
mathematics and provide a firmer foundation for understanding and
use of mathematics in a scientific society.
It is not intended that this book be regarded as the only
definitive of presenting good mathematics to students at this
way
level. Instead, It should be thought of as a sample of the kind of
improved curriculum that we need and as a source of suggestions for
the authors of commercial textbooks. It is sincerely hoped that
these texts will lead the way toward inspiring a more meaningful
teaching of Mathematics, the Queen and Servant of the Sciences.
CONTENTS
FOREWORD v
PREFACE lx
Chapter
1. RATIONAL NUMBERS AND COORDINATES 1

1-1. The Number Line 1
1-2. Negative Rational Numbers 7
1-3. Addition of Rational Numbers 12
1-4. Coordinates 21
1-5. Graphs 30
1-6. Multiplication of Rational Numbers 35
1-7. Division of Rational Numbers 42
1-8. Subtraction of Rational Numbers 46
1-9. Graphs of Other Relations 51
2. EQUATIONS 59
2-1. Finding the Unknown 59
2-2. Number Phrases 65
2-3. Number Sentences 69
2-4. Finding Solution Sets 84
2-5. Number Sentences with Two Unknowns 94
3. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION, DECIMALS, AND THE METRIC SYSTEM . 107

3-1. Large Numbers 107
3-2. Calculating with Large Numbers ll2
3-3. Small Numbers 115
3-4. Multiplication: Large and Small Numbers . . . ll9
3-5. Division: Large and Small Numbers 122
3-6. Use of Exponents in Multiplying and
Dividing Decimals 125
3-7. The Metric System 129
4. DRAWINGS AND CONSTRUCTIONS 143

4-1. Introduction to Mathematical Drawings
and Constructions 143
4-2. Protractor and Ruler Drawings 146
4-3. Basic Constructions 151
4-4. Construction Problems 160
4-5. Inscribed Figures 163
4-6. Scale Drawings 166
......................
4-7. Solids 169
INDEX following 177
vii
PREFACE
Key ideas of junior high school mathematics emphasized in

this text are: structure of arithmetic from an algebraic view
point; the real number system as a progressing development;
metric and non-metric relations in geometry. Throughout the
materials these ideas are associated with their applications.
Important at this level are experience with and appreciation of
abstract concepts, the role of definition, development of
precise vocabulary and thought, experimentation, and proof.
Substantial progress can be made on these concepts in the junior
high school.
Fourteen experimental units for use in the seventh and
eighth grades were written in the summer of 1958 and tried out
by approximately 100 teachers in 12 centers in various parts
of the country in the school year 1958-59. On the basis of
teacher evaluations these units were revised during the summer
of 1959 and, with a number of new units, were made a part of
sample textbooks for grade 7 and a book of experimental units
for grade 8. In the school year 1959-60, these seventh and
eighth grade books were used by about 175 teachers in many
parts of the country, and then further revised in the summer of
1960.
Mathematics is fascinating to many persons because of its

opportunities for creation and discovery as well as for its
utility. It is continuously and rapidly growing under the
prodding of both intellectual curiosity and practical applica
tions. Even junior high school students may formulate
mathematical questions and conjectures which they can test and
perhaps settle; they can develop systematic attacks on
mathematical problems whether or not the problems have routine
or immediately determinable solutions. Recognition- of these
important factors has played a considerable part in selection
of content and method in this text.
We firmly believe
mathematics can and should be studied
with success and enjoyment. It is our hope that this text may
greatly assist all teachers who use it to achieve this highly
desirable goal.
ix
Chapter 1
RATIONAL NUMBERS AND COORDINATES
1-1 The Number Line

The idea of number is
abstract one. The development of a
an
good number system required centuries in the civilization of man.
To help understand numbers and their uses, many schemes have been
used. One of the most successful of these ways to picture numbers
is the use of the number line. Suppose we recall the construction
of a number line as a starting point for further discussion of
numbers .
We think of the line in the drawing below
as extending indefinitely in each direction. We choose any point

of the line and label it
Next, choose another point to the
0.
right of 0 and 1. label it
This really determines a unit of
length from 0 to 1. Starting at 0, we lay off this unit length
repeatedly toward the right on the number line. This determines
the location of the points corresponding to the counting numbers
2, 3, 4, 5, •••.
The number -^
we associate with the point midway between
0 and 1. By laying off this segment of length one-half unit over
and over again, we determine the additional points corresponding to
Oc
2, -o, ^, • • • . Next, by using a length which is one-third of the
]_
unit segment and measuring this length successively to the right of

i p 4
zero, we locate the points 3' 7, 3, 7» *"•
"S
Similarly, we locate
the points to the right of 0 on the number line corresponding to
fractions having denominators 4, 5, 6, 7, Some of these are
* " *
.
shown in the following figure.

1-1
1 3 5 7 9
4 4 4 7 7
o 3
1 1
2
1
3
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
this natural process we associate with each rational num

By
ber a point on the line. Just one point of the line is associated
with each rational number. We thus have a one-to-one correspond
ence between these rational numbers and some of the points of the
line. We speak of the point on the number line corresponding to
the number 2 as the point 2. Because of this one-to-one corre
spondence between number and point, we can name each point by the
number which labels it.
This is one of the great advantages of
the number line. It allows us to identify points and numbers and
helps us use geometric points to picture relations among numbers.
We shall illustrate some of these uses in the next few paragraphs.
Remark ; You might think that this one-to-one correspondence

assigns a number to every point on the line, to the right of 0.
This is far from true. In fact, there are many, many more points
unlabeled than labeled by this process. These unlabeled points
correspond to numbers like TT, ,/2~, -J^>, «/5, which are not rational
numbers. In Chapter 6, we shall study more about such numbers.
Properties of the Number Line

The number line locates numbers by means of points in a very
natural way. The construction of the number line locates the
rational numbers in order of increasing size. Hence we can always
tell where a number belongs on the line. The larger of two num
bers always lies to the right. Thus: 5 > 3 (5 is greater than
3), and on the number line 5 lies to the right of 3. A number
greater than 3 corresponds to a point located to the right of 3.
Since 2 < 4, 2 lies to the left of 4. We can easily check the
3 1-1
relative positions of numbers such as 3, 0,

c
-fr, 1, -*,43 •*. Once we
have located the corresponding points on the line it is easy to

tell at a glance whether one number is greater than another or
less than another.
The point corresponding to 0 is chosen as a point of refer
ence and called the origin. (Some people call it the fiducial
point, and you may call it this to impress your friends, you if
wish!) The half -line extending to the right from the origin along
the number line is called the positive half-line. Any number which
is greater than zero lies on this positive half-line and is called
a positive
number. In particular, we speak of the counting num
bers 1, 2, 3, 4 ... as the positive integers. Note that to say a
number is positive simply means that it lies to the right of zero
on the number line.
Addition oti the Number Line
Addition of two numbers can easily be pictured on the number
line. To add 2 to 3, we start at 3 and move 2 units to the
right. In this way the operation 3+2=5 is represented by a
motion along the number line. The motion ends at the point corre
sponding to the sum.
We also think of the number 3

may determining an arrow (or
as
directed line segment) starting at 0 and ending at 3. To
represent the addition of 2 to 3, we simply draw an arrow of
length 2 to begin at 3 instead of at 0. The arrow (directed

line segment) representing 3+2 thus begins at 0 and ends at
5. To avoid confusion, we frequently indicate these arrows
slightly above the number line, as in the figure below for the
sum 4+2.
1-1
4 2
The arrows suggest a move of

units followed by a move of 2
4
units in reaching the point (4 + 2). We also interpret the pic

ture as suggesting the addition of two directed line segments of
lengths 4 and 2 to form the sum segment of length 6.
Applications of the Number Line

The number line is used in
many forms in our everyday life. T 130
A ruler is a fine ofexample, 120
course. The house numbers along - 110
some city streets define a rough • 100
Degrees
Above
form of number line. (If you live 90 Zero
on a curved street, you will have 80
to take more mathematics before 70
you study distance and numbering 60
along a curve.1) 50
One of the most common applica 40
tions of the number line appears 30
in a thermometer. Here we use two 20
number scales, one in each direction 10
along the line. Temperatures 0
above zero appear above zero on the 10 Degrees
line; temperatures below zero are 20
Below
Zero
measured below zero on the line. 30
40
Temperature
1-1
To compareprofits and losses B «>

5000
of various divisions of a large
company for a given month, we
Profits
4000 in
might use a scale as shown at the Dollars
right. Division A, which lost -
3000
4000 dollars would appear at the
point labeled A. Division B, - 2000
which showed a profit of 5000
dollars, appears at B. - 1000
•
0
1000
Losses
•
2000 in
Dollars
•
3000
A > 4000
-
5000
What other examples of the use of number line can you think of?
Exercises 1-1
1. For each of the following numbers draw a number line. Use one
inch as the unit of length. Locate a point of origin on the
line, and then locate the point corresponding to the number.
Just above the number line, draw the corresponding arrow.
1
(a) (b)
(a)
1-1 6
(e) 3.75 (f) 1.125
2. Represent each of the following sums by means of three arrows

on a number line.
3 9
(a) 2 + 3 (d) +
(b) 1+6 (e) | + 1.25
(c) + (f) 4 +
3. Locate the following numbers on a number line and determine

which is the largest in each set.
3
(a) 1, 9}
IS
8
(b) 3^ 0.875
(c) ^, 3,
I .
4. On some recent automobiles, speedometers use a form of the

number line to indicate speed in miles per hour. On these
speedometers, a line, similar to an arrow, is used to indicate
the speed. Choose a convenient unit of length and construct
such a number line showing speeds up to 70 m.p.h. Label on it
the points corresponding to the following points. Draw a
corresponding arrow for each number just above the number line
(a) 10 m.p.h. (c) 35 m.p.h.

(b) 15 m.p.h. (d) 60 m.p.h.
5. Locate on a number line the midpoints of the following

segments.
(a) From 0 to 2. (c) From i to -4 .
(b) From jj to ^. (d) From 2 to 6.5.
6. Use a diagram representing addition by means of arrows on the

7 1-1
number to show that 2+3=3+2.

line What property of
addition does this illustrate?
7. Using arrows to represent addition on the number line, show
that
(2 + 3) + 1 = 2 + (3 + 1).
What property of addition does this illustrate?

8. Think of a way to represent the product 3-2 by means of
arrows on the number line. Try it also for 5 »2 and 6 ••*• .
9. How would you show that 2 •

3 of arrows
= 3 • 2 by means on the
number line? What property of multiplication does this
illustrate?
1-2 Negative Rational Numbers
In the preceding discussion of number line there is a very

serious gap. We did not label the points to the left of zero.
We used only the half-line from the origin in the positive direc
tion. To suggest how to label these points (and why we want to!),
let us look at the familiar example of temperature.
A number line representing temperature, such as we find on a
thermometer, often looks like this.
~50 "40 ~30 -20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 +60 +70
Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit
Here temperatures less than zero are represented by numbers to the

left of the origin and designated by the symbol " "
. Tempera
tures greater than zero are identified with the sign " "!l
". Thus,
"10 refers to a temperature of 10 degrees below zero (to the left
of zero), and 10 refers to a temperature of 10 degrees above
1-2 8
zero (to the right of zero). Actually, above zero and below zero
seem more natural terms to use when the scale is vertical.
This idea of distance (or of points) along a line on opposite
sides of fixed point occurs frequently in our ordinary tasks.
a
Think how often we speak of distances to the left or to the right,
locations north or south of a given point, altitudes above or
below sea level, longitudes east or west, or the time before or
after a certain event. In each of these situations, there is a
suggestion of points located on opposite sides of a given point
(or number), or distances measured in opposite directions from a
given point (or number) . All of them suggest the need for a num
ber line which uses points to the left of the origin as well as
points to the right of the origin.
The natural way to describe such a number line is easy to see,
We start with the number line for positive rationals which we have
already used. Using the same unit lengths, we measure off dis
tances to the left of zero as shown below:
We locate ~1 as opposite to
in the sense 1 that it is 1 unit to
the left of zero. Similarly ~2 is opposite to +2, "(i) is
located opposite to , "(•) is opposite to , etc. These
"opposite" numbers, corresponding to points to the left of zero,
we call negative numbers . Each negative number lies to the left
of zero and corresponds to the opposite positive number. This
direction "to the left" is called the negative direction.
"l,
•I O
We denote negative numbers as ~2, ~(-^), "(75), ~(g)
Q
etc.,
by use of the raised hyphen. We read (~2) as "negative two."
tells
~
This negative symbol " "
us that the number is less than
zero (lies to the left of zero) . We sometimes emphasize that a
number is positive (greater than zero) by writing the symbol
" "! "
in a raised position as in +2, +%

, etc. Usually we do not do
9 1-2
this unless we want to emphasize the positive character of a num
ber.
The new numbers we have introduced by this process are the
negative rational numbers. The set consisting of positive
rational numbers, negative rational numbers, and zero, we call the
rational numbers .
The special set of rational numbers which consists of the
positive integers, the negative integers and zero is called the
set of integers. We frequently denote this set as:
I = {..., -4, -3, -2, -i, o, 1, 2, 3, 4,---).

Note that the set of integers consists of only the counting num
bers and their opposites together with zero.
Examples of the Use of Negative Numbers
The negative numbers are as real and as useful as the posi

tive numbers we have used before. In fact we have used them many
times without calling them negative numbers. Their special use
fulness is in denoting the idea of "opposite" or "oppositely
directed" which we mentioned. „
Let us use positive numbers to denote distance east of

Chicago. The negative numbers will denote distances west of
Chicago. A number line like the one below
'300 -200 'IOC 0 +I00 +200 +300 +400
Distance from Chicago in miles
can therefore be used to plot the position of an airliner flying

an East-West course passing over Chicago. For an airliner flying
a North-South course over Chicago, how could you interpret this
number line?
The time before and after the launching of a satellite can be
1-2 10
indicated on a number line like the following:
0 +6
(Seconds before launching) (Seconds after launching)
Note that the number line we
use need not be placed horizon

tally. If we speak of altitude
above sea level as positive and
altitude below sea level as
negative, it may seem more natu
ral to use a number line in the
vertical position.
5000 For distances ^500

north or south
4000 +400
from Kansas City
- 3000 you may wish to +300
-
use a vertical +200
2000
line also.
1000 +100
0 Altitude 0 Distance
in feet in
"1000 "100
with miles
"2000 reference "200 from
to Kansas
"3000 , , 300
sea level City
"4000 - "400
-"5000 -
"500
11 1-2
To represent business profits and losses, a vertical line

is more convenient. A higher position in the line seems naturally
to correspond to greater profit. Of course, in other instances
some other orientation (not necessarily horizontal or vertical)
may seem natural for the number line.
Exercises 1-2
1. Locate on the number line points corresponding to the follow

ing numbers.
(a) -8 (d)
"(J) (e) 1.5
(c) if (f)
Are there any pairs of 'bpposites" on this list?
2. Sketch the arrows determined by the following rational numbers.
(a) 6 (d)
'* (e)
(c) -5.5 (f) |

Arrange the following numbers in the order in which they
3.
appear on the number line:
— T—
4, ^, ~(-^), g, ~6, ~(TT), ^»
TR——^^
Which is the largest? Which is the smallest?
How could you represent the following quantities by means of

positive and negative numbers?
(a) A profit of $2000; a loss of

$6000.
(b) An altitude of 100 ft. above sea level; an altitude of
50 ft.
below sea level.
(c) A loss of 15 yards, a gain of 10 yards.
1-2 12
(d) A distance of 2 miles East, a distance of 4 miles West.
5. The elevator control board of a department store lists the

floors as B 2, B 1, G, 1, 2, 3. Here G refers to ground
level and B 1, B 2 denote basement levels. How could you
use positive and negative numbers to label these floors?
6. Draw a number line indicating altitudes from "1,000 ft. to

+10,000 ft. Use intervals of 1,000 ft. Locate altitudes of
"800 ft., +100 ft., +2500 ft., "500 ft.
1-3 Addition of Rational Numbers
We saw that the addition of two positive numbers is easily

represented on the number line. To refresh your memory, try find
ing the sums 2+4, 3+2, 1+7 on the number line. On the
number line, the sum 4+2 is represented by the point 2 units
beyond 4 (or 4 units beyond 2 since it makes no difference
which number is chosen first) . Note that in adding a positive
number to another positive number, we always move to the right
(in the positive direction) along the number line. So we describe
this process of addition by saying that in adding 2 to 4, we
start at 4 and move 2 units to the right, or 2 units in the
positive direction. We saw that a convenient way to represent
this process is by means of arrows (directed line of
segments)
appropriate length. Thus, the sum 4+2 corresponds to this
picture.
4 + 2
4 p
01234567
t i t 1 ii i
89 10
13 1-3
To think of moving from 0 to 4, we draw the directed line

segment corresponding to 4. Then beginning at 4, we draw the
directed line segment of length 2 to 2. which corresponds
In
this way we find the arrow of length 6 corresponding to (4 + 2).
Think now of our construction for the negative numbers in the
number line. Remember that "2 is the opposite of 2. To say
that ~2 is the opposite of 2 means that ~2 is the same dis
tance from 0 as 2 but in the negative direction as shown here:
The arrow associated with "2 is 2 units in length and specifies

the negative direction as indicated in the sketch. How would you
sketch '4; "(); '3;
Remark . Many times it is
valuable to indicate the approximate
position of numbers on the number line in order to compare
their locations relative to one another. In such cases
only a rough picture is necessary, and careful measure
ments of length are not justified. We refer to such a
rough picture as a sketch.
What would we mean by the sum 5 + (~3)? Using directed

arrows, we can find the point corresponding to 5 + (~3) by start
ing at 0, moving 5 units in the positive direction and then 3
units in the negative (opposite) direction. Thus, 5 + (~3) = 2,
as shown in the following sketch:
-3
5
1 1
I I I
D 1 2 3 4 5
1-3
Here, is associated with an arrow of length 3 units directed

"3
in the negative direction. In adding ("3) to 5, we simply draw
the arrow for "3 as originating at 5 (that is, beginning at the
end of the arrow corresponding to 5) .
To add 3 and "4, draw a sketch like the following:
01234
>
1 1 i i
1
i
1 T '"
i i
1
—I
~4 "3 ~2 5 6
Thus, ("4) = ~1. Find the sum 2 + ("5)

3 + in the same way.
Consider the sum ("2) + ("4). Here the arrows are both in
negative direction. We see from a sketch that ("2) + ("4) = (~6)
In the same way, find the sums: ("3) + ("2); (~l) + (~6);
("6)
One property of special interest is illustrated by the sum
C2)
15 1-3
Here "2 corresponds to an arrow of length 2 units in the nega

tive direction. Adding ("2) and ( 2) corresponds to moving
2 units to the left from 0 and then 2 units back to 0. Thus
("2) + (2) = 0. Check that (~l) +1=0, 3 + ("3) = 0,
("8) +8=0.
We see by the use line that the addition of
of the number
numbers, whether positive or negative, is really very simple. We
need only keep in mind the location of the numbers on the number
line to carry out the operation. We see that:
When both numbers are positive the sum is positive,

as in 4+2=6;
and, when both numbers are negative the sum is negative,

as in (~4) + ("2) = "6.
When one number is positive and one number is negative,

it is the number farther from the origin which deter
mines whether the sum is positive or negative.
For example:
In ("4) + 2 = "2,
the sum is negative because the ~4, which is

farther from zero than 2, is negative.
In 4 + ("2) = 2,
the sum is positive, because the 4, which is

farther from zero than 2, is positive.
Another of saying this is, the arrow of greater length

way
determines whether the sum is positive or negative. In fact, this
one rule also works in the case when both numbers are positive or
1-3 16
when both numbers are negative. Notice that in cases like

("2) + 2 and 3 + ("3), the arrows are of equal lengths but
opposite in direction. In these cases the sum will be zero.
Exercises 1-3
1. Find the following sums and sketch, using arrows on the number
line.
(a) 9 + ("5) (d) 5 + ("10)
(b) 10 + C7) (e) O-2) + 7
(c) (-8) + 11 (f) 3 + (-11)
2. Supply the missing numbers in each of the following statements

so that each statement will be true.
(a) 3 + ("3) - -
(e) -(|) + ( ) 0
(b) ( ) + ("4) =0 (f)

1
+ ( ) = i
(c) (+6) + ( ) = 0 (g) 14 + (-2) =
(d) (-75) + 74 =
(h) ("0.45) + 0.45 =
3. Obtain the sum in each of the following problems. Sketch the

addition by means of arrows on the number line.
(a) 25 + C6) (d) (-20) + ('10)
(b) ("5) + (-7) (e) 17 + C23)
(c) ("8) + 3 (f) C6) + 9

17 1-3
4. Supply a negative number in each blank space so that each sum
will be correct.
(a) 7 + ( ) = 2 (d) 4 + ( ) = C2)
(b) 9 + ( ) = 0 (e) ("8) + ( ) =

(-16)
(c) 10 + ( ) - "1 (f) O) + ( ) = (-10)
5. A company reports income for the first six months of a year

as follows :
January 45°00 profit April $1000 profit

February $2000 profit May $4000 l°ss
March $6000 loss June $3000 loss
•
(a) How could you represent these income figures in terms of

positive and negative numbers?
(b) What is the total income for the six-month period?
(c) What is the total income for the first three months of the
year?
(d) What is the total income for the four-month period,
March, April, May and June?
6. A boy rows upstream at a speed of 4 miles per hour against a

current of 2 miles per hour.
(a) How could you use positive and negative numbers in repre
senting these speeds?
(b) What would represent his actual speed upstream?
7. In four successive plays from scrimmage, starting at its own

20 yard line, Franklin High makes
a gain of 17 yards, then

a loss of 6 yards, next
a gain of 11 yards, and finally
a loss of 3 yards.
1-3 18
(a) Represent the gains and losses in terms of positive and

negative numbers.
(b) Where is the ball after the fourth play?
(c) What is the net gain after the four plays?
8. An airplane traveling at 13,000 ft. makes a climb of 5000 ft.

followed by a descent of 3000 ft.
(a) Represent the plane1 s final altitude as a sum of positive
and negative numbers.
(b) What is the plane's altitude after the descent?
9. (a) Think of a way to represent the product 3("2) by means

of arrows on the number line. Try it also for:
5Cl).
(c)
Inverse Elements under Addition

Recall that +2 + This sentence says that ("2) is
("2) = 0.
the number which when added to 2 yields 0. We saw in Volume I
that 0 is the identity element under the operation of addition.
Any two numbers with sum 0 are said to be inverse elements under
addition. Hence ("2) is the inverse element corresponding to +2
under the operation of addition. We call ("2) the additive
inverse of +2. Likewise +2 is the additive inverse of ("2).
Taken together, the elements +2 and ("2) are called additive
inverses.
Class Exercises l-3a
1. Find the additive inverse of each of the following numbers

7, ("9), 11, ("12), ("6), 15, ("20), 0, ("§),
"(T\ '
30 .
31
19 1-3
2. Which of the following pairs are additive inverses?

"
(a) +20, +20 (c) .5,
(b) C5), C5) (d)
On the number line we see that any number and its additive
inverse will be represented by arrows of the same length and
opposite direction, as indicated by the sketch of 2 and "2.
When added, these "opposite" arrows of equal length always give 0.

To add +2 and "2, we think of moving 2 units in the nega
tive direction from 0 and then 2 units back in the positive
direction. (See drawing at bottom of Page 14.) The two movements
are precisely the opposite of each other and bring us back to the
starting point at 0. The motions described are true "inverses" of
each other, for when one is added to the other, the final result is
0. The number line thus provides a geometric picture for the mean
ing of additive inverses; the sum of two oppositely directed arrows
(motions) of equal length is zero.
In the addition of a positive and a negative number, we noted
that the larger arrow determines whether the sum is positive or
negative. The length of the arrow for the sum can be obtained by
the picture of additive inverses. For example, in the sum
5 + ("2) = 3 we may write
5 + ("2) = 3 + 2 + ("2)
by introducing the additive inverse of the smaller arrow. Then,

1-3 20
since 2 + ("2) = 0 we have
5 + ("2) « 3 + 2 + ("2) =3+0=3.
Note that the other arrow of the two into which 5 is separated
represents the sura. 3.
-3 "2
r
~ — f
.5 ,
^
"4
This procedure is a general one, as the following examples

illustrate.
8 + ("7) = 1 + 7 + ("7) =1+0=1

(-8) + 7 = ("1) + ("7) + 7 = "1 + 0 = "1
19 + ("26) = 19 + ("19) + ("7) = 0 + ("7) = "7
In each case, the additive inverses add up to zero, and the remain
ing number is the sum.
Class Exercises l-3b
1. Sketch the arrows corresponding to the numbers in the above

three examples. In each case, determine the arrow correspond
ing to the sum.
2. Perform the following additions by introducing the additive

inverse for the smaller arrow, and sketch the operation on the
number line.
21 1-3
(a) +10 + (-5) (c) O) + 3
(b) 8 + C6) (d) ("1S) + 9
1-4 Coordinates
Coordinates on a Line
Let us consider the number line from a different point of view.

As we have seen, a rational number with a
can always be associated
point on the number line. The number associated in this way with a
point of the line is called a coordinate of the point. In the draw
ing below, the number zero is associated with the reference point
called the origin.
B
-H 1 1 1 >—
0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
Point A is denoted by the number ( Point B is denoted by ("2).

3).
We write A(+3) to mean that A is the point with coordinate +3.
Likewise B("~2) means that B is the point with coordinate ("2) on
the line.
Recall that every positive rational number is associated with
a point on the positive half-line. Every negative rational number
corresponds to a point on the negative half-line. The coordinate
we have assigned to a point in this way tells us two things. It
tells us the distance from the origin to the point. It also tells
us the direction from the origin to the point.
1-4 22
Exercises l-4a
1. Draw a segment of a number line

inches in length. 6 Mark off
segments of length one inch and place the origin at its mid
point. On the line locate the following points:
T(0), L(~
2. (a) In Problem 1, howfer is it in inches between the point

labeled T and the point labeled L?
(b) between P and B?
(c) between L and B?
(d) from the origin to A?
3. Using a number line with 1 inch as the unit of length, mark

the following points:
D(~f), F(0), E(+|).
4. If the line segment in Problem 3 were a highway and it was

drawn to a scale where 1 inch represents 1 mile, how far in
miles is it between these points on the highway:
(a) F and R?
(b) D and E?
5. Draw a number line in vertical instead of horizontal position.

a
Mark your number scale with positive numbers above the origin
and negative numbers below the origin. Label points to corre
spond with the rational numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, ~1, "2, ~3, ~4.
Coordinates in the Plane

Recall from your previous work in this chapter that number
lines can be drawn vertically as well as horizontally.
You have learned that a single coordinate locates a point on
the number line. A point like S below is not on the number line
and cannot be located by a single coordinate. However, we see that
23 1-4
+4 +5 +6
S is directly above the point A(+3). To locate point S, draw

a vertical number line perpendicular to the horizontal number line
and intersecting it at the origin. Your drawing should look like
this:
JL
o.
c, '
1
L
1-
12345IT'
1
1
t
°
1 .
"5 "4 "3 "2 "1
"2-
"3-
The horizontal number line is called the X-axis and the vertical
number line is called the Y-axis. When we refer to both number
lines we call them the axes.
1-4 24
To determine the coordinates of point S look at the diagram

above. Draw a line segment from point S perpendicular to the
X-axis. It
intersects the X-axis at (+3) . Now draw a perpendicu
lar from point S to the Y-axis at (+2) . Point S has an x-coor-
dinate of (+3) and a y-coordinate of (+2) , which we write as
(+3, +2) . We use parentheses and always write the x-coordinate
before the y-coordinate.
In the diagram below, observe how the coordinates of points
A, B, C, and D were located.
+3 « ,A(4,3)
1
i
80,2), -£ 2 |
+1 1
T1i i rli Y1 i1
15 "4 "3 "2 ° ~*
jB +l +^ +3 +4 +5 +
6
i
I 1
,3
CCS'I) 1
i
+
-2
"3
"4-
ThusP(x, y) represents the point P in terms of its

coordinates. This may be done for any point (p) in the coordi
nate plane. This system of coordinates is called a rectangular
system because the axes are at right angles to each other and
distances of points from the axes are measured along perpendiculars
25 1-4
from the points to the axes. Each ordered pair of rational numbers
is assigned to a point in the coordinate plane. Locating and mark
ing the point with respect to the X-axis and the Y-axis is called
plotting the point.
The idea coordinate system is not new to you. When you
of a
locate a point on the earth's surface, you do so by Identifying the
longitude and latitude of the point. Note that the order in which
you write these numbers is important. For example, suppose you
looked up the longitude and latitude of your home town and acciden
tally switched the numbers around. It is possible that your des
cription places the location of your home town in the middle of the
ocean.
directions to help a friend locate a
Suppose you were giving
certain place in a city laid out in rectangular blocks (streets at
right angles to each other) . You tell him to start at the center
of the city, go 3 blocks east and blocks north (see diagram
two
below) . Would this be the same as telling him to go 2 blocks east

and 3 blocks north? Of course not! Do you see why it is Important
to be careful with the order when writing a pair of coordinates?
(E2.N3)
(E3, N2)
W
1-4 26
Exercises l-4b
1. Given the following set of ordered pairs of rational numbers,

locate the points in the plane associated with these pairs.
{(4,1), (1,0), (0,1), (2,4), (4,4),
("1,~1), ("3,3), (4, ~3), ("5,3), (0, "5), ("6,0)J.
2. On squared paper draw a pair of axes and label them. Plot the
points in the following sets. Label each point with its coordi
nates. Use a different pair of axes for each set.
Set A = ((6,"3), ("7,"!), ("9, ~7), (5,"l), ("8,10),

(0,0), ("!,"!), (4,3)}
Set B = ((1,1), (6, -5), ("3, "3), (4, "10), ("9, "6),
("8,0), (0,"5), ("2,"5)}
3. (a) Plot the coordinate pairs in the following set:

C= ((0,0), ("1,0), (+1,0), ("2,0), (+2,0), ("3,0),(+3,0)
(b) Do all of the points named by Set C seem to lie on the

same line?
(c) Does the condition y = 0 describe the line containing
the points of Set C?
4. (a) Plot the coordinate pairs in the following set:

D= ((0,0), (0,"1), (0,+1), (0,"2), (0,+2), (0,"3), (0,+3)
(b) Do all of the points named by Set D seem to lie on the
same line?
(c) Does the condition x = 0 describe the line containing
the points of Set D?
Did you notice that the half planes above and below the X-axis
intersect the half planes to the right and to the left of the
27 1-4
Y-axis? These intersections are called quadrants and are numbered

in a counter-clockwise direction with Quadrant I being the inter
section of the half plane above the X-axis and the half plane to
the right of the Y-axis. This quadrant does not include the points
on the positive X-axis or positive Y-axis, nor does it include the
origin.
no, 10) , 10)
Points in the intersection set of these two half planes are

in the first quadrant or Quadrant I. The intersection of the half
plane above the X-axis and half plane to the left of the Y-axis is
Quadrant II. Quadrant III is the intersection of the half plane
below the X-axis and the half plane to the left of the Y-axis.
Quadrant IV is the intersection of the half plane to the right of
the Y-axis and the half plane below the X-axis. Note that the
1-4 28
coordinate axes are not a part of any quadrant.

The numbers in ordered pairs positive, negative, or
may be
zero, as you have noticed in the exercises. Both numbers of the
pair may be positive. Both numbers may be negative. One may be
positive and the other negative. One may be zero, or both may be
zero.
Where are all
the points for which both numbers in the ordered
pair are positive? Will they all be in the same quadrant? How can
you tell?
are all the points for which both numbers of the ordered
Where
pair are negative? Show this by plotting some points. Learn to
predict with one hundred per cent accuracy in which quadrant the
point lies if you know its coordinates.
In which quadrant does the point (~4,3) lie? Is (3,""4) in the
same quadrant? Why?
Class Exercises 1-4
1. Given the following ordered pairs of numbers, write the number

of the quadrant in which you find the point represented by each
of these ordered pairs.
Ordered Pair Quadrant
(a) (3, 5)
(b) (!,"*)
(c) C4,4)
(e) (8, 6)
U) (7, 'I)
(g) C3,'5)
2. (a) Both numbers of the ordered pair of coordinates are

positive. The point is in Quadrant .
(b) Both numbers of the ordered pair of coordinates are

29
negative. point is in Quadrant

The
(c) The x-coordinate of an ordered pair is negative and the

y-coordinate is positive. The point is in Quadrant
(d) The x-coordinate of an ordered pair is positive and the
y-coordinate is negative. The point is in Quadrant
(a) The x-coordinate of an ordered pair i£ zero and the
y-coordinate i.s_ not zero. The point lies on which axis?
(b) The x-coordinate of an ordered pair is not zero and the
y-coordinate -js zero. The point lies on which axis?
(c) Both coordinates of an ordered pair are zero. The point
is located where?
Points on either the X-axis or the Y-axis do not lie in any of
the four quadrants. Why not?
Exercises l-4c
(a) Plot the points of set L = U(+2, +l), B(+2, +3)).
(b) Use a straight edge to Join A to B. Extend line segment
AB.
(c) Line AB seems to be parallel to which axis?
(a) Plot the points of set M = (A(+2, +3), B(+5, +3)}.

(b) Use a straight edge to join A to B. Extend line segment
AB.
(c) Line AB seems to be parallel to which axis?
(a) Plot the points of set N = U(0,0), B(+2, +3) }
(b) Join A to B. line segment AB.

Extend
(c) Is line AB parallel to either axis?
(a) Plot the points of set P = U(+4, +4), B(+2, 0)}
(b) Join A to B. Extend line segment AB.
(c) Plot the points of set Q = {C(+6,+3), D(0, +l) }
(d) Join C to D.Extend line segment CD.

(e) What is the intersection set?
(a) Plot the points of set R = U(0,0), 8(^6,0), C(+3,+4)}

on the coordinate plane.
1-4 30
(b) Use a straight edge to join A to B, B to C, C to A.

(c) Is the triangle (l) scalene, (2) isosceles or
(3) equilateral?
6. (a) Plot the points of set S U(+2, +2)), B("2, +2) ,
C("2, "3), D(+2, "3)}.
(b) Use a straight edge to join A to B, B to C, C to D
and D to A.
(c) Is the figure a square?
(d) Draw the diagonals of the figure.
(e) The coordinates of the point of intersection of the

diagonals seem to be ?
7. (a) Plot the points of set T = U(+2, +l), B(+3, +3),
C("2, +3), D("3, +1)}.
(b) Use a straight edge to Join A to B, B to C, C to D
and to A.
D
(c) What is the name of the quadrilateral formed?
(d) Draw the diagonals of quadrilateral ABCD.
(e) The coordinates of the point of intersection of the

diagonals seem to be ?
1-5 Graphs
Consider the following condition:

y = 4
Draw apair of coordinate axes and label them. Locate a point

(0,4) in the plane. Locate five other points: ("4,4), (2,4),
("2,4), (5,4), and (7,4). The condition y = 4 describes these
ordered pairs of numbers since the y-coordinate in each pair is 4.
Are there other points in the plane with a y-coordinate of 4?
Draw a line containing the set of points described by this condi
tion y = 4. Are the x-coordinates of all these points equal?
31 1-5
\ F
/'
7
P
(2 ,4l O
(o,
4) 4)
41
,4) ,4) ,4)
(2
(J
(1
-»
o
c_
«j
y
-. '~f ?~' \~t ~* •
i •
<
>
'
)
/i
i
1
;
)
|
!
-o
~^
O
"Vl
-e
O
"t
O
The graph of the set of points described by the condition

lies on the line units above and parallel to the X-axis
4
4
Class Exercise 1-5

What condition describes the following set of points in the
coordinate plane?
(a) The set of points with y-coordinate 3.
(b) The set of points with y-coordinate "3.
(c) The set of points with y-coordinate "4.
(d) The set of points with y-coordinate
i.
Sketch the graph of the set of points described by each of the

conditions listed above.
1-5 32
2. Sketch the graph of the set of points described by each condi

tion listed:
(a) x = 2 (d)
(b) y = 6 (e)
1
(c) X = x = "3
•2
Now let us consider these conditions:
(a) y > 4 (b) y < 4
In diagram (a) linear , you recall, is the graph of the set of

points described by the condition y = 4. Choose a point (2,6).
Does the condition y = 4 describe this ordered pair? Since the
y-coordinate in this ordered pair is greater than 4, the condition
y > 4 describes it. Are there other points in the plane with
y-coordinates greater than 4? Locate two other points, k and m,
with y-coordinates greater than 4. Are these points above the
line^f? Yes, they are in the shaded region which is one of the
half planes determined by the line y = 4.
33 1-5

y > 4 lies in the half plane above the line 4 units above and
parallel to the X-axis.
In the shaded part of
(b) are located points for
diagram
which the coordinates satisfy the condition y < 4. Locate point
(2,1) in this region. Since the y-coordinate is less than 4, the
condition y < 4 describes it. Locate other points in the plane
with y-coordinates less than 4. Are these points in the half
plane below line-f ? Try other points in the half plane below line
J( to see if
they satisfy the condition y < 4.
y < 4 lies in the half plane below the line 4 units above and
parallel to the X-axis.
Exercises 1-3&
1. Sketch the graph of the set of points selected by each condi
tion below. Use different coordinate axes for each graph.
(a) y = +2 (g) x = -3
(b) y > +2 (h) x > "3
(c) y < +2 (i) x < "3
(d) x = 3 (j) y . '2

(e) x > 3 (k) y > "2
(f) x < 3 (1) y < "2
(m) Compare the graphs obtained in (a), (b), (c).

(n) Compare the graphs obtained in (d), (e), (f).
Let us look at the condition y = x. Using the points named

by the coordinate pairs of set Q, sketch the graph of y = x,
Q= ((0,0), (1,1), ("!,"!), (2,2), C2,"2), (3,3), ("3, '3))
Does it seem to be true for every point on the sketch that the
1-5 34
y-coordinate is equal to the x-coordinate of the same point?
Y =
•7
i ;: 5 '>
V i
How does the graph of y > x differ from the graph of y = x?

Is it
true that the set containing coordinate pairs with the
y-coordinate greater than the corresponding x-coordinate is the set
described by the condition y > x?
Exercise l-5b
Use a different set of coordinate axes for each graph.
1. (a) Find four points different from the points in Q, des

cribed by the condition y = x.
(b) Draw the graph y = x.
2. (a) Sketch the graph y < x.
(b) Construct a set R containing the coordinate pairs of four
35 1-5
points described by the condition y < x.

3. Describe the differences between the graphs of y = x, y > x,
and y < x.
1-6 Multiplication o_f Rational Numbers
In the preceding section we have sketched graphs of a few

simple equations. If
wish to graph an equation like y = "2x,
we
using positive and negative numbers for x, we will need to find

products like ("2) *3 and ("2 • (~4). The work we have already
done in this chapter and in earlier grades has prepared us for
multiplication in which one or more of the factors are negative
numbers. In Exercises 1-3, you used the number line to find pro
ducts involving negative numbers in several cases. In Problem 12
of this section, you will be asked to find products like ("2) • 3
using the number line. First, however, let us consider this ques
tion from another point of view.
In earlier grades you may have considered the set of multiples
of 2. If the elements of this set S are written in order, each
number may be obtained from the one which precedes it by adding 2:
S = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8,.-.}.
Similarly, any number (except the first) in the set of multi
ples of 7, when they are ordered, may be obtained by adding 7 to
the number which precedes it.
T = (0, 7, 14, 21, 28,...}.
For the set T we see that we can also say that each number may be
obtained from the one which follows it by subtracting 7. For
example, 28 follows 21, and 21 = 28 - 7.
Some of you may have made multiplication tables like the
following:
1-6 36
12 16 20
15 20 25
18 24 30
21 28 35
In this table, 30 is the product of 6-5. This multiplication

table suggests a way of thinking about products of two rational
numbers when one or both of the numbers are negative.
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3
2 0 2 4 6
3 0 3 6 9
37 1-6
Some of the cells in the above table have been filled from
our knowledge of arithmetic. Also we have used the property that
the product of a negative number and 0 is 0. Now to complete
the table, let us observe, for example, as we go up in the right-
hand column that each number is 3 less than the number below it.
We shall refer to this column as the "3 column." Thus, the "3
column" would become -6
"3
0
'6-30369
9
Similarly the "3 row" would
.d become
bee ome
Applying this notion to the remainder of the cells, the table

would be completed as shown below.
4 2 0 "2 -4 "6
2 1 0 "1 "2 "3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
"2 "1 0 1 2 3
"4 "2 0 2 4 6
"6 "3 0 3 6 9
1-6 38
In particular, we see that the top row, which is the ""2

row," is completed as shown here:
4 2 0 2 ~4 -6
In other words, if we are to keep the property of multiplication of

counting numbers, which we recalled earlier for multiples of 2 and
7, we must accept the following products:
("2) •
("2) = 4 and ("2) •
3 = "6.
You should notice similar results in other parts of the table. For
each column and each row, the difference between two consecutive
numbers is a fixed amount. this table is concerned, the
As far as
product of two negative numbers is a positive number, and the pro
duct of a negative and a positive number (in either order) is a
negative number. These conclusions are actually correct for all
positive and negative rational numbers. It should be clear, how
ever, that we have not proved this result, nor have we given it as
part of a definition. We have only shown one reason why the con
clusions are plausible.

In the exercises your attention will be called to other ways
which should make our conclusions about products of positive and
negative numbers seem appropriate.
Exercises 1-6
1. Look at the large multiplication table which we completed in

this section. In which rows do the products increase as we
move to the right?

39
1-6
2. Using the same table, in which columns do the products decrease

as we move down?
3. Give, in correct order, the products of 7 and the integers
from ~4 to 6.
4. Give, in correct order, the products of ~4 and the integers
from "5 to 5.
5. Complete the following table. it If helps you see the pattern,
add appropriate columns on the right, or add appropriate rows
at the bottom of the table.
-3
"2
"1
6. Illustrate the commutative property of multiplication for:
(a) "2 and 1 (b) "3 and 0 (c) "4 and 5 (d) 15 and "6.
7. Illustrate the associative property of multiplication for

numbers: "2, "1, and 5.
1-6 40
8. Illustrate property of multiplication over

the distributive
addition for the sets of numbers, using the last two numbers
in each set as a sum.
(a) "4, (3 + 8) (b) "2, ("3+6) (c) '10, ("8 + "l)

9. Find the products:
(a) "4 •
0 (f) 49 . "5 (k) 4 •
3 •
"5
(b) "4 •
2 (g) "6- "9 (1) "6 - 8 •
"12
(c) "* •
5 (h) "10 • "60 (m) "3 . -2 . "11
- — /2
(d) 8 "3 (D "21 • "43 (n) "10 •
"8 •
— / 3
(e) 17 •
"2 (d) ("0.6) •
Cl.4) (o) -d) •
"(16) •
(a) ("1) -4 (b) "1 (c) "1 (d) 8 ("l) ("1)

• • • •
5 11 (e) 77
11. Why is "6 =

("1) •
6?
12. Show the use of the number line in finding the products:
(a) 3 «"2 (b) 5 '"2 (c) 4 •

"3.
13. State in your own words how one could use the number line to
find the product "4 •
3.
14. A football team has the ball on its own 45-yard line and then
loses two yards on each of the next three successive plays.
(a) What will its position be?

new
(b) Write an expression involving negative numbers to obtain

the answer to ( a) .
15. After losing 2 yards on each of 3 successive plays, a

football team is on its own 30-yard line.
(a) At what position was the team before these losses?
(b) If we express a loss of 2 yards with the number "2,
the position of the team before the 3 losses is given
by 30 - 3("2). Why do we subtract 3("2)?
41 1-6
16. Interpret the following expressions in terms of losses or

gains of a football team.
(a) 47+4("5).
(b) 15 - 2("3).
17. What must n be, if 2n = -18?
18. What is n in each of the following equations?
(a) 3n = "36 (d) "3n = 30
(b) 5n = "75 (e) "2n = "8
(c) "2n = 10 (f) -6n = "12
19. In the following problems in multiplication put a number in

the parentheses so that the statements will be correct.
(a) ( )
. 6 = -12 (D 1 •
( ) = -1
(b) 5 •( ) = "15 (J) 6 •

( ) = "36
(c) ("10).( ) = 100 (k) ( "9) •

( ) = 8l
- "30
(d) ("5) •( ) = 20 (1) 5 ( ) =
(e) ("5) •( ) = "20 (m) ( )

•
("10) = "90
(t) 11 •( ) = "110 (n) ( )

•
("50) = 100
(g) CD •
( ) = 1 (o) ( "6) •
( ) = "60
"
w
(|)
("7) •( ) = o (P)
* = "1
(
)

(a) ("6) -
("lo) (g) ("4) •
("10)
-
(b) ("3) •
("4) (h) ("10)
4
(c) -
(i) ("10) •
4
6
1
(d) "6 (J) ("6) •

("7)
-
"<TT>
(e) "(^)
-
-* M ("15) •
("4)
(f) ("75)
-
C4) (D "20 •
~(ii)
1-6
(m) (16)
•
(-12) (t) C3)
-
(n) ( -16) (-12) (u) (-5) 6 •
(-2)
(o) ( -*5) -
C3) (v) 0) -5) - 3
(P) 25
-
(-3) (w) (-2) -1) •
C3)
(q) ( "27) 0 (x) r*) "2) •

(+2)
(r) ( -16) -
(1) (y) ("3) "3) -
C3)
-
(B) (20) (-10) •
("5) (*) (-2) (2) •
C2)
Division of Rational Numbers
We know that if 3 • n = 39, then n = 13, since 3-13 = 39.

Also, in the definition of rational numbers (Chapter 6, Volume l),
3Q
we call -j- (or 39 -f 3) the rational number n for which
3 • n = 39.
^- 39 -f 3 - i3.
Let us apply the methods we have used in division of rational
numbers in the seventh grade as we think of division of rational
numbers involving positive and negative numbers.
Find n if 2n = ~l8.
We know 2 ("9) = "18
Hence, n = "9 or (~-?5-)
Also "18 T 2 = "9.
In this section, we will discuss division only as the opera

tion which is the inverse of multiplication. To find "8 -f "2, we
think
43 1-7
~8 4- "2 = n or ~2 •
n = "8
n = 4, since "2 •
4 = "8
"8 4- "2 = 4.
question, "What is 16 divided by "4?", is the same as

The
the question, "By what number can "4 be multiplied to obtain 16?
We know, "~4 • "4 = 16. Hence,
16 "4 = "4.
-J-
Which of the following are true statements?
(a) "63 "9 =

(d) "2 •
"()
-J-
3
7
(b) 45 T "5 =
(e) "24-3- "(f)
9
(c) -8 • "1S = 104 (f) -r "() = "2

3
You should be able to show that all of these are true state
ments except (b) and (e).
Before starting to do the exercises, study the following and
be sure that you know why they are true statements.
"7
"7
. "5 = 35 35 "7 = "5 35 -r "5 =
-J-
=
"35 "7 = "35 -r = "7
-f
5
5
5
- 54-7=| 5* -
5
7
f
= '5 -5*7- '() "5 *(5 -

7
What is the reciprocal of "()? We know that ~i

~() and n
are reciprocals if
1-7 44
n 1
Since
*• 1
and 1,
we have n
therefore,
— 3
ls the reciprocal of
'
— 4
~(-zf)
Exercises 1-7
(a) -4 -
7 (d) -24 (g)
(b) (e) (h) 10
(c) (f) 21 35 (0
2. Find the quotients:
(a) "28 4- 7 (d) "72 3 (g) "3 4-
(b) 12 4- "3 (e) 72 "9 (h) 44-
(c) "12 4- 2 (f) 735 -35 (i) I*

3. If y = • x, complete the table.
X 4 2 0 "2 "4 "5 "6
y
45 1-7
If y = "4 x, complete the table:
3
X 2 1
1 0
-£ ~(£) "(|)
y
5. Find r so that these sentences will be true statements.
(a) 3 r = 17 (d) "3 r = "21 (g) "7 r = 8
(b) 5 r = "10 (e) •*- 1 (h) ("6)r =

"(^
(c) "2 r (f) r (^ 10r "(^
"(|
= 6 3 = =
b
6. Write the reciprocals of each number in P:
"i,
|),
(6, l- -(!))
|,
'(
=
P
|;,
7. Divide in each of the following:
(a) '-& (g) "100

(m)
64
"20 "16
9
"36 750
'-f
(") (b) (n)

"12 -30
"432
(c) 122 (i) T2-
0
*
(o)
O -6
"441
(« (J) (P)
"39
"21 "3
"484
(e, M 72
-i|
(q)
-6
30 "169
(f) (1) (r) .2SL
"15
8. Find lf:
n
(a) "2 -i- =

(b) T "3 =
n
n
3
1-7 46
_ P
9. Write ~(TT) as a quotient in two ways.
10. Find n if
(a) 7 n = "6 (b) "7 n = 6
"—• 7
11. Write two sentences, using n, in which n =
(~) would make
6
the sentence a true statement.
-
12. Find n for each of these equations.
(a) ("25)n '92 (c) "4 n
= =
'(£)
(b) C92) + C25) = n (d) -() + (-4) = n
13. Write as a quotient in another way, using two of the

numbers: 92, ~92, 25, or "25.
no
14. Write two number sentences, using n, in which n =
^=
would
make the sentence a true statement.
15. Complete the statements:
(a) If a and b are positive or negative integers, then
Ir
b
is the rational number x for which
(b) If £ is a rational number then £ is positive if a and
b are .
(c) If £ is a rational number then ^ ±3 negative, if

either a or b is and the other
is
1-8 Subtraction of Rational Numbers
In arithmetic we learned, for example, that if 7 + 4 = 11,

then 11 - 7 * 4 and 11 - 4 = 7. Or if 23 + 17 = 40, then
47 1-8
40 - 17 = 23 and 40 - 23 = 17. Using letters for positive num

bers we make use in arithmetic of the property:
If a + b = c, then c - a = b and c - b = a.
We will use this property for negative numbers as well. For

example, we will say:
If 8 + "5 = 3, then 3 - 8 = "5 and 3 - "5 = 8.
It may help you to understand this if you refer again to the number
line.
u
r
i i i i i
"6 ~! 5 ~4 ~3 "2 "1 5 1 2 5 4 5 6 7 (3 9
f ...
The arrows above the number line show 8 + ~5 = 3. The arrows

below the number line show 3 - 8 = "5. In the exercises you will
be asked to suggest a way of showing 3 - (~5) = 8, using the
number line. This should be easier to do after you have had a
little practice with subtraction of negative numbers, using the
"additive" point of view.
To find ("7) - 4, we can think of the number which added to
4 gives ("7). Since 4 + ("11) = "7, we know that ("7) - 4
= ~11. Let us consider some other examples.
3 + "2 = 1 and 1 - 3 = "2 and 1 - ("2) = 3
•4 + -5 = -9 and "9 - ("4) = "5 and "9 - ("5) = "4.
Again, to find (~15) - 8, we think of the number which added

1-8 48
to 8 gives "15. The sum of 8 and "23 is "15. Thus
("15) - 8 = "23.
Suppose two boys had been playing a game and at 9:10 P.M. the
scores were:
Henry Jack
5 "2
"1 0
3 4
"4 "1
_2 22
5 "1
Then they recalled that they had agreed to stop playing at 9

o1 clock. In order to keep this agreement the boys decided not to
count the scores on the last round. Thus,
Henry's score would be 5-2=3, and
Jack's score would be "1 - "2 = 1.
In order to subtract ("2) from Jack's score the boys thought of

the number which added to "2 is "l. This number is 1.
[~2 + 1 = "!.] this result by noticing that the
You can check sum
of all of Jack's scores, except the last is 1.
Exercises 1-8
1. Add the numbers in each set.
(a) "2, 5 (d) ~4, 1, 8 (g) "8, "13, "24
(b) 7, "7 (e) "2, "3, 15 (h) "7, 5«, "110
(c) "5, "2 (f) 21, "6, "7 (1) "23, "19, 14
-
2. Find the sum of ~(T) anî () and write two equations
involving subtraction which can be obtained from this sum.
49 1-8
3. Find x in the following:

(a) C5) + 2 = x (e) -(|) +
-(|) = x
(b) (-3) + x = 8 (f) -(|) + x =

-(^)
(c) 8 + x = -3 (g)
-(|) + x =
|
(d) x + ("4) =11 (h) x +
^
=
"(ip)
b. Supply the missing number in each case.
(a) 8 + 5 + ( ) = 8
(b) 6 + (-3) + ( ) = 6
(c) (-11) + 6 + ( ) - 11
(d) (-11) + C6) M ) = "11
(e) C3) + ( ) + (-8) =

C8)
(f) ("3) + (-7) +()--?

(g) i + ("
5. Suggest a way of subtracting ("8) from 3 making use of the

number line.
6. Perform the subtractions in the following:
(-4) - -
(J)
(a) 2 (e) "(|)

-
(-6) - (-1) (f) "(|)
J)
(b)
(
(c) - (-3) (g) - ("2)

8
. (-13) - ("6)
^
(d) (-11) (h)

1-8 50
7. What are the additive inverses of
(a) i0 (b) "1CO (c) (d) (e) (f) "(12)
8. Explain why subtracting 2 is the same as adding the additive

inverse of 2..
9. Change each part of Problem 6 to a problem of adding the

additive inverse. For example, ("4) - 2 =
C4) + ("2).
10. Perform the following subtractions.
(a) (-10) - (-3) =

(h) 9 - ("3) =
(b) 4 - 6 (i) 7 - (5) =
(c) 16-12 (J) 7 - ("5) =
(d) 8 - C2) =
(k) 2 - 9
(e) ("8) - 2 =
(1) 2 - (-9) =
(f) (-8) - (-2) =

(m) 3 - 10
(g) C9) - 2 . (n) 3 - C1O) =
11. Complete the table for y = 2 x - 3.
X "1 0 i 2 3 4
12. Complete the table for y = "2 x - ("l).
X "2 "l 0 1 2 3 4
y
51 1-9
1-9 Graphs of Other Relations

You now have had experience with the four operations on the
positive, negative and zero rational numbers. You have had an
introduction to sets of ordered pairs of rational numbers and
graphs of a few simple conditions. We shall now investigate some
other relations and their graphs.
f
ii
1 i
2
2v. K
The 5 points marked on the graph (a) at the left, above, have
as coordinates elements of the set:
T=((0,0), (1,2), (2,4)}.
The condition, y = 2 x, describes the ordered pairs of numbers

which are elements of the set, T. This is true since the y-
coordinate is two times the x-coordinate in each pair.
In set U the y-coordinate is also two times the x-coordinate
in each pair.
U= {("3,~6), ("0.5,"!), (0.5, 1), (1.5, 3), (2.5, 5)}.
1-9 52
Without marking in your book, locate these points on the graph (a).
You will find that these 5 points also are on the line drawn in
the graph. The graph could be said to contain the union of the
set of points given by the number pairs in sets T and U. Can we
say that a point will be on this line, if its coordinates satisfy
the condition, or relation y = 2 x?
In the shaded part of graph (b), above, are located the points
for which the coordinates satisfy the condition y > 2 x. The
shaded region is one of the half-planes determined by the line
designated by y = 2 x. Let us select a point in this region, for
example, K. The coordinates of K are ("2, "3). If we substitute
these numbers in y > 2 x, we have
"3 > 2("2) or "3 > "4.
This is a true statement and thus the point ("2,"3) satisfies

the condition y > 2 x. Try other points in the half plane above
the graph of y = 2 x and see if
the coordinates of these points
satisfy the condition, y > 2 x.
Graph (c) above is the graph of the other half plane deter
mined by y = 2 x. The coordinates of points in the half plane
satisfy the condition y < 2 x. Check a few of these points to
see if
the condition is satisfied.
y m 3 x + 2
-
If x = 0, then y =
(3)(o) +2 or y = 2
If x = 1, then y =
(3)(1) +2 or y = 5
If x = "1, then y =
(3)("l) +2 or y = ~1 (Check this)
If x = 2, then y =
(3) (2) +2 or y = 8
If x = "2, then y =
(3) ("2) +2 or y = "4 (Check this)
Set T below contains some of the ordered pairs of rational
numbers described by y = 3 x + 2.
T= {(0,2), (1,5), ("!,"!), (2,8), C2,-4)}.

53 1-9
The ordered pairs in T are plotted in graph (a), y = 2 x + 3,

below. Do these points all seem to lie on the same line?
(a) y = 3 x + 2 (b) y > (3 x + 2) (c) y < (3 x + 2)
The graphs, (b) y>3x+2 and (c) y<3x+2, are graphs of

the two half planes determined by the line given by y = 3 x + 2.
In Problems 6 and 7 you will be asked questions about these graphs.
1-9 54
y = "2 x + ("3)
If x = "2, then y =
("2) ("2) + ("3) = 4 + ("3) or y = 1
If x = "1, then y = ("2)(~l) + ("3) = 2 + ("3) or y = "l

If x = 0, then y =
("2) (0) + ("3) = 0 + ("3) or y = "3
If x = 1, then y = ("2) (l) + ("3) ="2 + ("3) or y = "5

If x = 2, then y = ("2) (2) + ("3) ="4 + ("3) or y = "7
Set P below contains some of the ordered pairs of rational

numbers described by y = "2 x + ("3).
P = {('2, 1), , (2,"7)J
The number pairs in P are plotted on the graph (a) y = "2 x +("3)
below.
Sometimes we display coordinates of points, which satisfy a
relation, as a table. In this example the table would be
X "2 "1 0 1 2
2x + "3 1 "1 "3 "5 "7
with the other examples in this section, the graph of the

As
condition y = "2 x + "3 is displayed with the graphs of the half
planes determined by the line associated with y = "2 x + "3.
55 1-9
(a) y=-2x+(-3) (b) y > ["2x + ('3) ] (c) y < ['2x+ ("3) ]
\ Y
\
\\
2
": -j ;
V 0 I > X
V
A
-4
-K \
\
'y.
\ k
Exercises 1-9
1. Given the relation, = x, find five ordered pairs of

y
numbers which satisfy this condition.

2. Plot the ordered number pairs found in Problem and draw
a
1
straight line through the points.
3. Use a clean piece of paper to draw the graph of the relation

y x.
>
3
1-9 56
4. Sketch the graph of y < 3 x.

5. Do the graphs of y = 3 x, y > 3 x, and y < 3 x seem to
include all the points in the coordinate plane? Why?
6. Give the coordinates of 5 points in the graph of the condition

y > 3 x + 2. (See this graph in this section.)
7. On which of the two graphs, y>3x+2 or y < 3 x + 2,
are the following points?
(a) (1,10) (b) (-5,6) (c) (-2,0) (d) (0,0) (e) (-6,'6)
8. Draw careful graphs of the following conditions:
(a) x - -5 (d) 7 - "(|) x
(b) y = 2 x - 1 (e) y > x - 2
9. Plot the following set of ordered pairs

S- ((0,0), (1,1), ("1,1), (2,4), ("2,4), (3,9), ("3,9))
(+4,16), (-4,16)
(a) Do they all seem to lie on a straight line?
(b) Lightly sketch a curve containing the points plotted.
(c) Is it
true that the y-coordinate of each point is the
square of the x-coordinate of the corresponding point?
^
(d) Does the condition y = x describe the points named by
Set S?
(e) Construct a set T containing ordered pairs described by

2
y « x which are not contained in set S.
(f) Does the curve sketched in answer to (b) contain the

graph of y = x2?
Study carefully the diagrams below. They contain the graphs

of (a) y = x2 (b) y > x2 (c) y < x2.
57 1-9
(a) y - x'
(c) y < x2
Chapter 2
EQUATIONS
2-1 Finding the unknown

Do you like mystery stories? Have you ever imagined yourself
to be a detective like Sherlock Holmes or Nancy Drew. Sometimes a
mathematician must find one or more unknown numbers from certain

clues. Then the mathematician works like a detective trying to solve
a mystery.
For example, suppose you are trying to find a certain number.
Let us call the number Mathematicians often use letters like
x.
"x, "
"y, "v," "
and so on to represent unknown numbers. You are
given the following clue:
x + 5 =
7.
In words we may say that 7 is 5 more than the unknown number.
In this example can you find the unknown number? You probably
can.
the unknown number is not so easy to find.
Sometimes For
example suppose you were given this problem:
Tom bought a ticket for a football
Altogether he game.
paid $1.10 (or ll0 cents), including the tax. If the cost
of the ticket is $1.00 more than the amount of the tax,
what is the amount of tax on the ticket?
Again, you are given certain clues. You must use the clues
carefully if you are to find the correct answers. To help you
find the amount of the tax you may use the clues to write a
number sentence. If x represents the amount of the ta$ a
correct number sentence is,
x + (x + 100) = ll0.
In states that the amount of the tax,
words the number sentence
x (in cents), added to the number of cents in the cost of the
ticket, x + 110, is equal to the total charge in cents for the
ticket, no.
How much is the tax? Did you guess 10 cents? If the tax
2-1 60
*
is cents, since the total cost is ll0 cents, the ticket would
10
be priced at 100 cents (or 1 dollar). But $1.00 - $.10 does not
equal $1.00. The problem stated that the ticket cost 1 dollar
more than the tax. The correct answer is 5 cents, or x = 5.
The correct price of the ticket is $1.05. The amount of the
tax is
$.05. Does $1.05 - $.05 = $1.00?
In both of the problems above the clues were used to write
number sentences. Each clue was a statement about numbers. Some
of these numbers were known and some unknown. Since the verb in
each of these sentences was the "equals" sign, we call such
number sentences equations When we are finding what number x
represents, we say we are solving an equation for the unknown x
(or whatever letter we are using to represent the unknown).
You may have already used a special kind of equation. For
example, to find the number of square units of area in
a rectangle you used the following:
=J ur:
"
A
This is
abbreviation of a rule. In words, this rule is
an
"The number of square units of area in a rectangle
is (or, is equal to) the product of the number of
units in the length and the number of like units
in the width."
When such a rule is abbreviated and written in the form of an
equation it is called a formula. If the length and width of
a rectangle are known, then this formula may be used to find
the area of that rectangle.
Equations are used in many ways in many different fields.
We solve equations to find the currents in an electrical network
when we know the voltages and the resistances. We solve
equations in order to design airplanes or space ships. We solve

equations in order to find out what is happening in a cancer cell
61 2-1
also use equations to predict the weather. We now know

We
methods for predicting tomorrow's weather very accurately. The

only trouble is that these methods require the solution of about
a thousand equations with the same number of unknowns. Even
with the best of the modern high speed computers, it would take
two weeks to compute the prediction of tomorrow's weather.
Therefore, the meterologists (look up this word) make many
approximations. They simplify the equations in such a way that
they can compute the prediction in a short enough time. They
will be able to make better predictions when we know more
efficient ways to solve many equations with many unknowns.
Our progress in many fields of knowledge depends on finding
better methods for solving equations. Many leading mathematicians
are working on such problems. The National Bureau of Standards
held two big conferences in 1953 and 1954 on new methods for
solving equations. When you finish this unit you should see that
equation solving is not a lucky hit-or-miss activity which depends
on trial and error.
Exercises 2-1
In Problems 1-4 below, use your knowledge of arithmetic to find
the value of the unknown in each of the equations so that the
equations will true statements.
be
1 . Find the value of the unknown in each of the following
equations:
(a) x + 3 = 5 (d) m + 25 = 31
x = ? m = ?
(b) y + 5 = 12 (e) s + 17 = 42
y = ? s = ?
(c) k + 13 =
15 (f ) t + 10 =
5
k = ? t = ?
2-1 62
2. Find the value of the unknown in each of the following

equations.
(a) x - 7 = 2 (d) x - 3 = 6
x = ? x = ?
(b) y - 5 = 5 (e) p - 15 = "l

y = ? p = ?
(c) n - 9 = 2 (f ) x - 5 =
3
n = ? x = ?

equations .
(a) 4b = 12 (d) 9m = 72
b = ? m = ?
(b) 3a = 9 (e) 13x =

"13
a = ? x = ?
(c) 5w = 35 (f) 7y =
"56
w = ? y = ?

equations.
(a)
J
n (d) d = 2
= 2
"9"
n =
?
(b) a =
(e) _- =
4
a =
?
(c) "2 (f)

J.
= =
"7
k
=
k
5. formula for finding the perimeter of a rectangle is

A
= 2-xf 2*/". Find the perimeter of a rectangle whose

p
length is feet and whose width is feet.

4
7
6. Use the formula to find the = bh

A
75-
number of square units of area in the

triangle shown at the right.
b-14"
63 2-1
7. What is the area of a square whose length is 15 inches?

2
Use A = s as the formula for the area.
8. A formula 'used in finding simple interest is written

i = prt, where
i is the interest in dollars >
p is the principal (or amount borrowed) ,

r is the rate (or per cent) of interest per year,
t is
in years . the time
Find the simple interest for a bank loan of $750 for 3 years
at 6$ interest.
9. To find the circumference of a circle,
the formula
c = 2TTr may be used. Find the circumference of a
,
22
circle whose radius is 10 inches. ( Use — «• or 5.14
forTT ).
10. The formula shown at the right may d = rt
b« used to find the total distance d = distance
traveled if
the rate of travel does r = rate of travel
not vary. For example, the rate t = time if
is 25 miles per hour for a prob
lem, you would use that rate of
travel for each hour. Find the distance traveled by an
automobile moving at a rate of ^5 miles per hour (m.p.h.)
for 13 hours .
11. To find 19$ of $750 you may use the percentage formula,
p = rb
where p is r
the rate (or percent);
the percentage; is
and b is the base. In this problem, r = 19$ or 0.19
and b = $750. Find the value of p for this problem.
12. Find the area of the floor of a circular room whose radius
o op
is 13 feet. The formula is A = "r . (Use =£ or
3.14 for TT) .
2-1 64
a=7
Find the area of the trapezoid
shown at the right. Use the
formula
A
=| h(a + b)
where h is the height or altitude;
a is the length of the upper base; b=ll
and b is the length of the lower

base.
(a) Find the volume of the cylindrical

tank pictured at the right the if
radius is 1 foot and the height
is ji feet. (Use 22- for TT ).
t
(b) Find the capacity of the tank in

gallons. One cubic foot holds
7*- gallons .
q
The formula F = ^ C + 32 may be used to convert a tem
perature reading on a Centigrade thermometer to a tem
perature reading on a Fahrenheit thermometer. Find the
correct Fahrenheit temperature reading for each one of
following readings on a Centigrade thermometer.
(a) 0° (b) 100° (c) 37°
65 2-2
2-2 Number Phrases

In talking to people or when writing, we use sentences.
In mathematics we write sentences about numbers. A sentence
about numbers is often written in the form of an equation,
such as,
x + 7 =
9.
This sentence about numbers says,
"If seven is added to a certain number x the result
is nine."
You are familiar with numbers, such as 9. The number 9 is
a part of the number sentence above. Another part of the
sentence is x + 7. These expressions, x + 7 and 9, are
not sentences. They are parts of sentences. Such expressions
are called phrases.
Phrases are not sentences. A phrase does not make a
statement. In a sentence about numbers a phrase represents
a number. A phrase that describes or represents a number
is called a number phrase .
A number phrase may represent one specific number. For
example, the number phrases
HI
|£,
3 + 5, 9, + V, and 10
represent specific numbers. In each of these examples, the
value of the number phrase is known, or it can be determined.
represented by x
What number is - 4? We cannot determine
the number represented by x - unless we know the value of x.
4
Thus x - may have many different values. Number phrases which

4
do not represent a specific number are called open phrases . We

may think of an open phrase as one whose value is "open" to many
possibilities. Examples of open phrases are,
x - z,
4,
7y, .
2
+
To solve problems by using equations you must be able

to translate the clues given in the problem into an equation.
To do this you must express the numbers in the problems as
number phrases. In Section of this chapter, we used
1
2-2 66
the number sentence,

x +7. 5 =
Is the value of 7 known? What about x + 5? Is 7 an open

phrase. What about x + 5?
To work with phrases you must also be able to
number
translate the phrase into words. The phrase x + 5 may be
translated as "the number x increased by five." Can 7x
be translated as "seven times the number x?"
Sometimes pupils are confused because an open phrase
such as x + 7 may have many different translations. For
example, other translations are:
"The number x added to seven, "
or "the number x increased by seven,"
or "the sum of x and seven, "
or "seven more than the number x."
However, all of the translations have the same mathematical
meaning. Furthermore, all of the English translations mean
the same as "xWith practice you will learn to under
+7."
stand the different ways of expressing a number phrase.
Exercises 2-2
1 . Translate each of the following number phrases
into symbols.
(a) The sum of x and 5-
(b) The number x decreased by 3.
(c) The product of 8 and x.
(d) One fourth of the number x.
(e) The number x increased by 10.
(f ) The number 7 multiplied by x.
(g) The number which is 11 subtracted from x.
(h) The number divided by 2.
x
(i) The number which is 6 less than x.
(j) The number x decreased by 9.
67 2-2
For each one of the number phrases in Problem 1,

find the number represented by the phrase if
x = 12 in each part.
Translate each of the following number phrases into

words :
(a) x + 1
(d)
i§
(b) x - 3 (e) 4x
(c) 2x (f) "6 + x
Find the number represented by each of the number
phrases in Problem 3 x = 6. if
Find the number represented by each of the number
phrases in Problem 3 x = ~2. if
The unknown number is
not always represented as x.
Translate each of the following number phrases into
symbols using the letter of each part as the unknown
number. For example, in Part (a) uses "a" as the
unknown number.
(a) The sum of six and a number.
(b) Eight times a number.
( c ) Eight times a number and that amount increased

by 1.
(d) Three subtracted from eight times a number.
(e) The amount represented by eight times a number
divided by 4.
(f) Two times a number; then increase that amount
by 3.
( g) Five multiplied by the sum of a number and 2.
( h) Tenless than seven times a number.
( i) Twelve divided by the sum of a number and 1.
( j) The product of two factors, one of which is the
sum of 3 and a certain number and the other
of which is the sum of 4 and the same number.
2-2 68
7. Find the number represented by each of the number

phrases in problem 6 if
the unknown number is "3.
8. Translate each of the following phrases number

into words. Write the word "number" to represent
the unknown number in each phrase.
Example: y + 3 A number increased by three,
(a ) 2n + 5
(b) 6 - ?q
(c) (b-1) 7
(d) 5-d
( e) 15 + 2w
9. Find the number represented by 2n + 5 for each of

the following values:
( a) n = 5 ( c) n = 0
(b) n = "5 (d) n = "1
10. Find the number represented by 6 - 3Q f°r each of

the following values :
(a) q = 0 (c) q = +1
(b) q = "l ( d) q = 5
69 2-3
2-3 . Number Sentences

We all every day. We use sentences in
use sentences
talking. When we read, we read sentences. In mathematics
we need to deal with many kinds of sentences. We use sentences
to explain mathematics and to discuss mathematics. Some

mathematical sentences make statements about numbers, and it
is this particular kind of sentence which we are studying in
this chapter. Consider the following sentences:
"The sum of 8 and 7 is 15."
"The number twelve has six factors."
"x + 3 = 8."
n4 + 5 = 3*3."
"3 < 2 + 4."
,,22 > 2.t,
Do you agree that these are all sentences? They are examples
of number sentences. Each of them consists of two number
phrases connected by a verb. What are the verbs in these
sentences? The first two are easy to find. The word "is"
is the verb in the first sentence, and the word "has" is the
verb in the second. What is the verb in the sentence
"x + 3 = 8 "? Perhaps you have never thought of "=" as a
verb in a sentence. What are the verbs in the remaining
sentences?
three most common verbs in number sentences are "=",
The
"<", and ">", but there are others. "Six is a factor of
twelve" is a number sentence, and it is sometimes written
"6 j 12." The symbol
"
I
"
is another "number verb" meaning
"is a factor of".
One word of caution: We would not use the name "number
sentence" for such vague statements as,
2-3 70
"100,000,000 is a very large number, "
or
hard to find."
"123,456 x 654,321 is
These sentences involve more than statements about numbers.
They involve our reactions to numbers. We are interested only
in sentences which are purely about numbers and their relation

ship with other numbers.
Some sentences are true sentences. For example,
"4+5=3 -3, "
and
"The sun sets in the west, "
are true. A sentence need not be true, however. The sentences
"3 4,"
> 2 and
+
"Abraham Lincoln was the first president of

the United States,"
are not true sentences. Consider the sentences,
""Jimmy was at Camp Holly all day yesterday," and
"x + 3 = 8."
Are they true? Are they false? You may answer, "I don't know.
Which Jimmy do you mean? "x" refer? These To what number does
sentences are neither true nor false, because they contain words
or symbols which do not refer to only one thing. "Jimmy" can
mean any boy with that name, and "x" can stand for any number.
You might look at the camp records and say that "Jimmy" means if
Jimmy Mills of Denver, the first sentence is true, but it if
means Jimmy Shultz of Cincinnati, then it is false. The second
sentence is true x = 5, but if it is false if x = 6 or if x is
any number other than 5.
What can you say about the truth of the following sentences?
"13 - x =
7."
"George was the first president of the United States."
"3 + x = x + 3."
"If Jimmy was at Camp Holly all day yesterday, then he
was not at home at that time."
71 2-3
These sentences are similar in that each contains a word or symbol

which can refer to any one of many objects. Do you see any
difference between the first
sentences and the second two?
two
Can the first two sentences be true? Can the first two sentences
be false? Can either of the last two sentences ever be false?
Suppose a number sentence involves a symbol like "x" or
ny." If the symbol can refer to anyone of many numbers the
sentence is called an open sentence. It is not necessarily a
true sentence. It is not necessarily a false sentence, it
leaves the matter open for further consideration. Look at this
open sentence:
x + 7 = 10 .
x - 2
It is composed of three parts:
"
a verb, "=", and two open phrases,
—-—
"10
"x + 7" and The open sentence states that for a
X *™ 5—'
£.
certain number x tJiese two open phrases represent the same

number. Can you discover such a number -x ? Can you find
more than one? Try some numbers. After working for a while
you might say, "The sentence is true x = 3 or x = 8, if
but it is false if
x is any other number." The numbers J>
and "8 are called solutions of the open sentence. The set
D> ~8) is called of the open sentence.
the set of solutions
When we find the entire set of solutions of an open
sentence, we say that we have solved the sentence. An equation
is a particular kind of number sentence. It is a number sentence
which involves the verb "=". Hence to solve an equation means
to find its entire set of solutions. The set of solutions of an
equation may contain one member or it may contain several members.
It might even be the empty set.
Is this sentence an equation?
"x - 4 > 7."
What is the verb in the sentence above? Is it "="? Since the
verb is not "=", the sentence is not an equation. We might
2-3 72
say that the sentence indicates that the two phrases, x-4 and
7 are not equal. Such a sentence is called inequality.
determine the set of solutions for the inequality
Can you
x - 4 > 7? How large must the number x be in order for the
inequality to be true? Is 5-4 > 7? Is 7 - 4 > 7? Is 12 -4>7?
Do you see that "x-4 > 7" is true if
greater
x is any number
than 11? Also, "x-4 >7" is false for any other value of x.
Thus the set of solutions of the inequality is the set of all
numbers which are greater than 11.
Exercises 2-3a
Translate each one of the following number sentences
into symbols.
(a) The number increased by 5 is equal to 13.
x
(b) The number 3 subtracted from x is equal to 7.
(c) The product of 8 and x is equal to 24.
(d) When x is divided by 4 the quotient is 9.
(e) Ten more than the number x is 21.
(f ) The number 7 multiplied x by is equal to ~35.
(g) The number 11 subtracted from x is ~5-
(h) The number 6 less than x is 15.
(i) The number x divided by 2 is equal to "7.
For each one of the equations you wrote in Problem 1,
find the set of solutions by using your knowledge of
arithmetic.
into symbols.
(a) The number x increased by 2 is greater than 4.
(b) The number multiplied
5 by x is less than 10.
(c) The result of dividing x by 7 is greater
than 2 .
(d) Three less than the number x is greater than 6.

73 2-3
(e) The number x decreased by 5 is less than 13.

(f ) The product of 3 and the number x is greater
than "9.
For each one of the inequalities you wrote in Problem 2,

use your knowledge of arithmetic to find the set of
solutions.
into words. Use the term "a number" or " a certain
number" to represent the unknown number.
(a)y + 2 = 5 (f ) 7 - k = 2
(b) z + f3) =7 (g) d - 3 < *

(c)
(d)
2a
h -
=
5
"10
> 9
(h)
(i)
|k -> 9
7 = "2
(e) 5m < 15 (j) = = 6
6. Using your knowledge of arithmetic, find the set

of solutions for each of the number sentences in
Problem 5.
We picture of
can draw a a solution set using the number
line. Consider the following for
- -- - -- --
example the open sentence,
x + 3 = 8.
This open sentence has only one solution, 5. The set of
solution is (5). the number line this set of solutions
-
On
can be represented as shown below:
-2 -I 0 +1 + 2 +3 + 4 +5 +6
•^ 1 1 I 1 5 4 1 • 1 ^-
Since the only solution for this equation is 5, a solid "dot,"

or circle, is marked on the number line to correspond with the
point for 5. No other mark is put on the drawing.
How can we draw a picture of the set of solutions for this
sentence, x+3=3+x?
2-3 7^
First, find the set of solutions. Try x = 6. Does 6+3=3+6?

Try x = 13. Does 13 + 3 = 3 + 13? Try any other number. What
property of addition tells us that this sentence is true no
matter what number we use for x? The set of solutions for this
equation is the set of all numbers. This solution set is
represented on the number line by drawing a heavy dark line
along the entire number line as shown below.
-2 -I 0 +1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +5 + 6
Earlier in this chapter we inequality

discussed the
x - 4 > 7. The set of solutions for this inequality is the set
of all numbers which are greater than
This set of solutions 11.
-------------
is represented on the number line as shown below:
+ +
"2 "I 0 +l +
2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +ll 12 13 +14 +15
5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 k-
The number "11" is
not in the set. We indicate this by drawing
an open circle on the point corresponding to on the number ll
line. The part of the number right of
line to the the ll is
shaded showing that all points to the right of ll are in the
set of solutions.
Consider the equation ll + x = 4. What is the set of
solutions? Try some numbers. Recall \vhat you have learned
about negative numbers. What is 11 + ( ~7) ? Is ("7) a solution?
Can you find any other solutions? You should not be able to do
so. The set of solutions for this equation is ("7). This is
represented on the number line as shown here:
-9 -8 -7 -6 "5 -4 -3 "2 "l 0 +1 +2

< 1 1 • I 1 1 1 1 h—H 1 H
75 2-3
VThy do we draw a "solid" circle at the point corresponding to

"7? Why is no other point indicated on the number line?
For what numbers is the inequality written below a true
sentence?
x - 4 < 1
Try some numbers. You should find that the set of solutions
is the set of all numbers less than +5- On the number line
this is represented as an "open" circle at the point corre
sponding to +5 and a heavy black line drawn along all
points of the number line which lie to the left of "*"5.
Here is the drawing:
C
-4 -3 -2 -I 0 +1 + 2
1110 + 3 +4 +5 +6
1
+ 7
1
+8
h-^
Vie have found that the sets of solutions for different

number sentences may be different. Some of the solution sets
contain only one member. Such sets may be represented by a
single filled circle on a drawing of the number line. The
circle drawn at the point which corresponds to the number in
the set of solutions. If the set of solutions is the set of
all numbers, we may draw a heavy, dark line along the entire
number line.
In this case, the solution set is represented
by the entire number line. The sets of solutions for inequalities
are represented by a part of the number line. The inequalities
we discussed were all represented by half lines on the number
line. An open, or empty, circle was used to indicate a point
not included in the set of solutions.
You are not yet ready to solve very complicated equations
or inequalities. For example, it is much more difficult to find
the set of solutions for this number sentence,
x2 < 9
than it was to find the set of solutions for the equations and
2-3 76
inequalities discussed earlier. Other number sentences may

we
be even more complicated. You will learn much more about these
complicated number sentences when you study algebra next year.
You will also learn to represent the sets of solutions for these
number sentences on the number line.
Exercises 2-3b
Using your knowledge of arithmetic, find the set
of solutions for each one of the following number
sentences.
(a) x + 2 = 6 (e) x - 4 > 1
(b) 4 + x = 0 (f)
(g)
| = "l
(c) 2x = 6 2x < 10
(d) 3x < 3 (h) 4 x > 1 -

For each one of the number sentences in Problem 1
represent the set of solutions on a number line.

Using your knowledge of arithmetic, find the set
of solutions for each one of the following number
sentence.
(a) x + 1 = 1 + x (e) 3w =
~15
(b) y - i > 0 (f) l4 + x =

13
(c) 1 - b > 0 (g) 13 - x = 14
(d) a + 2 = 1 + a (h) | = "l

For each one of the number sentences in Problem 3
show the set of solutions on a number line.
Sometimes an equation or an inequality is only part of
a sentence. Just as you can build longer sentences out
of shorter ones by using such words as "and, " "or, "
and "but," you can join number sentences together to
make longer ones. Such sentences are called compound
sentences .
77 2-3
Consider the compound number sentence

"x - 4 < 7 and x - 1 > 0."
In order to solution of this sentence,
be a a number
x must be a solution of both the sentence "
x - 4 < 7"
i
and the sentence "x-1 > 0."

The elements of the solution set of the sentence are
the numbers which are in both the solution set of
"x -4 < 7" and the solution set of "x - 1 > 0."
The set of solutions of "x - 4 < 7" is the set

of all numbers less than 11.
The set of solutions of "x -1 > 0" is the set of all

numbers greater than 1 .
What is the set of solutions of the compound sentence?

Show this set on a number line.
6. Is the set of solutions for the compound sentence in
Problem 5 the intersection of the sets of solutions
for the two inequalities or is it the union of the
two sets of solutions?
7. For each of the following compound sentences find

the set of solutions.
(a) x - 2 < 7 and x + 4 > 6
(b) x - 3 = 6 and x - 3 > 6
(c) 2x > 6 and

f < 3
8. For each of the compound sentences in Problem 7

represent the set of solutions on the number line.
*9- (a) Find the set of solutions for

2
x =
9. (There are two possible
solutions) .
2-3 78
(b) Represent the set of solutions for Part (a)

on the number line.
*10. (a) Find the set of solutions for
x2<9
on the number line.
*11. (a) Find the set of solutions for the following
compound sentence:
x + 7 = or 2 x - 1 = 5.
6
(Note: in mathematics "or" means either the first

or the second or both the first and the
second).
on the number line.
*12. (a) Find the set of solutions for
"x - 1 = 4 or x - 1 > 4"
( This compound sentence is sometimes abreviated
"x -
4") 1 >
(b) Show the set of solutions for Part (a) on

the number line.
Find the set of solutions for
"x < 10 or x - 9 > 0."
learning about number sentences. You have

You have been
learned that number sentences consist of number phrases and
verbs. The number phrases represent numbers. If a number
phrase represents an unspecified number, as x + 7, we call
this phrase an open phrase.
In a number sentence, the number phrases are connected
by verbs . It is possible to use different verbs. If the
verb in a number sentence is "=", then we say the sentence is
an equation. If the verb is say the sentence
"<" or ">", then we
is an inequality. In our work with number sentences we have used
symbols to represent the unknown. These symbols are usually
letters of the alphabet such as "x" or "y" or "a" . If such
a symbol is
used in a number sentence so that the symbol can
refer to any one of many numbers, then we say that the sentence
is an open sentence.
When we find the solution or solutions of a number sentence

we write them dovm. When we have found all the solutions for a
number sentence vie have the set of solutions. When we have done
this we say we have solved
the number sentence. We have learned
to represent the set of solutions of a number sentence on the

number line.
For some solution sets the representation on the number line
is a single point. For other sets of solutions the represen
tation the number line may be a half -line, a line segment,
on
a ray, or possibly the entire number line. Combinations of the
above representations are also possible.
You should understand that there are usually several

different ways of writing a given number sentence. Consider
the following sentence:
"The sum of a certain number and eight equals two more
than the product of 4 and the number."
Can this sentence be written in another way? By using symbols
we can write,
x + 8 = 2 + 4x.
If to find that certain number, that is, to
you are asked
solve the equation, which form of the sentence would you find
easier to use? It is usually easier to find the set of solutions
by writing the number sentence with symbols as shown in the
latter example.
2-3 80
problems arise which involve the kind

Very frequently, of
open sentence which we call an equation. However, they are
often written in such a form that it is difficult to recognize
the set of solutions. Think of the example of the cost of
the football ticket and the tax in Section 1 of this chapter.
We might state the problem this way:
The total cost is 110 cents. The cost of the ticket is 100
cents more than the tax. What is the amount of the tax?
Since this is a problem involving numbers, we might state it
this way:
If a certain number, the tax, is added to 100 more than
the same number, the result is 110. What is the number?
If we let "x" represent the number (the amount of the tax),
we might state the problem in this form:
x +
(
x + 100) = 110.
We in three different ways. Which form
have stated the problem
would be the easiest to use in finding the set of solutions?
Consider the following problem:
The Prairie Express travels at 80 miles per hour. How
long does it take for this train to make a 500- mile
trip?
An equation here, but it is not too clear as stated
is involved
above. Since the problem asks us to find a certain number let
us restate the problem as follows:
Let "t" represent the number of hours the train travels.
Then, 8ot represents the number of miles traveled in t
hours .
The equation can be stated thus: 8ot = 500.
The question really is, then,
"If 8ot = 500, what is the number t ?
81 2-3
We the problem from the English language into

have translated
mathematical language. The number sentence involved is an
equation. Can you solve it? How long does it take the train to
go 500 miles?
In solving problems, the translation of number sentences
from the English language, or words, into mathematical language,
or symbols, is often the most important part of the task. Also
it is often the most difficult part of the task. When you are
faced with problems such as those above, think about them
carefully. Often you will find that the problem is only asking,
in a complicated way, for the solutions of a number sentence.
By writing the sentence in symbols the set of solutions may be
easier to find.
In writing sentences in mathematical language you will
be using letters to represent the unknown numbers. You should
first decide what the letter will represent. Then you should
write your sentence. For example, write in symbols the
following sentence:
Mary, who is 14 years old, is five years older than her
brother.
Let My" represent the number of years in Mary's brother's
age.
Then, since Mary is five years older, y + 5 is Mary's
age.
sentence in symbols is,
The 14 = y + 5.
Remember, you should always explain what the letter represents
before you write your sentence in symbols. By solving _the
equation for y t you can determine the brother's age.
Exercises 2-3c
1. You are to write each of the following sentences in
symbols. First describe what number the letter
represents. Then write the sentence.
2-3 82
(a) John, who is is four

years younger than
10,
his sister who is y years old.
(b) Steve bought m model plane kits costing
25 cents each and paid 75 cents.
(c ) Sam's age seven years from now will be 20
since his age now is b.
(d) The number of inches in f feet is 72.
(e) The number of yards in f feet is 5.
(f) Ann, who is n years old, was 3 years old
ten years ago.
(g) The number of cents in d dollars is 450.
(h) A baby sitter x cents per hour before
charges
midnight and y cents per hour after midnight.
She earned 350 cents while sitting from
8 P. M. — 2 A. M. .
2. Translate each of the following sentences into an

equation or inequality. First describe what number
the letter represents.
(a) If dollars is added to twice the money
3
Dick has, the result is less than 23.
(b) At a certain speed the plane will travel more
than 500 miles in 2 hours .
(c) If is 1 added to twice Susie's age the
result is 19.
(d) Janet's father drove to Dover,
from Mill City
a distance of 24o miles, at an average speed
of 40 miles per hour. How long did it take
for the drive?
(e) If Sally earns cents per hour for baby
65 sittin
how much will she earn in 5 hours?
83 2-3
In each of the following:

(l) Describe the number represented by the letter
you select.
(II ) Translate the problem into an equation.
(Ill) Solve the equation.
(a) In ten years Mr. Smith will be forty years old.
How old is he now?
(b) If I give you $5.00, you will have $12.00. How

much do you have now?
(c) Vera times as tall as her brother.

is two She
is 64 inches tall. How tall is he?
(d) Paul was 14 years old in 1958. In what year
was he born?
(e) The area of a certain triangle is 55 square
inches. length of the base is
The 7 inches.
What is the length of the altitude?
(f ) Twenty percent of a number is 10. What is

the number?
(g) A store sells bicycles at a 20$ discount.
If bicycle sells for $28,
a what was the
original price?
(h) After traveling 120 miles a driver still had
to go w of his Journey. How many miles were
there in his complete journey?

2-4 84
2-4. Finding Solution Sets

We have seen that often we wish to find the solution set
of an equation or an inequality. In most of the problems we

have met, the set of solutions may be discovered by inspection
or by trial. As a review, find the solutions of as many of
these equations by inspection as you can.
x + 3 = 7
3 x = 15
2x + 1 = ll
2x + "3 = 9
3x + 4 = "2
-2x + 1 =
-g)
"4x +~3=|
Some of these are easy to solve, aren't they? Were you able
to solve all of them? Some were rather difficult.
Perhaps we can find a method which will make all of them
easier to solve. We will use the easiest of the equations to
illustrate the method, and then try it out on the harder ones.
How did you solve the equation
x + 3 = 7?
Perhaps you thought, "If I add ~3 to x + 3,1 get x, so I must
add ~3 7.to do, If I
get 4, so x must be 4." I If you
thought that, you were already using this method, and you were
using a very Important property of "equals."
Suppose "a" and "b" represent the same number. For
instance, a might be 5 + 4 and b might be 3 + 6 . What
can we say about the numbers a + 5 and b + 5? Could they
be different from each other, or must they be the same? If
"a" and "b" both represent 9 then a + 5 and b + 5 must
both be 14.
If a = b, does a + 7 = b + 7?
If a = b, does a + -3 = b + "3?
85 2-4
We can express the general principle like this:
Addition Property; If you have two equal numbers and add a

third number to each of them, the resulting numbers are equal.
In symbols, if
a, b, and c are numbers, and a = b, then
a + c = b + c and c + a = c + b.
Can you discover subtraction property of "equals"?
a
How can we use the addition property to solve the equation
x + 3 = 7?
We notice that the solution would be easy to find the "3" if
were not there. If we use the addition property, adding the
number ~3, we have:
If S"+T =
then
By the associative
r(^TT)
a 4-
-TT
c
=
property and the fact that

T+
b +
T c
3 + ~3 = 0,
we see that (x+3)+~3=x+ (3 + "3) and x + (3 + "3) = x.
Therefore,
if (x + 3) +"3 = 7 + ~3
then x = 7 + "3.
Since 7 + ~3 = 4, we. see that
x = 4.
We have found, using the addition property, that if the

equation x + 3 = 7 solution, then the solution must
has a
be .4. We still do not know that 4 is a solution. Let us see.
If x = 4,
then x + 3 = 4 + 3*
so x + 3 = 7.
Thus solution. Since we saw first that there
4 is a
cannot be any other solution, it follows that 4 is the only
solution of the equation. In other words, the solution set
is {4}.
2-4 86
Notice that in the process of solving the equation we have

done two things. We first proved a uniqueness statement,
showing that there is only one possible number for solution.
a
Then we proved an existence statement, showing that this number
is a solution.
In Chapter 1 you learned how to find 3 +
("4). It is
"l. Also, 3 -4 is ~i. Thus, 3(~4) = 3 - 4. Perhaps
+
this is the way you find 3 +

(~4) in your head; by thinking of
3-4. Similarly 7 + (~5) = 2, and 7-5=2, so
7 (~5)
+ = 7 - 5. What is ~3 + ("2)? What is ~3-2? Do they
both equal "5? What do you add to 4 to obtain 4-2? You
add ~2. This is true for any number: To obtain a - b you may
add "b to a.
If a and b are numbers , then a-b=a+(~b).
Using this fact we can solve the equation
x - 3 = 8
by writing it as
x + ("3) = 8.
Then we can apply the addition property as we have in the

preceding examples. What number would you add to solve this
last equation? Why?
Exercises 2-4a
1. (I) Use the addition property to find the only
possibilities for solutions of the following
equations. (II) Then show that the number ls_
a solution.
Example: x + ("3 )
= 11
I) (x + (~3))+ 3 = 11 + 3 by the addition

property, adding 3 .
(x + (~3 + 3))= 14 by the associative

- property
r— of addition.
X ll
since 3+3=0.
1
87 2-4
II) If x = 14 then x + ( "3 )

= 14 + (-3 )
= ll, s°
14 is a solution.
( a) x + 5 = 6 (g) ~2 = "4 + x
( b) x + 6 =
5 (h) x + 2- - 10
(c) x + ~7 =
7 (i) y -
f | =
-
(d) x 7 =
"7 ( J) u + 14 =
|
( e) t + 6 =
"13 (k)
(f) * - • + 3 (D x +
"(£)
=
"(f3)
Apply the addition property to these equations,
adding
the indicated, number, and write the resulting equation.
Example: 3x + 4 =
5 (add "4)
(3 x + 4) 4 "4 =
5 + "4 by the addition
property.
3x + (4 + ~4) = 1 by the associative
property.
The resulting equation is: 3x = 1 .
( a) 2 x + 5 = 10 ( add "5)
( b) 3x + 10 =
5 ( add ~10)
( c) 5x + 2 = "2 ( add "2)
( d) lOx + "1 = 9 (add 1)
( e) 2u + 1 = ll ( add "l )
(f) 2x + "3 =
9 (add 3)
g) "4y (add 3)
( -i- "3 =
§
(a) What number do you add (using the addition
property) to solve x + 3 = 2?
(b) What number do you add (using the addition
property) to solve x + ( "7) = 4?
(c) What is the relation between 3 and ~3
relative to addition?
( d) What is the relation between 7 and ~7
relative to addition?
2-4 88
4. Solve the following equations. (Remember that

"solving an equation" includes showing that any
possible solution you find is^ a solution.)
i
(a) x + 3 = 11
(b) x + "6 =
(c ) x -
-
| |x =
(d) 2x 7 =
(First add "x)
"x -2x
i
=
(e) 7
(f ) ix + 2 =
1.5 - x
Weare now ready to try some harder equations. How would

you solve the equation
2 x + 1 = 11
which occurred at the beginning of this section?
Let us not try too at a time! Before we ask what

much
x is, let us first ask an easier question: what is 2x?
You answered this question in Problem 2 of the last set
of exercises. The addition property tells us that
if 2x + 1 = 11
then 2x = 11 + "l by the addition
property adding "l,
or 2x = 10.
Now that we have found 2x, we can try solving the new
equation for x. This is
kind of equation which a new we can
solve using another important property of "equals."
Suppose "a" and "b" represent the same number again,
but suppose we multiply a and b by 5 instead of adding
5. Could 5a and 5b be two different numbers a and if
b are the same?
If a = b does 4a =
If a = b does
|a
=
89 2-4
Multiplication Property ; If you have two equal numbers and

multiply them by a third number, the results are equal. If a,
b, and c are numbers and a = b, then
cb. ac = be and ca =
Can you discover a division property of "equals"?

Be careful! Remember that you cannot divide by zero.
If we apply the multiplication property to the equation
2x = 10,
what number do we want to use as a multiplier? we wish to
"eliminate" the 2 so *,^
the reciprocal of 2, would be a
good choice. Using the multiplication property with -*
1
as a
multiplier, we have:
a b
If 2x = 10
c a c b
Applying the associative

then
|property
*(2x) =
\ 10 .
-
of multiplication, we have
gC2x) «
*
2)x
-
x x. all know that *
10 « 5,
(|.
= = We
1
|-
so, x =
5.
We have found that if 2x + = ll has a solution, then

1
it must be (a uniqueness statement). We still have to show

5
that is a solution (an existence statement).

5
If x =
5
then 2x = 2*5 = 10
and 2x = 10
-t-
+
1
1
or 2x + = 11.
1
Thus is. a solution.

5
We have used two properties, the addition property to

find 2x and the multiplication property to find x. This
process will make it possible to solve without difficulty even
the hardest of the equations which we examined at the beginning
of this section.
90
Perhaps the hardest equation was

Vx --3=92
Let's solve it. First v;hat is ~"^*x? Use the addition property:
—i — 9
and the associative property:

"4
-
x + O + 3) =
§ + 3
^2..
or "4 -
x =
Now, since we know that ~Vx = W^., we can find what x must
be by using the multiplication property. By what should we
multiply "~4x in order to get x? Using the multiplication
property, we have
By the associative property, this is the same as

(-(1,- , .
-*)
In Chapter 1, we learned that "(i) -
~4 =
-
4=1, so
^-
Thus, if 4*x + ~3 = has a solution, the solution must be

-^
Is "(-tA) a solution?
If x =
*"
then ~Vx =
so that "ii -
x
Then -Vx + ~3 =
+"3 = +
or -*•» .
6
9.
-3
|5
+ = =
Thus ~(-g^-)
is a solution, the only solution.
The solution set of
=
3
91 2-4
Class Exercises 2-4

Indicate which property, the addition or the multip!
cation, is used in solving the following equations.
(a) x + 10 = 22 (h) 18 + y = 8.6
(b) 6.2 + x = 1.12 (i) u + 6 = 5 + 3
(e) "2 + x = ~10 (J) O.oSd - 73
(d) x - y
j
5 =
15 (k) 19 = 6
(e) 6
TB
=
(1)
•
n =
15 + 0.4
(f) 14 - x
*
= 0 (m) 45 b = 1
(g) |x =
17 ( n)
7 _
c
-L
What property is used, and how is it used, to get the

the second equation from the first?
Exampl e : ( 1 ) 2x + 4 =
7
(2) 2x =
3 ; addition"property,
adding ~4 .
(a) (1) 2(y + 4) = 8 (f) ( 1 )

|x
= 10
(2) y + 4 = 4
(2) 1 x = 5
(b) ( 1) 1.6 = 4y 5
g) (1) (0.3m) - 7.2 =
5
(2) 0.4 = y (
m/ 2(m + 5) 2) ( 3m) - 72 =
50
(c) \ -1- -z 6 (
3
*( h) (\ l) -^
= "26
-18
/
n
(2) 2(m + 5)
( 2 ) 4 = "26n
U) (1) ~x =
5
*( i) ( 1 ) 5x - 2 = 3x + 6
(2) x = "5
(\ 2 /) 2x - 2 = 6
(e) (l) (£k) + 1 = 1
(2) ik = o
Use the properties as indicated on the following

equations.
Example: 3y - 2 = 7 Addition property with ( 2).
Answer: (3y-2) + 2 = 7 + 2
3y + ( "2+ 2) = 9
3y = 9
2-4 92
(a) 7 =
3x + 1 Addition property with ("l).
(b) 6 =
3w Multiplication property with
(c) 75-
- 1.7 = ~1.3 Multiplication property with
(2).
(d) b =
yg Multiplication property with
(18).
(e) 0.14 + x = 5.28 Addition property with (-Q.14)
*(f ) 5x - 7 = 2x Addition property with
*(g) 2x - 3y = 4" Addition property with (j5y).

*(h) x = 7 - 2x Addition property with (2x).
4. What properties of the operations have you used in
the parts of Problem 3?
Exercises 2-4b .
1. Solve the following equations by using the properties

of "equals." Give your reason for each step.
(a)
(b)
2x
y -
+
2
1
=
=
6
7 (e)
(d)
|- -
?x
3
5
- '*
= ~4
2. Solve the following equations.

(a) x + 3 = 5 (g) 2w - 3 =
5
(b) 3 + y ='5 (h) 3 - 2s =

"5
(c) 2v + 3 = 5 *( l) 2w + 7 =
5w + l
( d) 3 + 2m = "5 *( j) 15 + 2w =
~5w + 1
(e) y - 3 = 5 *(k) 2t - 11 =
5t + 1
(f) 3 - u = "5 *(1) 15 -5w = 2w + 1
3. (a) In solving the equation 9x = 27 what number would

you use as a multiplier?
(b) In solving the equation ^-x
= 4 what number would
you use as a multiplier?
(c) In solving the equation wx = •* what number would
you use as a multiplier? 3
93 2-4
(d) What is the relation between 9 and

-^5
relative
to multiplication?
n
(e) What is the relation between 3 and relative

to multiplication?
4
(f ) What is the relation between and relative
to multiplication?
(a) Which of the two properties (multiplication and

addition) of "=" are also true of "< ?"
Replace "=" with "< in each property and tell
"
whether it is still true or not. If it is not

true, give examples with numbers in which it
is false.
(b) Which of the two properties of "=" are also true
if "=" is replaced by "is a factor of" and
the word "number (s)" is replaced by "integer
In solving equation such as

an 3x + 1 = 9jyou have
learned to use the addition property first (to find 3x)
and the multiplication property second (to find x).
Sometimes you will find it best to reverse the order
in which you use these properties . Solve the
following equations by using the multiplication
property first.
(a) 4(x + 1) = 12 (d) 0.6(x - 0.3) = 0.2
(b) 7(x-2) = 13 (e)
3
V 4
= 7
(c) 4x 1
(f)
+
0~7T2~
2-5
2-5- Number Sentences With Two Unknowns
In the previous examples of number phrases and number

sentences, there was only one unknown number. We could also
have more than one unknown number. Look at this sentence:

x + 1 = y.
If x = 3 and y = 5, is the sentence true or false? If x = 7,
what must y be for the sentence to be true? If y = 6, then
we have x + 1 = ~6. What must x be in order for this sentence
to be true? How did you learn to solve an equation like
x + 1 = ~6 in Section 4?
Each solution of the equation x + 1 = y is pair of

a
numbers. We can make a table listing some of these pairs:
X y
0
_!_
2
Before you continue reading, copy this table and work out the
missing numbers. For example, to in the third line, set fill
x = 2 in the above equation. Ask yourself, "what are the
possible values of y?"
You must read the rest of this chapter with pencil and
paper handy. Do not go on to a new paragraph until you have
answered all the questions the paragraph you have just read.
in
In much of this section you will need to use graph paper
and a ruler, too.
If x = 0 and y = 1, then the equation x + 1 = y is
95 2-5
true. Hence, we say that the pair (0,1) is a solution of the

equation. Notice that it makes a difference which number is
named first. The pair (l,0) is not a solution since if x = 1
and y = 0, then
x + l=l l + = 2 (not 0)
so that the equation x + 1 = y
is not true.
pair in which the objects are considered in a definite
A
order is called an ordered pair.
The ordered pair (2,7) is the same as the ordered pair
(x,y) if x = 2 and y = 7, and only then. This pair is
different from the ordered pair (7*2).
The solution set of the above sentence
x + 1 = y
is set of ordered pairs of numbers.
a For what number y is
the ordered pair (2,y) in the solution set?
In order to picture the solution set on your graph paper,
pick out two lines for the X-axis and the Y-axis and draw
them in heavily with your pencil. Label the vertical and
horizontal lines as shown.
1
X
_• /*>
J -1
>
I ^J ^^
1I
0
->
O
î
2-5 96
Mark your graph paper all the points (0,1),

off on (1,2), etc.,
whose coordinates are in the solution set of x + 1 = y. What
do you notice about them? They all lie on a simple geometric
figure. To what set of points does the solution set correspond?
In Chapter 1 you learned to call it the graph of the given
number sentence, or equation.
Let us try another example. What is the solution set
of the equation
2x + y = "l?
If we give x a certain value, we obtain an equation to solve
for y. If we try a different value for x we obtain a
different equation to solve for y. Similarly, if we try
different values for y, we obtain different equations to solve
for x.
For example: Let x = "3. This gives the equation
2(-3) + y = "1
"6 + y = "l.
We solve this equation by the methods we learned in Section 4.
6 + ("6 + y) = 6 + "l by the addition property,
(6-fr~6)+y=5 by the associative property
so y
of addltlon,
=
5.
If y = 5, then
-6 + y = "6 + 5 = ~1
so -6 + y = ~1.
Thus 5 is a solution, the only solution.
Thus, ("5,5) is a solution of the equation 2x + y = "l .
Follow this example to complete the table of solutions of
2x + y = "l on the next page. Perhaps you can do some of the
steps in your head.
97 2-5
X y
-2 5
-1
0
4
"2
0
2
this table is completed we have seven ordered pairs

When
of numbers which are in the solution set of the equation

2x + y = "l. Choose an X-axis and a Y-axis on your graph paper
and locate the points whose coordinates are these ordered pairs.
Do they all seem to lie on a line? Draw the line. Locate a
point on the line which is not one of the seven which you have
plotted. Can you find the coordinates of this point by
measuring certain distances? The coordinates form an ordered
pair of numbers. If your drawing and measurement were perfectly
accurate, this ordered pair would also be in the solution set
of the equation. Is it?
Promthe examples which you have seen in this section and
in Chapter 1, you have perhaps guessed that the graph of any
equation of the form
ax + by = c,
where a, b, and are known numbers, lies on a line.
c This
is true. For that reason we usually call an equation of this
type a linear equation.
2-5 98
Exercises 2-5a
1 . Draw the graphs of the f ollowing linear equations on
the same set of axes:
y = x-fl, y = 2x + 1,
3x + 1, y
y = ~2x = + 1.
2. On another set of axes draw the graphs of the
following equations :
y = x + 1, y = x + 2, y=x+ "5.
3. Do the same for x + y = 0, x + y = 1, and x + y = ~1.
4. Do the same for f f + = 1 and

f f ~ = 1-
5 . Do the same for y = x + 1 and x + y = 1 .
6. Do the same for y = 2x + 3 and y =

~(^-)x
+ 3.
Let us try another problem in which two unknowns are

involved. What are the possible lengths of the sides of a
rectangle if the perimeter is 16 inches? If we let the
lengths of two adjacent sides be called x inches and y
inches then we must have
2x + 2y = 16.
We careful, however! This equation is not a
must be
complete translation of the real situation into mathematical
language. Can the length of a side of a rectangle be a
negative number of inches? Can it be zero inches? We must
have x > 0 and y > 0, and the number sentence which really
describes the situation is this:
2x + 2y = 16 and x > 0, y> 0.
We can find several ordered pairs in the solution set. Which
of the following pairs are solutions?
f),
("l, 9), (1, 7), (2, 6), (J , (5, 3), (7, 2)

(8, 0), (9o, "1.5)
99 2-5
Remember that to be a solution, an ordered pair must make the

entire number sentence
2x + 2y = 16 and x > 0, y > 0
true.
of the equation part of the above number sentence
The graph
lies on a line. Sketch it. The second part of the sentence 5
namely, "x > 0, y > 0", says that the point corresponding
to any solution must lie in which quadrant? The graph of our
number sentence is that part of the graph of 2x + 2y = l8-j
which lies in the first quadrant.
The graph is a segment with its endpoints removed as shown here.
Which of the above solutions of the number sentence have

been plotted on the graph in the figure?
In this which was built
example we had a number sentence
up out of several shorter number sentences, one of which was
an equation. Let us try another number sentence of this type.
Bonnie has in her purse 3 dollars in dimes and quarters,
What possible combinations can she have?
Let d be the number of dimes and q be the number of
quarters. Just as the value of 3 dimes is 10
"
3 cents,
so the value of d dimes is 10
-
d cents. The total value of
these coins is (lOd + 25q )
cents, and this must be equal to
2-5 100
3 dollars.But, wait a minute! We must make up our minds

whether we want to measure our money In cents or dollars . Let
us use cents throughout. Then 3 dollars Is 300 cents.
Therefore the pair (d,q) Is a solution of the equation.
lOd + 25q =
300.
Again we must be careful! Bonnie cannot have twenty-seven
and one-half nor can she have "3 dimes.
dimes, The unknown
numbers in this problem must be non-negative integers. The
number sentence which really describes this situation is:
lOd + 25q = 300 and d and q are non-negative integers.
The solution set of this number sentence is made up of the seven
ordered pairs :
(0,12), (5, 10), (10, 8), (15, 6), (20, 4),
(25, 2), (30, 0).
The graph of this number sentence consists of only seven points.
14
124
10
6-1
t 10 15 20 25 30
What is the graph of the following inequality with two

unknown numbers?
xy > 0
The inequality says that the product of y must be x and
positive. What do you know about two numbers whose product
101 2-5
is positive number? Can either one be zero? Can x be

a
positive and y negative in a pair (x, y) which is a solution?
The pair (x, y) is a solution if both x and y are
or if both x and y are . You fill in the blanks.
The graph of this number sentences is, then, the entire
and quadrants.
Let us consider one equation which is not a linear

equation. Consider
= x
2-5 102
If we take a known value of x in this equation, the resulting

equation in the unknown y is not hard to solve. Pill in
the table of values.
X y X
I
1
"4 4 1
7
"3 2
"2 3
"~1 1 4
TT
Plot these point on your graph paper. Then sketch the graph
of the equation.
Do you remember this kind of curve from Chapter 1? It is called

a parabola. It is
very important curve which occurs in many
a
ways in problems about natural events.
The points on this parabola are the points whose coordinates
(x,y)
N
are solutions of 4y = x . We can use the multiplication
property with multiplier to see that this equation is the
same as the equation
r = -rr X
103 2-5
2
All points with coordinates (x,
1
-q-x
), where x is any number,
lie on the parabola. Where will a point with coordinates ( x,y)
lie if y > ix ? If a point (x,y) lies above the parabola what
1 2
can you say about y and ^-x
? Which must be greater?
The solution set of the number sentence
is the set of all ordered pairs ( x, y) for which y >

and the graph of this open sentence is contained in the region
of the plane above the parabola which we sketched on the
preceding page.
Exercises 2-5b
1. (a) Draw the graphs of the following equations on the

same set of axes:
y = x and y =
~(x ).
2
(b) Do the same for y = x and y2 = x.
(c) Do the same for xy = 1, xy = "l, and xy = 0.
2-5
2. Sketch the graphs of the following number sentences:

(a) x + y = 1 and x > 0, y > 0.
(b) x + y = 10 and x and y are non-negative integers.
(c) y = X and x < "l.
(d) y = 1. (Hint: this is the same as y = 1 + (0-x).
2
(e) y = 1 .
(f) x 1. =
(S) x2 = 0.
(h) X = 0 and y = 0.
2
(i) x2 + y = 0.
*(J) y = the larger of the numbers x + 1 and 2 - x.
*(k) y = x when x > 0 and y = ~x when x < 0.
Consider the number sentence
N
and x and y are
non-negativeintegers,"
with each of the following equations filling in the
blank. List the solution set in each case, and
write the number of solutions which the sentence has .
(a) x + y = 1. (g) x + 2y = 3-
(b) x + y = 2. (h) x + 2y = 4.
(c) x + y 20. =
(i) x + 2y = 25.
(d) x + 2y = 0. (J) 5x + 7y = 35.
(e) x + 2y = 1. (k) 5* + 7y = 36.
(f ) x + 2y = 2. (1) 5x + 7y =
37.
A chain store has 5 tons of coffee in its warehouse
in Orleans .
New It sends s tons to San Francisco
and n tons 'to Nev; York. The total amount shipped
is the entire warehouse supply. Write a number
sentence in symbols which describes the relation
between s n. On a pair of axes labeled "s"
and
and "n" draw the graph of this number sentence.
105 2-5
Bank lends money at; 4$ interest per year, Bank

A
B lends money at 5$ interest per year, and Bank
C lends money at 6$ interest. If a person borrows
$100 from each of the banks for a period of t years,
write number sentences which show the amount of
interest i ( in dollars) he must pay each bank. On
a pair of axes, with the vertical one labeled i and
the horizontal one labeled t, draw the graphs of
these three equations.
In an earlier problem you used the relationship
9
P rC + 32 between the temperature reading of a
=
Fahrenheit thermometer and the reading of a

Centigrade thermometer placed in the same spot.
Draw a pair of axes with the vertical one labeled
P and the horizontal one labeled C. Choose a
small enough unit distance and use a large enough
piece of paper so that each axis has points "50
and 50. Make a careful drawing of the graph of the
above equation. Then answer questions (a) and (b) by
measuring your drawing.
certain distances on
(a) What is the temperature reading on the Fahrenheit
thermometer if
the reading on the Centigrade
thermometer is "25 degrees? "15 degrees?
0 degrees? 4 degrees?
( b ) What is the temperature reading on the Centigrade
thermometer if the reading on the Fahrenheit
thermometer is ~30 degrees? "15 degrees?
0 degrees? 50 degrees?
( c ) Check your answers by solving the appropriate
equations. that it is impossible to
Remember
make a perfectly accurate drawing or measurement.
By how much did your answers in parts (a) and (b)
differ from your answers in this part?
2-5 106
7. BRAINBUSTER. Carolyn asked Edward what the temperature

in the freezer was. Edward told her, and
she asked, "Fahrenheit or Centigrade?"
He answered, "Both! readings are the
The
same." What was the temperature in the
freezer?
8. BRAINBUSTER. The certain country
income tax law of a
can be summarized as follows:
A person's tax is either (a) $400 less
than 20$ of his income or (b) zero
dollars, whichever is greater.
(a) Let T be the tax in thousands of
dollars on an income of X thousand dollars
dollars. Write the number sentence which
expresses the relation between T and X.
(b) Draw two axes with the vertical one
labeled T and the horizontal one labeled
X . use $1000 as your unit so that, for
example, a distance of 4.850 represents
$4850. Draw the graph of the number
sentence in (a).
(c) By measuring distance on your graph,
answer the following questions:
What is the tax on an income of
$10,000?
What is the tax on an income of $3500?
What is the tax on an income of $1500?
If a man pays a tax of $1500 what is
his income?
(d) Check your answers in part (c) by

using the number sentence in part (a).
Chapter 3
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION, DECIMALS, AND THE METRIC SYSTEM
3-1. Large Numbers

Harry, Edward, and Edward's younger brother, Tim, were playing
a game, showing off
they knew about numbers.
how much Harry
started it by boasting, "I know bigger numbers than you do." Of
course, Edward responded with "I'll
bet you don't," and little Tim,
wanting to continue to enjoy their company, said nothing at all.
So Harry started with "a hundred . " Harry gained the advantage
with "one million" and Edward, after some thought, remembered
"one billion" (he had heard it
in connection with the national
debt ) . That was as far as they could go and Edward was just
about to declare himself the victor when little Tim spoke up with
"one more than one billion." For this the older boys pounced on
him and sent him home. But after Tim had gone, they spent the
rest of a warm summer afternoon (the fish were not biting) arguing
about it. Do you think Tim was right? If you had been there,
would you have won the game? Would you have known the name of a
number larger than one billion without using Tim's
idea?
Actually, we have names for numbers larger than one billion,
such as trillion and quadrillion. Consider the numeral
31^1592653589793; such a numeral is
hard to read when written in
this form. One common way to make it easier to read is to place
a comma to the left of every third digit counting from the right
as follows:
3,141,592,653,589,793.
Although we put the commas in from right to left,
read the we
number from left to right according to the diagram which appears
on the following page .
3-1 108
§
d •0
o d
•H § o S
£ rH •H •H CO
H H H d
•H H H 0
h •H •H X5
43 .0 E -P
•d •d •o •d TJ
0) 0> 0) 0) V
T3
V c c 0) C G <U c CD 0) 4)
c: 3 0) o> d 3 C 3 0) C 3 Q) d
o -p o x; -P x; o x; O x: o
3,141,592,653,589,793
x: O 43 4> 4>
Thus, we read this number as follows:

Three quadrillion,
one hundred forty-one trillion,
five hundred ninety-two billion,
six hundred fifty-three million,
five hundred eighty-nine thousand,
seven hundred ninety-three.
In reading such a number we have to be careful not to use
the word "and." We can see the reason for this if we consider
the number 593,000 might be read.
and how it
it were read If
"five hundred and ninety-three thousand," as it is by many people,
there might be some misunderstanding. "and" is associated with If
with addition, the meaning would be 500 plus 93,000. "and" is If
interpreted as it is in ordinary English, the meaning would be the
two separate numbers, Therefore, it is preferable
500 and 93,000.
to read 593,000 as "five hundred ninety-three thousand." Omitting
the "and" avoids misunderstanding. We usually use the "and" to
mark the decimal point; e.g., 563.12 read "five hundred sixty-
is
three and twelve hundredths." This use of "and" does not cause
confusion since 563.12 means 563 + 0.12.
You may not know that the British different way of
have a
denoting large numbers. Their words "thousand" and "million" mean
the same as ours, but their "billion" means what we would call
"a million millions" or "one trillion." They would read the
109 3-1
numeral, 3,141,592,653,589,793, as follows:

Three thousand one hundred forty-one billion,
five hundred ninety-two thousand six hundred fifty-three million,
five hundred eighty -nine thousand,
seven hundred ninety-three .
Actually,, This does not

such numbers as these seldom occur.
mean that numbers of this size are not used, but merely that we
rarely can count precisely enough to use such a number. We might
just say that the number counted is about three quadrillion. For
example, the population of a city of over a million inhabitants
might have been given as 1,576,961, but this Just happened to be
the sum of the various numbers compiled by the census takers. It
is certain that the number changed while the census was being
taken, and it is probable that 1,577,000 would be correct to the
nearest thousand. For this reason there is no harm in rounding the
original number to 1,577,000. In fact, for most purposes, we would
merely say that the population of the city is "about one and one-
half million," which could be written also:
Population of city % 1,500,000.
The symbol %
is used to mean "is approximately equal to."
Thereare other ways of writing this number. There some
advantages in doing this. A hint of how this can be done is given
by our statement "one and one-half million." One million can be
written: 1,000,000 or (10 X 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 X 10) or 10 . The
notation 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 is sometimes read "the product
of six tens." The exponent 6 indicates the number of tens used as
factors in the product. We could also get the exponent by counting
the number of zeros in the numeral 1,000,000. The following class
exercises will help us see how the above hint is further developed.
Class Exercises 3-1

1. Write the following as decimal numerals and also in exponent
form. (10 is the exponent form of one million.)
(a) one billion (b) one trillion (c) one quadrillion
3-1 110
2. Since 2000 = 2 x 1000 then 2000 can be written, using an

3
exponent, as 2 X 10 . Using an exponent, write the
f ollowing:
(a) 7000 (c) 3,000,000 (e) 375,000,000
(b) 50,000 (d) 14,000,000 (f) 480,000,000,000
3. The number 1500 can be expressed in several ways, 150 x 10
or 15 x 100 or
1.5 x 1000 = 1.5 x 103.
325 Similarly,
can be written as 32.5 x 10 or 3.25 x 102. In each of
these two examples the last numeral is of this form:
^ number
(a ._.. _ ._ , .
between 1 and
. 10) x (a power of 10) .
In the first case it
is 1.5 x 10 and in the second case
it is 3.25 x 10 . Write each of the following in this
form.
Example: 4037 = 4.037 X 103
(a) 76 (d) 8,463,000 (g) 841.2

(b) 859 (e) 76.48 (h) 9783.6
(c) 7623 (f) 4832.59 (1) 3412789.435
j) fifty-three billion, six hundred forty- two million,
five hundred thousand.
When 1,500,000 is written as 1.5 x 10 , it is said to be
written in scientific notation.
4. (a) Is 15 x ICr in scientific notation? Why, or why not?
(b) Is 3.4 x 10' in scientific notation? Why, or why not?
(c) Is 0.12 x ICr in scientific notation? Why, or why not?
5. Write the following in scientific notation:
(a) 5687 (b) 14 (c) 3^ million
6. V/rite the following in decimal notation:
(a) 3.7 x 106 (b) 4.7 x 105 (c) 5-721 x 106
7. The distance from the earth to the sun varies with the time
of the year, since the earth does not travel in a circular
path. The average distance has been calculated to be about
93,000,000 miles.
(a) Write the above number in scientific notation. The
smallest distance from earth to the sun would be about
Ill 3-1
less than the average; the largest distance would

be about I-*
1 *
a/
than the average
more .
(b) Find of 93,000,000
1-|
%
(c) Find the smallest distance from earth to sun.
(d) Find the largest distance from earth to sun.
(e) Write the numbers found in Parts (d) and (e) in
scientific notation.
Definition. number is expressed in scientific notation if it
A
is written as the product of a number between and 10 and
1
the proper power of ten. Also number is expressed in scientific
a
notation when it is written just as a power of ten.
are in scientific notation.
3
Both 1.7 x 10 and 10

Note that 146,000 = 1.46 x 105 could also be written as
1.460 x 105 or 1.4600 X 105
Since each of the above is a power of ten or the product of a
power of ten and a number between and 10, each is in
1
scientific notation. Although there are situations in which we

would write one or more zeros after the "6" in 1.46 we shall
not do it in this chapter.
Exercises 3-1
Write the following in scientific notation:
(a) 1,000 (d) 102 x 107
(b) 101x 101x 101x 107 (e) 10 X 105
(c) 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 (f) 10,000,000

Write the following in scientific notation:
(a) 6,000 (e) 78,000
(b) 678 (f) 600 x 10
(c) 9,000,000,000 (g) 15,600

(d) 459,000,000 (h) 781 X 10?
3-2 ll2
Write a numeral for each of the following in a form which

does not use an exponent or indicate a product:
(a) 105 (e) 6.3 x 102
(b) 5-83 x 102 (f) 8.2001 x 108
(c) 3 x 104 (g)- 436 x 10
(d) 5.00 x 107 (h) 17.324 x 105
4. Write the following, using words:
(a) 783 (d) 362.362
(b) 7,500,000 (e) 4,000,284,632
(c) 632,007 (f) 4.2506
5- Using the two numerals 10 and 3 write a name, other than
103 or 310, for a number that is larger than 100.

6. Round off each of the following to the nearest hundred.
Express the rounded number in scientific notation.
(a) 645 (d) 70,863
(b) 93 (e) 600,000
(c) 1233 (f) 5,362,449
7. Thirty percent of 500 is equal to r^n x 5.0 x ?
3-2. Calculating with Large Numbers

Not only is scientific notation shorter in many cases but it
makes certain calculations easier. We shall start with some
rather simple ones. Suppose we want to find the value of the

product: 100 x 1,000. The first factor is the product of two
tens. The second is a product of three tens, so, we have
100 = 102 and 1000 = 103.
Then,
100 x 1000 = 102 x 103
=
(10 x 10) X (10 x 10 x 10)
- 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
Hence 102 x 103 = 105. Notice that the exponent 5 is the

sum of the exponents, 2 and 3.
113 3-2
Let us look at another example:

/T
1,000,000 x 100,000. Written
p-
in scientific notation this is 10 x ~LQr . How many times does 10
appear as a factor in this product? Is 10 x 10 equal to 10 ?
This is one hundred billion, but it is simpler to leave the number
in the form 10 than to write a "l" followed by eleven zeros.
Notice that again we added the exponents.
Suppose we wish to find the product of 93,000,000 and 10,000.
In scientific notation, this would be:
(9-3 x 107) x 10 = 9.3 x (107 x 10 ) By which property?
= 9.3 x 1011
Now try a more difficult example:
93,000,000 x 11,000 =
= (9.3 x 107) x (1.1 x 10 )

f Note: The order
of the factors
1^
(9.3 x 1.1) x (10' x 10 )J
-,-, has been changed
10.23 X 10 by using the
,, associative and
(1.023 X 10) x 10 commutative
, , properties of
1.023 x (10 x 10 ) multiplication.
= 1.023 X 1012
Distances to the stars are usually measured in "light years."

A light year is the distance that light travels in one year. This
is a good way to measure such distances. If we expressed them in
miles, the numbers would be so large that it would be difficult to
write them, much less understand what they mean. But suppose we
wish to estimate the number of miles there are in a light year.
This will be done in the following class exercise.
3-2 114
Class Exercises 3-2
1. It has been determined that light travels about 200,000 miles

per second (actually traveled per second is
the distance
closer to 186,000 miles). In Parts (a) to (d) below, do not
perform the multiplication, just indicate the product (an
example of an indicated product is 2.4 x 10 x 56 x 10 ).
Using 200,000 miles per second as the speed of light,

(a) How far would light travel in 1 minute?
(b) How far would light travel in 1 hour?
(c) How far would light travel in 1 day?
(d) How far would light travel in 1 year?
(e) Find the number written in Part (d) and show

that when "rounded off" it is 6.3 x 1012.
(f ) The number written in Part (e) is about
(g) Why is the number written in Part (d) not the

exact number of miles that light travels in
one year? Try to give two reasons..
Exercises 3-2
Multiply, and express your answer in scientific notation;
(a) 6 x 107 x 103 (e) 102 x 105 x 7.63
(b) 1013 x 12 x 105 (f ) 60 x 60 x 60
(c) x 3.5 x 109
1021" (g) 7 x 3 x 105
(d) 300 x 105 x 20 (h) 9.3 x 107 x 10 x 10
Multiply, and write your answer in scientific notation:
(a) 9,000,000 x 70,000 (c) 25,000 x 186,000
(b) 125 x 8,000,000 (d) ll00 x 5 x 200,000
115 3-3
Sound travels in air about one-fifth of a mile in one second.

Answer the following questions, assuming that a space ship
travels at a rate of speed five times the speed of sound.
Indicate your answers in scientific notation.
(a) How far will sound travel in air in one day?
(b) How far will the space ship travel in 20 hours?
(c) How far will the space ship travel in 50 days?
(d) How far will the space ship travel in 2 years?
Is this far enough to reach the sun?
The distance from the North Pole to the equator is about
10,000,000 meters.
(a) Express, in meters, the distance around the earth
through the Poles in scientific notation.
(b) A meter is equal to one thousand millimeters. Express
in scientific notation the distance in millimeters
from the North Pole to the South Pole.
(c) One inch is about the same length as 2^- centimeters.
About how many centimeters will equal a distance of
^0,000 feet?
The distance around the earth at the equator is about 25,000
miles. In one second electricity travels a distance equal to
about 8 times that around the earth at the equator. About
how far will electricity travel in 10 hours?
Suppose you had the task of making ten million marks on
paper and you made two marks each second. Could you have
made 10,000,000 marks in (60 x 60 x 24 x 365) seconds?
The earth's speed in its orbit around the sun is a little
less than seventy thousand miles per hour. About how far
does the earth travel in its yearly journey around the sun?
3-3. Small Numbers

Suppose we start with a power of 10, such as 10
A and divide
,
by 10. Do we get 10 ? Now divide 10 by 10, obtaining 102.

3-3 116
2 4
Divide 10 by 10, obtaining the result 10. Starting with 10 and
dividing by 10 three times, we obtained
L. -3 p i
10 , 10°, 10 , 10 .
Notice that the exponents decrease by one each time. Now divide
10 by 10. We know that the result is 1. Also, we see that if
the exponents are to continue the pattern of decreasing by one,
the next exponent should be 0. For this reason, It is
convenient
to define 10 as 1, that is 10 =1. Now we have obtained the
following:
10 =
,n3
10 '
103 = 10
,n2 102 =
,nl
10
10 =
,nO
10
10 To »
10 >
10
The exponent in each answer above is 1 less than the exponent
immediately preceding it. 0
Again divide by 10: As the next number we get =
^Q TQ-
If the pattern of exponents is to continue, we should expect the
next exponent to be 1 less than 0. This is the number which we
write ~1; it is a negative number. Hence, it seems reasonable to
define 10 as. meaning . Now divide 10 by 10. The number
obtained lsXo~~*"10=TO~xTo":* — *** the Pattern of exponents

2~*
is to continue, the new exponent should be 1 less than "l, or ~2.
Accordingly, we want to define 10

~2'
as meaning — s-.
1
It is impor-
tant to notice that the number 10
'
is not a negative number. It
-
is a positive number. 10
~2
. is 1
Definition. If n is a counting number

n
10 means .
10n
This definition and the definition of 10 enable us to write
powers of 10 as illustrated:
10* 103 IO2 101 10° lo"1 io~2 io"3

1
_L 1
J. 1
J-
,000 1000 100 10 1 1 A n r\r\ n r\r\r\
Each number indicated on the first line is equal to the number
immediately below it.
117 3-3
Class Exercise 3-3

Express each of the following using negative exponents:
1 1 1 1 1
1,000,000 100,000
o
2. Express each of the following in fractional form:
10 3, 10 5, 10 7, 10 6.
Let us recall the meaning of a number written in decimal

4 4
form. We know that 0.4 means y^, and that 0.004 means , OQQ.
42
What about 0.42? It means since
0-• lip
^ ~
= -i
10
+
2
100
= 10.
100
+ _?_
100
. JL1.
100
In a similar way show that 0.6937 =
Now we can write 0.004 in scientific notation

0.004 = ^T = JL = 4 x -X = 4 X 10
3
In similar that x 10
->.
a way show 0.00007 = 7
Now let us write 0.42 in scientific notation,
°-« •
T§o
•
Notice that we wrote 42 as 4.2 x 10 and that at one step we

divided numerator and denominator by 10. Where did you use this
last operation in earlier work?
Similarly,
-- 3°5 3.03 102

J'L05
X
000306
O.OOOJOt? = = 3^05 = 10*
x 1U
X
0
1,000,000
^T
3
'
10b
~k
We can now write 0.16 x 10 in scientific notation,
4
0.16 x 10 = 0.16 x
10
16 „ 1.6 x 10 —
1
A
*
17
^
10 10
- 1-6 v
6
'
1
10
)
io4 10 104
X
1.6 x -i- 1.6 x 10

5.
= =
1(P
3-3 118
Look at the preceding examples. Notice that when a number

smaller than 1 is written in scientific notation, the exponent
which appears is always negative. This will be true for any
number between 0 and 1.
Likewise, look at the examples of scientific notation in
Section 3-1. Notice that when a number equal to or greater
than 10 is expressed in scientific notation, the exponent
which appears is positive.
For 1, or any number between 1 and 10 written in
scientific notation the exponent will be zero.
Examples.
"o
For a number between 0 and 1, 0.03 = 3 x 10 ,
the exponent is negative.
For a number between 1 and 10, 3.4 = 3.4 x 10 ,
the exponent is zero.
For a number > 10, 13 = 1.3 x 10 ,
the exponent is positive.
We are not attempting to write numbers less than zero in
Exercises 3-3
Write each of the following in scientific notation.
1
(a) 0.093 (f)
icr
(b) 0.0001 (s) 0.7006
(c)
lo5 (h) 0.000000907
(d) 1 (D 6
(e) 0.00621 (J) 0.0045
119
2. Write each of the following in decimal notation.

3
9.3 x 10
^
(a) (e) 7.065 x 10
-1
(b) 1.07 x 10 (f) 10
6
(c) 10 (g) x 10 7
14.33 X
r 6
(d) 5 x 10 (h) 385.76 x 10
3. Write each of the following in scientific notation.
(a) 63 x 10* (e) 362.35
3
(b) 0.157 x 10 (f ) 10 5 x 432
(c) 0.0000024 _ (g) 0.00000000305
(d) 5.265 X 10
5
(h) 69.5 x 10
I
*4. Fill in the blanks in the following to maketrue sentence.
a
Notice that in some parts scientific notation is NOT used.
(a) 0.006 = 6 x 10
(b) 0.000063 = I I x 10
(c) 0.0004015 = 4015 x 1C
(d) 6000.0 = 0.06 X 101
(e) 0.213 = 2.13 x 101
(f ) 0.213 = 213 x 10J

(g) 0.213 = I I X 10 5
(h) 0.213 = IZH x 10*

*5- Can you think of the one non-negative number that we cannot
express in scientific notation?
3-4 Multiplication; Large

._.
.
and Small
— , „ Numbers
c
already multiplied
^
You have numbers such as 10 and 10 .
c 2 R -f 3 8
Recall that 10^ x 10 = 10 = 10 . Be sure you can explain
why this is true. Often, we need to multiply numbers where
negative exponents appear in the scientific notation.
3
Multiply 4.3 x 10 5 by 2 x 10
120
(4.3 X 10 5) x (2 X 10 3) =
(4.3 X 2) X (10
5 x 10~3)
= 8.6 x -i- x
= 8.6 X -4r
10 _
= 8.6 x 10 8
According to the above, 10

"R J x 10
"^
" = —i r * —
i
=^
=
i
— =rr = 10
10 10 10
What is the result of adding ~5 and "3? Do you recall that
5 + 3 = 8? So we have shown that
10
~C
D
x 10
-Q J = 10^
(~C^ + J;
~0)
Show as above that 10 2 x 10 = lo'

2 +
'. Is the same
procedure followed when the exponents are negative as when they
are positive; that is, do you add the exponents in each instance?
Be sure you see why the answer is yes.
Now multiply 4.3 X 105 by 2 X 10 3,
(4.3 x 105) x (2 x 10 3) =
(4.3 x 2) x (105 x 10 3)
= 8.6 x (105 x
-J^.)
= 8.6 x 10^
10^
It has been shown above

Dve that 10
1(
=
5
8.6 x
x 10
"32
*
102.
10 . However
3=2 so that
3 +
105 x 10 = 10^5 3^.
~U 3 (~k' + 1\'
Show as above that 10 x 10 = 10V . We can now see
that when we multiply 10a by 10 the result is 10â
+ ' no
matter whether a and b are positive or negative.
121 3-4
There is another idea which is involved in some problems.

This ldea appears in the following where the answer is desired
In scientific notation:
(4.7 x 10 3) x (5.4 x 107)
3
=
(4.7 x 5.4) x (10 x 107)
10 ("3
+
=
25.38 x 7^
= 25.38 x 104
4
=
(2.538 x 10) x 10
= 2.538 x (10 x 104)
= 2.538 x 105.
In this problem the numbers 4.7 and 5.4 were multiplied to
obtain 25-38 and then this number was written in scientific
notation as 2.538 x 10. Then, 2.538 x 10 was multiplied by
10*.
Exercises 3-4
1. Write the following products in scientific notation.
2
(a) 10 5
x 10 (e) 0.0001 x 0.007
(b) 0.3 x 10 f (f) (5.7 x 10-3) x 10 7
6
(c) 10 7 x 10 (g) 1012 x 10-3 x lO1^
8
(d) 0.04 x 0.002 (h) 1012 x 10 7 x 10
2. Write the following products in scientific notation.
6 *
(a) 0.0012 x 0.000024 (d) 3 x 10 x 10
3
x 10 7 x
3
(b) 6 9 x 10 (e) 38 x 10 x 0.00012
3
(c) 14 x 10 x 10 5 (f) 0.000896 x 0.00635
3. Using scientific notation find the products of the following:
23
(a) 10,000 x 0.01 (c) 1017 x 10
(b) 0.00001 x 10,000,000 ,,N , n6 1 1 "4

WJ J-U ^
x jr A r A -,J.U
104 105
4 . Multiply forty-nine thousandths by the number seven and six
hundred ths using scientific notation. Express your answer
in scientific notation.
3-5 122
5. A large corporation decided to invest some of its surplus

money in bonds . If ll million
invested at
o
dollars was
an average annual rate of 3^# , what was the annual income
from this investment? Use scientific notation in the
computation, and also express your answer in scientific
notation.
6. On a certain date the debt of the U. S. Government, when
rounded to the nearest 100 billion dollars, was 300 billion
dollars. Assuming that the government pays an average rate
of interest of 3.313#, what is the number of dollars
interest paid each year? Express the answer in scientific
notation.
7. If the mass of one atom of oxygen is 2.7 x 10 "~ grams, what
"23
2T
is the mass of 40 x 10 atoms of oxygen? Express the answer
in scientific notation.
3-5. Division: Large and Small Numbers

The principles involved in division are much like those we
have been using We are familiar with the division of 10 by
n
10 . The definition of 10 as
1Qn
leads immediately to the
following example:
6
•
IO3
13*
= 10
Class Exercises 3-5

1. Using ideas similar to those used above, perform the following
divisions:
*
(a) 10 -f- 1O5
2 7
(b) 10 -^ 10
123 3-5
2. (a) Divide 107 by 102.
is i0^7" ' equal to l(r?

(b) Why
(c) Are 10
•(
4. 10
2
and 10V
(7-2)' numerals for tne same
number or different numbers?
3. (a) Find b - "3.
"
(*) Find 10^6 *) .
(c) Use the illustrative example above to determine whether
e —„ ir "o\
10 4. 10 and 10 ' are numerals for the same
number.
r"k - ^\
*"
4. (a) Find 10V .
4 4 " ^'
(b) Is 10 4- 105 equal to 10^ ? Why? (You found
the first number in la)
2
5. Is 10 4- 10 7 = 10^
2
7^?
a b
6. Write another numeral for 10 •*• 10 .
7. Perform the indicated divisions.

8
(a) 1011 4- 10 5
(b) 10 * 10 9 (c) 10
3 -5- 109
8. Is (6 x 105) 4- (3 x 102) equal

.
to |6
x i°^
\<r
?
Is the final answer 2 x 10 ?
9. Perform the indicated divisions and express the answer in

(a) (1.2 x 10-4) -f (4 x 106)
(b) (6.4 x 10 6) * (3.2 -x 10 5)
(c) (9 x 104) 4- (0.3 x 10 2)
3-5 124
Exercises .3_-5
1. Write the answers to the following in scientific notation,
(a) IO5* 102 (e) 1011* 1013
(b) 103 4- 10 (f ) 1010 4- 1020
(c) IO14 4- IO4 (g) 106 4- 1012
(d) 1017 4- 1012 (h) 103 4- IO4
2. Write the answers to the following in scientific notation.

2 13
(a) 105 4- 10 (e) 1011 4- 10
(b) 103 4- lo"1 (f) 1010 4- io"20

12
(c) IO14 4- 10~4 (g) IO6 4- 10
12 4
(d) IO17 4- 10 (h) IO3 4- 10
(a) 10 5 4- IO2 (e) io"11 4- io13

3 10
(b) 10 4- 10 (f ) 10 4- io20
l4 (g) 6
io12
(c) 10 4-104 10 4-
17 4-1012 3
(d) 10 (h) 10 4- io4
2 3 1
(a) 10 5 4- 10 (e) 10 4- 10
4 12
(b) 10 144- 10 (f) 10 17 4- 10
10
(c) lo'11* io"13 (g) 10 4- io"20
(d) io"6 4- io"12 (h) io"3 4- io"4

(a) (6 x 10 5) 4- (3 x 10 2) (d) (2.4 x 10) 4- 10

I
(b) (7 x io"3) 4- io4 (e) 9'6X10^*
h -oJ 2.4 X 10
(c) (1.2 x 10 ) 4- 10 (f) 7.6
1.9 X IO3
125 3-6
6. Pill in the blank places with the proper symbol.
(a) 12 Jg =
TO
00
=
^f = 12 x 10[==l = 1.2 x
46 = 4.6 x
(c) 0.3*=. = ,0.3 X 10
(d) 350^= =
350 x lO^Î =
3.5 x 10I=:J
If -3^*3-150x101=1 .1.3X10
7- A city government has an income of $2,760,000 for this

year. The income this year represents
of the total 3^
value of taxable property. What is the total value of
taxable property? Use scientific notation in your
computations.
8. A commuter pays* -40 per day for his fare. Would it be
reasonable to expect that he will spend one million cents
in fares before he retires? Assume that he travels 250
days per year.
*9- At the rate of ten dollars per second, about how many days
would it take to spend a billion dollars? Assume this
goes on 24 hours a day. (l day.* 8.5 x 10 seconds)
LO. The tax raised in a certain county is $160,000 on an
assessed valuation of $8,000,000. If Mr. Smith's tax is
$400 what is the assessed value of his property?
Ll. It costs about $35,000,000 to equip an armored division and
about $14,000,000 to equip an infantry division. The cost
of equipping an infantry division is what percent of the
cost of equipping an armored division?
3-6. of Exponents in Multiplying and Dividing Decimals

Use
You are familiar with the operation of multiplying two numbers
in decimal form and also with dividing one by another. The reason
for the placement of the decimal point in the answer is not under
3-6 126
stood by many people. This can be explained by using exponent

notation.
We have been writing 324.7 as 3.247 x 102. We could also
write 324.7 as 32.47 x 10 or 3247 x 10

I
or 324700 x
"o
10 , whicheverto be most convenient.
seems Do all of the
following numerals represent the same number:
0.0324, 32.4 x 10 3, 3240 x 10 5?
In this section we will be writing numbers in exponent form. This

notation is similar to scientific notation but differs from it
in that the first factor in the product does not have to be a
number between 1 and 10.
Suppose we wish to multiply -32.l4 by 1.6. Since 32.14 =
2 1
3214 x 10 and 1.6 = 16 x 10 then
32.14 x 1.6 =
(3214 x 10 2) x (16 x 10 I)
2
x 16) x (10 x 10
-1)
=
(3214
x 16) x 10
3.
=
(3214
In the actual multiplication the whole number 3214 is

multiplied by the whole number 16 to obtain the whole number
Hence, the answer to the problem is x
3.
51424. 51424 10
-•3 •
The factor 10 merely places the decimal point in proper
position. Starting from the whole number 51424 there should
be three decimal places in the result:
3
51424 10 = 51.424.
x
In actual calculation we might use a form such as
32.14 3214
2
x 10
1.6 = 16 x lo"1
19284
3214
x
3
51424 10 = 51.424
127 3-6
Class Exercises 3-6

1. Use the above procedure to find each of the following products,
(a) 6.14 x 0.42 (c) 649.3 x 14.68
(b) 0.625 X 0.038 (d) 11.4 X 0.0031
Now consider division. Let us divide 14.72 by 6.1,
2
14.72 = 1472 X 10
6.1 61 x 10*1
- W2 x 10(-2
- "I) = 1472 x ^
First we divide 1472 6l. This is an operation on
by
whole numbers though a decimal fraction may appear in the quotient,
The result of this operation is 24.13. This part of the
quotient is correct to two decimal places. But we must multiply
24.13 by 10 I.
Hence,
"^'I2 = 24.13 X 10
I = 2.413.
o.l
The final answer for this problem is now correct to three decimal
places. Once again the exponent "1 is used to fix the position
of the decimal point in the answer. Note that powers of ten were
used in such a fashion that actually we were dividing one whole
number by another whole number.
Remember that you can have as many decimal places in the
answer as are needed.
Exercises 3-6
1. Place the decimal point in the products to make the following
number sentences true.
(a) 6021 x 0.00003 =

(6021) X (3 X 10 5) = 18063
(b) 3.42 X 0.02 =
(342 X_ 10 2) x (2 x 10 2) = 684
(c) 2.5 x 3,000 =

(25 x 10 x) x (3 x 103) = 75
3-6 128
(d) 54.73 x 7.3 =

(5473 x 10 2) x (73 x 10 1) =
399529
(e) 1200 X 0.006 =

(12 X 102) x (6 X 10 3) = 72
2. Pill blanks with proper symbols.
-1 —1
(a) 4.52 = 45.2 x 10 =
452 x lO"—
(b) 0.012 = 1.2 X 10

2 = 12 X lo' '
I 1 1
6.5 x 65 x 10
' =
(c) 65000 = 101
-1 2
(d) 38.216 = 382.16 x 10 = 3821.6 x 10 = 38216 x 10^—^
(e) 6.37 x 104 =

63.7 x 103 =
637 x 102 =1 I x 10°
(f) 0.003 X 105 = 3 X lo' ' = 30 X 10 ' '
(g) 41.2 X 10 3 = 0.412 X 10 : = I 0. I x 10°

Place the decimal point in the quotients to make the following
sentences true.
, 6004 6004 X 10°
x
= = onno X
6Q(Jd in2
v 10 =
=73— "
2 X 10
3
0.366 =
366 x 10
6l x 10"l
6 x 10
4'
(c) 0.32 | 56.0064 =
(32 x 10 *) | 560064 x 10 = 17502
3
/ v 0.084 = 84 x 10 " 7
( ^
1200°
12 x 10J
1
(e) 0 =
2 x 10 m
°-001' ''
125 x 10
->
4. Multiply using exponent notation.

(a) 135 x 0.06 (d) 0.0035 x 16.301
(b) 76,000 X 3,000 =
(e) 6,000,000 x 0.0275
Hint: (76 X 103) x (3 X 103)
(c) 18,000 X 0.0003 (f) 0.07 X 300 X 0.02 X 6,000
5. Divide using exponent notation.
(a) 6.3*0.3 (d)
(b) 0.78 * 13 (e) 0.27 |
0.84402
(r>\ 8750
(c) B7T5
129 3-7
*6. Use exponents to place the decimal point in the answer.
418.6 x 0.019 = 6ll8

0.13
*7. How many pieces of popcorn each weighing 0.04 ounces will
it take to make enough to fill 840 bags? Each bag will
contain 6 ounces of popcorn.
8. BRAINBUSTER: A flying
saucer can travel at 100,000 miles
a second. About how long (in years) will it take it to
visit and return from a star that is light years 5^-
away?
1 light year % 6.3 x 1012 miles
1 year * 3.2 x 10' seconds
3-7 The Metric System

The system of measures which is used most widely in the
United States is usually called the English system. of the
Some
units in this system are the inch, foot, yard, mile, pound, etc.
In most other countries, the system of measures used is the
metric system in which the basic unit of linear measure is the
meter. In the year 1789 a group of French mathematicians were
called together to develop a simplified system of weights and
measures. They decided that since their system of numeration
was a decimal (base ten) system, it would be a good idea to have
a decimal basis for a system of measures. In such a system there
would be a basic unit, ten. The other units would be a power
of ten times the basic unit. With such a system it would be
easy to convert from one unit to another. It would only require
multiplying or dividing by a power of ten. This will become
clearer as we proceed.
N. Pole
3-7 130
TheFrench mathematicians calculated

the distance from the North pole to the
equator on the meridian through Paris.
They took of this distance
10,000,000
Meter =
for their unit of length.
I
defining
By 10,000,000
the unit in this way, the original
distance could be measured again if the standard bar of unit
length were ever lost.
They named the unit of length the meter. A meter is a
little longer than a yard, namely 39.37 inches.

Other units of length in the metric system are as follows:
For shorter distances,
1 decimeter = -TT: of a meter = 0.1 meter
1 1
1 centimeter = of a decimeter or x = of a
To -r-^-
10
-T-TT
10 100
meter 0.01 meter
=
1 millimeter = -=-rr of a centimeter or

TO
X
(lOO
of a meter)
of a meter = 0.001 meter,
For longer distances,

1 dekameter = 10 meters
1 hectometer = 10 dekameters or 10 X 10 = 10 meters
1 kilometer = 10 hectometers or 10 X 10 X 10 = 10 meters.
attempts have been made to get the United States to adopt
Many
the metric system for general use. Thomas Jefferson in the
Continental Congress worked for a decimal system of money and
measures but succeeded only in securing a decimal system of
coinage. When John Quincy Adams was Secretary of State, he
foresaw world metric standards in his 1821 "Report on Weights

and Measures." In 1866, Congress authorized the use of the
metric system, making it legal for those who wished to use it.
Finally, in 1893, by act of Congress, the meter was made the
131 3-7
standard of length in the United States. The yard and the

pound are now officially defined in terms of the metric units,
the meter and the kilogram.
A sudden complete change from our common units (yards, feet,
inches, ounces, pounds, etc.) to metric units would cause great
confusion. However, many people think that we will gradually
change over to the metric system. Since all scientists and
people in most foreign countries use the metric system, it is
important for us to be familiar with it.
The following table shows the plan of linear metric units.
Notice how useful the exponent notation is, in showing rela
tionships in the metric system. Abbreviations for the unit
names appear in the second row of the table.
Table 1
1 kilometer 1 hectometer 1 dekameter 1 meter

1 km. 1 hm. 1 dkm 1m
1000 m. 100 m. 10 m.
103 m. 102- m. 101 m. 10° m.
1 decimeter 1 centimeter 1 millimeter

1 dm. 1 cm. 1 mm.
m- m* m.
To loo Tooo
10"1 m. 10"2 m. 10"3 m.
Notice that all the names of the metric units (except "meter")
use the word "meter" with a prefix. It is
important to remember
these prefixes, because they are used also to name other units
of measure in the metric system.
3-7 132
Prefix Meaning
kilo 1000 or 103

p
hecto 100 or 10
deka 10 or 10
dec! or 10 '1
cent! y or 10 "2
mill! or
Exercises 3-7a
1. Write in expanded form each of the following:
Example: 1234.56? =
(l x 103) + (2 x 102) + (3 x 101) +
(4 x 10°) + (5 x4> 100;
1234.567 meters = 1 kilometer +

2 hectometers +
3 dekameters +
4 meters +
5 decimeters +
6 centimeters +
7 millimeters
or: 1 km. + 2 hm. +3 dkm. + 4 m. +5 dm. +6 cm. +7mrn.
(a) 1111.111 meters (d) 0.564 m.
(b) 5.342 m. (e) 6043.278 m.
(c) 245.36 m. (f) 2020.202 m.
Complete each of the following:
(a) 1 kilometer = hectometers
(b) 1 kilometer - dekameters
(c) 1 kilometer = meters
(d) 1 kilometer = decimeters
(e) 1 kilometer = centimeters
(f) 1 kilometer = millimeters
133 3-7
Fill in each blank with the correct number.

(a) 5 m. = cm.
(b) 200 cm. = mm .
(c) 500 m. = km.
(d) 2.54 cm. = mm .
(e) 1.5 km. = m.
(f) 3.25 m. = cm.

(g) 3500 m. = km.
(h) 474 cm. = m.
(i) 5.5 cm. = mm .
(J) 6.25 m. = cm.
4. A meter was originally

defined to be in QQQ QQQ of tne
distance on the earth's surface from the North Pole, to the
equator. Using scientific notation express the number of
(a) meters in the circumference of the earth;
(b) dekameters in the circumference of the earth;
(c) hectometers in the circumference of the earth.
Nowthat you are familiar with the various units of metric
linear measurement, let us study the metric units of area, volume,
mass, and capacity.
You have learned how to find the areas of the interior of a
variety of simple closed curves. You also learned how to find
the volumes of the interior of various rectangular solids. You
chose a square region as the best unit of measure for the area of
the interior of the closed curves. The interior of a cube was
chosen as the unit of measure for the volume of the interior of
the rectangular solids .
The metric unit for measuring areas is also a square region.
The measurement of the edges of this square is one meter. The
area of the interior of this square region is called one square
meter (abbreviation 1 sq. m.).
3-7 134
Figure 1 below ls a picture of one Square centimeter

(l sq. cm.)-
Figure 1
J x cm- =
TSo
of a meter 1 sq. cm. = - x
100
1 cm. =
100
of a meter
sq
107000
We can now show the multiples and subdivision of the square meter.
Table 2
"
( #" refers to the units that are used most frequently)
Length # km. hm. dkm. # m. dm. # cm. # mm.
1 -_1
1000m. 100m. 10m. 1m. ^^•™»TT1 m m
10 100 1000
103m. 102m. loV 10°m. urtt. 10" 2m. 10" 3u
Area sq , km. sq.hm. sq .dkm. 1 sqjn, sq .dm. sq . cm . sq.mm,
(1000)2sq.m. (lOofaq.m 102 1 sqjn. ^Psqjn, — Psq, TU -1

sq.m. 10^ 100 lOodlq.m.
Exercises 3-7b
1. Complete each of the following:
2
Example: 1 sq . dkm. --10 sq. m. or 100 sq. m.
(a) 1 sq. hm. = 100 sq.m. or sq .m,

p
(b) 1 sq. km. = 1000 sq.m.or _sq .m.
(c) 1 sq. dm. =
(— )" sq.m. or sq.m.
10
(d) 1 sq. cm. = / 1 \2 sq.m. or __ sq . m .
^100
(e) 1 sq. mm. =

f 1 \2 sq.m. or sq. m.
135 3-7
2 Draw a sketch to illustrate

(c) in Problem 1.
3 Find the area of a rectangular closed region with the
following dimensions. Be sure that both dimensions are
expressed in the same unit.
Length Width
(a) 35 cm. 9.2 cm.
(b) 1.68 m. 7.6 m.
(c) .97 m. 37 cm.
(d) 1.25 mm. 1.2 cm.

Express the area in Problem 3 (b) in square centimeters.
5. What is the area of the interior of a circle whose radius
is 6m.? Use 3.14 for ir.
6. Find the area in of a square closed region
square meters
160 cm. on a side.
7. If the area of the interior of a parallelogram is 783
sq. cm. and the base is 27 cm., what is the altitude?
The metric unit of measure for measuring volume is a

cubical solid. length of each edge of this cube
The 1 is
meter. The volume of this cubical solid is called 1 cubic
meter (1 cu . m . ) .
Figure 2 below is a drawing of 1 cubic centimeter

( 1 cu . cm . ) .
1 cu. cm. = m x m X m
1
1,000,000 cu. m
lcm?iobm
3-7 136
Now we can also show the multiples subdivisions

of the cubic
and
meter. ( # refers to the units that are used most frequently)
#km. hm. dkm. #m. dm. cm. mm.
$
i
Length
1000m. 100m. 10m. m. Agmm.
1
052*.
sq .km. sq .hm. sq.dkm. sq ,m. sq .dm. sq . cm . sq .mm.

«J
lOsq.dkm.
1
(1000)2 (ioo)2 sq.m.
1
[7
<u
ioo2 1000
sq.km. sq .hm.
sq .dm. sqcm.
cu.km. cu.hm. cu.dkm. cu.m. cu.dm. su . cm . cu.mm.
l( 1000)
0)
1
I?
3
(ioo)3 do)3 cu.m. cu.mm.

1
-D
rH
o ioo3 1000°
cu.km cu.hm. cu.dkn. cu .dm. cu . cm .
Exercises 3-7c
1. Complete each of the following:
Example: There are 10^ or 1000 cu.m. in cu.dkm.
1
or in
3
(a) There are 100 cu.m. cu.hm.

1
(b) There are 10003 or cu.m. in cu.km.

1
(c) There are or cu.m. in cu.dm.

1
(d) There are or cu.m. in cu.cm.

1
(e) There are or cu.m. In cu.mm.

1
137 3-7
2. A rectangular solid has dimensions of 6 cm., 7 cm., and

8.4 cm. Calculate the volume of the interior of this solid.
Recall that the volume of this interior of a rectangular
solid is equal to the product of the measures of the length,
width, and height, when the measurements are expressed in
the same unit .
3. What is the volume of the interior of rectangular solid

a
whose height is 14 mm. and whose base has an area of
36.5 sq. cm.?
The metric unit for the measure of mass was defined as the
weight of water contained by a vessel whose volume is one cubic
centimeter. The mass of 1 cubic centimeter of water is called
a gram. Thus, when we know the volume of the interior of a con
tainer, immediately know the mass of water it can contain.
we
For example, if
the volume of the interior of a container is 500
cu. cm., then the mass of water it can contain is 500 grams.
Capacity is another name for volume, and it usually refers
to those vessels that can contain something, while volume refers
to any portion of three dimensional space.
A box is a rectangular solid. You have learned how to find
the volume of its interior. To speak of its capacity is to
refer to what it can contain.
In everyday life in America, we may say the capacity of a
tank is a certain number of gallons, its volume is so many
cubic feet, and the weight of its contents is so many pounds.
To measure capacity we usually use special units, such as pint,
quart, and gallon in the English system.
In the metric system the usual unit of capacity is the liter.
It is defined to be the capacity of a cube whose edges each
measure 10 centimeters or decimeter.
1 Thus a cube, the length
of whose edges is 1 decimeter, has a volume of 1000 cu. cm.
It can contain a mass of 1000 grams of water and its capacity
is 1 liter. One liter is about 1 quart.
3-7 138
Now we can also show the multiples and subdivisions of the

gram and of the liter. You can see how each kind of measure
follows the pattern as the others.
same (# refers to the units
that are used most frequently; L, to length; A, to area; V, to
volume; M, to mass; and C, to capacity. )
L # km. hm. dkm. # m. dm. # cm. # mm.
lsq.km.= 1 sq.hm.= lsq.dkm.= Isq.m. lsq.dm.= lsq.cm.= 1sq.mm .=

A 1 1 1
(1000)2 (100)2 do)2
sq.ra. sq.m sq.m . 102 1002 10002
sq.m. sq.m. sq.m.
leu. km. = lcu.hm.= leu. dkm. = Icu.m. leu. dm. = leu. cm. = leu. mm. =
1 1
V (1000)3
cu.m.
(100)3
cu.m.
do)3
cu.m. I?
cu.m.
1003
cu.m.
10003
cu.m.
1 kgm. 1 hgm. 1 dkgm. 1 gm. 1 dgm. 1 cgm. 1 mgm.

M
1000 gm. 100 gm. 10 gm.
15 &"- loo6171- I5oo s"1-
i/.
C
1
1000
ky.
/.
1
100
hj>.
J .
1
10
dk^.
j> .
1 d/.
fc>
1
100
cJ.
f-
i
iSo"o~y-
my.
table above clearly shows the use of the decimal system

The
of notation. However, it does not conveniently reveal the
correspondence between the units of measure for volume, mass,
and capacity.
Table 5 below shows this correspondence more clearly.
Table 5
Volume Mass of- Water Capacity

1 cubic centimeter 1 gram 1 milliliter
1 cubic decimeter 1 kilogram 1 liter
(1000 cu. cm. ) (1000 grams) (1000 milliliters)
1 cubic meter 1 kiloliter
(1000 cubic decimeters) 1 metric ton (1000 liters)
139 3-7
Exercises 3-7d
1. Write in expanded form:

(a) 4444.444 grams
(b) 567.8 grams

2. The volume of a rectangular solid is 352.8 cu. cm.
What is the mass of water that it can contain, expressed
in:
(a) grams?
(b) kilograms?
3. Write in expanded form:
(a) 6666.666 liters
(b) 2.03 liters
4. (a) What is the capacity in milliliters of the rectangular
solid mentioned in Problem 2 above?
(b) What is its capacity in liters?
Often it is
necessary to convert from the metric system to
the English system, and vice versa. Table 6 gives a conversion
list of the more commonly used measures.
Table 6_
Metric English
2.5^ centimeters % 1 inch
1 meter % 1.1 yards % 39-37 in.
1 kilometer or 0.6 miles
.£.
liter % quart
1
Exercises 3-7e
1. Convert each of the following metric measurements to equiva
lent English measurements. You may refer to the table of
conversions .
(a) 25.4 cm. = in. (the length of the usual slide rule)
3-7 140
(b) 100 meters & yds.

(c) 200 meters & yds. A few of the stand
meters & yds. distances for trac
(d) 400 ^
^
and field events.
(e) 800 meters & yds.
(f ) 1500 meters & yds.
(g) 10 kilometers & miles.
(h) 100 kilometers % miles.
(i) 4 liters * quarts ~ gallons.
(j) 60 liters * quarts ~ gallons.
A cubical tank measures 6 feet 9 inches each way and
is filled with water,
(a) Find its volume in cubic inches,
(b) Find its volume in cubic feet. Recall that 1?28
cubic inches = 1 cubic foot .
(c,) Find the weight of the water. Recall that 1 cubic
foot of water weighs 62.4 Ib.
The dimensions of the tank in Problem 2 are about 2.06
meters each way.
(a) Find its volume in cubic meters.
(b) Find its contents in liters. Recall that there are
1000 liters in a cubic meter.
(c) What is Recall that 1 liter
the mass of the water?
of water has mass of 1 kilogram.
How did the time needed to solve Problem 3 compare with
the time to solve Problem 2? What is the main advantage
of computing in the metric system?
Research Problems:
Use the Twentieth Yearbook of the National Council of
Teachers of_ Mathematics as your reference book.
(a) Collect a list of all the various units of measurement

for length, area, volume, and capacity that you can
find listed in your reference book. Bring this list
to school.
3-7
(t>) Write a composition on "Why I Prefer the English System

of Measuresto the Metric System" or "Why I Prefer the
Metric System of Measures to the English System." You
may use your reference book to aid you in getting
information.
(c) Which weighs more, a pound of feathers or a pound of
gold?
The following table the work with the metric

summarizes
system. From this table you can derive all of the multiples
and subdivisions presented in Table 5.
Table J
Length
10 millimeters (mm.) = 1 centimeter (cm.)
100 centimeters (cm.) = 1 meter (m.)
1000 meters (m.) = 1 kilometer (km.)
Capacity
1000 milliliters = 1 liter (1.)
Mass
1000 grams (g.) = 1 kilogram
1000 kilograms (kg.) = 1 metric ton (t.)
Chapter 4
DRAWINGS AND CONSTRUCTIONS
4-1. Introduction to Mathematical Drawings and Constructions

Drawing pictures and diagrams helps us solve many problems.
Aeronautical engineers draw pictures of each part of a new plane
to help them study the problems involved. Architects make scale
drawings of floor plans and pictures of how completed buildings
will look before the actual building is started. Theatrical
directors sketch the stage and the location of properties to
help decide how a certain scene should be staged. A carpenter
makes drawings of the object that he is building. Electricians
make diagrams to show how a machine should be wired. Many of
your problems will be much easier to solve if you develop the
habit of drawing pictures or diagrams to help you see the
relations in your problem. Sometimes silly mistakes are made
because students do not take the time to draw a picture of a
problem situation.
For some problems the drawings need not take long to make
and need not be carefully drawn. For such problems a rough
sketch of the situation is often sufficient to help. Rough
sketches can be drawn freehand in such cases. Although "roughly"
drawn the sketch may help you "see" the problem. There is no
sense in wasting time on an accurate drawing if
a rough sketch
will serve.
Some problems can be solved by measuring drawings, but when
drawings are used this way they should be accurate representations,
Two types of accurate drawings will be studied in this chapter,
scale drawings and constructions.
Scale drawings are drawings that have the same shape as the
object they represent but may be different in size. House plans
and maps are examples of scale drawings. The angles in scale
drawings are the same as the angles in the object but the
measures of the segments are different. Each segment of the scale
4-1
drawing will have the same ratio to represents as

the segment it
every other segment in that drawing has to the segment it repre
sents. Proportions are useful in working with scale drawings.
Another type of accurate drawing that will be studied in this
chapter is a compass and straightedge construction. These con
structions are drawings that are made by using only two tools, a
compass and a straightedge. Of course, a pencil (or chalk) can be
used. Since "compass and straightedge construction" is such a long
phrase, the single word construction will be used in this chapter
to mean drawings that are made with a compass and straightedge only.
A straightedge is a ruler without any units marked on it. It is
used to make lines straight; not to measure their lengths.
Many tools are used to make accurate drawings. A man whose
job is to accurate drawings
make
is called a draftsman. He uses a
compass and a straightedge, but he
uses many other tools. Draftsmen
use such tools as protractors, T-
squares, 30-60 triangles, 45-45
triangles, rulers, parallel rulers,
pantographs, and French Curves to
help make drawings accurate. You
will be using some of these tools
but others are too expensive to
use at this time.
Exercises 4-1
1. Find out what these tools are and how they are used by draftsmen.
(a) 30-60 triangle.
-
(b) French Curves.
(c) Pantograph.
IN SOLVING THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS, DECIDE WHETHER A ROUGH SKETCH OR
AN ACCURATE DRAWING IS HELPFUL. MEASURES OF AN ACCURATE DRAWING

CAN BE USED TO FIND ANSWERS. MAKE THE RIGHT TYPE DRAWING, THEN
SOLVE THE PROBLEM.
4-1
2. The Greens bought a lot that is rectangular in shape and has an
area of 9375 sq. ft. The length of the sidewalk that runs in
front of the lot is 75 ft. How deep is the lot?
3. A building lot is in the shape of a trapezoid. The parallel
sides are 162 ft. and 183 ft. One of the other sides is 127
ft. the fourth side is 130 ft.
and How many feet of fencing
are needed to enclose this lot?
4. Adiagonal street intersects two parallel streets so as to form
a 6o°-angle with each of the parallel streets. the perpen If
dicular distance between the two streets is 300 ft., how long
is the diagonal street? (Hint: Until you know more mathe
matics, you need to measure an accurate drawing for this.)
5. Mrs. Hill paid $17.52 for a dress that was on sale. The regular
price had been reduced 20°/0. What was the regular price?
6. A rectangular porch is 9 feet by 12 feet. How long a clothes
line can be hung on the porch if
it is stretched from one
corner to the opposite corner?
7. Mr. Wilson divided the money in his savings account between his
two children, Tim and Sally, so that Sally received 55 and Tim
45% If Sally received $192.50, how much did Tim receive?
8. A certain trapezoid has two right angles. The parallel lines
are one foot and two feet long. The perpendicular distance
between the parallel sides is TT of a foot. How long is the
3
fourth side?
9- The inside diameter of a pipe is 9 inches. The material of the
pipe is TT inch thick. What is the outside diameter?
A cross section of a doughnut is 4 -j- inches in diameter and
1
10. *
the width of a cross section is 1 75- inches. What. is the diam
1
eter of the side?

11. BRAINBUSTER: A farmer plans to divide his land equally among
his sons. land is shaped like the diagram.

The When he had
two sons, he planned to divide it as shown. It was easy to

divide when he had three sons. Now he has four sons. How can
he divide the land so that each son gets the same amount
in the same shape?
4-2 146
Divided for 2 sons Divided for 3 sons How should it be

divided for 4 sons?
4-2. Protractor and Ruler Drawings .

In section 4-1, you learned about some of the tools draftsmen
use. In this section you will use a few of these tools to draw
figures accurately.
The tools alone cannot produce accuracy. You must use them in
a way that gives accurate results. You have rulers for a long
used
time. To use with accuracy you match
them endpoints carefully.
Make sure that your eyes are in line with the point you read. It
is better not to use the zero point on most rulers. Why?
You will use protractors for the work in this section also.
The points you need to check in order to use a protractor accurately
are given here. center of the diameter must be placed on one
The
ray carefully. If
the other ray of the angle is not long enough
to reach the scale of the protractor, extend the ray or lay a
straightedge carefully along the ray. Check to see that you use
the correct scale on the protractor. You may need to review the
use of a protractor with your teacher.
You may have T-squares or triangles available. These are use
ful in drawing some angles .
Plane figures.
Plane figures are figures that lie completely on a surface
such as your paper or the chalkboard. Lines, angles, and polygons
are examples of plane figures.
Lines are the simplest of these figures. The relation of two
or more lines on a plane is of special interest. Perpendicular
147 4-2
lines lines that intersect so as to form 90 angles. Parallel

are
lines are two or more lines that do not intersect, or, in set
language, lines whose intersection is the empty set.
Perpendiculars may be drawn accurately with the aid of a pro
tractor. At any point on a line, measure an angle of 90 . The
rays may be extended to form lines. Lines, rays, or segments may
be perpendicular to each other.
The edges of rulers are considered to be parallel.

most A
quick way to draw two parallel lines is simply to draw a line on
each side of such a ruler without moving it. Of course, this
method has limited use since all such parallel lines are the same
distance apart. To overcome this difficulty the protractor is
needed. Protractors can be used to draw parallel lines accurately
if you remember that corresponding angles are equal when formed by
parallel lines and a transversal. A transversal is a line that
crosses or more lines.
two To draw lines that are parallel when a
protractor is used, follow these directions.
a. Draw one line. Use your protractor to draw a line that
crosses the first one so that angles of 90° are formed at the inter
section of the two lines.
4-2 148
b. Draw athird line so that 90° angles are formed at the

intersection of the second line and the transversal.
Which lines are parallel? Point out the corresponding angles.

Naming points on the drawing will help you do this. When drawing
parallel lines, does the second line have to cross the first one
so as to form angles of 90°? Show how parallel lines can be drawn
when the lines are not perpendicular to the transversal.
One figure that needs some explanation is the parallelogram.
A parallelogram is a four-sided figure whose opposite sides lie on
parallel lines. Rectangles and squares are parallelograms but at
this time parallelograms with angles other than 90° will be con
sidered. To draw a parallelogram, use these steps:
a. Draw a line segment AB.
b. At the points A and B draw parallel rays on the
same side of that are not perpendicular to AB.
AB
c. Measure segments of equal length on these parallel rays
from points A and B , and label the endpoints of
these segments C and D.
d. Connect C and D.
As an example, draw a parallelogram whose sides are 1 inch and 2
inches that has one angle of 75°.
4-2
Triangles
Triangles can be drawn with a ruler protractor if you
and know
the measure of two sides and the angle between those sides, or if
you know the measures of two angles and the length of the side
between the angles.
For the first set of measures, two sides and the angle between
the sides, follow these steps:
a. Use your protractor to draw an angle of the given size.
b. Use your ruler to measure one side of the triangle on
one ray of the angle. Be sure the measure starts at
the vertex.
c. Measure the other side on the second ray of the angle.
d. Connect the endpoints of the segments to form the third
side.
As an example, draw a triangle with a 40° angle between
sides that
at are 2 inches and
an 1 - inches long. Your completed draw
ing should look like this:
l-V
2"
When two angles and the side between the angles are known, a
triangle is drawn by using the following steps:
a. Use the ruler to draw a segment with the same length
given in the problem.
b. Use your protractor to measure one angle. The vertex
of this angle should be at one endpoint of the segment.
The segment is one side of the triangle.
c. Measure the other angle so that the vertex is at the
4-2 150
other endpoint of the segment and on the same side of

the segment as the first angle.
d. Extend the rays of the two angles until they intersect.
CAUTION: Be sure you use the correct scale on the protractor to
measure these angles. One scale is used for one angle, and the
other scale for the second angle.

As an example, draw a triangle with angles of 40° and 70°, and with
the side between these angles 2 inches long. Your completed draw
ing should look like this:
2"
Exercises 4-2
1. Draw segments whose lengths are:
a. 2inches
TT b. 1 •£- inches c. 4 yz- inches
2. Draw angles whose measures are:
a. 42° b. 174° c. 300°
3. a. Draw a horizontal line and mark two points, A and B, on
it. Draw perpendiculars at each point.
b. What is the relationship between the last two lines drawn?
4. oblique line and mark two points A and B. Draw
Draw an
lines through points A and B so that they are parallel to each
other and so that each line intersects the oblique line forming
angles of 60°.
5. a. Draw a triangle that has two angles of 60° with a side 2 i
inches long between the angles,
b. kind of triangle is this?
What
6. Draw a triangle with sides of 2 TT inches and 1 TT inches. The
angle formed by these sides is 110°.
151 4-3
7. a. Draw a segment. Label the endpolnts A and B. At B
draw a segment perpendicular to AB. Label the endpoint

C. Draw "AC.
b. What kind of triangle is this?

c. What is the sum of the measures of angles BAG and ACB ?
4-3. Basic Constructions

plane geometric figures, and any avail
You have been drawing
able mechanical aid has been used to help you draw these pictures
accurately. The ancient Greeks, who were the first people to make
a science of geometry, had rules about the tools that could be
used in geometry. Only two tools could be used. A straightedge
could be used straight line segments.
to make A compass could be
used to draw circles and arcs, and to measure segments of equal
length. An arc is any part of a circle. Notice that a compass
will not measure a segment in inches or other unit, but it can
any
be used to make a segment the same length as some other segment.
In this chapter, geometric drawings made with compass and straight
edge are called constructions.
In this section you will learn the basic constructions used
in geometry. You will learn about some figures, problems, and
designs that can be done with the compass and straightedge only.
4-3 152
By following directions and completing each construction, you

will able to discover the basic constructions
be for yourself.
There will be six of these basic constructions.
1. Copying a segment
a. Draw a working line a little
< ~ ~ >
longer than the segment that
is being copied. Step a
b. Place the point of the compass

at one endpoint of the segment
that is being copied.
c. Open the compass until the
pencil touches the other
endpoint. (The distance IB
between the point of the
compass and the end of the Steps b and c
pencil is the radius of the
compass . )
d. Without changing the radius

of the compass, place the
point of the compass on the
working line and mark an A1 B1
arc where the pencil crosses

the line. The segment from
the point where the compass
point is placed to the inter
section of the arc and the Step d
line segment is the same
length as the original segment.
Any time that you need segments of equal length, this construction
is used.
153 4-3
2. Bisecting a line segment. The word bisect means to cut into

two equal parts.
a. Place the point of the
compass at one endpoint
of the segment. Set the
compass so that its radius
is more than half of the
distance between the two
endpoints.
b. Draw arcs above and below

the center of the segment.
Be sure the arcs are long
enough to include points
above and below the center.
c. Without changing the

radius of the compass,
place the compass point
at the other endpoint .
y
Draw arcs that cross the
first two arcs.
d. Draw a segment through >

the points where the arcs
cross. This segment bi
sects the original segment,
Measure the two parts of the original segment. Are they the
same length? How are the segment and the bisector, that was con
structed, related?
4-3
3. Bisecting an angle
Place the point of the

compass on the vertex of
the angle.
Draw an arc that crosses
the rays of the angle.
Label the points where the
arcs cross the rays C
and D.
compass at C. Be sure
the compass is set so that
its radius is more than
half of the distance
between C and D.
Draw an arc that crosses
the central part of the
interior of the angle.
Without changing the set
of the compass, place its
point at D.
f. Draw an arc that crosses
the arc drawn with C as
the center.
g. Connect the vertex with

the point of intersection
of the arcs .
Use your protractor to measure the two angles. Are they equal?
155 4-3
Exercises 4-3a
1. Use your ruler to draw a horizontal line 1 -^ inches long.
Construct a vertical segment the same length.
Use your ruler to draw a vertical segment 2 -jr inches long.
3
2.
Construct a horizontal segment the same length.

3
3. Use your ruler to draw an oblique segment 3 TT inches long.
Construct a horizontal segment the same length.
^. Bisect each segment that you constructed in problems 1-3. Use
only compass and straightedge.
5. Draw an acute angle and bisect it. Use compass and straightedge
6. Draw an obtuse angle and bisect it. Use compass and straight
edge .
7. a. Draw a triangle and construct the perpendicular bisector of

each side. Extend these bisectors until they cross each
other.
b. What do you notice about this figure?
8. Draw a segment and then divide it into 4 equal parts. Use
compass and straightedge only.
Additional basic constructions . Perpendiculars and angles of equal

size.
In section 4-2, you used a protractor and possibly some other
tools to draw perpendiculars. Perpendiculars can be constructed
also. Slightly different constructions will be given for two
different conditions. A perpendicular may be constructed from a
point that is on a line, or it may be constructed to a line from
any point in the plane that is not on the line. The principles
are the same in these constructions but the technique is slightly
different.
4-3 156
Erecting & perpendicular from ja point on a- line
a. Place the point of the

compass on the designated
point , P .
b. Mark two arcs so that they

cross the line at equal
distances from the point.
Set the compass to a slightly

larger radius and place
the point at the inter
section of the line and
one arc.
Draw an arc above (or
below) the point.
e. Place the point of the

compass at the other inter
section and draw an arc
that crosses the one drawn
in step d.
f. Connect the original point

to the point where the
arcs cross.
Use your protractor to check this construction. Do the two lines

meet to form 90° angles?
157
5 - Erecting a perpendicular from a point not on the line
Set the compass so that

the radius is larger than
the distance from the point
to the line. Place the
point of the compass on the
B
designated point.
Draw an arc that grosses
the line at two points.
Label these points A and B.
compass at point A.
Draw an arc on the side
of the line opposite the
original point.
e . Repeat step d from

point B.
B.
f . Draw a line that passes

through the original point
and the intersection of
the two arcs.
\/
Check with your protractor to see if the two lines are perpendicular.
158
6. Copying an angle
Draw a base line, part of

which will be used as one
ray of the angle.
Place the point on the
compass at the vertex of
the angle and draw an arc
through both rays of the
angle.
From a point on the base
line, draw an arc with the
same radius.
compass at the intersection
of one ray of the original
angle and the arc that
crosses it. Measure the
distance to the other
intersection with the
compass.
With the compass set at
the measured distance,
place the point at the
intersection of the base
line arc.
and the Draw an
arc that crosses the
original arc.
Draw a ray from the point
on the base line through
the intersection of the
arcs.
Use your protractor to check this construction, Are the angles the
same size?
159 4-3
Exercises 4-3b
Use your ruler to draw a horizontal 4 -^ inch segment. Leave
about 3 inches above the segment. Mark points as follows:
a. On the segment, 1 inch from the left endpoint.
b. About 1 i
inches above the center of the segment.
c. At the right endpoint.
Construct perpendiculars that pass through each point.
Draw an acute angle and an obtuse angle. Copy each angle using
compass and straightedge only.
a. Draw a triangle. Then construct the bisector of each
angle. Extend the bisectors until they cross.
b. What notice about the figure?
do you
Draw an obtuse angle and divide it into four equal angles. Use
compass and straightedge.
a. Draw a triangle. Then erect perpendiculars from each
vertex to the opposite side. Extend the perpendiculars
until they cross. (It may be necessary to extend the
sides of the triangle so that the perpendicular meets
this line. )
b. What do you notice in this figure?

a. Draw a line and place a point on it. With the point as
the center, construct an arc that intersects the line
at two points. This is the start of the construction
for erecting a perpendicular.
b. Construct the bisector of the segment formed by the
intersections of the arc with the line.
c. How are the constructions for bisecting a segment and
erecting a perpendicular alike?
d. What are the differences, if any?
Give directions for construction of perpendiculars that
one
could be used no matter whether the point is on or off a line.
4-4 160
4-4. Construction Problems

The basic constructions that you have studied in the last two
lessons can be used in many different ways. At this time we will
explore only a few. When you study geometry in high school, you
will find many more. This will be a discovery lesson. neces If
sary, short explanations will accompany a problem.
Exercises 4-4
1. Draw a line segment about as long
as this one. A
a. Measure the segment with your compass. Using this radius,

draw a circle with one endpoint of the segment as the
center.
b. With the same radius and the other endpoint as center, draw
another circle.
c. At how many points do the circles intersect?
d. Choose one point where the two circles intersect and draw
segments from this point to each endpoint of the original
segment .
e. Compare the measure of the three segments.

f . What kind of triangle did you construct?
g. Is it necessary to draw complete circles in order to con
struct a triangle? How much of the circles are necessary?
h. Measure each angle of the triangle with your protractor,
i. Explain why the segments are the same length.
2. Construct a triangle whose sides are the same length as the
segments given here.
Hint: Does fact that the segments have different lengths

the
change the basic principle of construction used in problem 1 ?
161 4-4
List the steps needed to construct a triangle when the lengths

of the three sides are known. Follow the form used in the book
for basic constructions,
a. Construct a triangle with the same length as the
a base
segment drawn here, and with the angles at each end of the
base the same as these.
Hint: Use the base as one side of each angle.

b. Will all triangles constructed with these measures look
alike? This construction is used to draw triangles when
two angles and the side between these angles are known,
a. Construct a triangle w3,th two sides the same size as these
segments and with the angle formed by these segments the
same size as the angle drawn here.
Will all triangles constructed with these measures look

alike? This construction is used when two sides and the
angle between those sides are known.
Construct right triangle that has one acute angle of 60°.
a
Hint: How can an equilateral triangle be used as the basis
for this? How many degrees in each angle of an equilateral
triangle? How can you make two right triangles from an
equilateral triangle?
How many degrees are there in the measure of the third
angle of this particular right triangle?
4-4 162
7. a. Construct a right triangle that has one acute angle of 45 .
Hint: How can a right angle be used to construct a 45°

angle?
b. How many degrees are in the third angle?
8. Construct a segment that is equal in length to the sum of these
two segments .
In exercises 4-3a and 4-3b, you bisected the sides of a

triangle, the angles of a triangle and constructed perpendicu
lars from each vertex to the opposite sides. If you worked
carefully, the bisectors or perpendiculars in each case inter
sected in a single point. When three or more lines intersect
in one point, they are called concurrent lines. (Concurrent
means running together.)
9. Draw the following:
a. concurrent lines.
3
b. 4 concurrent lines.
c. 5 concurrent lines.
10. Draw three rays such that the endpoints of the rays are the
only point of intersection.
11. How many angles are formed by the rays in problem 10?
12. Construct a segment that has the same length as the difference
in length between the lengths of these two segments.
a
13. There are 4 sets of concurrent lines that are related to

triangles. You have constructed three of these.
1. The perpendicular bisectors of the sides. (Exercise
4-3a, problem 7.)
2. The bisectors of the angles. (Exercise 4-3b, problem
3.)
163 4-5
3. The perpendiculars from each vertex to the opposite

side. (Exercise 4-3b, problem 5.) These perpendicu
lars are the altitudes or heights of the triangle.
a. Draw a triangle then find, by construction, the midpoint of
each side. Connect each of these midpoints to the opposite
vertex. These segments are called the medians of a tri
angle.
b. Are the medians concurrent?
14. BRAINBUSTER: point of intersection of one of the sets of
The
concurrent lines is the center of a circle drawn so that each
vertex is a point on the circle.
a. Which set of lines is it?
b. Explain why this is true.
4-5. Inscribed Figures

polygon is a simple closed curve formed by straight line
A
segments. A polygon with four sides is a quadrilateral. There

are many kinds of quadrilaterals. Trapezoids, parallelograms,
rectangles, and squares are all quadrilaterals. A polygon with
five sides is a pentagon, a six-sided polygon is a hexagon, and an
eight-sided polygon is an octagon. If
the sides are all the same
length and the angles all have the same measure, it is a regular
polygon.
inscribed in a circle are drawn so that every vertex
Polygons
of the polygon is a point on the circle. In this section, you will
use the constructions you have learned so as to inscribe equilat
eral triangles, squares, hexagons, and octagons. The problems
contain enough clues for you to do all of these constructions.
4-5 164
Exercises 4-
Draw a circle. With the same radius, use any point the
on
circle center and mark off arcs on the circle
as at equal dis
tances from the point. Move the point of the compass to one
point where the arc crosses the circle. Mark another arc on
the circle. Continue until the arc drawn falls at the starting
point. If you do this carefully you will discover that the last
arc drawn falls exactly on the first point.
a. How many arcs are there?
b. Connect Intersection of the circle
each and an arc to the
intersection on each side of it.
c. What figure do these segments form?
d. How can you use these points to construct an equilateral
triangle?
e. How can you form a six-pointed star?
f. Using the radius as the circle, draw an arc from one
same
point on the circle to another. Move the point of the
compass to either intersection and repeat. Continue around
the circle. What does this figure look like?
Draw a circle and one diameter. Construct diameter perpen
a
dicular to the first diameter. Connect the endpoints of the
diameters in order.
a. What figure does this form?
b. How can you form a polygon with twice as many sides? There
are two ways that this can be done. Can you find both of
them?
165 4-5
Many designs can be formed with these basic constructions.

Three are given here. See if you can copy them, then make up
designs of your own.
4-6 166
4-6. Scale Drawings

Scale drawings are representations of figures and are very
important in many types of work. People who make maps need to
make scale drawings. You have read maps where it was indicated
that inch represented a certain number of miles. A draftsman
an
uses scale drawings in making blueprints for the construction of
buildings, airplanes, cars, etc. In this section you are to
practice this type of drawing. To make scale drawings accurately,
any tool may be used. Rulers, protractors and compass may be
used. Any other draftsman's tools that you have may be used.
The first step in scale drawing is to select a scale by which
the measurements of the object under construction may be drawn on
your paper. Suppose you wish to draw a representation of a foot
ball field. A football field is a rectangle which is 100 yards
long and 53 •*• yards wide. we use -jr of an inch to represent oneIf
yard, the length of the field would be 25 inches on your paper and
this is longer than your paper. This number is obtained as follows:
¥ " x
•
~T~ Too
Where did the numbers in this proportion come from? -^

inch has
the same ratio to 1 yard as x inches do to 100 yards. Then
1-x =
^'100
and
x =
25.
Let us try again and this time use y^ of an inch to represent one
yard.
1
IF x
'
~~T~ 100
i -x = -
100
x = 6 -
16? 4-6
The measurement of 6 T inches will work nicely on your paper. Let

us now find the width.
160
T"
X =
Where did — «— come from?
Before making the drawing there is an item to be remembered. You

studied In Section 4-1 that in drawing a representation of an
object the measure of the angles must be the same. In the case of
the football field your scale drawing must be a rectangle. Now
let us draw our model as indicated in the figure below.
inches
inches
inch represents one yard.

i
f-c
Of course it is not possible to measure of an inch accurately
with your ruler. This shows you that a draftsman needs more tools
than the average individual has.
4-6 168
Exercises 4-3
1, Draw a parallelogram using only a ruler.
2. Draw a regular pentagon with each side 1 inch in length. Each
angle is 108°.
3, Use a ruler and protractor to draw a regular hexagon, with
each side 1 inch in length. Each angle is 120°.
4, Use a rulero protractor to
and draw a regular octagon with
_
each side £ inches in length. Each angle is 135 •
5 It is indicated on a map that ^ inch represents 50 miles.

How many miles is represented by 4 inches?
-^
6, If it is indicated on a map that TT inch represents 25 miles,
how many inches would you use to represent 750 miles?
7 A plot of ground is in the form of a parallelogram. The longer
sides measure 92 feet and the shorter sides measure 40 feet.
The acute angles have a measurement of 70 and the obtuse
angles have a measurement of 110 . Make this scale drawing.
Let inch represent 1 foot.
vr
8. City B is 40 miles east of city A and city C is 30 miles
north of city B. Using TT inch to represent one mile draw a
map in the form of a scale drawing of these distances. How
many miles is it from city A to city C in a direct line?
9. Make a scale drawing of a
tennis court. A tennis court
is a rectangle having a length alley
of 78 feet and a width of 36
feet. The alleys are 4 i service
feet wide. The service courts court
are 21 feet in length and 13
•i
feet in width. Let TT inch
represent 1 foot.
169
4-7. Solids
which are contained within a
You have been drawing figures
plane. You are now to practice drawing on the surface of your
paper pictures of figures in space. You have found that it is
easy to draw a plane figure on the surface of your paper or on the
chalkboard. You will find that it is not so easy to draw pictures
of solids on paper or on the chalkboard. This is because you must
draw the figure on a surface in such a way that it will appear to
have depth. In other words, you want to make a drawing on your
paper have the appearance of a box. This requires the use of
projection which you have possibly studied in art.
(a) Prisms
(l) Rectangular Prisms . A good example of a rectangular
prism is a cereal box. One way to draw a box is as
follows:
a. Draw a rectangle such as ABCD in the figure
below.
b. Now draw a second rectangle RSTV in a position
similar to the one in the figure.
c. Draw AR, BS, W and "CT.
i
i
i
When solid you cannot see

you look at a the edges, or all of
faces, unless the solid is transparent. For this reason we
represent the edges, which are not visible, by dotted line
170
segments. This also helps to give the proper projection to

the drawing. The dotted line segments do not have to be drawn.
(2) Triangular Prisms. Now that you have drawn a rectang
ular prism, triangular prism will be easy.

a
a. Draw any triangle ABC.
b. At points A and C draw lines of equal measure
perpendicular to "AC. Label the end points of
these perpendiculars as R and T.
c. Draw BS parallel to AR and of equal measure
with AR.
d. Draw RS and ST. Then TR may be drawn with a
dotted line.
e. Compare your figure with the one below.
f . How many faces does this solid have?

g. In what way are the faces different?
171
(3) Hexagonal Prisms

a. Draw a hexagon, similar to ABCDEF of the figure
below. In order to get the proper perspective it
will be necessary to draw the horizontal length
longer than the vertical length. This is the way
a hexagon would appear if you looked at it from
an angle.
b. Draw perpendiculars having measures equal to the
measure of "AF at A and F. Label the end
points R and S.
c. Draw BT and W parallel to AR and of equal
measure with AR.
d. How many faces does this solid have?

e. In what way are the faces different?
172
(b) Pyramids
this is the first time you have heard of the
Perhaps
set of solids, called pyramids, in a mathematics text.
You have probably heard of the famous Pyramids of Egypt.
A pyramid has one base, which is a region formed by a
polygon, and triangular faces which are made by joining
the vertices of the polygon to a point which is not in the
plane of the polygon. A more accurate description of
pyramids will come in a later chapter. Let us draw one.
a. In this drawing let the base represent a square with
a vertex at the bottom of the drawing. Here again,
you must be careful to get the proper perspective by
making the horizontal length longer than the vertical
length.
b. First, draw only two sides of the square, such as AB
and BC, as shown in the figure below.
c. Now select a point P, directly above point B, and
draw ]?5, PB and "PC.
d. AD, "CD and "EB may now be drawn as dotted line segments
intersecting on "PB, with "AD parallel to BC and CD
parallel to AB.
e. How many faces does this pyramid have?
173
(c) Cylinders
You know that a cylinder has two bases, equal in area,
which are circular regions. In drawing cylinders on the
surface of your paper you are again confronted with the
problem of getting the correct projection. you con If
struct two circles with your compass and then draw line
segments connecting the end points of parallel diameters
of the two circles, the figure you have drawn will not
have the appearance of a right cylinder. In order to have
the proper perspective you must draw the bases as ovals as
shown in the figure below. Let us now draw a right
cylinder.
a. Draw a rectangle such as ABCD in the figure below.
b. Now use AB and DC as diameters of the circular
bases to be shown and draw the circles. Be careful to
get the proper perspective by making the horizontal
length of the oval longer than the vertical length.
B
4-7 174
(d) Cones
The cone another solid with which you are familiar,
Is
but which you may not have studied. An ice cream cone is
a rough example. In a later chapter you will study a more

detailed description than the one given here. A cone may
be drawn as described below. Again it is necessary to

draw the circular base with the proper projection. See
the figure below.
a. Draw a dotted segment such as AB in the figure
below.
b. Find the mid-point C of AB.
c. Draw a perpendicular (dotted) to AB at C and
select any point V on the perpendicular.
d. Draw VA and VB.
e. Now draw your circular base, with AB as the diam
eter, so that it appears to be tangent to VA and
VB at A and B.
175 4-7
(e) Intersecting Planes

There are times when it is useful to represent, on a
surface, the intersection of two or more planes. An
example is the intersection of a wall and the floor of
your room. Another example is seen when you open your
book and hold up a page or so. Drawing such a representa
tion is not too difficult, and it becomes easier with
practice. Look at the figure below and follow the instruc
tions in drawing a figure of your own.
a. Draitf parallelogram
a ABCD.
b. Select a point R on AD and draw RV parallel to
AB.
c. Draw a perpendicular VT to BC and a perpendicular
RS to "AD so that VT and RS have equal measure.
Now draw TS.
d. What kind of a figure is RSTV?

e. It is not necessary that VT and RS be perpendic
ular as described above. It is necessary, however,
that RSTV be a parallelogram.
4-7 176
(f) Line Intersecting a Plane

This type of drawing is also useful at times, It is
illustrated below.
a. Draw a parallelogram such as ABCD.
b. Select a point R on the surface of ABCD.
\
c. Now draw a line through R so that it appears to pass
through the surface of ABCD. This will require some
practice.
d. You will have a better picture if the line through R
is not parallel to a side of the parallelogram.
Exercises 4-7
1 . Draw a rectangular prism so that it will appear to be tall and
slender.
2. Draw a triangular prism so that the triangular faces will
appear to be right triangles.
3. Draw a pentagonal prism.
4. Draw a rectangular prism so that it will appear to be short
and fat.
5. Draw a pyramid with the base a quadrilateral which does not
appear to be a square, a rectangle or a parallelogram.
6. Draw a pyramid with a triangular base.
177
7 . Draw a cylinder so that the length is horizontal rather than

vertical; that is, so that the drawing looks like a pipe
lying on the ground.
8. Draw a cone so that the vertex points down such as an ice
cream cone when it is full of ice cream.
9. Draw a book showing two pages at different angles.
10 . Draw a target with an arrow through it .
INDEX
The reference is to the page on which the term occurs .
addition, 3, 12, 18, 19

addition property, 85
altitude, 163
angle(s), 158
corresponding, 147
arc, 151
area, 60
axes, 23
bisecting
a line segment, 153
an angle, 154
cone, 174
constructions, 143, 151
coordinates, 1, 21, 22, 25
curve, 163
cylinder, 173
decimal point, 125
direction, 8, 21
distance, 21
division, 42, 122, 127
drawings, 143, 166
equation, 60, 71, 79, 84, 94, 97
existence, 86, 89
exponent, 109, 116, 119, 125
fiducial point, 3
formula, 60
gram, 137
graph, 30, 51, 53, 96
half-line, 3
hexagon, 163
identity, 18
inequality, 72, 75, 79, 84, 100
inscribed figures, 163
integers, 3, 9
intersecting
line and plane, 176
planes, 175
inverse, 18, 42
light year, 113
lines
concurrent, 162
parallel, 147
perpendicular, 146
liter, 137
medians, 163
meter, 129
metric system, 129
multiplication, 35, 89, 119, 126
number
counting, 3
large, 107, 112
negative, 8, 9
positive, 3, 12
rational, 1, 9
small, 115
number line, 1, 9, 19, ^7, 74
number phrase, 65
number sentence, 59, 69, 78, 94
octagon, 163
one-to-one correspondence, 2
open phrase, 65, 78
open sentence, 71, 79
ordered pair, 25, 95
origin, 3, 21
parabola, 102
parallelogram, 148
pentagon, 163
perspective, 169
perpendicular from a point, 156, 157
phrase, 65, 78
plane figures, 146
plotting, 25
polygon, 163
prism
hexagonal, 171
rectangular, 169
triangular, 170
protractor, 146
pyramid, 172
quadrilateral, 163
quadrants, 27
radius, 152
reciprocal, 43
relations, 51
scale, 166
scientific notation, 107, 110-112, 117, 121
segment, 152
directed, 3, 12
sentence
compound, 76
number, 59, 69, 78, 94
open, 71, 79
sketch, 143
solids, 169
solution set, 71, 73, 79, 84, 95
subtraction, 46
transversal, 147
triangle, 149
uniqueness, 86, 89
Volume II (Part 2)
Prepared under the supervision of the Panel on yth and 8th Grades of the School
Mathematics Study Group:

Education
Copyright 1960 by Yale University.

Ann Arbor, Michigan
7- >?-(
• •
o •
r
CONTENTS
Chapter
5. SYMMETRY, CONGRUENCE AND THE PYTHAGOREAN PROPERTY . . l8l
5-1. Symmetry l8l
5-2. Congruent Triangles 187
5-3.
5-4.
The
One
Right Triangle
Proof of the Pythagorean Property .... 201
210
5-5.
Table
Quadrilaterals
- Squares and Square Roots of Numbers .... 215
219
6. REAL NUMBERS 221

6-1. Review of Rational Numbers 221
6-2. Density of Rational Numbers 225
6-3. Decimal Representations for the Rational
Numbers 231
6-4-. The Rational Number Corresponding to a
Periodic Decimal 235
6-5. Rational Points on the Number Line 240
6-6. Irrational Numbers 243
6-7. A Decimal Representation for V~2" 249
6-8. Irrational Numbers and the Real Number
System 253
6-9. Rational Approximations to Irrationals . . . 26l
6-10. Rationals and Irrationals in the World
Around Us 263
7. PERMUTATIONS AND SELECTIONS 265

7-1. The Pascal Triangle 265
7-2. Permutations 272
7-3. Selections or Combinations 287
8. PROBABILITY 293
8-1. Chance Events 293
8-2. Empirical Probability 306
8-3. Probability of A or B 312
8-4. Probability of A and B 318
9. SIMILAR TRIANGLES AND VARIATION 327

9-1. Indirect Measurement 327
9-2. Similar Triangles 334
9-3. The Trigonometric Ratios 336
9-4. Slope of a Line 348
9-5. Reading a Table 362
9-6. Kinds of Variation 367
9-7. Direct Variation 372
9-8. Inverse Variation 376
9-9. Other Types of Variation (Optional) 38 1
9-10. Summary and Review 385
INDEX following 390

CHAPTER 5
SYMMETRY, CONGRUENCE AND THE PYTHAGOREAN PROPERTY
5-1 Symmetry
In the last cnapcer you worked with geometric constructions.
In this chapter you will explore some of the properties of the
figures you constructed. All but one of the constructions are
examples of symmetry and all are examples of congruence. Both
of these topics will be studied in this chapter.
The first topic taat is studied is symmetry. Section 1 is
developed so tnat you will be able to discover for yourself wuat
is meant by symmetry.
Class Exercises 3-1

1. (a) Fold a sheet of
notebook paper down the middle .
\
Starting at the folded edge,
\
cut or tear off a right triangle
with the longer leg along the
o1
__J
o
r\
IL
fold, as in Fig. 5-1-a. Unfold \
the piece you nave cut off. What \
\
shape is it? V
D B
Figure 5-1-a.
5-1 182
(b) tne vertex at the fold, and the otner

Label as A
vertices as jb and C. Lauel as D tne intersection of the fold
and the side. Tne rigure now resembles Figure 5-1-b.
(c) Rerold your triangle

along AD. Do right triangles
A B D and A exactly fit over
C D
each otner? We say that triangle
ABC has symmetry with respect to
the line AD because when folded

along AD the two halves exactly
fit. Line AD is an axis of
symmetry of the triangle .
• v- -• •"••
Figure 5-1-b.
^d) How many axes of symmetry does an Isosceles triangle
have? An equilateral triangle V A scalene triangle?
2. (a) Take anotner piece of notebook paper and fold it

lengtnwise down the middle.
(b) Take your folded

sheet and fold it crosswise down the
middle iso that the crease folds along
itself.) Cut off the corner where the
folds meet, as indicated in Fig.
FOLD
5-1-c. Unfold the piece you cut off.
What shape is it? Figure 5-1-c.
183 5-1
(c) Label your figure

as in Fig.
5-1 -d. you foldIf
along AC do the two halves ex
actly fit? What happens if you
fold along DB? Is there an axis
of symmetry? How many? Figure 5-1-d.
3. Look at the regular hexa

gon in Figure 5-1 -e. Does each
dotted line determine an axis of
symmetry? There are other axes
of symmetry. Can you find them?
How many axes of symmetry does a
regular hexagon have?
Figure 5-1-e.
4. Draw a circle and one of its diameters. Is this diameter

an axis of symmetry? Does a circle have other axes of symmetry?
£.
Are there 5 axes of symmetry? 100? 10^? Are there more than any
number you may name?
5. Look at the ellipse in

Fig. 5-1 -f. It is
figure you
a
get if you slice off the tip of
a cone but do not slice straight
across. Is AB an axis of symmetry?
Are there others? How many axes of
Figure 5-1-f-
symmetry does an ellipse have? One
axis of symmetry, AB is called the
major axis of the ellipse. One axis of symmetry is called the minor
axis of the ellipse. Why do you think AB is called the major
axis? Where is the minor axis?
5-1 184
Fromthese exercises you have learned that many of the geo

metric figures you know are symmetrical with respect to a line.
Many ornamental designs and decorations also have such symmetry.
Definition: A figure is symmetrical with respect to a line
^ if for each point A on the figure there ispoint B on the
a
figure for which _^ is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
185 5-1
Exercises 5-1
1. Draw a rectangle and draw its axes of symmetry. Label each
axis of symmetry. How many axes of symmetry does a rectangle
have?
2. Draw an equilateral triangle, and label each axis of symmetry.

How many axes of symmetry are there?
3. Draw a square, and label each axis of symmetry. How many axes
of symmetry does a square have?
4. Draw and label the axes of symmetry, if there are any, for each
of the figures. How many axes of symmetry does each figure
have?
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
Fold a piece of paper down the middle and then cut designs in
it. Unfold. Is the design symmetrical with respect to the
fold? Is the fold an axis of symmetry?
5-1 186
5. Fold piece of paper down the middle, and repeat the folding
a
a second time. Cut a design in it and unfold. Where are the
axes of symmetry?
'( . We circle is symmetrical with respect to a point,

say that a
its center, and that an ellipse is symmetrical with respect to
a point, its
center (the point where its major and minor axes
intersect). We also say that the figure below is symmetrical
with respect to the point 0. Describe in your own words what
you think is meant by symmetry with respect to a point.
Which of the figures in Problem 4 have symmetry with respect to

a point?
*8. When an orange is
cut through the center in such a way that
each section is cut in half, we may think of the surfaces made
by the cut as symmetrical. Symmetry of this kind is symmetry
with respect to a plane. Name other objects that are symmetri
cal with respect to a plane.
187 5-2
5-2. CongruentTriangles
In Section 5-1 when you cut along a right triangle on a folded
sheet of paper, you produced an isosceles triangle. The axis of
symmetry (the fold) forms with edges two right triangles which
have the same size and shape. When two figures have the same size
and shape we say that they are congruent . The two right triangles
are congruent triangles.
Can you think of other congruent figures? How about two
circles, each with a radius of five inches? Are two line segments
having the same length congruent?
Since an angle is a geometric figure, may we talk about two
congruent angles? Congruent angles have the same size and shape.
Now if two angles have the same measure they have the same size,
and to say that two angles have the same size means that they
have the same measure. Appearance tells us that two angles with
equal measures have the same shape.
Angles B and F, as shown, have equal measures. We may say
l_ B is congruent to /
F, and we may write /. B = F, where /
the symbol " = " stands for the word "congruent" . Is /_ F = /_ G?
We know that two circles are congruent if
they have the same
radius. Two squares are congruent if
they both have the same meas
ure for their sides. Two line segments are congruent if they both
have the same length. Two angles are congruent if their measures
are the same .
Is this the case for two rectangles? Are two rectangles
congruent if their bases are equal? No. If their heights are
equal? No. If their bases and heights are equal? Yes.
5-2 188
You can see that the rectangle requires two conditions for
congruency.
Triangles are so basic in much of mathematics, science, and
engineering, that we need to know conditions under which triangles
are congruent. The situation here involves more conditions than in
the figures we have already discussed.
If triangle DEF were traced on paper and the paper cut along
the sides of the triangle, the paper model would represent a tri
angle and its interior. The paper model could be placed on tri
angle ABC and the two triangles would exactly fit. The two tri
angles are congruent. If point D were placed on point A with DP
along AC, point F would fall on point C, and point E would fall on
point B. In these two triangles there would be these pairs of
congruent segments and congruent angles:
AB = DE Z B =
Z E Use your ruler
and protractor
CB = FE / C
v
/ F to check these
measures .
CA=FD Z A =
Z D
189 5-2
Recall that another way of expressing / B ~

/ E is m(/ B) =
m(/ E) . Our choice of expression will depend upon whether we wish

to emphasize the angles as being congruent figures or the measures
as being equal numbers.
Class Exercise
J
-4- H
K
>
J
-f-
M
M K
K -+-
Figure 5-2a
In Figure 5-2a, the segment JM on the right is the same

length as the side JM of the triangle JKM. in A JKM is /J
congruent to /J below and / K below is congruent to /K
in A JKM.
1. Construct a triangle as follows:

(a) Use JK as one side. Set the compass for the length JM
and with J as a center make an arc above JK.
(b) Set the compass for the length of MK and with K as a
center make an arc that intersects the first arc .
5-2 190
(c) Connect J
with the intersection of the arcs by a line
segment and connect K with the intersection of the arcs by
a se g.ie nt .
Your work should look like this figure:
Is your triangle the same size and shape as triangle JKM? Use
compass and ruler to check. Two triangles are congruent the if
three sides of one triangle are congruent respectively t(3 the
three sides £f the other triangle . We will refer to this as
Property S.S.S. (Side, Side, Side)
(a) Use JK for one side.
(b) Construct /_ J at point J. Set the compass for the
length of JM and with J as a center make an arc
intersecting the second side of the angle.
(c) Label this intersection M.
(d) Draw side MK through points M and K.
Is your triangle the same size and shape as triangle JKM? Use
your compass and ruler to check.
191 5-2
This triangle was constructed side JK.

by using side JM, / J, and
What do you notice about the position of the angle in relation to
the sides? This arrangement of two sides and an angle is called
"two sides and the included angle." Another such group would be
side JK,/ K, and side KM. Is there another such group?
Two triangles are congruent if
sides and the included
two
angle of one triangle are congruent respectively to two sides and
the included angle of the other triangle . We will refer to this
as Property S. A. S. (Side, Angle, Side)
(a) Use segment JK for
side. one
(b) Construct /
J at point J and /
K at point K.
(c) JM intersects KM at point M. JK is a side of each

angle .
Is your triangle the same size and shape as triangle JKM? Use your
compass and ruler to check. Do you recall using protractor and
straightedge to construct a triangle in Chapter 4?

If you were careful in your construction you found this tri
angle congruent to the given triangle JKM. Remember that this
triangle was constructed by using side JK, J, and /
K. What /
do you notice about the position of the side in relation to the two
angles? This arrangement of two angles and a side of a triangle
is called "two angles and the included side." Another such group
5-2 192
in the given triangle would be l. K, side KM and /. M. Is there

another such group?
Therefore we may say two triangles are congruent if two angles
and the included side of one triangle are congruent respectively
to two angles and the included side of trie otaer triangle . We will
refer to this as Property A.S.A. (Angle, Side, Angle)
Exercises 5"2a
1. Use the triangle ABC in the following exercises.
(a) Construct a triangle HJK such that HJ = AB, JK = BC,

and HK - AC.
(b) Construct a triangle HJK such that / H =

/ A,
/ K =
/ C, and HK - AC.
(c) Construct a triangle HJK such that HK = AC, HJ = AB,

and / H =
/ A.
(d) Were the triangles you constructed in (a), (b) and (c)
congruent to /\ ABC? Why?
193 5-2
2. Using the length of BC as the base of your triangle construct

a triangle JHK congruent to A ABC. Construct JH = BA,
JK = BC, and KH = AC.
3. Using the length of AB as the base of your triangle, construct

a triangle JKH congruent to A ABC. Construct = B, /J /
/ H = A, and /JH = AB.
Do you recall that a statement obtained by interchanging the
"if" part with the "then" part of a statement is called a
"converse" of the first statement? Let us look at the converse
of the S.S.S. relationship. If two triangles are congruent then
the three sides of one triangle are congruent respectively to
the three sides of the other triangle. The converse of Property
S.S.S. is a true statement. You can test this by looking again
at your constructions in 5-2a. Test the truth or falsity of the
converse of Property S.A.S. and the converse of Property A.S.A.
in the same manner.
Notice that the congruence sets up a one-to-one correspondence
between pairs of sides of two congruent triangles, because we
can let congruent sides correspond to each other. That is,
suppose we call a, b, and c the sides of one triangle and
r, s, and t the sides of a triangle congruent to it and suppose
sides a and r, b and s, c and t are congruent. Then we
may call a and r corresponding sides, b and s correspond
ing sides, and c and t corresponding sides. For this one-to-one
correspondence it is true that if
two triangles are congruent then
their cor re sponding sides are congruent . We could set up the same
kind of correspondence for angles and have: If two triangles are
congruent then their corresponding angles are congruent.
5-2
Do you recall
the construction of a perpendicular to a line
through a given point on the line? In this construction, from
Chapter 4, we used two of the properties about congruent tri
angles. In this construction
two arcs intersect at point J.
If we draw the segments GJ and
JH, then there are two triangles,
GPJ and HPJ formed. By con
struction GP = TS, GJ = HJ. The
perpendicular to line ^ has the
segment JP on it. JP is a side
of each triangle, and so is called a common side. By applying
Property S.S.S, we know that triangle GPJ = triangle PHJ, since
three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides
of the other triangle. Angle JPG (opposite GJ) in triangle GPJ
corresponds to angle JPH (opposite JH) in triangle PHJ. By
applying the property that says if two triangles are congruent
then each pair of corresponding angles is congruent and each pair
of corresponding sides is congruent, we know that /
JPG is
congruent to /
JPH. If a protractor is laid along PH with the
vertex mark at P and 0° then the 180° mark
mark on PH,
will be on the ray PG. This means that the sum of the measures
of the angles at P is l80 and, since these measures are equal,
each must be 90. Hence, angles JPG and JPH are right angles.
195 5-2
Exercises 5-2b
1. In the figure the construction of the bisector of / ABC is
shown. Two segments, AD and CD are drawn.
(a) What parts of triangle ABD are congruent to correspond

ing parts of triangle CBD by construction?
Find another part of triangle ABD that must be con
gruent to a part of triangle BCD. Why are they congruent?
(c) Is triangle ABD congruent to triangle BCD? Why?
(a) Is / ABD congruent to / DEC? Why?
2. In the figures shown here the construction of /_ HJK makes

HJK =
/ EPG. Segments EG and HK are drawn.
(a) What parts of triangle EFG are congruent to corresponding

parts of triangle HJK by construction?
(b) Is triangle EFG congruent to triangle HJK? Why?
(c) Is /J congruent to / F? Why?

5-2 196
3 Use your
. protractor to find
the measures in degrees of the 3
angles in each triangle.
(a) Are there some pairs of

congruent angles? If so, list B
them.
Could we say that the
(b)
triangles are congruent? Why?
(c) Suppose that triangle DEF
were constructed with the same size
angles, but with EF the same
length as BC. What would be true
about the two triangles? Why?
4. wishes to measure
Mr. Thompson
the distance between two posts on
edges of his property. A grove of
trees between the two posts
(X and Y) makes it impossible to
measure the distance XY directly.
He locates point Z such that he
can lay out a line from X to Z
and continue it far as needed.
as
Point Z is also in a position
such that Mr. Thompson can lay out
a line YZ* and continue it as far
as needed. Mr. Thompson knows that
/ 1 =
/ 2 since they are vertical
angles. He extends YZ so that
QZ = YZ.
(a) How is point R located?

°
Is XZ = ZR?
(b) Are triangles XYZ and QZR

congruent? Why?
(c) How can Mr. Thompson de
termine the length of XY?
197 5-2
5. If two triangles are congruent, sides opposite congruent angles

are congruent .
In the congruent triangles, QRS and TUV, the pairs of con

gruent angles are marked. That is, /Q = /T, /R =
/_ U,
S = V.
(a) Make a statement of congruence about each pair of

corresponding sides.
(b) Congruent triangles XYZ and ABC have the pairs of

congruent angles marked. Make a statement of congruence
about each pair of corresponding sides.
(c) Repeat (b) with the figure in Problem 4.

5-2 198
6. If two triangles are congruent, sides opposite congruent angles

are congruent .
(a) In the congruent triangles, ABC and DEF, the pairs of

congruent sides are marked. That is, CA = DE, AB = EF,
BC = DF. Make a statement of congruence about each pair
of corresponding angles.
(b) Make a statement of congruence about each pair of corre
sponding angles in triangles XYZ and ZQR in Problem 4
7. (a) In the figure
below are the shaded triangles
congruent?
(b) Which properties do you

use to test the congruency of these
triangles?
_' >
199 5-2
8 Line and line are parallel lines cut by a trans

versal
(a) What do you know about angles 1 and 2?
(b) Are angles 2 and 3 congruent? Why?
(c) Show that /I =

/3 .
9. In the parallelogram, ABCD, the diagonals AC and BD intersect
at E.
(a) Is angle 1 (inAABE) congruent to angle 2?
(b) What kind of angles are / 2 and / 3? Are they congruent?

5-2 200
(c) How does the size of / 1 compare with the size of / 3?
(d) Show that / 6 =

/ 7 and that / 5 =
/ 4.
(e) When two triangles have three pairs of congruent angles,

are the triangles always congruent? If not, what else
is needed?
(f) Is any side of ABE congruent to the corresponding side

of A CDE?
(g) Show that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each

other.
--10. The construction of the perpen
dicular bisector of segment CD
is shown. Usually the same radius
is used for the four arcs. How
ever, it is only necessary for the
two arcs that intersect on one
side of the segment to have the
equal radii. Thus, the arcs drawn
from C and D that intersect at
E have equal radii, and the two
arcs drawn from C and D that
intersect at P have equal radii.
By applying some of the properties
about congruent triangles, show why
EF bisects CD and is perpendicu
lar to Hint.
CD. First think
about the large triangles CFE
and DFE, then about another pair of
triangles that seem to be con
gruent .
*ll. (a) How many pairs of congruent triangles are there in the
figure for Problem 10? List them by pairs.
201 5-3
(b) List the pairs of corresponding sides of congruent

triangles.
(c) List the pairs of corresponding congruent angles of
congruent triangles.
5-3 Right Triangle

The
In previous work in mathematics, you have learned the names of
triangles when triangles are classified by the relations of the
sides.
An equilateral triangle has 3 congruent sides.
An isosceles triangle has 2 congruent sides.
A scalene triangle has no two congruent sides.
Sometimes it is
convenient to name triangles according to
measures of the angles. Consider the following three sets of
triangles:
Set A
m (/ a) is 90. m (/ b) is 90. m (/ c) is 90.

5-3 202
Set B
m (/ x) is 120. m (/ y ) is 110,
Set C
The triangles in set (A) each contain an angle with measures, in

degrees, Triangles having this property are called right
90.
triangles. The triangles in set (B) each contain an obtuse angle
(an angle with measure greater than 90) . Triangles having this
property are called obtuse triangles. Triangles in set (C) con
tain only acute angles (angles with measure less than 90) . Tri
angles having this property are called acute triangles.
Of these last three sets of triangles, the right triangle is
of special interest. The ancient Egyptians are said to have used
a particular right triangle to make corners "square". This tri
angle has sides 3 units long, 4 units long and 5 units long. When
such a triangle is made of rope stretched taut, the angle between
the two shorter sides is a right angle.
203 5-3
While the Egyptians are thought to have made use of

this fact, it was left to the Greeks to prove the re
lationship involved. The Greek philosopher and math
ematician, Pythagoras, who lived about 500 B.C. became
interested in the problem. Pythagoras is credited
with the proof of the basic property that we will study in this
section; this property is still known by his name, the Pythagorean
Property.
It is thought that Pythagoras looked at a mosaic like the one
pictured in Figure 5-3a. He noticed that there are many triangles
of different sizes that can be found in the mosaic. But he noticed
more than this. If each side of any triangle is used as one side of
a square, the sum of the areas of the two smaller squares is the
same as the area of the larger square. In Figure 5-3b, two tri
angles of different size are inked in and the squares drawn on the
sides of the triangles shaded. Count the number of the smallest
triangles in each square. For each triangle that is inked in,
how does the number of small triangles in the two smaller squares
compare with the number in the larger square? If you draw a
mosaic like this, you will find that this is true not only for
the two triangles given here but for a triangle of any size in
this mosaic .
Figure 5-3a Figure 5-3b

5-3 204
Pythagoras probably noticed the same relation in the 3-4-5

triangle that the Egyptians had used for so long to make a right
angle. The small squares are each 1 square unit in size. In the
three squares there are 9, 16 and 25 small squares. Notice that

9 + 16 = 25. Pythagoras was able to prove that in any right tri
angle, the area of the square on the hypotenuse (longest side) is
equal to the sum of the areas of the squares o-n the other two sides.
This is the Pythagorean Theorem or, as we shall call it, the
Pythagorean Property.
Sofar this has been shown only for two very special right
triangles. It is true for all right triangles. Some of you may try
to prove it for „ ourselves by studying the optional Section 5-4.
Exercises 5-3a
Using your straightedge and protractor draw the following
triangles:
(a) Obtuse triangle
(b) Acute triangle
(c) Right triangle.
Show each set that the square of the first number

for is the
sum of the squares of the other two numbers.
(a) 5,4,3, (c) 25, 7, 24

(b) 13, 5, 12 (d) 20, 16, 12
205 5-3
3 Make scale drawings of triangles with the sides of length

given in the parts (a) and (b) of Problem 2. Use your
protractor to show that these triangles are right triangles.
4 Draw right triangles, the lengths of whose shorter sides
(in centimeters), are:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 4 and
(c) 2 and 3. 5
Measure, to the nearest one -tenth of a centimeter possible, if
the lengths of the hypotenuses of these triangles.
5. Use the Pythagorean Property to find the area of the square

on the hypotenuse for each triangle in Problem 4.
In the last set of exercises, except for Problem 4, you worked
with squares built on the sides of right triangles. In Problem 4
you measured the length of the hypotenuse . The hypotenuse is the
side opposite the right angle. It is not very useful to know the
area of these squares but many uses can be made of the Pythagorean
Property if we can use it to find the length of the third side
when we know the length of two sides.
222
In mathematical language
the Pythagorean Property is c = a + b where c stands for the
measure of the hypotenuse and a and b stand for the measures
of the other two sides. The measures of any two sides can be sub
stituted in the number sentence above, and from this the third value
can be found. We can use a familiar triangle to show this. If the
two short sides are 3 units and 4 units, what is the square of the
hypotenuse?
c2 = a2 + b2
c2 - 32 + 42
c2 = 9 +16
c2 = 25.
Since equal to 25 > we will know c

c
2
is we can find a if
number whose product is 25 when it is multiplied by itself.
5-3 206
Of course, 5 x 5 is 25, so c = 5; 5 is the positive square root

of 25. If a number is the product of two equal factors, then each
factor is a square root of the number. The symbol for the positive
square root is y • The numeral is placed under the sign, for ex
ample, V" 25" =
5.
What is V~9? Y"l6? V"36? V~30? The first three are easy
to understand since 3x3=9, 4x4= 16 and 6 x 6 = 36 but there
is no integer that can be multiplied by itself to give the product
30. In fact, there is no rational number whose square is 30 !
There are decimal forms of rational numbers that give products
close to 30 when squared. We can even find a number whose square
is as close to 30 as we wish ! You will learn more about numbers
of this kind in the next chapter. For use now there is a table at
the end of the chapter that gives the decimal value (to the nearest
thousandth) that is closest to the square root of integers from
1 to 100. You can also use the table to find the square root of
all counting numbers up to 10,000 that have rational square roots.
Exercises 5.-3b
When approximate values are used in these problems, use the
symbol, «, in the work and answer.
1. Use the table to find the approximate value of:
(a) Y5 (b) Y"4l (c) Y 13
2. Use the Property to find the length of the hypot

Pythagorean
enuse for each of these triangles.
(a) Length of side a is l", length of b is 2"
(b) Length of a is 4', length of b is 5'
(c) Length of a is 2", length of b is 3"
(d) Length of a is 5 yd and the length of b is 6 yd.
(e) Length of a is 3 ft and the length of b is 9 ft.

(f) Length a is 1 unit and the length of b is 3 units.
207 5-3
Sometimes the hypotenuse and one of the shorter sides is known.

How can you find the length of the other side? As an example,
use this problem. The hypotenuse ofright triangle is 13 ft
a
and one side is 5 ft. Find the length of the third side.
- a
13 =
5
132 +
-/-2
(5) = b (addition property of
equality)
= b
= b
12 - b
The third side is 12 Find the third side of these

feet long.
right triangles. The measurements are in feet.
(a) c = 15, b= 9
(b) c = 26, a = 24
(c) c = 39, b =
15
A telephone pole is steadied by

guy wires as shown. Each wire is
to be fastened 15 ft. above the
ground and anchored 8 ft. from
the base of the pole.
(a) How much wire is needed to stretch one wire from the
ground to the point on the pole at which the wire is
fastened?
(b) If 5 ft. of
wire are required to fasten each wire to the
pole and the ground anchor, how much wire is needed for
each pole?
5-3 208
5. A roof on a house is built as

shown. long should each
How
rafter be if
it extends 18
inches over the wall of the
house?
A hotel builds an addition

across the street from the
original building. A pass
ageway is built between the
two parts at the third floor
level. The beams that sup
port this passage are 48 ft.
above the street. A crane
operator is lifting
these
beams into place with a crane
arm that is 50 ft. long. How far down the street from a
point directly under the beam should the crane cab be?
7. A garden gate is 4 ft. wide and 4 D

5 ft.
high. How long should the
brace that extends from C to D
be?
8, Two streets at the angle

meet
shown. The streets are 42
ft. wide. Lines for a cross
walk are painted so that the
walk runs in the same direc
tion as the street. If it is
40 ft.
from one end of the
cross walk to the point that is on the perpendicular from
the other end point of the walk, how long is the crosswalk?
209 5-3
*9- How long is the throw from home plate to 2nd base in a soft
ball game? The bases are 60 ft. apart and a baseball diamond
is square in shape. Give your answer to the nearest whole foot
*10. Draw a square whose sides are of length 1 unit. What is the
length of the diagonal? Check by measurement. Now draw a
right triangle with the sides 1 unit long. What is the length
of the hypotenuse?
*11. Now right triangle of sides "square root of 2" and 1
draw a
units in length as shown in the figure. In the figure the
measure of the length of AB is the square root of 2. What Is
the length of the hypotenuse of this new triangle?
5-4 210
5-4 *0ne Proof of the Pythagorean Property

There are many proofs of this property. The one used here is
not the one used by Pythagoras. You should actually draw and cut
the squares called for in the explanation.
Draw two squares the same size. Separate the first square into
two squares and two rectangles as shown here:
A=ab A=b2
A=a2 A=ab
Figure 1.
Let the measure of each side of the larger square in Figure 1 be a.
and the measure of each side of the small square be b. Notice "the
areas of the small squares and rectangles.
2
One square has an area of measure a .
2
The other square has an area of measure b .
Each rectangle has an area of measure ab.
Since the area of Figure is

equal to the sum of the areas of
1 all
of its parts, the measure of the area of Figure 1 is
a2 + 2 (ab) + b2
Class Exercises 5-4

1. Let a = 4 and b = 3. Show that (a + b)2 = a + 2 ab + b2
for these numbers.
211 5-*
2. Let a = 2 and b = 6 and check the same relationship.

Now turn to the second square. Use the same numbers, a and
b, that were used in the first square.
P b
b R a
Figure 2.
Mark the lengths off as shown here and draw the segments
QR, RS and SP.large square is separated into
The 4 triangles
and a quadrilateral that appears to be a square .
The measure of each triangular area is «• ab. There are four
congruent triangles. The sum of the measures of the areas of
all four triangles is )j ab) or ab
2
(-^
If you look back to Figure 1, you will see that ab is

2
the measure of the area of the two rectangles. Cut the two
rectangles from the first square. Cut along the diagonal of
each rectangle. See if the four triangles you cut are con
gruent with those in the second square. See if you can follow
these steps.
l\
2ab (from Figure
l)
+
b
A
square
*
(from Figure
?)
square ab) +
ApQRS
^ 2ao
PQRS
5-4 212
2 2
Therefore a -f 2ao + b = 2ab + A Why?
2 2 -
a + b
APQRS (addition property of
equality. )
2 2
This shows that area whose measure is a + b units,
PQRS has an
but a
2
is the measure of the area of one small square in the first
figure and b 2 is the measure of the area of the other square.
Prom this the area of the figure in the center of the second square
is equal to the sum of the areas of the two small squares.
2
Place the square whose area measure along the side of is a
length a of one triangle in the second square. Place the square
2
whose area measure is b along the side of length b of the same
triangle. The areas of the squares on the two sides of the triangle
are equal to the area of the figure in the center of Figure 2. All
we need to do now is
that this figure is
prove a square !
What are the properties of a square?
1. The four sides are congruent.

2. Each angle is 90° in measurement.
If we can prove these two conditions for the quadrilateral in

Figure 2, the Pythagorean Property has been proved.
As has been stated, the four triangles are congruent since for
each pair two corresponding sides and the angle between these sides
are congruent. As a result, PQ, = QR = RS = SQ, because they are
measures of corresponding segments of congruent triangles.
So far we have shown that the squares in Figure 1 are congruent

to the squares on the short sides of any one of the triangles in
Figure 2. We have also shown that the sum of the areas of these
squares is equal to the area of PQRS, and that PQRS has four con
gruent sides. Let us prove that the angles are right angles.
213
A= ab A=b2
A = a A=ab
(1) In A PST, m(/ l) +

m(/ 2) =
90 Why?
(2) m(/ 1) =
m(/ 4) Why?
(3) Therefore m(/ 4) +

m(/ 2) = 90 Why?
and m(/ 2) 180

3)
(4)
(/_
+ m +
m(/ = Why?
Jl
)
180
3)
(5) 90 = Why?
+
m(^
and m(/
3)
(c) = 90 Why?
We can go through the same type of reasoning to show that

angles 5, are also right angles.
and
6
PQRS has been proved to be a square and its area has also
been proved equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the
other two sides.
5-4 214
Exercises 5-4
1. Use the table to find:
(a)
(b)
(c)
The area of a square is 225 square inches. What is the length

of a side of this square?
3. Sam and Henry wanted to know the distance across Mill Creek.
The boys used a tree on the far bank to locate one point.
Across from this tney drove a stake at A. Then they located
point B so that AB formed a right angle with AT. Point D is
the midpoint of AB, and BC is perpendicular to AB.
(a) Show that triangles

ATD and BCD are congruent.
(b) Which segment in

triangle BCD has the same measure
as the width of the river?
(c) If Cl) is 52 ft. in length, BC
is 42 ft. in length and BD is 31 ft. in length, how wide is the river?
4. A rectangular swimming pool is 60 feet long
feet wide. and 32
Sandy can just swim from one corner to the opposite corner.
How far can she swim?
5- Rex was making paper nations for a United Nations

flags of many
display. The flags were each 4 ft. long and 2 ft. wide. The
British Union Jack is a blue field with red and white bars
placed as shown in this drawing.
Rex pasted red and white strips
on blue paper. What is the
length of the longest strip
needed?
215 5-5
6. The edge of the roof of a two story house is 24 feet above the
ground. A painter needs a ladder that will reach the roof.
The foot of the ladder must be 10 feet from the wall in order
to protect a flower bed. What is the shortest ladder that the
painter can use?
Draw two congruent squares with sides of units, inch is
(g-
7. 17
a good size for a unit). Separate the sides into segments
5
units and 12 units in length. Use the method developed in this
section to show that the area of the square on the hypotenuse
of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the areas of the
squares on the other two sides for a triangle whose shorter
sides are units and 12 units in length.
5
8. BRAINBUSTER: If you know that the side of an equilateral

triangle is units, what is its height? Give the answer
s
in relation to s.
5-5 Quadrilaterals
Symmetry and congruence can be found in some quadrilaterals or
parts of quadrilaterals. It is
also possible to find applications
of the Pythagorean Property. This section has problems based on
quadrilaterals that make use of these three ideas.
You should be familiar with most quadrilaterals but those that
have been discussed previously are given here.
trapezoid has only one pair of parallel sides.
A
parallelogram has two pairs of parallel sides.

A
You know two special types of parallelograms.

1. rectangle which has four angles of 90°.
A
2. square. This is a rectangle with four congruent

A
sides.
Exercises 5-5
. figure is symmetrical with respect to a line if it has at
1
least one axis of symmetry. Which of these figures are always

symmetrical with respect to a line?
5-5 216
(a) Trapezoid.
(b) Parallelogram.
(c) Rectangle.
(d) Square.
2. How many axes of symmetry are there in:
(a) A rectangle?
(b) A square?
3. Is it
possible to draw a trapezoid that is symmetrical with
respect to a line? If so, draw one.
4. Is it
possible to draw a parallelogram that is symmetrical
with respect to a line? If so, draw one.
5. One diagonal of a quadrilateral separates the figure into two

triangles.
(a) What is the sum of the measures of the angles of a
quadrilateral?
(b) Name the quadrilaterals that are separated into congruent

triangles by a diagonal.
6. Rectangle ABCD has a diagonal D C
that is 82 inches in length. The
width is 18 inches. What is the
length?
217 5-5
7. The diagonals of this parallelogram are perpendicular and the

sides are equal in measure. The shorter diagonal is 14 feet in
length and the longer one is 48 feet. How long is each side?
(Hint: The diagonals of a paralleogram bisect each other.)
8. A pair of parallel lines are cut by a transversal.

q/b
You should know that the vertical angles are congruent and
that corresponding angles are congruent.
(a) List all pairs of vertical angles.

(b) List all pairs of corresponding angles.
(c) There are four more pairs of congruent angles. Name them
and give your reasons to show that this is true for one
pair.
5-5 218
9. Two diagonals have been drawn in each of the following figures.

For each figure, A, B, C, D, E, and F, answer all
questions. Answer questions (a) to (c) for one figure before
you answer any questions for the next figure.
B
Quadri lateral Parallelogram Parallelogram with
all sides congruent
Figure A Figure B Figure C
B B B
Trapezoid Rectangle Square
Figure D Figure E Figure F
(a) How many triangles are there in the figure?
(b) Do any pairs of triangles appear to be congruent? If so,

name the triangles in pairs.
(c) If you found triangles ABC and triangles CDA congruent
in one or more figures, choose one figure and show why
they are congruent. Use the properties, S.S.S., S.A.S.,
or A.S.A. to show this. If you found triangles ABO and
CDO congruent do the same for these triangles. If you
found both sets congruent in some figure, choose which pair
you wish to show congruent.
219 5-5
TABLE
SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS OF NUMBERS
Square Square
No Square s roots No Square s roots
1 1 1.000 36 1,296 6.000
2 4 1.414 37 1,369 6.083
3 9 1.732 38 1,444 6.164
4 16 2.000 39 1,521 6.245
5 25 2.236 40 1,600 6.325
6 36 2.449 41 • l,68l 6.403

7 49 2 .646 42 1,764 6.481
8 64 2.828 43 1,849 6.557
9 81 3.000 44 1,936 6.633
10 100 3.162 45 2,025 6.708
11 121 3.317 46 2,116 6.782

12 144 3.464 47 2,209 6.856
13 169 3.606 48 2,304 6.928
14 196 3.742 49 2,401 7.000
15 225 3.873 50 2,500- 7.071
16 256 4.000 51 2,601 7.141

17 289 4.123 52 2,704 7.211
18 324 4.243 53 2,809 7.280
19 361 4.359 54 2,916 7.348
20 400 4.472 55 3,025 7.416
21 441 4.583 56 3,136 7 - 483
22 484 4.690 57 3,249 7.550
23 529 4.796 58 3,364 7.616
24 576 4.899 59 3,481 7.681
25 625 5.000 60 3 , 600 7.746
26 676 5.099 6l 3,721 7.810
27 729 5.196 62 3,844 7.874
28 784 5-292 63 3,969 7.937
29 841 5.385 64 4,096 8.000
30 900 5.477 65 4,225 8.062
31 961 5.568 66 4,356 8.124
32 1,024 5.657 67 4,489 8.185
33 1,089 5.745 68 4,624 8.246
34 1,156 5.831 69 4,761 8.307
35 1,225 5.916 70 4,900 8.367
5-5 220
Square
No. Squares roots
71 5,041 8.426
72 5,184 8.485
73 5,329 8.544
74 5,476 8.602
75 5,625 8.660
76 5,776 8.718
77 5,929 8.775
78 6,084 8.832
79 6,241 8.888
80 6,400 8.944
8l 6,561 9.000
82 6,724 9.055
83 6,889 9.110
84 7,056 9.165
85 7,225 9.220
86 7,396 9.274
Q«v/
Q 7,569 9-327
7,744 9.381
89 7,921 9.434
90 8,100 9.487
91 8,281 9.539
92 8,464 9-592
93 8,649 9.644
94 8,836 9.695
95 9,025 9.747
96 9,216 9.798
Q*7 9,409 9.849
9,604 9-899
99 9,801 9.950
100 10,000 10.000
Chapter 6
REAL NUMBERS
6-1 Review of Rational Numbers

In your study of mathematics you have used several number
systems. You began with the counting numbers, and you may have
known deal about these numbers before you entered the first
a good
grade in school. These numbers are so familiar that it is easy to
overlook some of the ways in which the system of counting numbers
differs from other systems. Consider the following questions:
(a) Think of a particular counting number. What is the next
smaller counting number? the next larger? If n represents a
counting number, what represents the next smaller counting number?
the next larger?
(b) Is
there a counting number which cannot be used as a
replacement for n in your answer to question (a) ? Why?
(c) Is there a smallest counting number? a largest? If so,
what are they?
(d) Is the set of counting numbers closed under the operation
of
(1) addition
(2) subtraction
(3) multiplication
(4) division
(e) How many counting numbers are there between 8 and 11 ?
between 3002 and ^002 ? between 168 and 169 ? Between any
two counting numbers is
there always another counting number?
In Chapter 1 you studied positive and negative rational numbers
The set of integers contains the set of counting numbers (called
positive Integers). For each positive integer a there is an
opposite number "a . The opposites of positive integers are
called negative integers. a If
is a counting number, then
a + "a = 0 . What integer is neither positive nor negative?
6-1 222
set of integers is contained in another set of numbers

The
which we call the set of rational numbers . As you know, the
set of integers is adequate for many purposes, such as reporting
the population of a country, the number of dollars you have (or
owe), in a triangle, and so on. The
the number of vertices
integers alone are not suitable for many purposes, particularly
for the process of measurement. If we had only the integers to
use for measuring we would have to invent names for subdivisions
of units. We do this to some extent; instead of saying 5 feet
we sometimes say 5 feet ^ inches . But we do not use a differ
ent name for a subdivision of an inch. Instead, we speak of 7-jr
inches, or inches, using rational numbers which are not
7.25
integers. If we had only the integers, we could never speak of
quarts, or 2.3 miles, or 0.001 inch.
Recall that a rational number may be named by the fraction
symbol "£•" , where p and q are integers, and q ^ 0
Just as there is
negative integer which corresponds to each
a
positive integer (or counting number), there is a negative rational
number which corresponds to each positive rational number.
You already may have observed the familiar properties for
rational numbers, which may be summarized as follows:
Closure: If a and b are rational numbers, then a + b Is
a rational number, a • b (more commonly written ab ) is a
rational number, a - b is a rational number, and
^
is a
rational number if b / 0
Commutativity: If a and b are rational numbers, then
a + b = b + a , and a • b = b • a (ab =
ba)
Associativity: If a , b , and c are rational numbers,
then a + (b + c) =
(a + b) + c , and a(bc) = (ab)c
Identities: There is a rational number zero such that if
a is a rational number, then a + 0 = a
There is a rational number 1 such that a • 1 = a
Distributivity: If a , b , and c are rational numbers,
then a(b + c) = ab + ac
223 6-1
Additive inverse: If a is a rational number, then there is

a number ("a) such that a + ("a) = 0.
Multiplicative inverse: If a is a rational number and
a / 0, then there is a number b such that ab = 1.
Order: If a and b are different rational numbers, then
either a > b, or a < b.
Class Exercise 6-1
1. Is there a smallest negative integer? A largest one?
2. If n represents a negative integer, what represents the

next larger one? the next smaller one?
3 . Is the set of negative integers closed under the operation

of
(a) addition? (c) multiplication?
(b) subtraction? (d) division?
4. Express each of the following in the form %• or
where p and q are counting numbers.
(a) 5| (e) ^
(b) 7£ (f ) 6 4
^
(c) 12 (g) 3-7
(d) 0.47 (h) "7 +

^
5. What is the additive inverse of "(4-) ?
6. What is the multiplicative inverse of "(X) ?
7. What is another name for "multiplicative inverse"?

8. If , or "(), is the simplest name in the form j-
for a rational number which is an integer, what must q be?
9. How can you tell whether two fractions represent the same
rational number?
6-1 224
c
10. What are three other names for the rational number y ?
Exercises 6-1
1. Look at each statement below and tell which of the properties
listed for rational numbers it illustrates.
O C "I "1
^ is
^
(a) (if)
+
|j =
Y2' and a rational number.
(b) + 0 =
(c) l.
-
(d) "(T)-"^^ = ' an(^ ^s a ra"ki°nal number
il
10
+ rJ_
110
+ -L.)
10;
- (ii
UO
, ^_)
10'
, 2.
10
2. Express each of the following in the form £ or "(|r), where

p and q are counting numbers.
(a) 17| (d) "0.35
(b) (e) 10
-=f
(f)
i
(c) "4 + 17.03
3. Write each of these in simplest fractional form.

^
(a) (d)
6|
(e)
(c) "0.62 (f) 12.5

225 6-2
4. What is the additive inverse of each of the following?
(a) -28 (c) +3i
_
-
(b) 756 (d)
5. Complete the statement, "The simplest name for a rational

o
number written in the form T- is the one in which a and
"
b have no common factor except .
6. The only rational number that does not have a reciprocal is the
number £ when p is .
7. Arrange the following rational numbers in order. List the

smallest one first.
0
*8. Find the average of the two rational numbers "8 and 4.
*9- Is it always possible to find the average of two integers and

have the average be an integer? Explain.
10. Multiply each of the following by 10.
(a) 0.33333 (d) 0.142142
(b) 0.090909 (e) 13.46333
(c) 16.31212 (f) 846.4646
11. Multiply each number in Problem 10 by 100.
12. Multiply each number in Problem 10 by 1000.
6-2 Density of Rational Numbers

One of the observations you have made about the integers is
that every integer is preceded by a particular integer, and is
followed by a particular integer. The integer which precedes
6-2 226
"8 is "9, and the integer which follows 1005 is 1006. In

other words, n if is an integer, then its predecessor is
(n - l),
and its successor is (n + l).
This means that on the number line there are wide gaps between
the points which correspond to the integers.
-3-2-101234 Figure 6-1
Now consider all the rational numbers, and the points on the
number line which correspond to them. Such points are called
rational points. On the number line below are shown the rational
points between "3 and 4 which may be named by the fractions
with denominators 2, 3, 4, and 6.
c
-3-2-1
I .1. , .1. I .1. , .1, I I
0
.1.
Figure 6-2
I .1. I
I 2
I ,1. I ,1.
34
I .1. I .1. I
>
Exercises 6-2a
1. Make a drawing of a number line similar to the one in Figure
6-2. Mark the points which correspond to these numbers:
(I\
("2")
,
0123
2' 2"' 2, 2
•
2. On the number line which you drew in Problem 1, find the points
that correspond to these numbers:
3. Were any of the points in Problems 1 and 2 the same point?

If so, which ones?
227 6-2
Suppose located points for the rational numbers

you have already
which are represented by fractions with denominators 2, 3, h,
5, and 6. You then locate points represented by fractions
with denominator 7. How many new points (not already located)
for sevenths will there be between the points for the integers
1 and 2? Between the points for 3 and 4?
Suppose that you then locate points for fractions with denom
inator 8. How many new points will there be between the points
for any two consecutive integers?
Consider all rational points from 0 to 1 which are named
by fractions with denominators 1 to 8 inclusive. These points
are named below. The first row shows the fractions with denom
inator 1, the second row the fractions with denominator 2,
the third row fractions (for new points) with denominator 3,
and so on.
0 1
T T
123
555 1
1
7
2
7
3
13
T T
r
1
1
•6
2345 r r r
5
r r
6
7
8"
(a) Why is •? omitted from the row for thirds?
(b) Why is -jr omitted from the row for fourths?
(c) Why are there more new points named in the row for fifths
and in the row for sevenths than in the row for sixths?
6-2 228
7. The rational numbers named in Problem 6 are combined in one

row below, and listed in order from smallest to largest.
0111112132314352534567
TS7S5IT7SS572-75S3"7ir5S7B" 1
y
Explain why the first six fractions should be in the order
shown; the last six fractions.
8. In Problem 7 the row of fractions (and the corresponding set of
rational points) could be increased by inserting next the frac
tions with denominator 9, then the fractions with denominator
10, and so on. How many new points would correspond to frac
tions with denominator 9? With denominator 10? With denomina
tor 11?
9. In Problems 6 and 8, which denominator accounts for the largest

number of points not already named? What kind of a number seems
to account for the largest number of new points when it is used
as a denominator? Why?
We may follow a different method for naming and locating new

rational points. Consider two positive rational numbers r and
s, with r < s. Then consider what happens when we add r and s
to each of these numbers. Let us consult the number line.
^ 1
p* , ^ uuoing r 10 r ^
0 r 2r
e
adding s to r ^
0 r 4 r+s
OS
adding r to s ^
0 s r+s
.«= —— 1 , r
iir s
^\ adding s to s
2s
229 6-2
We see that 2r < r f s < 2s. Taking half of each we get
r <
-^(r
+ s) < s. It is not difficult to show that r <
^-(r
+ s) <s,
even if r
is negative or r and s are both negative. You might
try to prove this yourself using the number line, if you wish. The
number
^-(r
-f s) is the average of the numbers r and s. We have
observed, then, that the average of two rational numbers is between
these numbers. On the number line what point do you suppose corre
sponds to the average of two numbers? It is the mid-point of the
segment determined by the two numbers. If r and s are rational
numbers, is + s) a rational number? What properties of the
^-(r
rational number system tells us that it is?
We can summarize what we have observed: The mid-point of the
segment joining two rational points on the number line is a rational
point corresponding t£ the average of the two numbers.
The mid-point of the segment joining the points for -^
and •*•
is the point corresponding to the number , since
1/1 +,1^ - £(5

1/3 . 2v - 1 5 :: 5
?
•
+
2% ?) 5) 5 12-
•
The mid-point of the segment joining the points for TT and

-^
is
•1C
the point corresponding to the number W, since
1/1
" , 1N =
1/8 , 7 \ = 15
finding the average in this manner it is possible to find

By
rational numbers between each pair of consecutive numbers represent
ed in the row of fractions in Problem 7 of Exercises 6-2a. If we
insert these new fractions the row would begin
01
1' T£, U '
l 15
1T2'
1
7'
13
6-2 230
If you found all fractions in this

the new row which could be
found in this way, there would be 43 fractions between yy. and
This process could be continued indefinitely. You could find points

between y and yz-, between yz- and TT, and so on. You could
find as many rational numbers as you wish between 0 and 1 by
taking averages, averages of averages, and so on indefinitely.
The discussion above suggests an important property of the
rational numbers. This is the property of density: Between any
two distinct rational numbers there is a third rational number.
On the number line, this means that the number of rational points
on any segment is unlimited; no matter how many points on a very
small segment have been named, it is possible to name as many more
as you please.
Exercises 6-2b
1. Are the integers dense? is, is there always a third inte
That
ger between any two integers? Illustrate your answer.
2. Is there a smallest positive integer? a largest?
3. Is there a smallest negative integer? a largest?
4. Is there a smallest positive rational number? a largest nega
tive rational number?
5. Think of the points for 0 and y^r on the number line. Name
the rational point P which is halfway between 0 and
Name the point halfway between the point P and 0; between
the point P and
6. In the same way, find three rational numbers between ir

d(J
and
1
•
To
1 2
7. Think of the segment with end-points 1QQQ
and
10QQ.
Show a
plan you could follow to name as many rational points as you
please on this segment. Use your plan to name at least five
points.
231 6-3
6-3 Decimal Representations For The Rational Numbers

It is often very helpful to able to express rational numbers
be
as decimals. When it is necessary to compare two rationals that
are very close together, converting to decimal form makes the com
parison easier. The decimal form is particularly helpful there if
are several rational numbers to be arranged in order.
consider the fractions 13
,
27 3
TT, and -
Q -, For example,
and their correspond
ing decimals 0.52, 0.54, 0.375, and 0.45. It is much easier to
order the numbers when they are written in decimal form.
Some rational numbers are easily written in decimal form. We
know how to write, by inspection,
| = 0.5,
^
= 0.25, g = 0.125, i = 0.2,
^
= 0.04
^=0.008, and also ^=8.5, 5^=5.75, 3^ =1-75.

For other rational numbers, a decimal expression may not be as
obvious but we can always obtain it by the usual process of division.
For example
3-
= 0.33333 . ..
| = 2.6666666 ...
Y
= 0.142857142857142857 ...
= 0.07692307692307 ...
j7j
...
^
=
0.09090909
=
8.7857142857142 ...
The examples we have discussed
to suggest that the decimalseem
expansions for rational numbers either terminate (like -* = 0.5) or
<-
repeat (like = 0.3333333
...). would reasonable way to
I
What be a
6-3 232
study such decimal expansions? Since we have used the division of

numerator by denominator to obtain a decimal representation, we
might study carefully the process which we carry out in such cases.
7
Consider the rational number A-- If we carry out the indicated
division we write
.875
8)7.000
To
6 4
remainder 6
56
-ZTO remainder 4
40
0 remainder 0
In dividing by the only remainders which can occur are 0, 1,

8,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. The only remainders which did occur were 6
at the first stage, then 4 and finally 0. When the remainder 0
occurs, the division is exact. We say a division is exact if the
process of division continues to produce a zero remainder and there
after zeros as quotients. Such a decimal is often spoken of as a
terminating decimal, and we shall do so at times in this chapter.
What about a rational number which does not have a terminating
decimal representation? Suppose we look at a particular example of
this kind, say --. The process of dividing 2 by 13 proceeds like
this 2
this:
0.153846153
13)2.000000000
1 3 remainder
70 7
65
50 5
Tib 11
104
6
>2
JO 8
To 2
13
70 7
65
"50 5
TTo 11
etc .
233 6-3
Here the possible remainders are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,

10, 11, 12. Not all the remainders do appear, but 7, 5, 11, 6, 8,
2 occur first in this order. At the next stage in the division the
remainder re-occurs and the sequence of remainders 7, 5, 11, 6,
7
8, 2 occurs again. In fact the process repeats itself again and
again. The corresponding sequence of digits in the quotient
--153846--will therefore occur periodically in the decimal expan-
sion for yr-- This type of repeating decimal is sometimes referred
2
to as a periodic decimal.
In order to write such a periodic decimal concisely and without
ambiguity it is customary to write
0.1538461538461538461... as 0.1538*16 ...

Thebar (vinculum) over the digit sequence 153846 indicates the
set of digits which repeats. Similarly, we write 0.3333... as
0.3"... . If it seems more convenient we can write 0.3333... as
0.3?... or 0.333"..., and 0.153845. . . as 0.153846153B45. . . .
The method we have discussed is quite a general one and it can
be applied to any rational number
^.
If the indicated division is
performed then the only possible remainders which can occur are 0,
1, 2, 3, . . . (b - l) . We look only at the stages which contribute
to the digits that repeat in the quotient. These stages usually

occur after the zeros begin to repeat in the dividend. If the
remainder 0 occurs, the decimal expansion terminates at this
stage in the division process. Actually, we may write a terminating
decimal expansion like 0.25 as 0.25000 ... or 0.250" ...,
with a repeated zero to provide a periodic expansion. Note that a
zero remainder may occur prior to this stage without terminating
the process, for example,
112.2
5)561.0
5 Remainder
06 0
5
11 1
10
"To 1
10
-Q- 0
6-3 234
If 0 does not occur as a remainder after zeros are annexed to the

dividend, then after at most (b -
steps in the division proc
l)
ess one of the possible remainders 1, 2, ..., (b - l) will reoccur*
and the digit sequence will start repeating.
We see from this argument that any rational number has ja decimal
expansion which is periodic .
Exercises 6-3
1. Find decimals for these rational numbers. Continue" the division
until the repeating begins, and write your answer to at least
ten decimal places.
(e)
(d) (l)
(e)
2. Which of the following convert to decimals that repeat zero

(terminate)?
(a) \ (g)
\
(b) \ (h) I
(c) \ (i) &
(J)
(e) | (k) ^
w } u &
235 6-4
Write in completely factored form the denominators of those

fractions that terminated in Problem 2.
Carry to six decimal places the following fractions.
(a) i (d) y
(b) | (e) |
(c) f (f) f
6-4 The Rational Number Corresponding To .A Periodic Decimal

We to find by division the decimal expansion of a given
saw how
rational number. But suppose we have the opposite situation, that
is, we are given a periodic decimal. Does such a decimal in fact
represent a rational number? How can we find out?
We can see how to approach this problem by considering an ex
ample. Let us write the number 0.132132132132 ... and call it n,
so that n = 0.132132T32 ... . The periodic block of digits is
132. If multiply by 1000 this shifts the first block to the
we
left of the decimal point and gives the relation

lOOOn - 132.132132T3T ...
Since n = 0.132132T3T ...
v;e can subtract n from each side of the first equation to yield
-,
999n = 132 so that
132
n = or in simplest form,
44
11 :
333"-
.
We find by this process that 0.132132132T3T ...
The example here illustrates
general procedure which mathema
a
ticians have developed to show that every periodic decimal repre -
sent s a rational number . We see, therefore, that there is a
6-4 236
one-to-one correspondence between the set of rational numbers , and

the set of periodic decimals . It would be quite equivalent then for
us to define the rational numbers as the set of numbers represented
by all such periodic decimals.
Before leave the subject of decimals
we we want to discuss one
interesting fact about terminating decimals.
We saw that rationals like i = 0.5, i = 0.2, - - 1.875,
= 0.397, = 27.68 all are represented by terminating
decimals. How determine when this will be the case? If,

can we
for Inspiration, we look at the rationals of this type which we

discussed, vie see an obvious clue: the denominators seem to have
only the prime factors 2 or 5, or both. (See Problem 3 in
Exercises 6-3-)
Consider a rational number in which the denominator is a power
of 2, such as 39.
7 -4
By multiplying by 1=2- vie can write
39 -5 39-625 " 24,375 '

~
'
10,000 10,000
24-r4 Yo5
Similarly if we have a rational number in which the denominator is

a power of 5, we can proceed as in the following example,
3-25 3-32 = 96
5- 100,000
237 6-4
Quite generally, if we have any rational number with only powers

of 2 and powers of 5 in the denominator, we can use the same
technique. For example,
3791 3791 -57 -2^ ~ 3791-57-24 =

3791-57-2l!,
and this gives a terminating decimal representation.
.A Nice Little
Proof For Future Ma t hematicians
In order to establish a general fact of this kind suppose we
ask the following question. What rational number %• (p and q

m
assumed to have only 1 as a common factor) c an be represented

by —N r- where N is an integer?
10K
Suppose that this is indeed the case and that
£
q
= Ji
Therefore q-N = p-10k.
This says that q divides the product of p and 10 S But

we assumed that p and q have only 1 factor.
as a common
Hence q must divide 10 . But the only possible factors of
k k k
10 = 2 -5 are multiples of powers of 2 and powers of 5-
Thus we have proved that a rational number r
has a terminat
ing decimal representation if and only if the denominator of r
consists only of products of powers of 2 and powers of 5; that
is, r must be of the form
r --^
6-4 238
Class Exercise 6-4
1. Perform each of the following subtractions.
(a) lOn - n (d) lOOn - lOn
(b) lOOn - n (e) l,000n - n
(c) l,000n - lOn (f) 10,000n - lOOn
2. Express each of the following as a decimal.
(a) 10 x 0.9999 ... (f) 1,000 x 0.61345:143 ...

(b) 100 X 3.12T2 ... (g) 100 x 8.031533 ...
(c) 1,000 x 0.035033 ... (h) 100 x 312.899"9 ...
(d) 10 x 16.660" ... (i) 10 x 312.899"9 ...
(e) 10 x 0.00447 ... (j) 10,000 x 6. 0123Ol23~ ..
3. Subtract in each of the following.
(a) 3128.991 . .> (e) 1.233333" ...

312.899 .. . ...
0.123333"
(b) 9.999 ... (f) 354. 5W ...

0.999 • .. 3
(c) l62.l62To2 ... (g) 27075.075075 ...

0.162T52 ... 27.075075 ...
(d) 301.010101 ... (h) 416.47777 ...
3.010101 . . . 41.64777 . . .
Write each of the following in the form where a and

Ij-,
b
are counting numbers.
3.1 1.03
,
v
\
(a)
k /
99 999
'
i, , ,
'-;
(e)
9
16.3 /.x 47.53]

-99- Vi 9999
239 6-4
5. The first
step in writing a rational number in decimal form as
a fraction is to choose the power of 10 by which the original
decimal number should be multiplied. For each of the following
numbers N find the smallest number of the form 10 (10, 100,
1000, etc.) so that (10 •
N)- N is a terminating decimal.
Show this to be true.
Example: N = 1.324"2T ...
100N =132.42423" .. .
N = 1.324"2T . . .
100N-N =131.10000 . . .
(a) 0.555 ... (e) ...

163.177
(b) 0.7373" ... (f) 672.42TJ2" ...

(c) 0.901901 ... (g) 0.1234563F ...
(d) 3.02333" ... (h) 3.41000 ...
Exercises 6-4
1. What rational numbers have these decimal expressions?
(a) 0.0909 ... (e) 0.1625
(b) O.lllT ... (f) 0.166U ...

(c) 0.0553 ... (g) 5.125T25 ...
(d) 0.123T2T ... (h) 10.045^5 ...
2. Write each denominator of the following numbers in completely

factored form.
(a) (e)
6-5 240
3. Which of the numbers in Problem 2 have decimals which repeat

zero?
4. Assuming the
Q
a to have the value one (l) in the rational
number T-, what numbers between 63 and 101 may be b and
give a terminating decimal expression for
-P-
?
6-5 Rational Points on the Number Line
If we think of the rational numbers as specified by decimal

representations, immediately how to locate and how to order
we see
the corresponding points on the number line.
Consider for example the rational number 2.39614 ... and its
place on the number line. The digit in the units place tells
us immediately that the corresponding rational point lies 2
P
between the integers and on the number line. Graphically
2
then the first rough picture is this:
123456789
P
V
i
i
i
i
0
10
precise description is obtained by looking at the first two

more
A
digits 2.3 which tell us immediately that lies between 2.3

P
and 2.4. On the interval from to 3, then, divided into tenths

2
(and magnified ten times for easy comparison) we find as shown

P
below
2.0 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.0

241 6-5
If we continue the process of successively refining the location

of P on the number line we have a picture such as the following
JL i i • 1^^* I I i. I 1! ! ]|
P (2.3...) 2:0 ^~T
^î
^- ^ ^ 3.0
.
^^
. . i i i i
^^
l
P
i
P 12.39. . ) 2.30 0
~
P (2.396...) 2.390 ^^"^ V^ 2.400
P (2.3961...) 2.3960/» ^--^. 2.3970

Zfr
i~~"~-~i--
V
-î
i
i
(2.39614...) 2.39610 2.39620
P
Location of point corresponding to 2.39614 ...

P
decimal representation for a rational number we

From such a
easily find how to locate the number to any desired degree of
accuracy on the number line.
Moreover, given any two distinct rational numbers in this form
It is a simple matter to tell by inspection which is larger and
which is smaller, and which precedes the other on the number line.
If you think of locating the point carefully
3
- on the number
line would you prefer to use or 0. 428571 ,..? If you wish to

-^
with another rational, which form is easier to use,

3
compare — •=•
or 0. 425571 ...?
-5
Exercises 6-5
1. Arrange each group of decimals in the order in which the points
to which they correspond would occur on the number line. List
first the point farthest to the left.
(a) 1.379 1.493 1.385 5.468 1.372
(b) "9.426 "2.7o5 "2.76l '5.630 "2.763
(c) 0.15475 0.15467 0.15463 0.15475 0.15598

2. In Problem (ic), which points lie on the following segments:
(a) The segment with endpoints 1 and 2?
(b) The segment with endpoints 0 and 1?
(c) The segment with endpoints 0.1 and 0.2?
(d) The segment with endpoints 0.15 and O.l6?

(e) The segment with endpoints 0.154 and 0.155?
3. Draw a 10 centimeter segment; label the endpoints 0 and 1,
and divide the segment into tenths. Mark and label the follow
ing points:
(a) 0.23 (b) 0.49 (c) 0.80 (d) 0.6 (e) 0.08 (f) 0.95
4. Arrange each group of rational numbers in order of increasing
size by first expressing them in decimal form.
/ x 3 4 17 / N 3 4
(a) 9' To '
50
( '
7' 9
2 7 67 152 415
3"' 10, 100 W
/Hx
333"' 909
243 6-6
6-6 Irrational Numbers
We have learned many things about rational numbers. One of

the most important is the density property; between any two distinct
rational numbers on the number line there is a third rational number.
This tells us that there are many rational numbers and rational
points - very many of them. Moreover, they are spread throughout
the number line. Any segment, no matter how small, contains
infinitely rational points. One might think that all the
many
points on the number line are rational points. Let us locate a
certain point on the number line by a very simple compass and
straight edge construction. Perhaps this point will have a surprise
for us .
a. Construct a number line and call it ,& . Let A be the

point zero and B be the point one .
b, At B, construct a ray m perpendicular to

On m construct a line segment BC, one unit long.
Draw segment ACT.
With A as center and radius AC, draw a circular arc

which intersects Call the point of Intersection D.
-2 -I I
Figure 6-3.
Now consider two questions:
(1) To what number (if any) does point D correspond?
(2) Is this number a rational number?

6-6
Consider the first question, "To what number does point D

correspond?" First find the length of AC", since AC" and T5
have the same length. We shall use as unit of measure the unit
distance on the number line. In Figure 6-3, triangle ABC is a

right triangle. The measure of A~B is 1. The measure of BC~ is
222
1. We can use the Pythagorean property to find AC.
AC = BC AB
22
+
AC^ - :r + :r2
AC2 = 2
The positive number whose square is 2 is defined as the square

root £f 2 and is written ~\f2.
Thus,
AC = V2, so
AD =
Therefore, the point D corresponds to the number ~\2. Is

a rational number? Is the quotient of two integers, and can it
it
be represented as a fraction ^, in which p and q are integers
and q / 0?
To answer this question, we shall follow a line of reasoning
which people very often use. It is the type of reasoning which
John's mother used one day when John was late from school. When
his scolded him he said that he had run all the way home .
mother
"No, you didn't run all the way," she said firmly. John was
ashamed, and asked, "How did you know?" "if you had run all that
way, you would have been out of breath," she said. "You are not
out of breath. Therefore you did not run."
John's mother had used indirect reasoning. She assumed the
opposite of the statement she wished to prove, and showed that
this assumption led to a conclusion which could not possibly be
245 6-6
true. Therefore her assumption had to be false, and the original

statement had to be true .
We shall prove that "^2~ is not a rational number. We use
indirect reasoning. VJe shall assume that "^2* is a rational number
and show that this assumption leads to an impossible conclusion.
Assume that ~y2 is a rational number. Then we can write "^2
as £, where p and q are integers and q / 0. Take £- in
simplest form. This means that p_ and c[ have no common factor
except JU
2
If V2~= §> then 2 - £, and so 2q2 = p2 . Since p and
"'
q
q are integers, then p

2
and q
2
are also integers. If
p Q Q
p = 2q then p must be an even number. (An integer is even
if it is equal to 2 times another integer.) Thus, p-p must
be even. An odd number times an odd number is an odd number. (Do
you remember why?) Thus, p must be even, and can be written as
2a, where
Then p
22
a
=
is
2q
an integer.
may be written as (2a)
P
= 2q
?
and (2a)-(2a) = 2q2
and 2-(2a2)= 2q2

2 2
and 2a = q
This tells us that q

2
is also an even number since it is equal
to 2 times another integer. So q is also an even number.
Thus our assumption, that "y2 is a rational number £ in
simplest form, has led us to the conclusion that p and q both
have the factor 2. This is impossible, since the simplest form
for a fraction is the one in which p and q have no_ common
factor other than 1. So the statement "
"^2* is a rational
number" must be false.
6-6 246
Since the measure of segment AD in Figure 6-3 is ~y2, then

y2" must be the number which corresponds to point D. It has
been shown that y2 is not a rational
Therefore, there number.
is at least this one point on the number line which corresponds to
some number which is not a rational number. In other words, even
though the rational points are dense, the set of points on the
number line contains more points than there are rational numbers.
A number like "^2", which is not a rational number, is called
an irrational prefix "ir"
number. The changes the meaning of
"rational" to "not rational."
Exercises 6-6
1. Construct figure like Figure 6-3, and label point D " V^" .
a
Then use your compass to locate the point which corresponds to
the number "( 2) , and label it.
Draw a number line, using a unit of the same length as the
unit in Problem 1. Use the letter A for the point 0 and
the letter B for the point
construct a segment
2. At B
perpendicular to the number line and 1 unit in length, and
call it BP. Draw AP". What is the measure of segment AP"?
Use the drawing for Problem 2, and locate on the number line
the points which correspond to "^5" and "(V^)- Label the
points.
Do you think "y^ is a rational number or an irrational number?
Why?
Using the same method as in Problems locate the point

2 and 3,
V3. Can you work out a way to locate the point for
For
Locate the points which correspond to these numbers:
(a) 2V2" (b) 3V2 (c)

24? 6-6
Do you think that (2*^2) is a rational number or an irrational

number?
8. BRAINBUSTER: Prove that "^5 ls an irrational number. (use

indirect reasoning very similar to the line of reasoning which
we used to show that ^2 is irrational. At one point you will
have to know that if p
p
factor, then p also
has 5 as a
has 5 as a factor. Prove this simple fact. Before you try
to prove that "^5" is irrational, think of the unique factori
zation property of counting numbers. If the prime number 5
it
<p
were not a factor of p then how could be a factor of p ?)
Enumerating the nationals
In the preceding discussion it proved that

was "y2 is not a
rational number. Moreover, it appears that there are many other
numbers, such as y5 which are not rationals.
y3 and If you
think about the rationals and the irrationals a bit you can see
how to write many, many irrationals. For example, every number
of the form r'V^ where
^
is rational, will be irrational.
n ^B»
Hence the set (T-"y2} can be put into one-to-one correspondence
with the set of rationals {} . Yet the set (V^) is obviously
only a very small part of the irrationals!
Indeed, we have suffered a great disillusionment - the rational
numbers, despite being dense on the number line, actually leave
empty positions than they fill!
more An even worse shock to our
intuition, perhaps is to find that we easily construct a line can so
segment whose length is not given by a rational number.
In fact, one of the really important distinctions between the
rational number system and the system of irrationals is that you
can show how to display all the rationals. One scheme is to
6-6 248
proceed as follows. vlrite the array as follows.
We can find the positive rational -r in the 4th column at

the fifth row. In what row and what column would you look for the
rational _£?
10'
For p=r?
For £?
By following the snaky line in the above display we can show

one-to-one correspondence between the set of positive rationals
456,3
a
and the set of counting numbers like this:
Counting Numbers 1 2 3
A A A A A A A
I
1
w
2
W w \f
Y
3
W W w
Rational Numbers
T T T
In this listing of the rational numbers we have followed the
snaky line, but we have left out all fractions which are not in
simplest form, because they are only other names for numbers already
in our list. In this display -^l is the 3rd rational number, y 4
is the 6th rational number , what is the 8th rational number? The
c
llth? If the above were continued, •£ would be the what-th rational
number?
249 6-7
When weset up a one-to-one correspondence between a

have
a given set and the set of counting numbers (or a subset of the
set of counting numbers) mathematicians say we have "enumerated"
the set. Thus we have "enumerated" the set of positive rational
numbers above.
Georg Cantor (1845-1918) discovered in l874 that the set of
irrational numbers cannot be "enumerated" by any method. There are
so many irrational numbers that it is impossible to set up a one-
to-one correspondence between the set of these numbers and the set
of counting numbers. No matter how you try to display irrational
numbers some irrational numbers will always be left out - more
than have been included, as a matter of fact. This is what we
mean when we say that the rational numbers leave more places
empty on the number line than they fill .
If you are interested in learning more about this important
phase of mathematics you might refer to One Two Three . . . Infinity
by George Gamow (pages 14 -23 ) . A brief but interesting history of
Cantor's life can be found in Men £f Mathematics by E. T. Bell
(Chapter 29).
6-7 A- Decimal Representation for

Numbers like "Y5 correspond to points on the
and "y2
number line, they specify lengths of line segments and they
satisfy our natural notion of what a number is. Perhaps the most
unusual aspect about "^2 is the way it was defined: ~^2 is
the positive number n which when squared yields 2, so that
This differs of defining numbers, since up

from our previous way
to now we have dealt mainly with integers and numbers defined as
ratios of integers.
6-7 250
„ In order to help us gain a better understanding of ~Y2 we

shall look for a new way of describing y2 in terms of more famil-
x.
> iar notions. If, for example, we could somehow express y2 as a
v" decimal this would help us to compare it with the rational numbers we
i
It would also tell us where to place it on the number line.
\
(, know.
« <\ /—
^
* Let us think about the definition of the number y2, namely
( V2) =2. If we think of squaring 1 and 2 we note immediately

1w that
L,V0 I2 < (V2")2 < 22 and hence 1 < V2" < 2.
M *"\
"'"This tells us that ~y2 is greater than 1 and less than 2, but
we already knew that. We might try a closer approximation by test
ing the squares of 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5. A little arithmetic
of this sort (try it!) leads us to the result
*<\T*° 1.96 =
(1.4)2 < (V2)2 < (1.5)2 = 2.25,
1
and therefore we conclude that 1.4 <"y2 < 1.5.
The arithmetic involves a little more work at the next stage
but we see with a little more computation that
s-\ 1.9881 =
(1.41)2 < (Y2)2 < (1.42)2 = 2.0164,
A/ and therefore
1.41 < Y2 < 1.42.
If we try to extend the process further we get at the next stage
1.414 < V2" < 1.415.

You can see that this process can be continued as long as our
enthusiasm lasts, gives a better decimal approximation at every
and
stage. If we continued to 7 place decimals we would find
1.4142135 < V2" < 1.4142136.
This is a very good approximation of ^f?., for (1.4142136)2

= 2.00000010642496.
251 6-7
By the use of the defining property, ( y2) = 2, then, we
can find decimal approximations for y2 which are as accurate

as we wish. We are led to write
Y^ =
1.4142135 . . .
where the three dots indicate that the digits continue without
terminating, as the process above suggests.
Geometrically the procedure we have followed can be described
as follows in the number line. Looking first at the integers of
the number line on the segment from 0 to 10, we saw that
would be between 1 and 2.
10
Enlarging our view of this segment (by a ten-fold magnification)

we saw that ~^2 is on the segment with end-points 1.4 and 1.5
1.0 1.4 1.5 2.0
and again magnifying this picture, ~\2 lies within the interval
(1.41, 1.42)
1.40 1.41 1.42 1.45 1.47 1.50
and so on till the 8th stage shows us thaty^" lies between

1.4142135 and 1. 4142136.
1.4142130 1.4142135 1.4142140
This process shows us how to read the successive digits in the

decimal representation for "^2. At the same time it gives a way
to define the position of the point on the real line.
6-7 252
When we write the number "2 as 1.4l42135 ... it looks

suspiciously like many rational numbers we have seen, such as
j = 0.3333333 . . . and y =
0.14285714 ...
We pause to ask, how are they different and how can we tell a
rational from an irrational number when we see only the decimal
representations of the numbers?
The one special feature of the decimal representation of
a rational number is that it is a periodic decimal. As we have
seen, every periodic decimal represents a rational number. Then
the decimal representation of y2 cannot be periodic, for "y2
is irrational. We can be sure that as we continue to find new
digits in the decimal representation
\p2 = 1.41412135 . . .
no group of digits will ever repeat indefinitely. We can only be

certain that a decimal names a rational number when the period of
the decimal is indicated, usually with a vinculum ( ).
Exercises 6-7
1. Between what two consecutive integers are the following irra
tional numbers? (write your answer as suggested for (a)).
< SO <
4280 (Hint: 4280 is 42. 80 x 102, so begin estimating

by thinking of
(e) V9315
253 6-8
2. Express (a), (b), and (c) as decimals to six places:
(a) (Y3)2
(b) (1.732)2
(c) (1.733)2
(d) Find the difference between your answers for (a) and (b);
find the difference between your answers for (a) and (c).
(e) To the nearest thousandth what is the best decimal expres
sion for
Which of the numbers suggested is the better approximation of

the following irrational numbers?
3. Y3: 1.73 or 1.74
4. Yl5: 3.87 or 3.88
5. Y637: 25.2 or 25.3
Find, to the nearest tenth, the nearest decimal expression

for these irrational numbers:
6. IO 7. Y1^ 8- Y221
*9. For what number n is n
2
= 10?
*10. For what number n is n

2
149?
6-8 Irrational Numbers and the Real Number System

We have seen that all rational numbers periodic decimal
have
representations. We saw also that Y2 ls not rational and that
it is represented by a non-periodic decimal. We call Y2 an
irrational number.
We now use this decimal form to define the set of irrational
numbers . We define an irrational number as any number with &
6-8 254
non-repeating representation.
decimal
The system composed of all rational and irrational numbers we
call the real number system.
From this we see that any real number can be characterized by
a decimal representation.
If the decimal repre sentat ion is periodic the number is a
rational number , otherwise the number is an Irrational number.
With every point P on the real number one line we associate
and only one number of this form by a process of successive loca
tions in decimal intervals of decreasing length. The drawings
below illustrate the first few steps in finding the decimal corre
sponding to a point P on the number line. Consider point P
J
between 3 and 4.
P 4
A
,3. . . .
_
3.0
| i i i i I
I.' A
P
i I
4.0
| ^
3.6 . . .
3.00 4.00
P
I i i i l .,,1 i 1 1
>
A
3.67.. .
Note that any two distinct points P, and

P2
will correspond
to distinct decimal representations, for if they occur as
Pl P2
on the number line we need only subdivide the number line by a

sufficiently fine decimal subdivision (tenths, hundredths,
thousandths, etc.) to assure that P, and
P?
are separated by
a point of subdivision.
255 6-8
Conversely, given any decimal, we have found how to locate the

corresponding point of the real number line by considering succes
sive rational decimal approximations provided by the number.
(Remember how we started to locate the point 2.396l;l-... in Section
5.)
Thus there is
one-to-one correspondence between the set of
a
real numbers and the set of points on the number line.
The set of real numbers contains the set of rational numbers
as a subset. We that these rational numbers form a
have learned
mathematical system with operations, addition and multiplication
and their inverses, subtraction and division. The same is true
of the entire set of real numbers. We can add real numbers,
rational or irrational, and we can multiply real numbers. The
resulting number system has all of the properties of the rational
number system. In addition it has one important property which
the rational number system does not have. This will be discussed
below.
Before we list these properties we should pause to ask what we
know about the operations themselves. You should not have much
trouble understanding the meaning of addition in the real number
system in terms of the number line. Even though there is no simpler
name for a sum such as V2" + VJ
than the symbol " V2" + VT "
itself, you can think of a method of constructing the point
+
V^" on the number line by placing segments of length
and YS~ end to end.
The meaning of multiplication is somewhat harder to illustrate.
Given -segments of length V2""" and V^~ it is possible to describe
a geometric construction of a point which we would naturally call
~^2~
•
~^3 . However, you will have to study Chapter 9 before you
will be prepared to understand such a construction. The two opera
tions can also be given meaning in terms of the decimal representa
tion which we have described, but here, too, difficulties are
6-8 256
encountered which you are not yet ready to handle. This should
not cause you undue concern. Even a mathematician often has to
accept things which he does not fully understand in order to get
on with the work which is of immediate interest to him. But if
they are important, he always returns to these points as soon as he
can and masters them. You will return to the real number system
again as you study mathematics in the future, and each time you
will understand more of the definition and the meaning of the oper
ations.
We list first
the familiar properties which the real number
system shares with the rational number system.
Property !_. Closure .
a) Closure under Addition. The real number system is closed under

the operation of addition, i.e., a if
and b are real
numbers then a + b is a real number.
b) Closure under Subtraction. The real number system is closed

under the operation of subtraction (the inverse of addition),
i.e., a if
and b are real numbers then a - b is a real
number .
c) Closure under Multiplication. The real number system is closed

under the operation of multiplication, i.e., if a and b are
real numbers then a-b is a real number.
d) Closure under Division. The real number system is closed under
the operation of division (the inverse of multiplication),
i.e., a if
and b are real numbers then a T b (when b 0) /
is a real number.
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
The
and division on real lumbers display the properties which we have
already observed for rationals. These may be summarized as follows:
Property _2. Commutatlvity .
a) If a and b are real numbers, then a + b = b + a.
b) If a and b are real numbers, then a-b = b-a.

257 6-8
Property Associativity.
3_.
If a, b, are real numbers, then
c)
and
(b
a)
+ +
a
c
(a
= + -h
b
c
.
)
If a, b, and are real numbers, then (a.b)-c - a-(b-c).
b)
c
Property Identities
4-.
If a is a real number, then a = a, i.e., zero is the

a)
+
0
Identity element for the operation of addition.
If a is a a-1 = a, i.e., one is the

real number, then
b)
identity element for the operation of multiplication.

Property Distributivlty. If a, b, and are real
c
_5.
numbers, then a- (a-c).
c)
(a-b)
(b
= +
+
Property Inverses.
-6.
If a is a real number, there is a real number ("a), called

a)
the additive inverse of a such that a + ("a) = 0.
If a is a real number and a there is a real number b,

b)
0
/
called the multiplicative inverse of such that a-b = 1.

a
Property _£• Order. real The number system is ordered, i.e, if

and are different real numbers then either a or
b
b
a
<
b.
a
>
Property 8. real number system is dense, i.e.,

Density. The
between any two distinct real numbers there is always another
real number. Consequently, between any two real numbers we
find as many more real numbers as we wish. In fact we easily
see that: There is always a rational number between any
l)
two distinct real numbers, no matter how close. There is

2)
always an irrational number between any two distinct real

numbers, no matter how close.
The ninth property of the system of real numbers is one
which is not shared by the rationals.
6-8 v 258
Property _9. Completeness complete, . The real number system is

i.e., to each point on the number line there corresponds a real
number, and, conversely, to each real number there corresponds
a point on the number line.
We sav; that in the system of rational s there is no number y2

which when squared yields 2. However, in the real number system
as defined, such a number is included.
If a and "o are positive and b = an we write a =
~\/b
n
(read
"
a is an nth root of b
"
) . Since — =
..,-!;.()... ,..,
b
b'''b'b'''''b
=
^
'
T)
'
¥
' ' '
To
=
^ ' To
is an rvth root of ^n~-
Tne number
— is called a perfect nth power.

bn
It happens that the nth root of any positive rational number
which is not itself a perfect nth power is an irrational number.
This means that such numbers as /—

yS, ~w
3/T
~, if
«rrrr, ~\l -^
[2
are
___ /~~ 3r~~

irrational nujnbers whereas -\/8l
i\-
are
i
"v25> "\l^> ~\/8

Viw
,
V
V
rational numbers. Hence, in the system of rationals we cannot hope

to extract nth roots of any numbers which are not perfect nth
powers. However, when we include the irrationals to form the real
number system we can find nth roots of positiy.e- -rational numbers.
Thus very useful property of the real number system is:
a
The real number system contains nth roots, "\f °? aH

^
o
positive rational numbers — 0.
b
f
,
259 6-8
This assures us that we can find among the real numbers such
numbers as ^ 1 +
y> V and any other
nth roots of positive rational numbers.
In addition to irrational numbers which arise from finding
roots of rational numbers there are many more irrational numbers
which are called transcendental numbers. One example of a tran
scendental number is the number which you have met in your study
IT
of circles. Recall that ir is the ratio of the measure of the

circumference of a circle to the measure of its diameter. It is
surprisingly hard to prove that IT is irrational, but it has been
done. The decimal representation
ir = 3.1^159265 . . .
22 22
cannot be repeating. The number TT is not -rr-, although -=- is
a fair approximation to TT. (Compare the decimal representation of
•^
with that of IT.)
When you study logarithms in high school, you will be studying
numbers which are almost all transcendental numbers. If N is
any positive real number and x is the exponent such that
10X = N
then we say that x is the logarithm of N to the base 10. If

2 x 2
N is of 10, say N = 10 , then clearly 10 = 10 , so
a power
p
2 is
the logarithm of 10 to the base 10. In such a case, the
logarithm is a rational number. But for most numbers the logarithm
will (transcendental) irrational number.
be a
The trigonometric ratios, sine of an angle, and tangent of an
angle are other expressions which usually turn out to be transcen
dental irrational numbers. These ratios are defined in Chapter 9.
6-8 260
Exercises 6-8
1. Which of the following numbers do you think are rational and

which irrational? Make two lists.
(a) 0.23123T... (g) |
(b) 0.2312311231ll23... (a) 9 -
(c) -— (i) 0.75000 . . .
7 Y^
(d) YT (j) g
(e) 0.783T2. .. (k) 0.959559555955559 . . .
(f) |
2. Write each of the rational numbers in Problem 1 as a decimal
and as a fraction.
3. For each of the irrational numbers in Problem 1 write a decimal
correct to the nearest hundredth.
4. (a) Make up 3 terminating decimals for rational numbers.
(b) Make up 3 repeating decimals for rational numbers.
(c) Make up 3 decimals for irrational numbers.
You have learned how to insert other rational numbers between

two given rationals. Now that you
studied decimal representa
have
tions for real numbers, you can see how to insert rational or
irrational numbers between real numbers. Look at these decimals
for two numbers a and b.
a = 4.219317 . . .
b = 4.23401001000100001 ...
These numbers are quite close together, but any decimal which
begins 4.22... will be greater than a and less than b. We can
26l 6-9
then continue the decimal in such a way as to make it rational or

or to make it irrational. For example, ]!-. 223225 ... is rational
and 4.225622566225666... is irrational.
5. (a) Write a decimal for a rational number between 2.38Il-6b'!6. . .
and 2.369369. • •
(b) Write a decimal for an irrational number between the

numbers in (a) .
6. Write decimals for (a) a rational number and (b) an irrational

number between 0. 3^6019. .. and 0.342806. . .
7. Write decimals for (a) a rational number and (b) an irrational

number between 67. 283... and 67.28106006. . .
8. Do you think that the real number system contains square roots
of all Integers? Support your answer by an example.
9. An approximation which the Babylonians used for IT was the
interesting ratio Y^T- How good an approximation is this?
Is it as good as
22
6-9 Rational Approximations to Irrationals

Whenever we give an irrational number in its decimal form, for
example, 0.019234675- «• > we see that we automatically define
N =
a sequence of rational numbers which give closer and closer approx

imations of the irrational number N. We can read such a
sequence of rational approximations as,
0.01
0.019
0.0192
0.01923
0.019234
0.0192346
0.01923467
0.019234675
6-9 262
Practically speaking, this is often how vie compute, by using

a rational approximation of the irrational number. On the other
hand mathematicians and other scientists frequently need to use the

exact irrational numbers such as
in order to express a result in exact form.

Question: property of the real number system assures us
What
that any real number can be approximated as closely as we please
by a rational number?
Geometric Properties of the Real Number Line
one-to-one correspondence between the real numbers and the
The
points of the number line gives us for the first time a satisfac
tory geometric representation. For this reason it 1-s customary
to refer to the number line as the real number line.
We know that there are no gaps or missing points in the real
number line. We can speak of tracing the real number line contin
uously and know that the segment described at any stage has a
length which is measured by a real number. Thus in the number
line indicated below
A B C D E
t i
±-» *fe
0 1 /T 2 3 ir
we know that BC~ has a length of measure V2 - 1, the length of

CD has measure 3 - ~V2, BE has measure TT - 1, CE is
measured by TT -
We can think of a point moving continuously from 0 to 1.
At every location we may associate with it a real number.
263 6-10
Because of this continuous property of our real number system,

we sometimes refer to it as the continuum of real numbers.
6-10 nationals and Irrationals in the World Around Us
We of rationals every day -- the price of

see many examples
groceries, the amount of a bank balance, the rate of pay, the
amount of a weekly salary, the grade on a test paper.
Although we have not considered the irrationals for very long,
it is easy to see many examples which involve irrational numbers.
For example, consider a circle of radius one unit. What is its
circumference? Why, 2 TT units, of course. In fact, any circle
whose radius is a rational number has a circumference which is
irrational. Also, the circular closed region of radius r has
an area, the measure of which is an irrational number (irr ) .
The volume of a circular cylinder is found by the formula
2
V = irr h and its lateral surface area A by A = 27rrh where h
is the altitude of the cylinder. Here also the volume and area
are given by irrational numbers if the radius r and altitude
h are given as rationals.
Also, we learn how to construct lengths of irrational measure
by the following simple succession of right triangles:
6-10 264
>/9 < ,9
Exercises 6-10
1 . Which of the following numbers are rational and which are
irrational?
The number of units in:
(a) the circumference of a circle whose radius is -* unit.
(b) the area of a square whose sides are one unit long.
(c) the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose sides are 5

and 12 units long.
(d) the area of a square whose sides have length "^3 units.
(e) the volume ofcylinder
a whose height is 2 units and
whose base has radius 1 unit.
(f) the area of a right triangle with hypotenuse of length
2 units and equal sides.
With the use of the facts that £ ~ 1.41^ and that
1.732 show that ^2-^3 « Y6~ « 2.449.
When webegin to compute with irrational numbers we sometimes

encounter relationships which look rather peculiar at first
but which make perfect sense on closer inspection.
Here are two examples:
The multiplicative inverse of Y*2" is i Y2"-
The multiplicative inverse of ( "Y3 + V^) is
(V3°- V2).
*(a) Verify these assertions approximately by using the
decimal approximations given in Problem 2.
(b) BRAINBUSTER: Verify these assertions exactly by computing

with the irrational numbers themselves.
Find the radius of a circle whose circumference is 2. Give an
approximate value for the radius. 3.1416 for
TT)
(Use .
•
f\ I &, ^ / "•*
/ I
I 4 ^ CHAPTER 7
3 2,
\ PERMUTATIONS AND SELECTIONS
r * V \
7-1 Pascal Triangle

The
Five students form a club. We shall call them by their
initials A, B, C, D, E. Naturally, the first order of business
in the club is to choose a refreshment committee. It is agreed
that the committee should have three members. How many possibil
ities for the membership on the committee do you think there are?
One possibility would be a committee consisting of B, C, and E.
We might abbreviate this possible committee by the symbol {B, C, E}.
Exercises 7-la Class Discussion

1. Another possible membership list consists of A, D, and E.
Write the abbreviated symbol for this case.
2. Does the committee (B, E, A] have the same members as the
committee (E,A,B)?
3. Give two other symbols, each of which names the committee
mentioned in Problem 2.
4. Make a list of all the possible committees of three members.
5. How many committees are in your list?

6. Of how many of these committees is D a member?
7. Compare the number of committees of which B is a member and

the number of those which include D.
(Answer the following questions without doing any more counting)

8. How many of the committees do not include A?
9. What is the ratio of the number of committees including E to

the number of possible committees? (Did you answer this ques
tion without further counting?)
7-1 266
10. How many committees have both A and C as members? We may

easily answer this question without looking at our list of all
the possible committees. observe that since a committee
We
(A,C,?) has two members specified, then there is only one

vacancy to be filled. How many possible choices are there for
third member? Thus three of the ten possible committees
include both C and A.
11. What is
the ratio of the number of possible committees in
cluding both B and E to the number of committees including
B?
Whenever three of the five students are chosen for a special

purpose, such as membership on a committee, then the remaining two
have also been chosen --
chosen, in the sense of not serving on
this particular committee. In other words, the selection of a
committee, in effect, separates the club members into two groups.
One method for selecting the membership of a committee is to decide
which club members will not serve. For example, it is if decided
that a committee should not Include C and D, then we know that
the committee is (A,B,E).
12. Name determined by the condition that
the committee A and
E have been chosen to be non-members.
13. Which two students are picked as being non-members in {E,B,C}?

The selection of a committee of three members also means a
choice of another committee with two members, namely the other
two of the five club members. For example, the selection of
(E,B,C) determines the two -member set or committee (A,D).
14. Since there are ten possible committees with three members
each, how many possible committees with two members each
are there?
15. Since six of the possible three-member committees include B,

how many of the possible two-member committees exclude B?
16. How many of the possible two-member committees include C?

267 7-1
17 Find the answer to Problem 16, using the method of filling

the vacancy in (C,?}.
Exercises 7 -la
From the club (A,B,C,D,E, } , one possible committee with four
members is (A,B,D,.E).
(a) Make a list of all the possible committees, each with four
members .
(b) How many in the club are excluded each time a committee
with four members is formed?
(c) Make a list of all the possible committees with one

member each.
(d) What relationship is there between the number of possible

committees with four members each and the number of
possible committees with one member each?
(e) How many committees are there with all five as members?
A club has four members whom we may call K,L,M,N.
(a) How many possible committees in this club could have

four members?
(b) How many possible committees could be formed with one

member each?
(c) Name each of the possible one -member committees.
(d) To each one -member committee there corresponds, in a

natural way, a committee with three members. What is
that natural way?
(e) Use parts (c) and (d) to make a list of the possible
committees with three members each.
(f) Make a list of the possible committees with two members

each.
7-1 268
3. Make a list of all the possible committees, and note how many
committees there are of each size, in a club with three members.

(Call the club members P,Q and R. )
*4. Do as directed in Problem 3 for a club with two members. Name
the members U and V.
5. Do as directed in Problem 3 for a club with just one member.

6. A family would enjoy each of four vacation spots. It is de
cided to choose two of the four and spend part of the vacation
time at each of the two. How many possible choices are there
for the pair of vacation places?
7. The refrigerator holds two cartons of ice cream. The dairy has
five flavors, and the family always likes to buy two different
flavors. How many times can the family go to the dairy and
bring home a different pair of flavors?
Let us make a table showing the number of possible committees

with a given number of members from a club with five members. This
table will summarize several of the results we have obtained in pre
vious problems. In a club with five members, there are 5 possible
committees with one member, 10 committees with two members, 10
committees with three members, 5 committees with four members, 1
committee with five members. The selection of a committee which
includes all five club members (sometimes referred to as the
"committee of the whole") means that there are zero club members
not serving. Thus we may balance our table by saying that there is
1 possible committee with zero members. (You may wish to compare
this agreement with the remark that there is just one empty set.)
If we arrange our data according to increasing size of
committees, we have the following sequence:
'1 5 10 10 5 1
»
These six numbers tell us how many possible committees of various

sizes can be chosen from a club membership of five.
269 7-1
type of data, for a club membership of four, is the
14641
The same
following:
Be sure that you understand the significance of each of these

five entries.
We now have two of the rows in the table we are constructing.
Class Discussion Exercises 7-lb

1. In particular, what does the last 1 in the data 1,4,6,4,1
mean?
2. What does the first 1 mean?
3. What is the corresponding listing for a club membership of

three?
4. How can you interpret the data

1 2 1 ?
5. What data of this type do we have for a club with only one
member?
Let us collect table the data for the various
into a
clubs. Each row of the table shows the information for a
club of certain size. )
121
1 1
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
Let us examine again the entry in the table telling how many
possible committees of three members each can be named from the
club (A,B,C,D,E). In the table the entry is which of the 10's?
A committee of three may include E or it may not. We will
study these two cases in more detail.
6. How many possible committees with three members include E?

7-1 270
7. A committee including E is of the type {E,?,?). How many

vacancies appear? From how many members can these vacancies
be filled?
8. In view of problem 7, compare the answer to Problem 6 with
the number of possible two-member committees in a club of
four members .
9. How many possible committees with three members exclude E?
10. A committee excluding E is of

the type ( ?,?,?} where no
blank may be filled with
E. How many vacancies appear?
Prom how many possibilities can these vacancies be filled?
11. In view of Problem 10, the answer to Problem 9 is the same as

the number of committees with (how many?) members
from a club of (how many?) members.
By encircling we show in the table below the three entries
we have been studying.
The entry 10 is
the sum of the two numbers, 6 and 4,
nearest it on the preceding line.
The table we have been studying is
part of the array known
a
as the Pascal triangle. (The French mathematician Pascal, seven
teenth century, contributed to geometry and the theory of proba
bility.) The table would resemble even more an equilateral tri
angle if we supplied a vertex at the top; this is sometimes done,
but we shall not be concerned with it. In our version of the
Pascal triangle, the first, second, third, fourth, fifth rows show
271 7-1
the numbers of possible committees from a club of one, two, three,

four, five members respectively. Copy the "triangle" above and add
the row corresponding to a club with six members.
Exercises 7-lb
1. Check that (except for the ones) every entry in the table is
the sum of the two numbers nearest it on the preceding line .
2. (a) What does the 6 in the 4th row mean?
(b) What does the first 3 in the third row mean?
3. (a) What does the second 15 mean in the sixth row?
(b) What does the second 10 mean in the fifth row?
4. (a) Which entry indicates the number of possible committees

with 2 members formed from a club of 6 members?
(b) Which entry indicates the number of possible committees

with 1 member formed from a club of 5 members?
6. A club has six members, which we denote as A, B, C, D, E, F.
(a) Some of the possible with two members are

committees
(A,B), (A,C), (C,E). Make a list of all fifteen of
these committees. (Write your list down the page, using
fifteen rows. )
(b) Make a list of all the possible committees with four

members. Do this on the right-hand side of your answer
to (a). Specifically, for each committee in the list for

(a), write beside it the committee whose four members are
excluded from the committee with two members. As an ex
ample, one line on your answer sheet will be:
U,C} (B,D,E,F)
7-2 272
(c) After you have written your list

of committees with four
members each, how can you obtain the number of these
possible committees adding two numbers obtained from
by
the fifth row of the Pascal triangle?
(d) Make a complete list of all possible committees with three

members each.
(e) Does the number of committees listed in (d) agree with a

obtained from the fifth
number row of the Pascal triangle?
6. Find the seventh row of the Pascal triangle.
7. Find the eighth row of the Pascal triangle.
8. What are the first entries (on the left)
two in the twenty-
third row of the Pascal triangle?
9. What are the last two entries (on the right) in the fifty-
seventh row of the Pascal triangle?
7-2 Permutations
Suppose that the club whose five members are A,B,C,D, and E
chooses an executive committee to conduct the business. The ex
ecutive committee has three members and is composed of B, D, and
E. These three members, in a meeting of the committee, decide that
they should assign responsibilities. One should be chairman, anoth
er be secretary, and the third be treasurer for the club. In how

many ways do you believe these jobs can be given to the three?
Class Discussion Exercises 7-2a

1. If D is chosen chairman, in how many different ways can the
other two jobs be distributed between B and E?
2. List each of these ways in detail, by telling which job each
one would have .
273 7-2
3. If E is chairman, in how many different ways can the

chosen
other two be given jobs?
4. How many different ways can the three offices be assigned to
the three if B is chairman?
5. How many different ways can the three offices be assigned to

the three members of the executive committee?
Exercises 7-2a
A club has eight members whose initials are A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H. An executive committee [A,F,H) distributes its jobs
among its members. One possible way is:
Chairman A, Secretary H, Treasurer F.
(a) Make a list of all possible waysof assigning these three

Jobs to the three members of the committee so that each
person has a job.
(b) How many ways are there?

Four boys, - Paul, Ron, Sam and Ted - will participate, one
after another in a relay race.
(a) One possible order of running is as follows:
first Paul, second Sam, third Ron, fourth Ted. Make a
list of all the possible orders of performance. Note:
One way to make this list is to fix attention on the posi
tion and tabulate how the boys can be fitted in (use
P,R,S and T to represent the boys). Such a table might
begin like this:
7-2 274
^^44
0> tt> fl> CD
M ro GJ -PT
1234 1234 1234

PRST R P S T S P R T f P R S
PRTS R P T S S . . . T * • •
PSRT R • . • S . . . T • • •
PSTR R • • • S . . . T • • •
PTRS R * * • o . . . T • • •
PTSR R • • • o . . . T • • •
Complete the listing. Save it for further use.

(b) How many different teams are in your list?
3. Many people are asked in a poll to express their preferences
concerning potatoes. Among the alternatives of baked potato,
mashed potatoes, french fried potatoes, they are asked which
they like best, which next best, which least. How many differ
ent orderings of preference are possible?
4. Three different presents are given to three children. In how

many different ways can the gifts be distributed among the
children?
5. Four horses are to be assigned positions at the post in a race.
In how many ways is it possible to distribute the horses among
the first, second, third, and fourth positions? If you prefer
you may use the answer to another problem in this set of exer
cises rather than making a new list.
6. A salesman works five days during the week. He has customers
in five cities. He spends one day each week in each city.
Clayville is only six miles from his home and he goes there
each Monday. Since he does not enjoy routine in his traveling,
275 7-2
he likes to match the other weekdays with the four remaining

cities in as many ways as possible. How many weeks can he work
without being obliged to repeat any route for a week?
7. A stenographer has four envelopes addressed to Adams, Brown,

Clark, Davis respectively. She has four letters written to
these four men. She puts one letter in each envelope. In how
many ways might she do this so that one or more of the letters
is placed in the wrong envelope?
There is
obvious difference between the problems you have
an
just been working and the problems of Section 7-1. In Section 7-1
the order in which you named individuals did not matter. The com
mittee ABC was the same as committee CBA, for example." There, we
were interested only in the set containing the three elements
A, B and C.
In the last group of discussion exercises we forming execu
were
tive committees of the individuals B,D and E. Let us agree that
when we name such a committee the first named will be chairman, the
second will be secretary and the third treasurer. Thus (B,D,E)
would represent B as chairman, D as- secretary and E as treasurer.
The executive committee (E,B,D) would be different from the executive
committee (D,E,B), for example. In the relay race problem the relay
team PTRS would be different from the team RTFS because the order
in which the boys run is different. In Problem 3 of the last set
the preference listing (mashed, french fried, baked) is different
from the listing {french fried, mashed, baked) because of the order
in which the items are listed. Such problems in which the order is
important are called permutation problems.
Different arrangements (or orderlngs) of the objects or persons
are of interest in a permutation problem. We would say that PTRS
and RTFS are two different permutations (or arrangements) of P,R,
S and T. So, in the relay race problem we want to count the number
of permutations of four things, namely P,R,S and T. In the pref
erence poll problem we needed to count the number of permutations
of three things, namely, three ways of cooking potatoes.
7-2 276
Definition; permutation of a set of elements

A is an arrangement
of the elements of the set in soit3 order.
How to_ Count Permutations
Upto this time you have been counting the number of permuta
tions merely by listing them. You had to be careful to list them
in an orderly fashion and not miss some permutations. A faster
and more efficient method of doing this counting is needed, es
pecially if
a large number of objects is involved.
Suppose you want to indicate your preference for three flavors
23
of ice cream - vanilla, strawberry and chocolate (name these by
letters V, S, and C). You want to designate first, second and
third preferences. Your possible listings are, by columns:
VSC SVC CSV

VCS SCV CVS
Note that V is first preference in Column 1, S is first pref
erence in Column 2, C is first

preference in Column 3. This
indicates that you could choose your first preference in any one
of three ways. Suppose now that you have chosen first preference
as V. There were two ways of choosing the second preference,
either S or C. (You can see this in Column 1 .) If your first
preference had been S, how many choices were there for second
preference? If your first preference had been C how many were
there for second choice? For each possible first preference
there were two possible second preferences. Since the first pref
erence could be chosen in any of 3 ways and for each of these
the second could be chosen in 2 ways, the total n'imber of choices
for the first two preferences is what number? It is hoped that
you said 3-2 ways. There remained then only one choice for the
third preference. Hence the total number of choices for all 3 pref
erence is 3-2-l.
277 7-2
Another way of thinking about this problem is to use boxes

to indicate the three preferences.
For your first preference you have 3 possible choices, which you
may indicate by a 3 in the first box. this first preference
Once
has given you have only two
been possible choices for second pref
erence. This is indicated by placing a 2 in the second box.
Now, having chosen your first preference and also your second pref
erence there is only one possible third preference, which you in
dicated by a 1 in the third box. Thus the total number of pref
erences is 3-2.1. Again we observe that for each choice for first
position, there are two choices for second position.
As another illustration of this box device let us look at the
possible different running orders for the relay team of P,R,S and
T discussed in Problem 2, Exercises 7-2a. For first runner we may
choose any one of the four boys. We indicate this by a 4 in the
first box of the diagram below:
Having chosen the first runner we may choose any of the 3 remaining
boys to run in second position. With any specified choice for the
first two positions we have two possible choices for the third
position. Finally, having chosen three boys, there remains only
1 choice for the fourth position on the team. Hence the total
number of possible running orders is 4 -3 •?•! = 24. These are the
24 orderings of PRST which you enumerated in the last paragraph.
Exercises 7-2b
1. Two-digit numerals are to be formed using the digit 6, 7, 8
and 9. No digit is
to be used more than once ( that is,
numerals like 77 are not permitted here).
7-2 278
(a) How many choices are there for the first digit?
(b) The first digit having been chosen, how many choices
are there for the second digit?
(c) How many two-digit numerals of the type permitted can be
written? (Leave the answer as an indicated product.)
In the following problems leave all answers as indicated
products (9*8 should not be written as 72).
2. Use digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 and form two-digit

numerals as in Problem 1. How many such can be formed?
3. How many different two-letter "words" can be formed using the

letters of our alphabet? No letter is to be used more than
once. (The "word" formed need not make sense - the two-letter
arrangement tg is a "word" in this sense!)
4. Use the digits 6, 7, 8 and 9, not permitting the repetition
of any digit (as in Problem l). How many three-digit numerals
can be formed?
5. Use digits 1, 2, 3, U, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9; repetition of a digit

is not permitted.
(a) How many three-digit numerals can be formed?
(b) How many four-digit numerals can be formed?
(c) How many six-digit numerals can be formed?
6. Four persons enter a room which contains 15 chairs arranged

in a row. In how many different ways could the persons be
seated in this row?
7. Suppose there are n chairs placed in a row, where n is a

counting number. Two persons are going to choose seats.
(a) How many choices does the first person have?
(b) After the first person chooses a seat, in how many ways
could the second person choose?
279 7-2
(c) Is your answer to part (b) the same for each way the first
person can choose? Why?
(d) In how many different ways can the choice of two seats be
made?
(e) If three persons are to choose seats from the n seats

placed in a row, find the number of ways they could choose
seats.
(f) If four persons are to choose seats, find the number of

ways they could choose seats.
In Problem 1 above you found the number of permutations (or

orderings) of 4 different things arranged two at a time. We will
use the symbol P;, ^ for this number. In Problem 3, you were asked
to find Pp,- „, the number of permutations of 26 different things
arranged 2 at a time. Using this notation in Problem 7(d) we wish
ed to find P 0; in Problem 7(e) we wanted to find P ~, the number
T\ y c. n. f o
of permutations of n different things arranged 3 at a time.
In general, we say:
P = the number of permutations of n different
n' things arranged
at a time. r
According to your results in the preceding problems:
4-3
PM
=
P9,2
=
9-8
P4,3
= 4-3'2 P26,2
- 26.25
= 4.3.2.1 =
15-14.13. 12
P^4 P15^4
Pn,2
=
n(n-l) P^3 =n(n-l)(n-2).
The symbol P
n, r,v makes sense only when n and r are counting
numbers and r < n.
There is a special case of P
n, .r which is of considerable
importance. In Problem 4 you were finding "the number of permuta
tions of 4 things arranged 4 at a time," or, in abbreviated
280
7-2
form, P
4,4' The answer was This number is the
product of all the counting numbers in succession from 1 to 4.
Similarly, Pp. j- = 5- 4 -3 -2-1 is the product of all counting numbers
from 1 to 5. Such products using successive counting numbers
as factors occur frequently in mathematics and we have a special
symbol for them. We write 5! = 5-4.3-2-1 and we read 5! as
"five factorial." Similarly, "four factorial "is 4! = 4-3-2-1.
In general, ri factorial, written n.1, means the product of
all counting numbers in succession between 1 and n. Thus,
n! = n- (n-l) (n-2)
• 3-2-1.
Note that it is equally correct to write:
5! =
1-2-3-4-5 and
n! = 1-2-3 (n-l)(n).
In much of your work here it is probably more convenient to write
n! as n-(n-l) 2-1 but you may write n! = 1-2.3 n
if you wish.
You should check, on a separate piece of paper, that
1! = 1
2! = 2-1 = 2
3! = 3-2-1 = 6
4! = 4-3-2-1 = 24
51 = 5-4-3-2-1 = 120
6! = 6-5-4-3-2-1 = 720
71 = 7. 6-5-4- 3- 2.1 = 5,040
8! = 8-7-6-5-4-3-2.1 - 40,320.
As you see, n at a truly remarkable rate as

factorial increases
n increases. Hence the exclamation point "!" is an appropriate
symbol to use. (To express the same sentiment, British mathemati
cians sometimes read nl as "n admiration"'.)
28l 7-2
In our work on permutations we noted that:
/the number of permutations of

(different things arranged 3 at =3!,
P-3
J)Jo *=
\a time
and
(the number of permutations of

pii
4'4IL
=
(different things arranged 4 at ) = 4l
\a time
5y using arguments like those of the previous paragraphs you should
be able to convince yourself of the truth of the following:
If n is a counting number, the number of
permutations of n different things arranged
all n at a time is n factorial. In symbols,
we write
Pn,n
' n!
Exercises 7-2c
1. Express the following in product form:
(a) 61 (b) 7! (c) 10! (d) 15!
2. Notice that 4! 4(3-2-1) = 4(3!). In a similar
= 4-3-2-1 =
fashion write each of the following factorials in terms of a

second factorial.
(a) 7! (b) 6! (c) 10! (d) 12!
3. Find the quotient of 14! by 13! (without performing any

multiplications) .
4. Show, without performing any multiplications, that 6! is the

product of 6, 5, and 4!
5. The factorial of 10 is the product of 10 and 9 and another

factor. Give a name for this third factor.
6. Show that 62! is the same as 62-61 -(60!).
7-2 282
7. How many different batting orders are possible for a baseball

team of nine players?
8. In a racing boat there are seats, one behind another.
8 In
how many ways can the 8 members of a university crew take
these seats?
9. How many permutations are there of the letters of the word

"scholar"?
10. If of the players on a baseball team always pitches, in
one
how many ways can the players be distributed among the other
playing positions? There are only nine players available for
the team.
A^
General Multiplication Property
In our thinking about arrangements and selections we have often
made use of the following:
Multiplication Property
If operation can be done in
an m ways and, after it has been
performed in any one of these ways, a second operation can be per
formed in n ways, then the two successive operations can be per
formed in m x n ways.
As a pleasant illustration of this property think of the problem
which faces you in choosing a sundae at a dairy or drug store. You
have a choice of 3 flavors of ice cream (say, strawberry, vanilla,
and chocolate). After you have chosen the flavor of ice cream, you
may choose either of 2 toppings (marshmallow or nut). You may per
form the first selection in 3 ways and then, after you have chosen
any particular flavor, the second choice may be made in 2 ways.
Thus the total number of different sundaes is 3-2 or 6. In words,
j The number j the number of ways f the number of
<of different)
^
=
^
<of selecting a fla->x (ways of select-]
^sundaes J \yor of ice cream J
\ing a topping
As a second illustration we ask: possible license
How many
plates are there consisting of a letter followed by 2 digits? Do
not allow zero as a first digit.

283 7-2
We think of the problem in terms of a box diagram.
r
26 I 9 I 101
The first position on the license plate can be filled in

possible 26
ways, since we may use any one of the 26 letters of the alphabet.
The second box may be filled in 9 ways, since we do not allow a zero
in this position. In the third position we may use any one of the
10 digits. In all, then, there are 26 -9- 10 = 26-90 = 2340 differ
ent license plates possible.
Note that in the preceding example we have used the multipli
cation property for three successive operations. Indeed we often
use this type of thinking for a number of successive choices.
Exercises 7-2d
1. A boy has seven shirts and four pairs of trousers. In how many
different ways can he choose a shirt and a pair of trousers?
2. A baseball five pitchers and three catchers. How many
team has
batteries (consisting of a pitcher and a catcher) are possible?
3. If the first two call letters of a television station must be
KT, how many calls of four different letters are possible?
4. A disc jockey has 50 records in his collection. He wants to
make a program of different songs. How many possible pro
two
grams are there? (Count different orderings of the same songs
as different programs . )
5. A signalman has six flags. The emblems on the various flags

are a stripe, a dot, a triangle, a rectangle, a bar, and a
circle. By showing two different flags, one after the other,
the signalman can send a signal. How many different signals
are possible?
7-2 284
6." How many possible license plates are there consisting of one
letter followed by 3 digits? (The first digit may not be zero.
As in the illustration above, repetition of digits is allowed
for the 2nd and 3rd digits.)
7. A set of five flags has one of each of the colors red, green,
yellow, blue, and white as a signal. Three flags are to be
hoisted, one above the other on the same mast. How many
different signals are possible?
8. How many different license plates are possible using two letters
followed by two digits? The first digit may not be zero.
9. How many license plates would be possible using 4 digits, the
first of which may not be zero?
10. A student has 10 different books, 5 of which he wishes to

arrange between book-ends on his desk. In how many different
ways may he do this?
A Permutation Formula
General
Suppose we have a set of seven flags, each one a different
color. How many different signals may we form from 3 flags, hoisted
vertically on the same mast?
A signal thus means an arrangement of 3 of the 7 flags, or, as
we have said, a permutation of 7 things arranged 3 at a time . We
use the symbol P7I , 3q, you recall . The first flag may be selected
from any one of the 7 possibilities.
After it has been selected, there
remain 6 possibilities for the
second flag. After both these
choices have been made there remain
5 of selecting the third flag.
ways By the multiplication property
the total number of permutations is 7-6-5, or
P7,3 =7-6-5-
285 7-2
This way of thinking allows us to write a general formula for

the number of permutations of n thing taken r at a time. The
first of the n objects may be selected in n ways. Then the
second may be selected in (n-l) ways, the third in (n-2) ways
and so on. There will be r stages in this procedure, one for each
of the objects being used in the permutation. Hence there will be
r factors in the final product . Accordingly,
P
n,r
=
n(n-l)(n-2) ... to r factors,
As an illustration of this, we see that
P7 5
=
7j 6 • 5 •4 . 3 , when n = 7, r = 5
5 factors
and P2l|_ 3
=
2^4-23.
22, when n = 24, r = 3.
3 factors
Exercises 7-2e
1. Write the new symbol which represents the proauct
2. (a) Write the number Pn 0 0 in factored form (but do not

. 12>3 12 (")(/e>
multiply).
(b) Write the product of P,p 3
and 9! in expanded form ( but
do not multiply) . i • •? iL'-
"]•
• i .'. ' t> >

3
•
t.
\ <\ 1
(c) What convenient name do we have for the product in (b)?

3. (a) How can the numbers 12! and 91 be combined to yield
*>
r!2,3-
P
(b) Express P,2 as the quotient of two numbers, each of

3
which is a factorial.
7-2 286
4. (a) Write the number Pon i, in product form (but do not

dUf^
multiply).
(b) Write the product of P20 ^
and 16! in product form
(but do not multiply) .
(c) What convenient name do we have for the product in (b)?

5. (a) How can the numbers 20! and 16! be combined to yield
p 9
*20,V
(b) Express Pp0 u as the quotient of two numbers, each of
*6. (a) Write the number n,r.,

PM as a product.
(b) Use the clues in Problem (b) and 4(b) and select a
2
certain factorial by which to multiply P

n, r to get n!
(c) What is
the product of P n, r., and the number you chose in
part (b)? (Use the clues in Problems 2(c) and MC), if
necessary. )
(d) Express P
n, r as a quotient of two numbers, each of
7. A monkey sits at a typewriter and types a "monkey -word"
of five letters by touching 5 different keys in succession.
(a) How many possible "monkey-words" are there?
(b) How many different "monkey-words" of 26 letters each would

be possible? (Leave your answer in product form.)
(c) How many days would he need to type a complete list of the
5-letter "monkey-words" if he typed a new word every
second? the monkey to be an ideal typist who makes
(Assume
no mistakes and takes no banana-break until the Job is
done ! )
287 7-3
8. A telephone dial has a finger hole for each of the ten digits.
(a) How many telephone numbers, each with five digits, are
possible? Zero may be used as a first digit.
(b) How many telephone numbers, each with five digits but
with no digit repeated, are possible?
9. Five players on a football squad can play either left end or
right end. In how many ways may the coach choose the two ends
for the opening lineup?
*10. Suppose we want to send messages in code. We use certain
symbols, of them.
say (The symbols might be letters or
n
flags or sounds or designs or any other type of symbol.) Each
message is composed of four different symbols, arranged in
order. The number of possible messages which we may wish to
send is l600. What is the smallest number that n can be in
order to meet the requirement?
7-3 Selections or Combinations

Whenever we have been using the word "permutation," we have
been concerned, not only with the elements, but also with the
arrangement or the ordering of the elements . At the very beginning
of this chapter we discussed committees in a club. In a committee
such as we studied there, the members are not arranged in any par
ticular manner. The choosing of a committee from a club is an
illustration of a selection or combination.
Definition. A selection o£ ci certain set £f n objects
taken r_
at a time is a set of r members from the
total set of n objects with no regard to ordering the
chosen members.
Here, n is a counting number and r is a whole number no

greater than n. The number of selections of a set of n objects
7-3 288
taken r
at a time is often represented by the symbol ( ) . In
this unit you may read this symbol by saying: "the number of se
lections of n things r at a time," or, "the number of combina
tions of n things r at a time."
In terms of sets, we may say that is
"the number of
(£)
r-subsets in an n-set. By an n-set we mean simply a set of n
"
elements. An r-subset is
set of r a elements, each of which
is one of these n elements.
The entries in the Pascal triangle are values of For
(£)
.
example, from the fifth row of the Pascal triangle we find read
ing from the left that
(|)
(|)
= 5, = 10, = 10, and so on.
You will want to note that the new symbol we have introduced
can be easily distinguished from fractional symbol, because the
a
new symbol does not have a bar between the two numbers and the
parentheses are always written as part of the symbol.
Note: Other common symbols for the number of combinations
n
of n things taken r at a time are and n r. You will
C
r^
is to be
9
want to be familiar with these symbols, although

(
)
preferred.
Exercises 7-3a
1. Write the special symbol for each of the following:
(a) The number of selections of 12 objects taken at

7
a time;
(b) The number of permutations of 12 objects taken at

7
time;
a
(c) The number of combinations of m things taken at

a
3
time;
(d) The number of selections of n + objects taken at

k
2
a time.
289 7-3
2. Read each of the following symbols: (0) ; Pn i, ;
PO
,52\ • • 8 '
t (^ P T-
-^ • J J-O
}
V -i o / •> Q 7
^, (
' t.
TT
3. Use the Pascal triangle to find each of the following:
(a) and ;
(2) (^)
(J)
(b) and (7)
(c) (,,) and (,_) ;

;
(J)
(d) and (3)

;
(e) and (g) .

(2)
4. (a) Suppose that are two counting numbers and

a and
b
let be the sum a + b. What important relationship

S
between (s) and (f) is suggested by Problem 3?

Use some ideas in Section to convince your 1
self that this relationship is true in every case.

5. (a) Find each of the following:
{&\ f9\
,
(b) What general notion do these examples illustrate?

6. (a) Find each of the following:
^0 V0 X0 V0
(b) What general notion do these examples illustrate?
*7. Show that if n is a counting number different from one,
n(n -
X)
then (n) =
.
Suppose that a club of seven members picks three officers.

With the aid of the Pascal triangle, we learned that the number
of these possible selections of an executive committee is 35.
This number 35 we may now call (I). Our study of permutations
tells us that the three offices may be matched with the three
officers in = ways. We may apply the Multiplication
P
3
!
7-3 290
Property and see that the number of possible officer assignments is

<3>P3,3= <3>-<3»-
On the other hand apply the Multiplication Property
we may
(extended) to find that the number of choices of three members,

arranged by office, from the club of seven members is } -6-5,
namely 210. This number 210 is P_ ~ .
( » «j
Both viewpoints yield the same count. Each expression repre
sents the total number of possible officer assignments. Therefore,
7,3 P3,3 or
P
^ • 3!
ry
This last equation gives us a way to calculate (1), the number
of selections of 7 different things taken 3 at a time. For vie
can see from the preceding equation that
P
The same type of argument shows that for two counting numbers
n and r, with r < n, we can write
P
n,r - V
(n) • P r,r or
n,r xr' • ' "
In words, this expression P =

(n) • P simply states that
the number of per- number of se the number of
Imutations of n lections of n permutations of
/different things different things r things taken
arranged r at r at r at a time
(the
1 taken a
la time time
*
.
From this general equation we see that

/n\ ~ n,r
P
\r>f r> t
and since
n, r
=
n(n-l) ••• (to r factors)
P
we obtain the formula

/n\ - n(n-l)(n-2) •••
(to r factors)
.
291 7-3
In this fraction, the number of factors in the numerator is r,

the same as the number of factors in the denominator. For ex
ample when n = 11 and r =
5 we have
/llx 11 -10 -9-8 -7

\
5' 5. 4.3-2-1 -
Notice that there are r(=5) factors in both numerator and de

nominator. The first factor in the numerator is n(=ll); the
first factor in the denominator is r(=5).
Exercises 7-3b
1. Ten men are qualified to run a machine that requires three
operators at a time. How many different crews of three are
possible?
2. A disc jockey had a set of 15 records. Each night he selects
5 records to make a program. How many nights can he do this
without repeating any program? Disregard the order in which
the individual records occur within a program. (You do not
need to perform any multiplications, but may leave your answer
in whatever symbols you think are convenient.)
3. Eight points are given in space, and no four of them lie in the
same plane. (Remember that any three of them determine a
plane.) How many different planes are determined by the eight
points?
4. On a certain railway there are 12 stations. How many differ
ent kinds of tickets should be printed to provide tickets be
tween any two stations:
(a) In case the same ticket is good in either direction?

(b) In case different tickets are needed for each direction?
7-3 292
5. A man has six bills, one each of the amounts of $1, $5, $10,
$20, $50, $100. How many different sums of money may be formed
by using one or more of these six bills together?
6. A restaurant has prepared ^ kinds of meat, 3 kinds of
salad, and 5 kinds of vegetables. A platter consists of a
meat, a salad, and a vegetable. How many different kinds of
platters are possible?
7. There are eight teams in a baseball league. During the season
each team played every other team five times. How many games
are played in the league altogether during one season?
8. Either one bulb or two bulbs of a string of eight Christmas

tree lights wired in series are burned out. Suppose you have
two good bulbs and suppose you try, first one at a time, then
two at a time, to locate the burned out bulb (or bulbs). How
many trials might it be necessary for you to make in order
to find the bulb (or bulbs) that need replacement?
9. A girl has four skirts, six blouses, and three pair of shoes.
How many weeks can pass while she wears a different costume
every day?
10. In of bridge, a hand consists of 13 cards from the

a game
playing deck of 52 cards. The number of possible bridge hands
is 635,013,559,600. Write this number, using a special symbol
you have studied in this unit.
11. A salesman has customers in eight cities away from his home.
He wishes to plan a travel route which will take him to each
of the eight cities in turn and afterwards back to his home.
How many possible routes are there?
Chapter 8
PROBABILITY
8-1 Chance Events

This chapter will be with chance events.
concerned For ex
ample, a weatherman makes a forecast of the future weather. His
forecast, "Rain," is more accurately a probability statement, "It
will probably rain." Similarly, you may predict that "The Green
Shirts will win the pennant," but what you mean to say is "It
is likely that the Green Shirts will win the pennant."
Some examples of games of chance will
to help you be used
understand what probability means and how it may be used. Such
games give us excellent mathematical models for use in studying
probability. The examples are not used with the idea that gambling
is to be encouraged. Rather, the information in this chapter should
help you begin to understand why "most gamblers die broke."
Probability has many practical uses. For example, federal and
state governments use probability in setting up budget requirements;
military experts use it in making decisions on defense tactics,
scientists use it in research and study; engineers use probability
in designing and manufacturing reliable machines, planes and
satellites; big business companies use it in mathematical studies
to help make difficult decisions; insurance companies use it in
setting up life expectancy tables.
In Section 1 we ideas about statements involv
shall study some
ing chance events, like "The Brown Sox will win," or "Sandlot will
win the race," or "If I toss a coin and allow it to fall freely, it
will show heads." We will concern ourselves with a "measure of
chance" that an event will happen. This measure of chance is also
called the probability that the event will occur. At first we will
use a mathematical model where we can count the possible outcomes.
The game of tossing a coin can be used as a model. If we toss a
coin and allow it to fall freely, either a head will show or a
8-1 294
tail will show. We assume the coin is perfectly balanced and that
neither side is
weighted in any way. Such a perfectly balanced coin
is sometimes called an "honest coin."
Consider the question, "What is a measure of chance that if we
toss a coin and allow it
to fall freely it will show heads?"
In probability it is useful to use a number to indicate the
measure of chance that an event will happen. If we toss a coin we
consider two possible outcomes: (l) it will show heads or (2) it
will show tails. That the coin will show heads is one favorable
outcome out of two possible outcomes. We say the measure of chance
that the coin will show heads is -x.

If an event is governed by chance, then it has a certain prob
ability of happening. If we use the letter "A" to represent the
event of the coin showing heads, then we can call •* the
probability of the event A. This is the same as saying that the
measure of chance that the event will occur is 75- . We can rep
resent the probability of the event A as
P(A) =
|.
If we use the letter
to represent the event of the coin
"B"
showing tails, we are concerned with the probability of B. We
can represent this with the symbol P(B). Thus,

P(B) =
|.
It is that you understand that in the above case
important
P(A) = P(B). That is, each event is equally likely to occur.
Any two statements which predict events that are equally likely
have the same probability.
Suppose you have tossed an honest coin five times and it shows
heads each time. What is the probability that the coin will show
tails on the next toss? Some people believe that the odds will
change, that the forces of "luck" will act to force the coin to
show tails until a balance is restored between the showing of
295 8-1
heads and tails. Not so! The probability that the coin will show
heads remains ^
for each toss. In probability we do not say that
if the coin shows heads on the first toss it must show tails on the
second toss. We cannot predict whether the coin will show heads or
tails.
Suppose you use two pennies. What is the measure of chance that
if two coins are tossed, one head and one tail will show? That is,
what is the probability that the event of one head and one tail
showing will occur? The table below shows that there are four
possible outcomes:
Possible Outcomes
First Coin Second Coin
Heads Heads
Heads Tails
Tails Heads
Tails Tails
Note that there are two outcomes showing one head and one tail.
Two outcomes out of four possible outcomes are favorable. The
probability that the event will occur is 2
^
or 1
-^
. If we use
the letter "E" to represent the event, we may write the following:
P(E) =\.
What is the probability that exactly two heads will show if two
coins are tossed? Of the four outcomes, how many ways are there
for this event to occur? If we use the letter "G" to represent
the event that two heads show, we may write the probability of the
event G as
P(0) =
%
•
Note that in this example, events E and G are not equally

8-1 296
likely. Their probabilities are different.

We may suinmarize our results by a formula:
P(B) -£.
where P(E) is the probability that an event E will occur, t is
the number of outcomes in which E occurs, s is the number of
possible outcomes. If r is the number of outcomes in which E
does not occur, then we may say
P(not E) =
| .
Since either E occurs or E does not occur, t + r = s, and
P(E) +
On the assumption that an event E either occurs or does not occur,

then
P(E) + P(not E) = 1.
If event K is certain to happen,

an P(K) = 1.
If an event L cannot occur, P(L) = 0.
Thus, we conclude that for any event M
0 < P(M) < 1.
This sentence is read "P(M)

number is greater than or equal to
zero and less than or equal to 1."
Why is P(M) never greater than 1?
Exercises 8-la
1. Two black marbles and white marble are in a box. You are
one
to take out one marble, without looking inside the box. Find
the probability of the event that when, without looking, one
marble is taken out of the box, the marble will be black.
2. Using the data in Problem 1, find P for the event that if one
marble is taken out of the box, it will be white.
297 8-1
3. If there are black marbles and 1 white marble in a box,

2
as in Problem 1, we can say that there are 3 pairs of marbles
in the box. The pairs consist of 2 black marbles, one black
and onewhite marble and a second pair of one black and one
white marble. Find the probability that when, without looking,
a pair of marbles is taken out of the box,
(a) both will be black?

(b) one will be black and one will be white?
4. Find the of the probabilities in Problem 3(a)
sum and (b).
Explain the meaning of the sum.
5. Suppose you have tossed an honest coin nine times and it
shows heads each time.
(a) Consider the above as one event. Is this event

likely to occur? Explain your answer.
(b) What is the probability that the coin will show tails
on the tenth toss?
(c) Does the outcome of the first 9 tosses have any affect
on the tenth toss?
6. From a large amount of evidence, we know that boys and girls

are born in about equal frequencies. On the average, half of
all babies born are boys, and half are girls. In a given
birth, then, the probability of a baby being a boy is -^ .
Likewise the probability of its being a girl is since no
-|,
other outcomes are possible. (We exclude for the moment the
possibilities of twins, triplets and other multiple births.)
P(girl)
i.
Then, P(boy) = and =

^
(a) Mr. and Mrs. Jones already have one boy when the second
baby arrives. What is
probability of its being
the boy?
a
girl? (It is important to remember that each birth is

A
an independent event, and not influenced by previous

births. The fact that the Joneses already had a boy
8-1 298
does not affect the probability of the second baby

being a boy or a girl . )
(b) Mr. and Mrs. Richards have eight children, all girls, when
the ninth baby arrives. What is the probability of its
not being a girl?
7. There are 25 students in a class, of whom 10 are girls and
15 are boys. The teacher has written the name of each pupil
on a separate card. If a card is drawn at random, what is the
probability that the name written on the card is:
(a) the name of a boy?
(b) yDur name (assuming you are in the class)?

8. Three men's hats are in a dark closet. Two belong to Mr. Smith
and the other to his friend. Being a polite person, when his
friend is ready to leave with him, Mr. Smith reaches in the
closet and draws any two hats. What is the probability that
he will pick two wanted hats, his friend's hat and one of his
own hats?
9. Suppose a box contains 48 marbles. Eight of the marbles are

black and forty of the marbles are white. Find P for the
event that if a marble is picked at random (without looking
in the box), it will be white.
10. Using the data for Problem 9, consider the event: "If, with
out looking, nine marbles are taken out of the box, all of the
marbles will be black."
(a) Is the outcome in this case possible?
(b) What measure of chance can we assign to such an outcome?
11. If a whole number from (including

1 to
1 and 30) is
30
selected, what is the probability that the number will be a
prime number? Assume that the selection is made so that one
number is just as likely to be chosen as any other.
299 8-1
12. In a newspaper you read: "He has a 50-50 chance of winning

the election."
(a) What is the probability that he will win?
(b) Suppose a measure of chance is less than -^

. What does
this mean in terms of the outcome of an event? Is the
outcome very likely or not very likely to occur?
13. Suppose you have five cards, the ten, jack, queen, king, and
the ace of hearts. card from the group you lay
As you draw a
it aside. You do not replace the cards after each draw.
(a) What is the chance that the first card you draw is the
ace?
(b) Assume you draw the jack on the first draw. What is the
chance that the second card you draw is the ace?
(c) Are your answers for (a) and (b) the same? Why?
(d) After drawing the jack, assume the second card you draw
is the ten. What is the chance that the third card you
draw is the ace?
(e) What is true of the measure of chance of the drawings in

(a), (b), and (d) as the number of cards decreases?
In of the problems you determined the measure of chance,

some
which we call probability, by listing all possible outcomes. This
is easy, for example, when there are only one or two coins, but as
the number of coins increases it is difficult to remember all the
possibilities or to avoid listing some possibilities twice. Let
us see if we can discover an easy, accurate way to make these
listings.
8-1 300
The table for two coins shows this pattern:

Possible Outcomes
First Coin Second Coin
H H
H T
T H
T T
("H" represents heads and "T" represents tails.)

Note that the first column is grouped by twos; HH, TT. The second
column is grouped alternately; the pattern in
H, T, H, T. Compare
the table for two coins with the pattern in the table for three
coins shown below:
Possible Outcomes
THE
First Coin Second Coin Third Coin
H H H
H H T
H T H
H T T
T H T
T T H
T T T
Note how each column is grouped: the first by fours; the second
by twos; the third alternately, H and T. This is one systematic
way in which the number of possible outcomes might be listed in
order to count the possibilities.
301 8-1
How many possibilities are there in the table for two coins?
Note, there are four. How many possibilities are there in the
table for three coins? There are eight. Can you find a relation
between the number of sides (two) of the coin, and the number of
possible outcomes? With two coins each having two sides there are
four possible outcomes. With three coins each having two sides
there are eight possible outcomes. Can you predict the number of
possible outcomes with four coins? There are 16 possible outcomes.
If we use the number of sides, 2, as the base, and the number
of coins, 2 or 3 and so on, as the exponent, we can determine
the number of possible outcomes without listing them in table form.
We need only determine the number represented in exponent notation.
If we use two coins there will be ...
o
2 or 4 possible outcomes.
If we use three coins there will be ...
2
2 or 8 possible outcomes.
We can express this result as a formula:
T - Sn.
T is the total or possibilities,
number
S isthe number of sides of the coin or object used
(a cube or some other object with more than two
faces may also be used),
and n is the total number of coins or objects used.
Having determined of possible outcomes, it is
the total number
then easier to set up the table. You might recall the patterns
in the table for two coins and the table for three coins. If we
use 4 coins, how many outcomes must be listed in a table? By
using the formula T = Sn where S = 2 and n - 4, we find
T = 24 = 2 -2 -2 -2 = 16.
8-1 302
There are 16 possible outcomes with four coins. What could the
pattern be for the first column? The second column? The third
column? fourth column?
The
In making tables, such as those described above, experimental
observations were not used. Rather, all possible outcomes of
events were listed, as in the cases of tossing two or three coins.
The probability is based on the outcomes listed in the table. In
the tables discussed we assume that each separate possibility,
or outcome, has the same chance of occurring. We say that each
outcome is "equally likely" to occur.
In this section we have been concerned with some simple events
governed by chance. We assigned measures of chance, which we called
probabilities, for the outcomes of these events. The numbers we
used to represent "P" were numbers like one -half, two-thirds, one-
fourth, and so on. If we actually toss an honest penny once, we
cannot predict whether it will show heads or tails. But if we toss
an honest penny a million times, then it is almost certain that the
number of heads will be between 490,000 and 510,000. The ratio of
heads that show to the number of tails that show will be almost
certainly between y^n and j^ . We cannot in this chapter study
all the mathematics required
to make such conclusions.
It should be kept in mind that probability is not the tossing
of coins or drawing of marbles. Probability is a part of mathe
matics which has been found exceedingly useful in describing chance
aspects of games, selections, science, business, and activities of
government which are not completely predictable . In this chapter
we will study some of the more elementary ideas of this mathematical
theory.
303 8-1
Exercises 8-lb
1. If three honest coins are tossed, what is the probability
that three heads will show? Use the table above showing
8 possibilities.
2. If three honest coins are tossed, what is the probability
that 2 heads and 1 tail will show?
3. Without listing them, determine the number of possible out
comes in tossing 5 coins.
4. Notice the pattern which is involved in a count of the number
of outcomes in tossing coins. H is heads; T is tails; (H,T)
is a head and a tail in either order.
1 coin 1(H) 1(T)
2 coins 1(H,H) 2(H,T) l(T,T)
3 coins 1(H,H,H) 3(H,T,T) 3(T,H,H) l(T,T,T)
Add a fourth and fifth line in this table.
Does this remind you of Pascal's triangle?
5. Use Problem 4 to find the probability of getting 2 heads and
2 tails if 4 coins are tossed.
6. If five coins are tossed, what combinations of heads and tails
are most likely to occur? Why?
7. Give the probabilities of each of the 6 possible outcomes

when 5 coins are tossed. Is their sum 1?
8. There are 35 bricks, of which 5 are gold. What is the chance

that if
you pick a brick at random you will pick a gold one?
("At random" in this case means "without looking and without
lifting" . )
9- (a) If one penny is tossed, what is the chance that a head will
show ?
(b) How many heads might you reasonably expect to get if the
penny is tossed 50 times?
8- 304
10. A bowl contains 5 white marbles, 3 black marbles and 2 gray

marbles.
(a) What is the chance that you will pick a white marble in
one draw?
(b) Assuming you pick a white marble the first time and do not
replace it, what is the chance that you will pick a black
marble the second time?
(c) Assuming you pick a white marble the first time and a black
marble the second time and do not replace them, what is the
chance that you will pick a gray marble the third time?
ll. The letters A, B, C, D, E, and F are printed on the faces of

a cube. (One on each face.)
(a) If one cube is rolled, possible outcomes are
how many
there? We will consider the side facing up as the out
come in this case.
(b) If two cubes are rolled at the same time, how many out
comes are there?
(c) What is the chance that B will show if one cube is

rolled?
(d) What is the chance that two E's will show if two cubes
are rolled at the same time?
12. A regular tetrahedron is a solid having four faces. The letters

A, B, C, and D are printed on the faces.
(a) If a regular tetrahedron is rolled (or tossed in the air

and allowed to fall freely), how many possible ways are
there for it to stop (or fall)? Note that in this case
we will consider the side on which the object rests as
an outcome. That is, the face that is the base may be

marked A, B, C, or D.
305 8-1
(b) How many outcomes are there if two such tetrahedrons are
rolled?
(c) How many outcomes are there if three such tetrahedrons
are rolled?
(d) Find the measure of chance for the following statement:
"If the tetrahedron is rolled it will stop on side A."
13. You are to placed in a line with two girls (or boys) one
be
of whom is your favorite. If the line contains exactly 3
persons including yourself what is the probability that you
will stand next to your favorite? In such a problem we assume
that you are not placed according to any plan (including your
own). If you crowd in next to your favorite, chance would not
play a role.
14. Suppose on a regular dodecahedron, a solid having twelve plane

faces, faces are colored white and 7 faces colored black.
5
If you toss it, what is the chance that it will stop with a
white side down?
15. If there are 225 white marbles and 500 black marbles, what is
the chance of picking a black marble on the first draw?
*l6. Suppose six letters to be delivered in different parts

you have
of town. Two boys offer to deliver them. In how many different
ways can you distribute the letters to the boys? Include the
possibilities of one boy having 0, 1, and 2 letters to distrib
ute as well as the possibility that each boy will have 3
letters to distribute.
*17. When six coins are tossed, what is the chance that one and only
one will show heads?
8-2 306
8-2 Empirical Probability

Among of probability are those
the most important applications
in situations where we can not list all possible outcomes. For
example, the table shows a small number of weather forecasts, only
those from April 1 to April 10. The actual weather on these dates
is also given.
"Yes" indicates the forecasted
event did occur, "No" that it
Date Forecasts Actual weather did not .
1 . Rain Rain Yes
2. Light showers Sunny No
3 . Cloudy Cloudy Yes
4. Clear Clear Yes
5. Scattered Warm and sunny No

showers
6. Scattered Scattered Yes

showers showers
7. Windy and Overcast and Yes

cloudy windy
8. Thunder - Thunder showers Yes

showers
9. Clear Cloudy and rain No
10. Clear Clear Yes
Observe that forecasts 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 10 were correct.

We have ten outcomes.
observed The event of a correct forecast
has occurred seven times. Based on this information we might say
the probability that future forecasts will be true is
7
. This
-^
number is the best estimate that we can make from the given informa
tion. In this case, since we have observed such a small number of
outcomes, it would not be correct to say that our estimate of P is
very accurate. A great many more cases should be used we expectif
307 8-2
to make a good estimate of the probability that a weather forecast

will be accurate. You will understand, of course, that there are
a great many other factors which affect the accuracy of a weather
forecast. The example here merely indicates something about how
successful a particular weather office has been in making weather
forecasts - in this case, only for a small number of days.
On September 15, major league player A had a batting average
for the season of 0.38? and player B had a season average 0.208.
Based on these averages, we would expect there is a better chance
that A would make a hit the next time he is at bat, than that
B would make a hit. We might even say that a measure of the chance
(probability) that A would make a hit is 0.387 and that a measure

of the chance that B would make a hit is 0.208.
A physicist cannot trace the motion of a single molecule of
oxygen in a room, but he can estimate the probability that an ox

ygen molecule will hit one of the walls un a room in the next second.
To draw such a conclusion requires an understanding of much more
mathematics than we can study in this chapter.
While probability has many uses in games such as those mentioned
in Section 1, the theory of probability is very important whenever
we deal with large scale or mass events. Most events are made up
of many single events:
1. The occurrence of 300 traffic deaths in the U.S. in one
day is a mass event.
2. The occurrence of 20 absences in your school on Monday
is a mass event. This is made up of many simple events
such as: Terry came to school, Susan came to school,
Mark stayed home, and so on for all the students in the
school .
In modern industry probability

plays an important role in
now
many activities. Quality control and the reliability of a manufac
tured article have become extremely important considerations in
which probability are used. Questions of reliability can become
8-2 308
very complex. A basic idea related to reliability, however, can be

illustrated as follows. Many thousands of articles of a certain
type are manufactured. The company selects 100 of these articles
at random and subjects them to very careful tests. In these tests
it is found that 98 of the articles meet all measurement require
ments and perform satisfactorily. This suggests that -^j— is the
reliability of the article. One might expect that about 98%
of all of the articles manufactured by this process will be satis
factory. The probability or of chance that an article
a measure
made by this process will be satisfactory might be said to be 0.98.
All of these examples of empirical probability are different
from examples and problems in Section 8-1 in one very important
respect. In Section 8-1 we could list and count all possibilities
except in Problem 6 of 8-la. In this section we cannot or it is
not practical to try to do so. We draw conclusions in the first
section from counting what might be called the total collection of
all possibilities. In this section we draw conclusions about what
may happen in the future from information we have about a sample.
The selection of a sample and the size of a sample which should be
used are problems of statistics. In this kind of application the
selection of a sample is very important. Mathematical theories of
sampling are too advanced for our consideration here.
In the problems of this section you are asked to find measures
of chance or probabilities from observed data. In each case the
observed data may be said to be a sample of a total population, or
a sample of possible outcomes.
309 8-2
Exercises 8-2
A teacher has taught eighth grade mathematics to 1600 students
during the past 10 years. In this period he has given A's to
152 students.
(a) Based on this data what is a measure of chance that a

student selected at random will receive an A in this
teacher's class?
(b) If this teacher will teach 2000 students in grade 8
mathematics during the next twelve years, how many

A's might you expect the teacher to give?
The batting average of a baseball player is 0.333. Using
this information as a measure of chance, what is the proba
bility that this man will make a hit the next time he is at
bat?
Car insurance rates are usually higher for male drivers under
the age of 25. Explain in terms of data on accidents which
may have been collected why insurance companies may have found
it advisable to charge a higher rate for young male drivers.
The record of a weather station shows that in the past 120
days its weather prediction has been corrected 89 times .
Use this information to state the probability that its

prediction for tomorrow will be correct.
A manufacturer of pencil sharpeners tests carefully a sample
of 500 sharpeners to see if
a pencil of a certain type can
be sharpened without breaking the point. In the test 489
of the sharpeners tested worked satisfactorily. There were
20,000 sharpeners in this Job lot.
(a) What is
the measure of chance a sharpener selected at
random from the remaining 19,500 sharpeners will perform
satisfactorily?
8-2 310
(b) If your school buys 40 of these sharpeners, are all of

the sharpeners likely to be satisfactory?
Life Insurance life

annuity rates are based on tables of
and
mortality. A table of mortality includes statistical data
presumably giving data on 100,000 people who were alive at
age 10. The following are ten lines from the Actuaries Table
of Mortality.
Number dying Number dy
during next ing during
Age Number living year Age Number living next year
10 100,000 676 40 78,653 815
12 98,650 672 50 69,517 1,108
13 97,978 671 60 55,973 1,698
14 97,307 671 70 35,837 2,327
21 92,588 683 99 1 1
According to the table 676 of the 100,000not be alive will

at age 11. 97,978 of the original 100,000 are alive at age
13, but 671 of these persons, according to the table die with
in one year.
(a) How many are alive at the age 50?
(b) How many are alive at age 100?
(c) Would improved of health and medicine tend to

knowledge
make a table of mortality out-of-date? Why?
In Problems 7 through 10, use the Actuaries Table of Mortality given

in Problem 6. Find answers correct to the nearest 0.01.
7. (a) What is the probability that a person age 13 will be alive
at age 21? Hint:
.
92,588
P '
97,970
311 8-2
(b) What is the probability that a person age 13 will be

alive at age 70?
8. (a) What year was 90 years ago?
(b) Do you think a table of mortality would be very useful

if it actually were constructed by selecting 100,000
people at age 10 and keeping data on them for 90 years?
*(c) By what method other than that suggested in (b) might

such a table be constructed?
9. (a) What is the probability that a boy age 10 will live to
be age 99?
(b) What is the probability that a man age 40 will live to

be age 50?
*10. One kind of life

insurance policy guarantees to pay the family
of a man $1000 in ten years if
he dies within that period.
Would such a policy be more expensive for a man age 40, 50, or
60? Why?
11. Consider the following events:

A. It rains on Friday, the 13th.
B. The sun shines all day on Friday, the 13th.
The following table the weather on twenty Friday,
shows
the 13ths. Using the information listed in the table, find P
for the events A and B. Based on the information in the
table, which is more likely to occur over a great number of
Friday, the 13ths, A or B ? Note that it is possible that
neither event occurs.
8-3 312
Weather on Twenty Friday, the 13ths
1 . Heavy rain 11. Cloudy, no rain

2. Light rain 12. Partly cloudy
3 . Sunny 13. Cloudy with some showers
4 . Sunny 14 . Showers
5 . Sunny 1 5. Sunny
6. Scattered showers 16. Sunny
7. Showers 17- Hot and sunny
8 . Sunny 18 . Sunny
9 . Sunny 19. Cloudy and some showers
1 0. Sunny 20 . Sunny
12. Based on data available, biologists consider the probability

of the birth of a boy ^, and of a girl, 75-. In the birth of
three children,
(a) What is the probability that all will be boys?
*(b) What is the probability that at least two will be boys?
8-3 Probability of A or B
In mathematics we are always looking for general principles
which describe a certain situation. In this section and the next
we will identify two of the most important general principles of
probability.
Consider the following problem.
dial and a pointer like
A the one
illustrated will be used for the prob
lem. The pointer spins and we can tell
whether it
stops at 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5-
What is the probability that the
pointer will stop at an even
number?
313 8-3
In the figure the pointer is at shall say the pointer 3. We
is at 3 if it stops between the marks on either side of 3 . In

order to have each spin of the pointer count we shall say the point
er is at 3 if it stops on the mark separating 3 and 4. Sim
ilarly, if it stops on the mark separating 5 and 1 we shall say
it is at 5.
There are five possible outcomes. The pointer can stop at
1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. The event, the pointer stops at an even number,
occurs if the pointer stops at 2 or 4, that is, the event occurs
in two out of five possible outcomes. Thus the probability of the
p
hand stopping at an even number is -^.
This event is a combination of two other events. Let A be
the event of the pointer stopping at 2, and B be the event of the
pointer stopping at 4. we use the symbol If
"A or B" to stand
for the event, either event A or event B occurs, then "A or
B" is
the event of the pointer stopping at an even number. We
have found that
P(A or B) =
|.
Could we find this probability by considering events A and
B separately? We know that
P(A) = 1. Why?
1.1 and P(B) = ^ Why?
If we add -r and -r, the result is 2

•?. How can we obtain
P(A or B) from P(A) and P(B)?
i"i
5
--
5
i 1
5
In this example P(A or B) =
P(A) + P(B) .
times (as in the above case) we can add probabilities

Many
of individual events to find the probability of another event.
Notice that in the case above, the pointer could not stop at 2
and at the same time
4 (as a result of one spin) . For one spin
it had to stop at one or the other. Events A and B could not
8-3 314
both occur at once. This is one of the conditions that must be

met before we can add probabilities. Two events which cannot occur
at once are called mutually exclusive events.
Let us consider another example.
The seven numbers are

equally spaced.
The pointer spins freely. What is the probability that it

will stop at an even number?
There are 7possible outcomes. Three of the 7 are favorable
outcomes. We shall call these favorable outcomes events A, B,
and C: A, the pointer stops at 2; B, it stops at 4; C, it stops
at 6. The event whose probability we seek is A or B or C.
Events A, B and C are mutually exclusive, since the hand can
stop at only one of the numbers as the result of one spin.
Therefore,
P(A or B or C) =
P(A) + P(B) + P(C).
P(A) Why? Also P(B) = i and P(C)
-i i
=
Y
=
y.
P(A or B or C) + + i-w.
315 8-3
Exercises 8-3
1. On the dial, the numbers
are equally spaced around
the dial .
What is the probability that the spinning pointer will stop

at an odd number?
2. (a) What is the probability of obtaining a 6 or a 1 on one

roll of a cube with faces numbered 1 through 6?
(b) What is
the probability of not getting a 6 or a 1 on
one roll of a cube with faces numbered 1 through 6?
3. (a) What is the sum of the probabilities in Problem 2 (a)

and (b)? interpret this as the probability of
Can you
an event that is certain to happen?
(b) Could you use the probability which you have obtained in
Problem 2 (a) to solve Problem 2 (b)?
4. In a bag white marbles and two red marbles.

there are 8 What
is the probability of not picking a red marble in one draw?
5. Let A be any event. Let B be the event "A does not occur."
Write an equation which relates P(A) and P(B).
6. In a bag there are 4 red, 3 white, and 2 blue marbles. If

a marble is selected at random,
(a) What is the probability of getting a red marble?
(b) What is the probability of getting a white marble?

8-3 316
(c) What is the probability of getting a red or a white marble?
7. In a neighborhood pet show cats, 3 canar

there are 10 dogs, 8
ies, and 6 rabbits. A special prize will be given to an owner
of a pet by drawing one name of an owner from the set of entry

blanks .
(a) What is the probability that the owner of a dog or a cat

will get this prize?
(b) What is the probability that the owner of a four-legged

pet will not get this prize?
8. Mutually exclusive events then are events which cannot happen
at the same time. If one event happens, the other cannot.
With this in mind, which of the following events are mutually
exclusive:
(a) The event of throwing a head or a tail on a single toss

oi a coin.
(b) The event of your solving exactly 6 problems on a test

or your solving 8 problems on the test.
(c) The event of rolling an odd number or of rolling a 3
on a die .
(d) The event of rolling a six or a three on a cube with

faces numbered 1 to 6.
(e) The event of driving the car or going to the store.
(f) The event of going upstairs or going downstairs.
(g) The event of drawing an ace or a jack from a deck of

cards on a single draw.
(h) The event of running or sitting.

(i) The event of talking to your teacher or of talking to
your mother, if
you talk only to one person.
(j) The event of stopping the car and of starting the car.
317 8-3
9. The dial is divided so that one-

half of the circle is allowed
for 2; 1, 3, and 4 are equally
spaced.
What is the probability that the spinning pointer will stop

at an even number?
10, A bag contains 3 white marbles and 2 red marbles.
(a) What is the probability of drawing a red marble on

the first draw?
(b) Suppose a white marble is drawn on the first attempt and

not put back in the bag. What is the probability of
drawing a red marble on the next draw?
Note: After the first event happened, in this case a white

marble was drawn, it was not replaced.
11. In a bag there are 4 red cards and 5 black cards.
(a) How many different pairs of cards are there in the bag?
Hint: (|).
(b) How many different pairs of red cards are there in the
bag?
(c) How many different pairs of black cards are there in the
bag?
(d) How many different pairs are there in the bag consisting
of a red card and a black card?
8-4 318
(e) How does the sum of the numbers of pairs in (b), (c),
and (d), compare with the number of pairs in (a)?
12. Find the probability of the following drawings of cards from

the bag in Problem ll.
(a) A pair in which both cards are the same color.
(b) A pair consisting of a red and a black card.
13. Call C the event of getting a head on at least one of the
coins when two coins are tossed. Call A the event that a
head will show on the first
toss and B the event that a
head will show on the second toss. Then
P(A) = and P(B) =

-| -| .
(a) Why is P(c) =

-| ?
(b) Can event A and event B happen at the same time?
(c) In this problem why is it true that
P(A) + P(B) / P(C)?
8-4 Probability of A and B

In Section 8-3 we found the probability that either event A
or event B occurs. If it is impossible for A and B to happen
at the same time (A and B are mutually exclusive events) the
probability of A or B is the sum of the probability of A and
the probability of B. In symbols, we write
P(A or B) =
P(A) + P(B).
Now we want to find the probability that both of two events will
occur. What is the probability that if two coins are tossed both
will show heads? possible outcomes are: HH, HT, TH,
The and TT.
Hence the probability that both coins will be heads is -jj-. If we
call event A the event that one coin shows heads, and B the
event that the other coin shows heads, then
P(A) = and P(B) =

-|.
-|
Note that
B)
P(A and
*
(^)
= =
*.)
.
.
^
(
319 8-4
A and B the event that both coins show heads. For this ex
Is
ample we see that P(A and B) = P(A)-P(B). It should be observed
that events A and B are independent events. Whether one coin
shows heads or tails has no effect whatsoever on the other coin.
Consider the tossing of a coin and the spinning of a pointer
on a dial with 1, 2, 3 and 4, equally spaced. If the coin is
tossed, no matter what side of the coin appears up, this outcome
has no effect upon the outcome of the spinning pointer. This is
another example of independent events. If we let A be the event
that a head will show when the coin is tossed and B be the event
that the pointer stops at 4, then A and B are independent
events.
If wish to find the probability of a head appearing and
we
the pointer stopping at 4 we are looking for the probability

that two events will occur. If we let "A and B" stand for the
event "both A and B occur" then we are looking for P(A and B) .
By listing all possibilities we obtain the following:
H,l H,4 T,3
H,2 T,l T,4
H,3 T,2
H,l means that coin will show heads and the pointer will stop
at one.
The desired event is H,4 which is one of eight possible outcomes.
Thus
P(A and B) =
jj .
We can also solve the problem by finding P(A) and P(B).
P(A) =
|, P(B) =
i i
^.
Notice that x = TT which is the probability that we found for
event (A and B) .
8-4 320
Another way to think of this as a product is to notice that out

of the favorable outcomes for A only one of the possible outcomes
for B (or of the possible outcomes for B) is favorable.
-rr
~r -i
Hence the probability of A and B is -^ of P(A) and thus
(|)
(^)
P(A and B) = -jpP(A) = • = .
|
Let us think about one more example:
You are taking a test of multiple -choice questions where there
are choices of answers for each question. You have answered
5
all the questions except Questions and which are troublesome.
9
By elimination, you know that the correct answer for is one
7
of selections, and the correct answer for is one of
2
3
9
selections. You decide to guess. Find the probability of getting
both and correct, assuming your guess on Question does
7
7
not affect your guess on Question 9-

Let be the event that you choose the correct answer for
A
Question 7, and be the event that you choose the correct answer
B
for Question 9. Events and are independent. Why? We

B
A
want to know P(A and By the property observed in the two

B)
earlier examples
P(A and P(A) P(B).

B)
= •
also know that P(A) = Why? What does it mean to "guess"?

i
We .
Also P(B) =
-j. Therefore
-
(|)
P(A and (£)=£.

B)
The probability of getting both Questions and correct by

7
guessing is -7- .
Exercises 8-4
1. You tosscoin twice in succession. Let be the event that
a
tails show on the first toss of the coin. Let be the event
B
that heads show on the second toss.

321 8-4
(a) Are events A and B independent? Explain.
(b) Find the probability that the coin will show heads on
both tosses.
(a) If A, B, and C events, then

are independent
P(A and B and C) = P(A) x P(B) x P(C). State a
similar property which holds for four independent events.
(b) Find the probability of heads showing on each of nine

successive tosses of a coin.
Your basket-ball team is to play team A and team B on two
successive dates. It is estimated that the probability of
winning over A is and over B is -F-.
(a) What is the probability of your team winning both games?
(b) If your team won the first game, what is the probability
of winning the second?
the four the six

sections sections
are equal , are equal
Dial A Dial B
Both pointers are made to spin. Assume both are honest.
(a) What is the probability that both will stop on red?
(b) What is the probability that both will stop on green?
(c) What is the probability that A stops on white and B

stops on blue?
8-4 322
5. If you have a bag of black marbles and 4 white marbles,

5
what Is the chance of drawing 2 white marbles from the bag

if one is drawn and then replaced before the second drawing?
6. In Problem 5, what is the chance of drawing two white marbles

if the first one is not replaced before the second drawing?
7. (a) Are the events in Problem 5 independent events?
(b) Are the events in Problem 6 independent events?

8. Consider the probability of the Greens having a boy to be
-K and having a girl to be -K.
(a) What is probability of the Greens having

the a boy and a
girl in their first two children?
(b) What is the probability of the Greens having first a boy,
then a girl?
(c) What is the probability of them having first a girl, then
a boy?
(d) If the Greens have a third child, what is the probability

it will not be a girl?
9. Which of the following pairs of events are independent?
(a) Picking a black marble both times in two draws from a

bag containing black and white marbles if you do not
replace the first marble drawn.
(b) Picking a black marble both times in two draws from a

bag containing black and white marbles if you replace
the first marble drawn.
(c) Going to school and becoming a lawyer.
(d) Throwing a 3 on a cube with numbered faces and getting a
head when a coin is tossed.
(e) The event being sunny and the event of the next
of a day
day being partly cloudy.
323 8-4
10. A certain problem is to be solved. The chance that one man will
2
solve the problem is -•• The chance that another man will solve
the problem is -rp •
(a) What the chance that the problem will not be solved
is
when both men are independently working on it?
(b) What is the chance that it will be solved?
11. If of 3 is to be chosen from a class of 20

a committee
pupils and each pupil is as likely to be chosen from a class
as any other pupil, what is the chance that you and your two
best friends will be chosen?
12. When six coins are tossed, what is the chance that at least
one head will be obtained?
13. Almost a hundred years ago a monk named Mendel did many experi
ments in breeding plants, especially garden peas. The results
of these experiments were so important that our modern knowl
edge of heredity is based on his findings .
We now know that inherited traits are controlled by genes,
and that these are located on the chromosomes. Just as a person

has two chromosomes of a particular kind, such as A, he also
has two genes particular trait. These genes need not be
for a
exactly the same. They can affect two different appearances of
the same trait: brown eyes and blue eyes, or curly hair and
straight hair, for example.
It is to know that a parent will pass along to
important
a child only one gene of the two he has of a particular kind.
Each child will receive one of the two possible genes for a
trait from his mother, and one of the two possible genes for
the same trait from his father. The probability of getting
either one of the two genes from a parent is -K .
What these genes turn out to be, by chance, in the child

will affect the trait. In carnations, for example, red flowers
8-4 324
are produced when a plant has two R genes (RR), and white
flowers result when a plant has two r genes (rr) . But, if
a plant has one R gene, and one r gene, then the flowers
are pink.
(a) What is the probability of red-flowered plants producing

R genes?
(b) What is the probability of white -flowered plants producing

R genes?
(c) What is
the probability of getting red flowers when pink-
flowered plants are crossed with pink-flowered plants?
(d) What is the probability of getting red flowers

red- when
flowered plants are crossed with pink-flowered plants?
*l4. There are ten sticks. One is an inch long, one is 2 inches
long and so on up to ten inches long. A person picks up three
of these sticks without looking. What is the probability that
he can form a triangle with them? Remember the sum of the
lengths of two sides of a triangle is greater than the length
of the third side.
*15. Ten slips of paper numbered 1 to 10 are put in a hat and

thoroughly mixed. Two slips of paper are drawn by a blind
folded person. What is the probability
(a) That the numbers on both slips are even?
(b) That the sum of the two numbers is even?

(c) That the sum of the two numbers is divisible by 3?
(d) That the sum of the two numbers is less than 20?
(e) That the sum of the two numbers is more than 20?
325 8-4
16. BRAINBUSTER:
(a) A penny, a nickel, a dime and a quarter are thrown and

exactly two come up heads. What is the probability that
one of those coming up a head is the dime?
(b) If the same four coins are thrown and exactly three come
up heads, what is the probability that one of the three
is the dime?
17. BRAINBUSTER: Five different coins are thrown, a half dollar,

in addition to those in Problem 14. What is the probability of
each of the following?
(a) If exactly three come up heads, one is a dime and one is

a quarter.
(b) If exactly two come up heads, one is a dime.
(c) That exactly two come up heads and one of these is the
dime.
(d) That exactly three come up heads and two of these are a
dime and a quarter.
Chapter 9
SIMILAR TRIANGLES AND VARIATION
9-1 Indirect Measurement

You may have read that the sun is
93,000,000 miles away from
the earth, or that the distance from the earth to the nearest star
(other than the sun) is 4 light-years, or that the diameter of
the earth is about 8,000 miles. Do you think that anyone has
actually stretched a tape measure from the earth to the sun, or
drilled hole through the center of the earth to measure its
a
diameter? Of course not. These distances are measured indirectly.
We measure certain lengths and angles that are within our reach.
Then we calculate are interested in.

the lengths we In order to
do this, we may use the relations between the parts of a triangle.
We also use indirect measurements in problems which are closer
to home. To measure the height of a building, we may sight the top
of the building with a sextant and measure the angle of elevation
from the ground. Then we may measure the distance from where we
sighted the top to the bottom of the building. In the following
diagram we have indicated that the measurement of the angle of
elevation is 60° and that the measure x of the distance from
A to C, in feet, is 100. From this information we can calculate
the measure y of the height of the building in feet. We use x
and y to represent numbers, not lengths. We are going to learn,
in this chapter, how to solve such problems about indirect measure

ment.
9-1 328
Notice that in the above diagram the distance from A to C

is actually 2 inches, not 100 feet! Since it would be impracti
cal to publish a textbook more than 100 feet wide (you might not be
able to get it into your classroom), we have made a drawing to scale
as we did in Chapter 4. You may use a ruler, protractor, compass,
and graph paper to careful scale drawings. The triangle
make you
see is not of the same size as the real triangle, but it does have
the same shape . We say that the two triangles are similar.
329 9-1
Class Discussion Exercises

1. Measure the length of CB In the above diagram. Calculate the
height y feet, given that 1 inch represents 50 feet.
2. In the diagram below four triangles have been drawn, each
having one right angle and one 60° angle. They are A ABC,
A ADE, A AFG, AAHI. notice about their shapes?
What do you
For each one find the measure x, of the horizontal distance and
y of the vertical distance, and calculate the ratio Fill
in the first three columns in the table below.
9-1 330
In the table the x's and y's are numbers which are measures
of the lengths of the various segments AC, CB, etc. In this
chapter we will also use the notation CB for the measure of
the length of CB, AC for the measure of the length of AC,
etc .
Right
tri
angle
yl " CB Xl AC yl " CB
ABC = CB = = AC = t- " " "
y1 x-j^
xx
AC
rI AB
rl AB
y2 y2
ADE y2
= ED =
x2
= AE - .." ED X2 '
AE
AD
' " ED
AD
"
AE
x2 r^ r2
y3
AFG y3
= GF - x3
= AG = - GF X3 - AG
AF
~
y3
- GF
AF
"
AG
X3 r3 r3
AHI y4
= IH =
Xj|
- AI - y4
J IH
AI
X4 " AI
AH
y^ IH
.:i
X4 r4 r4
Let r be the measure of the length of the hypotenuse in each

of the triangles in the last problem. For each triangle measure
and calculate
^.
Fill in the next to the last column in the
table above.
For each triangle above, calculate Fill in the last
column in the table above.
In problems *5 and *6 you are asked to show a property of

similar triangles by using congruent triangles.
331 9-1
In the figure at the right,

§g = 4. The dotted lines
should suggest a way you
can prove certain triangles
congruent and thus show that
• Try "'
*6. The ratio IB £ Show
BD and OB should be divided

into 7 parts by measurement.
As you found in Problems 2, 3,
and 4 for triangles with one right
angle and one 60° angle, the
ratios are the
%-,
and —
^,
r
same. The four triangles have the same shape. They are similar
triangles.
It appears that in similar triangles the corresponding sides
are proportional. ratio is certain fixed If
^
The number.
a
A
you know what this number is, then you can solve all problems of
the following kind:
Let ABC be a triangle in which
/ABC is 90° angle and BAG
a
is a 60° angle. Given the length

of the segment AB, find the distance
from to C, or the length of BC.
B
shall find that, in general,

We
in the right triangle ABC, with the

right angle at B, the ratio of
%-,
the measures = BC and x = AC,

y
depends only on the measure of the

9-1 332
angle Tables have been made, showing the value of such ratios
BAC.
as ^- for different angles. We shall learn how to use such tables
to solve problems of indirect measurement .
Exercises 9-1
1. On a sheet of paper draw a ray, lay off three equal lengths:
OA, AB, BC, perpendiculars to the ray at A, B, and C,
and draw
Draw another ray starting at 0 and complete a drawing like
the following, labeling the points as shown.
/
1
i t
VY
(
L
yj
/
t
it
0 k. E1 (
(a) Which angles are congruent to angle A'OA?
(b) Which angles are congruent to angle OA'A?
(c) What is the sum of the measures of angles OA'A and

A'OA?
(d) Name two triangles congruent to triangle A'JB'.

(e) Name a triangle congruent to triangle OBB1 .
(f) Find three ratios equal to: S.-, .
OA
Find three ratios equal to: AA'
(h) Find three ratios equal to:

B' J
2. If in Problem 1 you had drawn a different ray OA' but labeled
the drawing the same, would your answers be different?
333 9-1
If two triangles are congruent what can you say about the
measures of the corresponding sides and angles?
Draw a triangle the midpoint of side AB and

ABC . Let D be
E the midpoint of side AC . Which of the following pairs of
ratios are equal? Give reasons for your answers.
/ x AB AD ,bx AB AC , * AD AB /,x AD AB
AC'' AE { ' AD'' AE ' DE' BC AC' AE
5. Would your answers in Problem 4 be different if you had started

with a different triangle ABC? Why or why not?
6. Draw a triangle ABC and let DE be a line segment parallel

to BC, where D is on AB and E is on AC. Then answer the
questions in Problem 4.
7. Suppose ABC is a right triangle and the angle at A has a

measure in degrees of 31. What is the measure of the other
acute angle?
8. Suppose ABC is a triangle for which m(/_ A)

= 35 and
m(/_ B) =47. Find m(/ C).

9. Suppose ABC and A'B'C' are two right triangles, where the
right angles are at C and C1. If
the angle at A is con
gruent to the angle at A', why must the angle at B be con
gruent to the angle at B1 ?
10. Suppose ABC are two triangles so that the angle

and A'B'C'
at A is congruent to the angle at A', and the angle at B
is congruent to the angle at B1 . Why must the angle at C
be congruent to the angle at C ' ?
11. The angle of elevation of the top of a tree is 30° the if

measurement is taken at a point 50 feet from the base of the
tree. How tall is the tree? Draw a triangle to scale and use
measurements to find this answer as was done in finding the
height of a building in the first part of this section.
9-2
12, T and S are points at which trees are located on one side
of a river and R is a point directly
<— >
across the river from S, so that RS
is perpendicular to ST. With a
sextant the measure in degrees of
/ STR is found to be 60. The
distance ST has been measured
as 1000 feet . Draw a figure to
scale, using 3 in. to repre
sent feet. Find the width
1000
of the river (or, rather, the
distance from tree R to tree S) .
9-2 Similar Triangles

With the experience in the exercises above we can
we have had
give a somewhat more careful definition of similar triangles. We
think of two triangles as being similar if they are of the same
"shape." A more careful definition is:
Definition: Two triangles are said to be similar if there
is one-to-one correspondence between the vertices so that corre
a
sponding angles are congruent and ratios of the measures of corre
sponding sides are equal.
Another way of saying this is: Suppose two triangles are
labeled ABC and A'B'C1. Then they are similar if
1 m(/ A) =
m(^ A'), ™(Z B)
- m(/ B' ) , m(/ C) =
m(/ C«) .
AB AC BC
2. A'B' B'C
Actually, if corresponding angles are congruent, ratios of the

measures of corresponding sides are equal. Also if ratios of
measures of corresponding sides are equal, corresponding angles
are congruent. Hence if 1 holds, then 2 must hold; if 2 holds,
then 1 must hold.
From Problem 10 of the last set of exercises, we can see that
if two pairs of corresponding angles of two triangles are congruent,
335 9-2
the third angles are also congruent. Thus we have two alternate
definitions of similarity which seem to require less than the
definition given above:
Alternate Definition 1: If ABC and A'B'C' are two tri
angles with the property that the angle at A is to the
congruent
angle at A', and the angle at B is congruent to the angle at
B', then the triangles are similar.
Alternate Definition 2: If ABC and A'B'C' are two triangles
with the property that
AB AC BC
then the triangles are similar.
Exercises 9-2
1. In each of the following, ABC and A'B'C' are two similar
triangles, in which A and A', B and B' , C and C' are
pairs of corresponding vertices. Fill in the blanks where it
is possible. Where it is not possible, explain why.
(a) m(/ A) = 30, m(/_ B)
= 75, m(/ A') = ? , m(/ B') = ? .
(b) AB = 3, AC = 4, A'B' = 6, A'C' = ? .
I
A T3 O
(c) 22 = , A'B' = 5, B'C' = ? , A'C' = ? .
A'C' 3, A'B' B'C'

!§•
= = = =
(d) .
?
?
,
,
A) ^
(e) m(/ 30, m(/- 73, m(/ A') m(/ C')

B)
= = = = .
?
?
,
2. Find which of the following are true statements. Give reasons

for your answers.
(a) If angle of one right triangle is congruent
one acute
to an acute angle of another right triangle, then the
triangles are similar.
9-3
(b) If triangle are congruent to two sides

two sides of one
of another triangle, then the triangles are similar.
(c) If A 1 p:• :
AC
incT and AW =
W — then triangles ABC
A'B'C' are similar.
(d) If Aî T
=
AT§T
then triangles ABC and A'B'C' are
similar •
(e) If AB, = AC, and

TT-Ê
C '
pr- then triangles ABC
and A' B'C' are similar.

*3, (a) If the corresponding angles of two quadrilaterals are
congruent, must the ratios of the measures of correspond
ing sides be equal?
(b) If the ratios of the measures of the corresponding

sides of two quadrilaterals are equal, will correspond
ing angles be congruent?
9-3 The Trigonometric Ratios

In Chapter 5 you learned that if, in the right triangles
PQR and P'Q'R' the acute angles / QPR and / Q'P'R1 are
equal in measure
and the lengths of PQ and P'Q' are equal, then the triangles
PQR and P'Q'R' are congruent. It follows that the lengths of
the other pairs of corresponding sides are also equal:
PR = P'R1 and QR = Q'R' .
Thus if PQ and the measure of {_ QPR are given, then there

is only possible length for each of the sides QR and PR.
one
One of the main problems in the branch of mathematics called
trigonometry (Greek: "tri" means "three", "gon" means "angle",
"trigon" means "triangle", and "metron" means "to measure"; thus
"trigonometry" means "the measurement of triangles.") is to
find the unknown measures of some parts of a triangle when the
measures of the other parts are known. For example, we want to
know how to find the length of QR if the length of PQ and of
/_ QPR are given.
One way that we might approach the problem would be as follows,
We could draw a large number of triangles and measure the sides.
Then we could tabulate our results. Of course, we would want to

tabulate our results systematically so that it would be easy to
locate information in the table. We might have on the first
page a table showing the situation when QPR is of measure 1 /
in degrees. We could have one column for the length of PQ and
two others for the lengths of QR and PR like this:
Measure of lengths in inches
for 1. B
M(/ QPR) =
PQ QR PR
TR
i
2
3
4 Q
etc.
9-3
To work out the table, we would draw an angle of measure 1.

Mark lengths 1, 2, 3, Jl units, and so forth, on one side of
off
the angle, draw perpendiculars, and measure the lengths of corre
sponding segments QR. In the figure below, PQ is on ray "PA and
PR is on ray Pit. The figure is labeled for PQ = 3 .
3Q
We might measure QR for all the cases from PQ =to PQ = 100,

1
or whatever limit we may choose. (We could, of course, tabulate

QR for PA = .1, .2, .3, . . . , 100. 0)
Then on Page 2 we could make a similar table showing what
happens when angle QPR is 2° in measurement. On the next page
we would have a table for the case where / QPR is 3° in measure
ment. If we continue in this way, with / QPR increasing 1° in
measurement at a time, how many pages will we need in the book?
If there are 100 entries on each page, how many entries will there
be in all? If it takes you 1 minute per entry to make the con
struction and measure the lengths, how many hours would you need
to make the table?
Fortunately, you could apply what you learned in the previous
section to save yourself a lot of work. Look at the figure below:
339 9-3
As you know, the triangles PQR and PQ'R1 are similar. There
fore the ratios
&
PR
and
anC &1.
PR'
are equal. This ratio depends only on QPR and not on the /
length of the sides.
In the table which we were thinking about before, the ratio
PO
WFT would be the same for all values of PQ on each page. If
PO
we knew this one number •=§ we would be able to work out the whole
page without measurement . So we need only to make a table like
this:
M(/ QPR) PQ
PR
1
etc.
This table will contain as useful information as the other table and
will have only (how many?) entries.
The ratio,
PQ _" measure of the length of adjacent side,
PR measure of the length of hypotenuse
is called the cosine of / QPR. We abbreviate it like this:

cos / QPR.
Other useful ratios formed from the lengths of the sides of

the triangle PQR are:
sin / — measure of tne length of opposite side

*" QPR
= =
measure of the length of hypotenuse
measure of the length of opposite side

measure of the iength of adjacent side
9-3
The symbol "sin / QPR" is an abbreviation for "the sine of angle

QPR", and "tan / QPR" is an abbreviation for "the tangent of
angle QPR".
These ratios are sometimes called trigonometric ratios.
Exercises 9-3a
1. Construct a fairly large circle and mark off rays from the
center making angles of measurement 10 each with the previous
one .
90
10'
There would be an advantage in drawing a circle of radius 10

cm. For each of these rays let B be the point where
Why?
it crosses the circle. Drop the perpendicular from B to the
ray OC, and call the foot of this perpendicular A. Denote
the measures of the lengths of OA, AB, and OB, by x, y,
and r
respectively. Measure the lengths of OA, AB and OB,
respectively, and find ratios for each angle.
cos / AOB = - - £|
OA
and
,
sin
.....
/
/ *„„ y AB
OB
9-3
Tabulate your results like this (calculate your results to 2
decimal places):
AOB) sin AOB cos AOB
//.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2. At the point C, the intersection

of ray OA and the circle, draw the
perpendicular to OA. Draw rays from
0 making angles of measurement 10 ,
20 , ... , 80 , respectively with
the ray OA. Take any of these rays
and let K be the point where it
crosses the perpendicular from C.
Use the notations:
x = OC and y = CK
Calculate the ratio ^ and

complete the following table.
9-3
AOK) tan AOK

o
10
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
80°
3. Why don't we have any entries in these tables before 10°

or after 80°?
You can use the tables you have made to solve problems
like the following:
Sample Problem; In the right triangle AOB
l_ AOB equals 40 in measurement, and the length of OA is

4 inches. Find AB and OB.
Solution: First let us find AB. The side AB is op
posite the given angle AOB, while the known side OA is the
adjacent side. Which of the trigonometric ratios involves the
opposite and the adjacent sides? The tangent, of course. In
fact we see that
tan AOB = tan 40° = =
343 9-3
If the measure in degrees of /. AOB is 40, v;e use the nota

tion
tan l. AOB = tan 40°, since we say / AOB is a 40° angle.
We look up tan 40° in the table of Problem 2, and we find

tan 40° w 0.84
We obtain, then, the equation

0.84 «
We solve this equation for the unknown AB, and find

AB « 4(0.84) « 3.4
The measurement of AB is 3.4 inches, approximately.
By similar reasoning, we obtain OB by the following
steps:
cos 40° » 0.77,
4 » 0.77 (OB) or 0.77 (OB) « 4
" 5-2
0777
The length of OB is approximately 5.2 inches. We can check
our answers by use of the Pythagorean property
(OA)2 + (AB)2 = (OB)2;
(OA)2 + (AB)2 w 42 + (3.4)2 « 27.6

(OB)2 « (5.2)2 w 27.0;
Is 27.6 » 27.0 ?
9-3
Our results don't check exactly because we only used approxi

mations to the values of sin 40° and tan 40°.
In each of the following cases, we have given the measurements

of certain parts of the right triangle OAB. You are to find
the unknown parts:
m(/AOB ) OA AB OB m(/ABO
(a) 30 7
(b) 6 65
5- In the table prepared in Problem 1, compare the values of sin

20 and cos 70°. Is there any reason for what you notice?
6, Examine the sine column in the table of Problem 1 .
As the angle increases in measurement from 10° to

/_ AOB
80 , does sin AOB / increase or decrease? What about cos
/ AOB? What about tan AOB? /

Look at the table in Problem 2
to answer the question about tan AOB. /

From the table in Problem 1, find
(sin 20°)2 + (cos 20°) 2.
What answer should you get? Why? Check by finding
(sin 30°)2 + (cos 30°)2

and (sin 80°)2 + (cos 80°)2-
*8. From your results in Problem 1, calculate sin 20
COS
Compare your result with the table of tangents in Problem 2.
What do you notice? What is the reason?
9-3
In Problems land 2 trigonometric ratios

you found by measurement
10°,. 20 , ..., 80°.
for angles 10 It so happens that for certain
angles such as 30°, 45°, 60U, we can find their trigonometric
ratios by reasoning instead of measurement.
Consider an equilateral triangle OBC whose sides are 2 units
long. The angles of this
B
equilateral triangle are 60° in measurement. Join the vertex

B to the midpoint A of the segment OC . Since the corresponding
sides of the triangles OAB and CAB are equal in length, these
triangles are congruent. Therefore the corresponding angles
/ ABO and / ABC are equal in measurement. Since / OBC is
60° in measurement, then /. ABO and / ABC are 30° in measure
ment. In the same way, we see that angles /. OAB and / CAB are
equal in measurement, and so must be right angles. Why?
Therefore triangle OAB is a right triangle. We see that
cos 60° = cos /. AOB =
^g
=
75- .
In order to find the value of sin 60° and tan 60°, we must find
AB, which we shall call y. By the Pythagorean property we know
that
(OA)2 + (AB)2 = (OB)2,
or 1
2
+ r2 =
2
2^,
Thus 2
1 +
2 = 3,
1.7321.
o
(Check this approximation for -/T by calculating (1.7321) .)
9-3
Nov; we are ready to finish the problem. We find that

sin 60° - £2 = w 0.8660
and
tan 60° =
OA
:
r « 1.7321,
Check these results with the values you obtained by measurement

in the last set of exercises.
Exercises 9-3b
1. Find the values of sin 30°, cos 30°, and tan 30°
2. Using the figure
find the trigonometric ratios for an angle of measurement
Steps: (a). What is the measure of /_ ABO?
(b). What kind of triangle is OAB?
(c). What is the length of AB?
(d) . What is the length of OB?
(e). Find tan 45°, sin 45°, and cos 45°.

You may calculate the ratios by using y^ « 1.4l42.
3. In Problem 2, you will find sin 45° = «. You could then
determine a decimal expression for — by dividing 1 by
1.4142. If the computation seems tedious you might think

347 9-3
about another numeral for V?
It is easier to divide 1.4142 by 2 than to divide 1 by

1.4142. Find sin 45° and cos 45°, by computing 77 Check
your answer with what you found in Problem 2.
4. Find the ratios: sin

tan 60° 60°
and
30U sin
tan 30U
State in your own words why you think these ratios are not 2.
5. A regular hexagon is inscribed

in a circle of radius 10 inches.
(a) What is the measure of / PCQ?
(b) What is the measure of / CPQ?
In (c) and (d) use approximation

for "V3 and express your answers
as decimals correct to 0.01.
(c) Find CM
(d) Find PQ.
*6. figure ABCD consists of the

The
union of two equilateral triangles
with one side in common.
(a) What is the measure of / ABD?
(b) What is the measure of /DBC?
(c) Why is BD | AC?
(d) Find the length of BD.

9-4 348
9-4 Slope of a_
Line
On a sheet of graph paper draw the line joining the origin to
the point P whose coordinates are (2,4).
-=> x
Where does this line intersect the vertical lines through (3,0),
(4,0), and (2,0)? For each of these intersection points (x,y)
find ^ . What do you notice? Complete the sentence: For each
of these points on the line OP, y is
^ ^
x .
Take any point Q, on OP. Let the coordinates of Q be
(x,y) . Drop the perpendicular from Q to the X-axis. and let
B be the foot of this perpendicular.
^ x
\ X
Compare triangles GAP and OBQ. Are they right triangles? Do
they have a pair of acute angles which are equal in measure? What
do you know about the ratios of the measures of the lengths of
corresponding sides in similar triangles? What do you conclude
about the ratios
349
AP »
Since iB , or 2, and
^ = *•, what do you conclude about
the ratio ^-
x
for any point on line OP ?
If you know the value of x for a point on
<— >
OP, how can you
find the value of y?
If ^-
X
= 2 then y =
( )x. (What is the missing number?)
("1,"2), ("2,"4), and ("3,"6) on your
Plot the points
graph. Do they lie on the line OP? For each of these points
calculate the ratio %• . What do you observe? Is ^ = 2 ? What
relation holds between the coordinates x and y of any point
Q on the line OP ?
y - ( )x (What is the missing number?)
another sheet of graph paper draw the line which passes

On
through the origin (0,0) and the point P1 with coordinates
(2,3). Do the points (4,6), (6,9), and (l,-|) lie on ^P*' ? For
each of these points, what is the ratio ^
?
If Q' is any point on OP' and E1 is the foot of the

perpendicular from Q1 to the X-axis, do you see a pair of
similar triangles?
What property of similar triangles tells us that

£
X
= i-
£~
(provided that x / 0) ?
Could this relation between x and y be rewritten

y =
i* ?
9-4 350
Try a few more points on OP1 . Do their coordinates, x and y

2
make the sentence true statement? Try at least one
y = -x-x a
point on OP« in the third quadrant, ("4, 6), for instance.
For each of the lines OP and OP' you have found an equation
of the form
y = mx .
For OP, m was 2, and for OP1, m was In each case, you
T|.
observed that the equation was satisfied by the coordinates of
any point on the line.
—>
If
,«
(x,y) is on OP then = 2x.
y
If (x,y) is
-|x.
on OP then =
y
'
In general, if is point for which the ratio is
^-
m,
a
P
then the following statement is true:
If Q, with coordinates (x,y), is any point on OP then

= mx.
y
In Problem you are asked to prove the converse of this

5
statement; that is, the statement
If = mx then the point (x,y) is on the line OP.

y
Exercises 9-4a
1. Find the equations of the lines joining the origin to each of
the following points: (4,1), (3,l), (l,l), (1,2), (1,5).
2. Consider the line OP1 discussed in the text, where ^ (2,3).
P1
What is the tan AOP1, where AOP1 is the angle the line
/
makes with the x-axis?

351 9-4
Choose any point Q on the line

OP'. What are the coordinates
(x,y) of the point Q which you chos;? Find another point R
on the line whose x-coordinate is 5 more than the x-coordinate
of Q. What is the y-coordinate of R? Calculate the ratio:
Change in y from Q to R
Change in x from Q to R.
Ch ange in Ui
q
Yi
:*-!f
film n > ,S
\/
lx-
(a) Draw the graph of =
(b) Mark the point R on the

X-axis to the right of such that
0
OR = 1. Construct the perpendicular

to the X-axis at R. Let be the
K
point of intersection of this perpen

dicular in (a).
M
K
and the graph
=
C
3
I
352
(c) What is RK in terms of OR? Write a numeral for RK.

Write the coordinates of K.
(d) Draw OS = 2 and then draw LS perpendicular to the

x-axis, where L is a point on the graph in (a).
(e) What is the measure of SL?

SL
(f) What is the ratio ? the ratio
OS
9•
5- Let P point with coordinates (a,b), where — = m. We

be a
have seen that the coordinates of all points on OP satisfy
the equation
y = rax.
If Q is any point (c,d) whose coordinates satisfy this
equation, then, d=mc is a true sentence. Draw the line
through Q perpendicular to the X-axis, and let Q', with
coordinates (c,d') be the point where this perpendicular
intersects the line OP.
(a) Why must d1 = me be a true sentence?
(b) What is true of d and d1? What is true of Q and Q1?
(c) What have you proved in (a) and (b)? Answer by completing
the statement: If the coordinates of Q satisfy the
equation then Q lies on .
9-4
6. BRAINBUSTER: Find the equation of the line joining the point

(0,4) to the point (2,7). Where does this line intersect the
the line K0pf discussed in the text? (p1 is the point
(2,3).)
What is the tangent of the angle this line makes with the
x-axis?
As you have seen from these exercises, the equation of any line
through the origin (except the y-axis!) has the form
y = mx,
where m is certain number.

a The equation of the y-axis is
x = 0. Why? In the case of the line ^P^, where P' is (2,3),
the number m is -* . What is the value of m for each of the
3
lines in Problem 1? Draw all of these lines on the same sheet of

graph paper and label each line with its equation .
Compare the values of m for these lines. For which of these

lines is msmallest? For which is m largest? As m increases
does the line become steeper or more horizontal?
We call m the slope
~~
of the line. We say that the slope of
the line,
3
y = ^-x, is -*. The slope is a measure of the steepness
3
of the line. Look again at any line y = mx, m / 0.

9-4 354
Consider any
4
/= T)X
X
V
point Q(x,y) on the line. Drop the perpendicular from Q, to the

X-axis and let B be the foot of this perpendicular. Since
y = mx, we see that the ratio
y = m = slope of line.
But in the right triangle OBQ we have
,
tan i_ aw
/ ,..-,,
==
measure of opposite side y_
measure of adjacent
-
side x
We conclude, then, that

slope = m =
^
= tan / BOQ.
We can think of the slope geometrically as the tangent of the

angle BOQ which the line makes with the X-axis.
Exercises 9-4b
2
1. Graph the lines y = TyX, y =
1
-JT-X, and y = 4x on the same set
of axes. Use four values of x for each graph. Find the
slopes of these lines.
2. Find the slopes of the lines joining the following pairs of

points:
(|,
(a) (0,0) and (1,3) (c) (0,0) and

5)
(b) (0,0) and (2,3) (d) (i, 2) and (2,8)

355 9-^
3. Draw a rectangle with one vertex at (0,0) and its interior

completely in the first quadrant. of the sides
The measures
of the rectangle are to be 3 and 5. Find the slope of its
diagonal from (0,0). (There are two possible answers.)
4. A road rises 10 feet over a distance of one mile. What is
the slope of the road? Consider the one mile to be a horizontal
distance.
5. Choose an appropriate scale on coordinate axes so that you can
comparethe graphs of y = 7x and y = 8x. How does the
measure of the angle determined by these lines compare with the
measure of the angle formed by lines of slopes 1 and 2?
In the following exercises you will discover a method of

multiplying real numbers on the number line. You will then use
this construction to illustrate some of the basic properties of
the operations on real numbers which were discussed in Chapter 6,
Given two numbers a and b and their corresponding points
I a
We wish to construct the point corresponding to ab
ab
The construction makes use of the plane containing the number line,
and we will actually construct
length ab units somewhere else
a
in the plane. It will then be
easy to use a compass to transfer
the length ab units to the number line. Construct X- and Y-
axes carefully on five sheets of paper, making your unit about
356
1 incv. and using large enough paper so that each axis contains
points U and 4. Use straightedge and compass and make your
drawings neat and careful enough so that you can make straight
edge and compass constructions on them later on. We will treat
the X-axis as our number line.
Y
-3
-2
-I
-2 -I number line
-I
-2
-3
1. (a) On one of your pairs of axes draw the line through (1,0)
perpendicular to the X-axis. Label this line
(b) Plot the point (1,4) on ^ . line which passes

Draw the
through (0,0) and Label this line k ,. Write the
equation of k, .
357
(c) If each of the following points lies on k-, find the

missing coordinates.
Find your answer by measurement on
your drawing. Check your answer
?)
by using the equation of
ul' If
x = 2, what is •
y?
22
?) Can you find the missing coordinate

by measurement, or must you use the
equation?
Construct a perpendi
(d)
cular to the X-axis at the point
P corresponding to the number
Let Q be the intersection of
this perpendicular and line k .
Wuut is the measure of PQ?

9-4 358
2. On another of your pairs of axes repeat this construction

carefully, using compass and straightedge.
What numbers correspond to points A,B,C,D, and E on the

X-axis?
3. (a) On another of your pairs of axes draw the line ^ through
(l, 0) perpendicular to the X-axis. Label the point
(1,0) as B. Construct the point A on ^ in the
first quadrant so that BA = "^2. (Use your construction
for Problem 2 to find a length Y2~unlts-) What are the
coordinates of point A?
(b) On your drawing for (a) draw the line kp through (0, 0)
and A. What is the slope of k0?
-O • What is the equation
of
(c) If the following points all lie on k~ find the missing

coordinates:
(2, ?)
(-1, ?)
(2, ?)
(b, ?).
359
(d) Construct a perpendicular to the X-axis at the point P

c
corresponding to the number
^.
Let Q be the point of
intersection of this line and k0. What is PQ?
(a) On another one of your pairs of axes draw the line J&
perpendicular to the X-axis at (l, 0). Mark any point
you wish on ^ (less than two inches away from the X-axis)
and call its coordinates (l,a).
Do not find the particular number which "a" represents
on your drawing.
(b) Draw the line through (0,0) and (l,a) and label kg.it
What is the slope of ko? What is the equation of
k3?
(c) If the following points all lie on k~ find the missing
coordinates.
(2, ?)
(-1, ?)
('2, ?)
(b, ?)
(d) Construct a perpendicular to the X-axis at the point P

corresponding to . Let Q be the point of inter
^
section of this line and k^. What is PQ?
(e) Mark any point P1 you wish on the X-axis and call its
coordinates (b, 0). Construct the perpendicular to the
X-axis at P1 and let Q1 be the point of intersection
of this perpendicular and ko . What is P'Q'? (There
should be no numbers in your answer - only "a" and "b" . )
9-4 360
5. Suppose you are given the points on the X-axis corresponding

to two real numbers a and b. observed
From what you have
in Problem 4, describe a method of constructing, with straight
edge and compass, a segment of length ab and the point on the
X-axis corresponding to the number ab. The following two
pictures should help you begin your description:
( ^
(1,0) (a,o) (b,o) (1,0) (b,o)
6. (a) On the drawing which you made for Problem 3 construct the
point corresponding to JT' v/T on the X-axis. Use the
method which you described in Problem 5 and find a length
for ^/2~- */3~ from your drawing for Problem 2.
(b) Find of length \/§~ units on your drawing for

a segment
Problem 2 and plot the point corresponding to v^~ on the
X-axis in your drawing for (a). What do you notice about
and
(c) On your drawing for (a) plot the points on the X-axis
corresponding to -/2~' */%~ and *fiT. What do you notice?
361
(d) From your observations In (b) and (c) find the missing
numbers:
a and b are positive
7. In 1-5 you discovered a method of multiplying real

Problems
numbers on the number line (your X-axis) by using the plane
containing the line for your construction. In Problem 6 you
discovered a simple property of real numbers using this con
structions. You can discover other new properties of real
numbers, and illustrate familiar ones, in similar ways. Here
are three examples. Work them out.
(a) On one of your sets of axes mark points on the X-axis a

little less than 1^ and a little more than 2~ inches
away from the point (0,0). Let these correspond to real
numbers a and b. Carefully construct the point on the
X-axis corresponding to a«b (using a line of slope a)
and the point corresponding to b-a (using a line of slope
b) . How do they compare? What property of the real
number system does this illustrate?
(b) Suppose a, b, and c are
specified real numbers. In the draw
ing at the right find, in terms of
a, b, and c, number r, then s,
then t, then u, then v, and then
w (look for similar triangles).
Noticing that t = s + w what
property of the real number system
do you see illustrated?
u
9-5 362
(c) Let a be a number following

different from zero. The
sequence of drawings shows the construction of a certain
point P and a lengtn D units related to the number
a . Describe the construction in your own words, step
by step.
-*- •Ma in
t-
/ \ 1^
(0,1)
a a
s^
X
s r
(1,0) (1,0) (1,0)
\ f \ f
(1,0) (1,0)
Now complete the following statement about the numbers

a and b in the construction you have described:
a-b - ?
Recalling that a was any non-zero real number, what

property of the real number system do you see illustrated?
9-5 Reading a Table

Table of Square Roots and in Exercises 9-3a
You have used a
you made a table of the values of the trigonometric ratios for
angles of measurement 10°, 20°, ..., 80°. You noticed also
that sin 40° = cos 50°, and, in general, the sine of an acute
363 9-5
angle Ls the same as the cosine of its complementary angle, the

other acute angle in the right triangle. You can, then, arrange
your table more compactly in the following way:
Angle Sine Tangent Cotangent Cosine Angle
10° .17 . .18 5.67 .98 80°
20° .34 .36 2.75 .94 70°
30° .50 .58 1.73 .87 60°
40° .64 .84 1.19 .77 50°
Cosine Cotangent Tangent Sine

since you obtained the values of the ratios by
Of course,
measurement, your values were quite approximate and may not agree
exactly with the above values. The ones we have given are approxi
mations correct to two decimal places.
To read this table you use the ratio-headings at the top for
the angles whose measurement is found on the left, and the headings
at the bottom for the angles whose measurement is found on the right.
For example, to find sin 20° in the table, we first look for 20°,
and we find it in the column on the left. Therefore look for the
we
column with "Sine" at the top. The number in the 20° - row and
the Sine-column is 0.34, so we find that sin 20 » 0.34. But we if
want to know cos 70°, we find 70° in the column on the right.
Therefore we use the column headings at the bottom. We look for
the number in the 70° row and the column with "Cosine" at the
bottom, and find cos 70° « 0.34. This is the same number as before.
This is as it should be, for angles of 20° and 70° are complement
ary, so that sin 20° = cos 70°.
Just as we call the sine of the complement of the angle the
cosine of the angle, so we call the tangent of the complement of
an angle the cotangent of the angle. For instance, we have
cot 70° = tan 20°.
9-5
We use "cot" as an abbreviation for "cotangent." You notice that

the "co" in cosine and the "co" in cotangent are suggested by the
"co" in complementary.
On the opposite page you will find a more complete table of the
trigonometric ration with values correct to 4 decimal places. If
you need more complete and accurate tables, you can find them in
the library. People who use mathematics in their work usually
own a set of tables.
365 9-5
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
Angle Sine Tangent Cotangent Cosine
1° .0175 .0175 57.290 .9998 89°
2o .0349 .0349 28.636 .9994 88°
3° .0523 .0524 19.081 .9986 87°
4° .0698 .0699 14.301 .9976 86°
5° .0872 .0875 11.430 .9962 85°
6° .1045 .1051 9.5144 .9945 84°
7 .1219 .1228 8.1443 .9925 83°
8o .1392 .1405 7.1154 .9903 82°
9° .1564 .1584 6.3138 .9877 81°
10o .1736 .1763 5.6713 .9848 80°

11° .1908 .1944 5.1446 .9816 79°
12° .2079 .2126 4.7046 .9781 78°
13° .2250 .2309 4.3315 .9744 77°
14° .2419 .2493 4.0108 .9703 76°
1S° .2588 .2679 3.7321 .9659
.2756 .2867 3.4874 .9613 ?4°
I6o
17° .2924 .3057 3.2709 .9563 73°
18° .3090 .3249 3 . 0777 .9511 72o
19° .3256 .3443 2 . 9042 .9455 71°
20° .3420 .3640 2.7475 .9397 70°
21° .3584 .3839 2 . 6051 .9336 69o
22o .3746 .4040 2.4751 .9272 68°
23° .3907 .4245 2.3559 .9205 67o
24° .4067 .4452 2.2460 .9135 66°
25o
.4226 .4663 2.1^:45 .9063 65°
26° .4384 .4877 2.0503 .8988 64°
27o .4540 .5095 1.9626 .8910 63°
28° .4695 .5317 1.8807 .8829 62
29° .4848 .5543 1.8040 .8745 61°
30° .5000 .5774 1.7321 .8660 6°o
31° .5150 .6009 1.6643 .8572 59°
32° .5299 .6249 1 . 6003 .8480 58°
33° .5446 .6494 1.5399 .8387 57°
34° .5592 .6745 1.4826 .8290 56°
35° .5736 .7002 1.4281 .8192
54°
36° .5878 .7265 1.3764 .8090

37° .6018 .7536 1.3270 .7986 53°
38° .6157 .7813 1.2799 .7880 52°
39° .6293 .8098 1.2349 .7771 51°
40° .6428 .8391 1.1918 .7660 50°
4i° .6561 .8693 1.1504 .7547 49°
42o .6691 .9004 1.1106 .7431 48°
43° .6820 .9325 1.0724 .7314 47o
44° .6947 .9657 1.0355 • 7193 46°
45° .7071 . 0000 . 0000 • 7071 45°
1
1
Cosine Cotangent Tangent Sine Angle

9-5 366
Exercises 9-5
1. Use the table to find the following:
(a) sin 10° (f) tan 40°
(b) tan 10° (g) tan 50°
(c) sin ^1° (h) tan 60°
(d) sin 63° (i) tan 70°
(e) sin 82° (J) sin 88°
2. Check the statements below by studying the numbers in the

Table. Do you agree with the statements?
(a) The sine of an angle in the Table is always between 0

and 1.
(b) The sine of an angle increases with the size of the angle
from 1° to 89°.
(c) The sine of an angle less than 30° is less than -* .
(d) The differences between consecutive Table readings

varies throughout the Table.
(e) The difference between the sines of consecutive two
angles is greater for smaller consecutive angles than
for larger consecutive angles.
3. State properties for the tangent which are similar to those
given in Problem 2 for the sine.
4. Find the following products:
(a) 100 sin 32° (c) 0.27 sin 73°
(b) 81 tan 48° (d) 0.05 tan 80°.

*5. In the figure at the right ABC /
has measure 60 and /- ACB has
measure 32, in degrees, and AB = 100.
Find (a) AD and (b) EC.
367 9-:
(a) The tangent of the complement of an angle has been called

the cotangent of the angle. In the drawing,
cot /_ POQ = tan / PQO. Show that

-
cot POQ
tan / POQ.
This would be a different way to define the contangent:

the cotangent of an angle is the reciprocal of the tangent
of the angle.
(b) Is the sine of an angle the reciprocal of the cosine of

the angle? Explain your answer using the drawing in (a).
9-6 Kinds Variation

_of
So far in this chapter we have studied similar right triangles,
Let us think again of the equation y = 2x and its graph.
9-6 368
Ifperpendiculars are dropped from the points P,Q,R,S on the

graph to the X-axis, four similar right triangles are formed. The
ratio of the y-coordinate to the x-coordinate of each of these
points is 2, and 2 is called the slope of the line. There is
a relation between the y- and x-coordinates of points on this
graph and this relation is expressed by the equation y = 2x.
In the world around you there are many situations where two
quantities are related. When you buy peanuts, the amount you pay
depends on how much you buy. If you hang a mass on a spring bal
ance, the distance that the spring stretches is related to the
weight of the mass.
Here we have a picture of a cylinder filledwith air. We can
exert pressure by placing a weight on the platform P which is
IP
connected to a piston in the cylinder. The volume occupied by

the air depends on the pressure, which, in turn, depends on the
weight placed at P.
The distance through which a falling body has traveled since
it was dropped depends on the time elapsed since it was dropped.
The force with which two planets attract each other, according to
Newton's law of gravitation, depends on the distance between them.
In all of these cases when one of the quantities changes, then
the other one also changes in a certain definite way. In the rest
of this chapter we shall study some of the simplest properties
related to these changes, which are sometimes called laws of
variation.
369 9-6
Exercises 9-6
1. Suppose cost
peanuts $.60 per pound. Make a table showing
the cost of various amounts of peanuts:
Amount in pounds 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cost in dollars
Make a graph showing how the cost is related to the weight.
Let w be the weight in pounds and c be the cost in dollars,
We have
C
A
I
• (1,0.60)
(0,0) I
given you two points free of charge. What simple geometrical

figure is formed by the points in the graph?
2. Bonnie measured the distances through which a spring stretched
when she hung masses of various weights on it. Here is a table
of her observations:
Weight in pounds 0 1 2 3 4
Stretch in inches 4 4
'3
0 3
¥
Make a graph showing the relation between the weight w in
pounds and the stretch s in inches.
9-6 370
Find a formula for s in terms of w which fits Bonnie's

observations. Using your formula, or your graph, predict the
stretch in the spring if Bonnie hangs a mass of weight 2.-~
pounds on it .
Joel placed masses of various weight on the platform P of

the piston. He used a pressure
to measure the pressure gauge
p in pounds per square inch of the air in the cylinder. He
also measured the height of the piston each time, and used
the method of Vol. 1, Chapter 11, to calculate the measure
v of the volume, in cubic inches, of air in the cylinder.
Here are his results:
P 15 20 25 30
V 250 187.5 150 125
Make a graph showing the relation between p and v. Predict

the measure of the volume if p = 4o.
Phyllis marked off a scale in inches on a board, like this:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Then she propped it up like this:
Board
Support
.Table
Then she placed a marble at various distances from the bottom

and, with a stop-watch, measured how long it took for the
marble to roll
to the bottom. Here are her results, with
the time measured to the nearest a second:
d. (measure of the distances 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

in inches )
t. (measure of the time in .1 .3 .3 .4 .4 .5 .5 .6 .6 .6

seconds)
371 9-6
Make a graph showing the relation between d and t. Can you

predict how long it would take the marble to roll 12 inches?
5. Make a table showing the relation between the measure h of

the length of the altitude and the measure b of the length
of the base in an equilateral triangle. Calculate your results
correct to 1 decimal place.
b 2 4 6 8 10
This table can be completed by measurement. Construct equilat

eral triangles of base 2 units, 4 units, etc. Your results
will be more accurate if
your triangles are not too small.
Make a graph showing the relation between b and h. What
simple geometric figure is formed by the graph?
6. Give a formula expressing h in terms of b in Problem 5.

b
You may wish to use tan 60° = h
7. Make table showing the relation between the measure b of

a
the length of the base and the measure A of the area of an
equilateral triangle. Use the values of b which you used
in your table for Problem 5. Make a graph showing the rela
tion between b and A. Give a formula for A in terms of
9-7 372
8. Consider a box, with a square base, of volume 100 cubic

inches. Make a table showing the relation between the measure
s of the length of the side of the base and the measure h of
the height .
V= 100
s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
h
Make a graph showing the relation between and h . Give
a formula expressing h in terms of s.
9-7 Direct Variation

In Problem 1 of the last set of exercises, how would you find
the cost of 15 pounds of peanuts? Of course, you would say, "One
pound of peanuts cost 0.60 dollars. To find the cost of 15
pounds I must (add, subtract, multiply, or divide?) the
cost per pound by the number of pounds. The answer is (what
is it?)." You can express this process of calculation by means of
an equation:
c =
(0.60) (what operation must be performed?)
When you graphed this relation, you obtained a straight line
through the origin:
i i
1,0.60)
w
(0.0)
9-7
What is the equation of this line? What is the slope of this line?
If you increase the amount you buy by 10 pounds, how much does
the cost increase? What is the change in the cost for each unit
change in the weight?
We say that c varies directly as w, or that the cost is
proportional to the weight. We say that 0.60 is the constant
of proportionality. In this relation, the ratio of the measure
of the cost to the measure of the weight is always 0.60. Because
it does not change, we call it a constant.
If
your father drives along a straight road at the speed of 50
miles per hour, how far does he go in 1 hour? 2 hours? 3.5 hours?
t hours? The measure d of the distance traveled is given in
terms of the measure t of the time by the formula:
d = 50t.
We seethat the measure of the distance is a constant times the
measure of the time. The ratio
t of the measure of the distal
-r-
to the measure of the time is a constant. The distance varies

directly as the time. We may also say that the distance is pro
portional to the time. The constant of proportionality is 50.
In the graph of the equation y = 2x, the y-coordinate pf the
points on the graph is a constant times the x-coordinate . In other
words, y varies directly as x. We can also say the y-coordinate
is proportional to the x-coordinate and the constant of proportion

ality is 2, the slope of the line.
Let us work a typical problem. According, to Hooke's law of
elasticity, the amount that Bonnie's spring (see Problem 2 of
Section 9-6) stretches is proportional to the weight of the object
hung on it. Suppose you know that when she hung a mass having a
weight of 2 pounds on it the spring stretched 3 inches. How
much stretch would be produced by an object weighing 5 pounds?

Solution: We may express Hooke's law by means of the equation:
s = k w,
where k is some constant of proportionality, and s and w are

9-7 374
the measures of the stretch in inches and the weight in pounds,

respectively. According to the given information, when w = 2
Bonnie found s = 3. Applying the above equation, we find
3 = (k)(2). All we have to do now is to solve this equation for
the unknown constant k, and then calculate s from the formula
s = kw, when w = 5. You finish the problem.
Exercises 9-7
1. Write sentence in mathematical terms about the total cost,
a
t cents, of n gallons of gasoline at 32 cents per gallon.
In this statement the cost may also be stated as d dollars.
Write the sentence a second way, using d dollars.
2. Suppose the gasoline you bought cost 33.9 cents a gallon.
Write a sentence showing the cost, c cents, of g gallons
of this gasoline.
3. If your pace is
normally about feet, how far will you
2
walk in n steps? Use d feet for the total distance and

write the formula. If n increases, can d decrease at the
same time?
4. Write a formula for the number i of inches in f feet. As

f decreases what happens to i?
5. State the value of the constant, k, in each of the equations
you wrote for Problems 1-4.
6. Can you write the equation in Problem 3 in the form — = 2?

What restriction does this form place on n?
7. Find k if y varies directly as x, and y is 6 when

x is 2.
8. Find k if y varies directly as x, and y is ~3 when x

is ~12.
375 9-7
9. Sometimes It is required to write an equation from a given

set of values. From the information in the table, does it
appear that a varies directly as b? Why? What equation
appears to relate a and b?
a b
20 2
50 5
-70 -7
100 10
"110 "11
10. Suppose that d varies directly as t and that •when t is

6, d is 240. Write the equation relating d and t.
3x
11. Use the relation y = -*- to supply the missing values in
the following ordered pairs: (~4, ); ("3, ); ("2, );
("1, ); (0, ); (2, ); (5, ). Plot the points on
graph paper.
12. In the relation of Problem 11, when the number x is doubled,

is the number y doubled? When x is halved, what happens
to y? When the number y is multiplied by 10 what happens
to the number x? Are your statements true for negative values
of x and y?
13 . In the equation y = kx what happens to the number x if y
is halved? What happens to y if x is tripled?
14. Give an example of direct variation when the constant of pro
portionality is a large number; give another example where
1 > k > 0.
9-8 376
9-8 Inverse Variation

Suppose you have 10 gallons of punch for a party, and you
want to be perfectly fair to your guests and serve each one exactly
the same amount. How does the amount for each guest vary with the
number n of guests? If the number of guests is doubled, how is
the amount that each one gets changed? Let p be the number of
gallons of punch per guest. Then the total amount of punch, which
is 10 gallons, is equal to:
(the number of gallons per guest) x (number of guests).
The relation between p and n can be expressed by means of the
equation
pn = 10.
Give a formula for p in terms of n.
We say that varies inversely as n or that p is inversely
p
proportional to n. In general, we say that one quantity varies
inversely as another if their product is a non-zero constant. If
the number substituted for n is multiplied by 3, that is, it is
tripled, what is true of the corresponding values of p which
make pn = 10 a true statement?
In Joel's experiment (Problem 3 of Exercises 9-6), he discovered
for himself Boyle's law which states that, at constant temperature,
the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure or,
in mathematical language,
p-v k. =
Find the constant in Joel's experiment and check to see whether

this equation fits his observations.
Exercises 9-8
1. (a) The table below, as it is now filled in, shows two possible
ways in which a distance of 100 miles can be traveled.
Copy and complete the table .
Rate (mi. per hr.) 10 20 25 50 60 75 80 100
Time (hours) 10 5
377 9-6
(b) From part (a), use r for the number of miles per hour
and t for the number of hours and write an equation
connecting r and t and 100.
(c) When the rate is doubled what is the effect upon the
corresponding time value?
(d) When t increases in rt = 100 what happens to r?
(a) Suppose you have 240 square patio stones (flagstones).

You can arrange them in rows to form a variety of rectan
gular floors for a patio. If represents the number of
s
stones in a row and n represents the number of rows,
what are the possibilities? Copy and fill in a table
like this one.
Total Number of Stones: 240
Number of stones in a row 10 12 15 16 30 40
Number of rows 24
(b) Write equation connecting

an n, s, and 240. (if you
cannot cut any of the stones, what can you say about the
kind of numbers n and s must be?)
(a) A seesaw will balance if

wd = WD when an object b_i
weighing w pounds is
d feet from the fulcrum and on the other side an object
weighing W pounds is D feet from the fulcrum. If
WD = 36, find D when W is 2, 9, or 18 and find W
when D is 1, 6, 12.
(b) What can you say about corresponding values of W as D
is doubled if wd remains constant? As numbers substitut

ed for W increase, what can you say about corresponding
values of D provided wd remains constant?
9-8 378
4. Write an equation connecting rate of interest r and the number

of dollars on deposit p with a fixed interest payment of $200
per year. Discuss how corresponding values of r are affected
as different numbers are substituted for p. If the interest
rate were doubled how much money would have to be on deposit
to give $200 interest per year?
5. Give the constant of proportionality in each of the Problems

1-4.
6. State your impression of the difference between direct varia
tion and inverse variation.
7. Find k if y varies inversely as x and if y is 6 when
x is 2.
8. Find k if x varies inversely as y and if y is 10 when

x is 75-.
9. From the information in the table does it appear that a

varies inversely as b? Explain your answer.
~4 1 3 8 19 41
~8 2 2 6 16 38 82
10, Study the number pairs which follow: ("2, 8); ("1, 2); (0,0);
(1,2); (2,8)3 (3,18); (4,32).
(a) Does it appear that y varies directly as x?
(b) Does it appear that y varies inversely as x?
11 (a) Supply the missing values in the table below where xy = l8.
x 1123456789 18
(b) Is it possible for x or to be zero in xy = l8?

Why?
379 9-8
(c) Plot graph paper the points whose coordinates you

on
found in (a) and draw the curve. You may wish to find
more number pairs to enable you to draw the curve more
easily. Does your curve look like the one following (d)?
(d) Some of you may this curve in the seventh grade
have met
in connection with the lever, or balance. The curve, of
which your graph is a portion, is called a hyperbola.
It has two branches. A hyperbola shows variation.
te
12. On graph paper, draw the graph of xy = 6.

9-8 380
Notice that in the discussion of direct and inverse variations,

the letters x and y may be used interchangeably. In y = kx,
if k is not zero, we say that x varies directly as y and y
varies directly as x. In xy = k, k cannot be zero and we say
that x varies inversely as y or that y varies inversely as
x. In these statements x and y can represent different pairs
of numbers while k represents a constant, that is, a fixed number.
In the general equation the letter "k" is used rather than a partic
ular numeral, in order to include all possible cases. Since for
x 7=
0, the equation xy = k may be written y = k • — which says
J\
that varies directly as the reciprocal of x.
y
Occasionally you may see direct variation represented by the
statement ^ = k. There are times when this form is useful but from
your work with zero you know that ^ = k excludes the possibility
A
of x being zero.
The graphs of y = kx and xy = k include points with negative
coordinates. In many problems it doesn't make sense for x or y
to be negative. In the problem of serving punch at your party, the
number n of guests must be a counting number. In such cases
the equation is not a completely correct translation of the rela
tion into mathematical language. The correct translation of your
punch -at -the -party problem is the number sentence
(1) "pn = 10 and n is a counting number."

The correct translation of Boyle's law is
(2) "pv = k and p > 0 and v > 0."
When you graph the number sentence (l) you obtain a set of isolated
points in the first quadrant. The graph of the relation (2) is the
branch of the hyperbola
pv = k
which lies in the first quadrant.
381 9-9
9-9 Other Types Of Variation (optional) .
If we table of the measure d of the distance in feet

make a
through which an object (such as a watermelon) falls from rest
in t seconds, we obtain results like this:
t 0 1 2 3 4
^
d 0 16 64 144 256
Sketch a graph of the relation between d and t. Since the

numbers for d are large you may wish to use a different unit on
the d-axis from that used on the t-axis.
d
150 --
100
50
--
0 --
You obtain a part of a curve called a parabola.

If the number t is doubled, by how much is the number d
multiplied? If t is tripled, by how much is d multiplied? As
you see, d varies directly as t 2
. We can express the relation
by means of the equation
d = kt2,
where k is constant. What is this constant? How far does the
body fall in 10 seconds?
Galileo discovered this law many years ago. (When did he live?)
He started with experiments like Phyllis' with an inclined plane
(see Problem 4 of 9-6). Of course, Phyllis did not discover the
exact form of the law since she could only measure the time to the
nearest tenth of a second. If she had been able to measure more
accurately, she would also have found that d varies directly as
9-9 382
Exercises 9"9a
1. (a) What is the area of each face of a cube whose sides have
length 2 inches? How many faces are there? What is the
total surface area, the total area of all faces?
(b) Make a table showing the relation between the lengths of
each side of a cube and the surface area.
s 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. Let S be the measure of the area in square centimeters of a

square with edges e centimeters long.
(a) Find an equation connecting S and e .
(b) Tell how S varies with e.
(c) Plot the graph of the equation you found in (a).

Use values of e from 0 to 15 and choose a convenient
scale for the values of S.
(d) From the graph you drew in (c), find:

(1) The area of a square with edges 3 cm. long.
(2) The length of the edges of a square of area 64

square centimeters.
(3) The area of a square with edges 5.5 cm. long.
(4) The length of the edges of a square of area

40 sq. cm.
(e) From the equation you found in (a), find:
(1) The area of a square with edges 3 cm. long.
(2) The area of a square with edges 5.5 cm. long.

3. For each of Phyllis' observations calculate the ratio —5-.
tr
Find the mean of these ratios. Make a graph of the equation
d = kt2
9-9
Using for k the mean of the ratios —5-

which you Just calcu-
tr
lated, mark off the points representing Phyllis' observations.
Does the "theoretical curve "fit her experimental data fairly
well? Does it seem that — is nearly constant according
to her data? t^
4. If E is proportional to the square of v and E is 64 when

v is 4, find:
(a) an equation connecting E and v .
(b) the value of E when v = 6.
(c) the value of v when E = 16.
5. Suppose grass seed costs 70 cents per pound, and one pound
will sow an area of 280 sq. ft.
(a) How many pounds of seed will be needed to sow a square
plot 10 ft. on a side?
(b) How much will it cost to buy seed to sow a square plot
10 feet on a side?
(c) If C cents is
the cost of the seed to sow a square plot
s feet on a side, find an equation connecting C and s.
(d) How much will it cost for seed to sow a square plot 65
feet on a side?
(e) If $15.00 is available for seed, can enough be bought

to sow a square plot 75 feet on a side?
6. A ball is dropped from the top of a tower. The distance, d

feet, which it has fallen varies as the square of the time, t
sec., that has passed since it was dropped.
(a) Prom the information above, what equation can you write
connecting d and t ?
(b) Find how far the ball falls in the first 3 seconds.
9-9 384
(c) If you are also told that the ball falls 144 feet in
the first 3 seconds, write an equation connecting
d and t .
(d) Using the equation you wrote in (c), can you find how far
the ball falls in the first 5 seconds?
Newton's law of gravitation says that the force with which two
objects attract each other varies inversely as the square of the
distance between them:
k
where k is a constant.
The problems in this chapter give you some idea of the many
different ways in which two quantities may be related to
varying
each other. In most of the cases we have discussed, the relation
can be expressed by an equation of the form
y = kxn
or
where n is a counting number and k is

certain constant.
a
As we have indicated many of the laws of nature are of this type.
Exercises 9-9b
Use the following notation: e cm. is the length of one edge
of a cube; P cm. is the perimeter of one face of the cube;
S sq. cm. is the total area of all faces of the cube; V cu,
cm. is the volume of the cube.
1. Find an equation connecting P and e; S and e; V and e
385 9-10
Complete the following statements:
(a) P varies .
(b) S varies .
How would you describe the way V varies with e?
On one set of axes, plot the graphs of the three equations you
found in (a). Use the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 for e.
From the graphs you drew in Problem 3, find P, S, and V when

e is 275-
. Check by using the equations you found in Problem 1.
Use the graphs you drew in Problem to estimate which of P,

3
S, and V will be greatest and which will be smallest when

e is 10. Use the equations you found in Problem 1 to test
your guess.
9-10 Summary And Review
Our work on right triangles in this chapter was based on the

property: If a pair of corresponding acute angles in two triangles
are equal in measurement, then the ratios of the measures of the
lengths of corresponding sides are equal.
In mathematical language:
If angles BAG and B'A'C1 are equal in measurement
and angles ACS and A'C'B1 are right angles,
B1
A1 C'
9-10 386
then in the triangles ABC and A 'B'C' we have
AC BC AB
A'fi B'C A'B'
The following pairs of ratios are also equal:
AC
n
A'C' , BC
M
B'C' , BC
" B'C'
AB A'B' AC A'C' AB A'B1
If
corresponding angles in two triangles are equal in measure
ment, then the triangles are said to be similar.
In a right triangle the following trigonometric ratios are
important
sin /. CAB =
CB
AB
tan / CAB = cos CAB =
The equation of a line through the origin has the form

y = kx, where k is a constant. The number
*-
k is called the slope of the (read "theta") is the

line. If 0
measurement of the angle which the line makes with the positive
387 9-10
ray of the X-axis, then
k = tan 6
If Q (x,y) is any point on the line other than the origin, then
I-"-
As a point Q moves along the line, then
Change in y " _ ,
Change in x
';
»l()Pl •
This relation between two quantities is one of the types of

variation considered in this chapter. The three kinds of vari
ation considered in this chapter are direct variation, inverse
variation, and direct variation as the square.
(1) Direct variation: y = kx
(a) If x and y are related by the equation y = kx, where

k is a constant not zero, we say that y varies directly
as x. We sometimes omit the word "directly".
(b) The number k is called the constant of proportionality.
(c) When k is positive, as x increases y must decrease,
and as x decreases y must decrease.
(d) The graph of y = kx is a straight line through the origin.

(e) The steepness of the line is determined by k.
(2) Inverse variation: xy = k
(a) If x and y are related by the equation xy = k, where

k is constant (not zero),
a we say that y varies
inversely as x.
(b) The number k is the constant of proportionality between

y and the reciprocal of x as shown in the form y = k-— •
X
(c) When k is positive, as x increases y must decrease,

and as x decreases y must increase.
9-10 388
(d) The graph not a straight line, but a

of xy = k is
special curve with two branches. The graph does not
go through the origin, and there is no point on the
graph for x = 0 or for y = 0.
o
(3) Direct variation as the square: y = kx
(a) If x and y are related by the equation y = kx

ip
, where
k is a constant not zero, we say that y varies directly
a_s x .
(b) The number k is called the constant of proportionality

2
between y and x .
(c) When is positive, if the number x is multiplied

k by
2, the number y is multiplied by 4; and if x is
multiplied by 3, y is multiplied by 9-
p
(d) The graph of y = kx is not a straight line. It is a
parabola. The origin is a point on the graph.
Theexercises below review the different types of variation

discussed in this chapter.
Exercises 9-10
1. If y varies directly as x, and if y is 16 when x is 2,
find y when x is 5.
2. If y varies inversely as x, and if y is 16 when x is

2, find y when x is 5.
3. If y varies directly as the square of x, and if y is 16

when x is 2, find y when x is 5.
4. The areas enclosed by two similar polygons are proportional to

the squares of any two corresponding diagonals. The polygons
on the next page are similar and point C is 2 centimeters
from point A; point G is 3 centimeters from point E.
389 9-10
Find the ratio of the measures of the regions enclosed by the

polygons.
The distance, d inches, a spring is stretched varies directly

as the pull, P pounds, which is applied to the spring.
(a) If a pull of Ibs. stretches a certain spring 5

10
inches, what pull is required to stretch it 14 inches?
(b) For the spring in (a), how far will it be stretched by
a pull of 14 Ibs.?
The pressure, Ibs. per sq. in., exerted by a certain amount
p
of hydrogen gas varies inversely as the volume, v cu. in.,
of the container in which it is kept. If the pressure is 7 Ibs.
per sq. in. when the gas is in a gallon jug, what would be the
pressure if the gas were enclosed in a half-pint jar?
7. Show that, in x + y = k, y does not vary inversely as x.
8, If A is 24 in A =^w, what kind of variation is indicated
between ^ and w ?
What kind of variation is represented by C = Trd?
What is the constant of proportionality?
10. Suppose V = irrh, and suppose the number r is multiplied

by 5 while h is unchanged. What happens to V ? What
is the constant in this case?
INDEX
The reference is to the page on which the term occurs
addition, 3, 12, 18, 19

additive inverse, 223
altitude, 163
angle (s), 158
corresponding, 147
angle of elevation, 327
approximation, 250
arc, 151
area, 60
associativity, 222, 257
axes , 23
axis of symmetry, 182
bisecting
a line segment, 153
an angle, 154
Cantor, Georg, 249
chance events , 293
closure, 222, 256
combinations, 287
committee of the whole, 268
commutativity, 222, 256
compass, 189
completeness, 258
cone, 174
congruence, l8l
congruent, 187
constant of proportionality, 373
continum of real numbers, 263
converse, 193, 350
corresponding sides, 331
cosine of an angle, 339, 363
cotangent of an angle, 363
counting number, 222
curve , 163
cylinder, 173
decimal expansion, 234
decimal point, 125
density, 225, 257
direction, 8, 21
direct variation, 372
distance, 21
distributivity, 222, 257
division, 42, 122, 127
drawings, 143, 166
drawing to scale, 328
ellipse, 183
empirical probability, 306
enumerated, 249
enumerating, 247
equation, 60, 71, 79, 84, 94, 97
equilateral triangle, 182, 201
existence, 86, 89
exponent, 109, 116, 119, 125
factorial, 280
fiducial point, 3
formula, 60
Galileo, 38l
gram, 137
graph, 30, 51, 53, 96
half -line, 3
hexagon, 163, 183
hypotenuse, 204, 205
identity, 18, 222, 227
independent events, 319
indirect measurement, 327
indirect reasoning, 244
inequality, 72, 75, 79, 84, 100
integers, 3, 9, 221
intersecting,
line and plane, 176
plane, 175
inverse, 18, 42, 257
inverse variation, 376
irrational number, 243, 246, 253
isosceles triangle, 182, 201
light year, 113
lines,
concurrent, 162
parallel, 147
perpendicular, 146
liter, 137
logarithm, 259
major axis, 183
median, 163
meter, 129
metric system, 129
minor axis, 183
multiplication, 35, 89, 119, 126, 289
multiplication property, 282
multiplicative inverse, 223
mutually exclusive events, 314
number,
counting, 3
irrational, 243, 246
large, 107, 112
line, 1, 9, 19, 47, 74
negative, 8, 9
positive, 3, 12
number,
rational, 1, 9, 234, 254
real, 255
small, 115
transcendental, 259
number line, 1, 9, 19, 47, 74, 255
number phrase, 65
number sentence, 59, 69, 78, 94
obtuse triangles, 202
octagon, 163
one-to-one correspondence, 2, 255
open phrase, 65, 78
order, 223, 257
origin, 3, 21
parabola, 102, 38l
parallelogram, 148, 215
Pascal, 270
Pascal triangle, 265, 288
pentagon, 163
periodic decimal, 233, 235, 236
permutation, 272, 275, 276, 284
perspective, 169
phrase, 65, 78
plane figures , 146
plotting, 25
polygon, 163
prism,
hexagonal, 171
rectangular, 169
triangular, 170
probability of A or B, 312
probability of A and B, 318
protractor, 146, 194
pyramid, 172
Pythagoras , 203
Pythagorean property, l8l, 343
quadrants , 27
quadrilateral, 163, 215
radius, 152
rational number, 234, 254
real number line, 262
real numbers, 255
reciprocal, 43
rectangle, 215
relations , 51
remainder, 232
right triangles, 202
scale, 166
scalene triangle, 182, 201
segment, 152
directed, 3, 12
selections, 287
sentence,
compound, 76
number, 59, 69, 78, 94
open, 71, 79
sextant, 327
similar triangles, 327, 328, 334
sine of an angle, 259, 340
sketch, 143
slope, 353
solids, 169
solution set, 71, 73, 79, 84, 95
square, 215
square root, 206
subtraction, 46
symmetry, l8l
table of square roots, 362
tangent of an angle, 259, 340
terminating decimal, 232, 236
trancendental number, 259
transversal, 147
trapezoid, 215
triangle, 149
trigonometric ratios, 259, 336
uniqueness, 86, 89
variation, 327, 367
inverse, 376
direct, 372
vinculum, 233
Volume II (Part 3)
Prepared under the supervision of the Panel on yth and 8th Grades of the School
Mathematics Study Group:

Education
Copyright 1960 by Yale University.


Ann Arbor, Michigan
&4
'6> f
CONTENTS
Chapter
10. NON - METRIC GEOMETRY 391

10- 1. Tetrahedrons 391
10- 2. Slmplexes 394
10- 3. Models of Cubes 398
10- 4. Polyhedrons 400
10- 5. One-Dimensional Polyhedrons 4o6
10- 6.
10- 7.
10- 8.
Two-Dlmenslonal Polyhedrons
Three-Dimensional Polyhedrons
Counting Vertices, Edges, and Faces -
.... 410
413
The Euler Formula 417
11. VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS 423

11- 1. Areas of Plane Figures 423
11- 2. Planes and Lines 432
11- 3. Right Prisms 437
11- 4. Oblique Prisms 443
11- 5. Pyramids 447
11- 6. Volumes of Pyramids 452
11- 7. Cones 455
*11- 8. Disection of a Prism 460
Summary of Properties for Chapter 11 48l
12. THE SPHERE 483

12- 1. Introduction 483
12- 2. Great and Small Circles 486
12- 3. Properties of Great Circles 494
12- 4. Locating Points en the Surface of
the Earth 499
12- 5. Volume and Area of a Spherical Solid . 507
12- 6. Finding Lengths of Small Circles . . . 514
13. RELATIVE ERROR , 519

13- 1. Greatest Possible Error 519
13- 2. Precision and Significant Digits . . . 522
13- 3. Relative Error, Accuracy and Percent
of Error 526
13- 4. Adding and Subtracting Measures . . . 530
13- 5. Multiplying and Dividing Measures . . 532
INDEX following page 536

Chapter 10
NON - METRIC GEOMETRY
10-1 Tetrahedrons
geometric figure of a certain type is called a tetrahedron.
A
A tetrahedron has four vertices which are points in space. The
drawings below represent tetrahedrons. (Another form of the
word "tetrahedrons" is "tetrahedra." ("Tetra" Is the Greek word for
four . )
The points A, B, C, and D are the vertices of the tetra

hedron on the left. The points P, Q, R, and S are the vertices
of the one on the right. The four vertices of a tetrahedron are
not in the same plane. The word "tetrahedron" refers either to
the surface of the figure or to the "solid" figure, i.e. the
figure including the interior in space. From some points of
view the distinction is not important. Usually we shall use the
term "solid tetrahedron "when we mean the surface together with
the interior. can name a tetrahedron by naming its vertices.
We
We shall usually put parentheses around the letters like (ABCD)

or (PQRS) in naming tetrahedrons. vertices
The may be named in
any order. Later we shall use this notation to mean "solid tetra
hedron."
The segments A~B, BC, AC, AD, BD, and CD are called edges
10-1 392
of the tetrahedron (ABCD). We sometimes will use the notation

(AB) or (BA) to mean the edge A~E. What are the edges of the
tetrahedron (PQRS)?
Any three vertices of a tetrahedron are the vertices of a
triangle and lie in a plane. A triangle has an interior in the
plane in which its vertices lie (and in which it lies). Let us
use (ABC) to the triangle AABC together
mean with its interior.
In other words, (ABC) is the union of ABC and its interior.
The sets (ABC), (ABD), (ACD), and (BCD) are called the faces
of the tetrahedron (ABCD) . What are the faces of the tetrahedron
(PQRS)?
You will
asked to make some models of tetrahedrons in the
be
exercises. The easiest type of tetrahedron of which to make a
model is the so-called regular tetrahedron. Its edges are all
the same length. introduce length or measurement here only
(We
for convenience in making some uniform models. This chapter
deals fundamentally with non-metric or "no -measurement" geometry.)
On a piece of cardboard or stiff paper construct an equilateral
triangle of side 6" . You can do this with a ruler and compass or
with a ruler and protractor.
R
Can you see how the drawing on the left above suggests the
construction with ruler and compass? The arc through Q and R
has center at P. The other arc through R has the same radius,
but its center is at Q. The segments PQ~, P"R~, and Q^ have
the same length and are congruent.
Now mark the three points that are halfway between the pairs
of vertices. Cut out the large triangular region. Carefully make
three folds or creases along the segments joining the "halfway"
393 10-1
points. ruler or other straightedge to help you

You may use a
make these folds. Your original triangular region now looks like
four smaller triangular regions. Bring the original three vertices
together above the center of the middle triangle. Fasten the loose
edges together with tape or paper and paste. This is easier if you
add flaps as in the third figure. You now have a model of a reg
ular tetrahedron.
How do we make a model of a tetrahedron
not a reg which is
ular one? Cut any triangular region out of cardboard or heavy
paper. Use this as the base of your model. Label its vertices
A, B, and C. Cut out another triangle with one of its edges
the same length as AB. Now, with tape, fasten these two tri
angles together along edges of equal length. Use edge (AB) for
this, for instance. of the vertices of the second triangle
Two
are now considered labeled A and B. Label the other vertex
of the second triangle D. Cut out a third triangular region
with one edge the length of A"D" and another the length of ATT.
Do not make the angle between these edges too large or too small.
Now, with tape, fasten these edges of the third triangle to TO
and AC" so that the three triangles fit together in space. The
model you have constructed so far will look something like a
pyramid- shaped drinking cup if
you hold the vertex A at the
bottom, as in the drawing below. Finally, cut out a triangular
region which will Just fit the top, fasten it to the top and you
will have a tetrahedron.
B
10-2 39^
Exercises 10-1
1. Make a cardboard or heavy paper model of a regular tetrahedron.
Make your model so that its edges are each 3" long.
2. Make a model of a tetrahedron which is not regular.
3. In making the third face of a non-regular tetrahedron, what

difficulties would you encounter if you made the angle DAC
too large or too small?
10-2 Simplexes
single point is probably the simplest object or set of
A
points you can think of. A set consisting of two points is
probably the next most simple set of points in space. But any
two different points in space are on exactly one line, and
are the endpoints of exactly one segment (which is a subset of
the line). A segment has length but does not have width or
thickness, so it does not have area. We speak of a segment or
a line as being one -dimensional . Either could be considered as
the simplest one -dimensional object in space. In this chapter
we will think about the segment, not the line .
A set consisting of three points is the next most simple set
of points in space. If
the three points are all on the same line,
then we get just a part of a line. We are not much better off
than we were with just two points. Let us agree, therefore, that
our three points are not to be on the same line. Thus there is
exactly one plane containing the three points and there is ex
actly one triangle with the three points as vertices. There is
also exactly triangular region which together with the tri
one
angle which bounds it, has the three points as vertices. This
mathematical object, the triangle, together with its interior, is
395 10-2
what we will think about. It has area and it is two-dimensional.

It can be considered as the simplest two-dimensional object in
space.
It rather clear that the next most simple set of points

seems
in space would be a set of four points. If the four points were
all in one plane then the figure determined by the four points
would apparently also be in one plane. We want to require that
four points are not all in any one plane. This requirement also
guarantees that no three can be on a line. If any three were
on a line, then there would be a plane containing that line and
the fourth point and the four points would be in the same plane.
We have four points in space, then, not all in the same plane.
This suggests a tetrahedron. The four points in space are the
vertices of exactly one solid tetrahedron. A solid tetrahedron
has volume and it is three-dimensional. It can be considered
as the simplest three-dimensional object in space.
Here we have four objects each of which may be thought of as
the simplest of its kind. There are remarkable similarities among
these objects. They all ought to have names that sound alike and
remind us of their basic properties. We call each of these a
simplex. We tell them apart by labeling each with its natural

dimension. Thus a set consisting of a single point is called a
0- simplex. A segment is called a 1- simplex. A triangle together
with its interior is called a 2-simplex. A solid tetrahedron
(which includes its interior) is called a 3 -simplex.

10-2 396
Let us make up a table to help us keep these ideas in order.

A set consisting of: determines: which is called a:
one point one point (itself) 0-simplex

two points a segment 1-simplex,
three points a triangle together 2 -simplex
not all on with its interior
any one line
four points a solid tetrahedron 3 -simplex
not all on
any one plane
There is another way to think about the dimension of these

sets. In this we think of the notion of betweenness, of a point
being between two other points.
Let us start with two points. Consider these two points and
all points between them. The set formed in this way is a segment.
Now take the segment together with all points which are between
any two points of the segment. We get Just the same segment. No
new points were obtained by "taking points between" again. The
process of "taking points between" was used just once. We get
a one -dimensional set, a 1-simplex.

Next consider three points not all on the same line. Then
let us apply our process. We take these points together with all
points which are between any two of them. At this stage we have
a triangle but not its interior. We apply the process again by
taking the set we already have (the triangle) together with all
points which are between any two points of this set. We get the
union of the triangle and its interior. If we apply the process
again we don't get anything new. We need to use the process Just
twice. We get a two-dimensional set, a 2-simplex.
becomes - becomes
(after (after
first second
process ) process)
B B B
397 10-2
Next let four points not all on the same plane.

us consider
We apply the process of "taking points between" and we get the
union of the edges of a tetrahedron. We apply the process again
and get the union of the faces. We apply it once more and get
the solid tetrahedron itself. We apply it again and still get
Just the solid tetrahedron. We need to use the process just

three times. We get a three dimensional set, a 3-simplex.
If we had just one point, the application of the process
would still leave us with just the one point . We need apply
the process zero times. We get a zero -dimensional set, a
O-simplex. (We mention this case last because we have to under
stand the process before it can make much sense.)
Finally, let us consider a 3-simplex. Look at one of your
models of tetrahedrons. It has four faces and each face is a
2 -simplex. It has six edges and each edge is a 1- simplex.
It has four vertices and each vertex is a O-simplex.
Exercises 10-2
1. (a) A 2-simplex has how many 1-simplexes as edges?
(b) It has how many 0-simplexes as vertices?
2. A 1-simplex has how many 0-simplexes as vertices?
3. Using models show, how 3-simplexes can have an intersection

two
which is exactly one vertex of each.
4. Using models show how two 3-simplexes can have an intersection
which is exactly one edge of each.
5. In this next problem you are asked to do a bit of color
and the
ing. Mark three points not all on the same line in blue.
Color red all points which are between any two of these. Shade
green all points which are between any two of the points already
colored. Should there be any points which are not colored
and are between two of the colored points? Starting with the
three points, did you need to use the process of
how many times
"taking points between" before you were finished?
10-3 398
6. Use your model of a non-regular tetrahedron. Color its vertices

blue. Color red the set of all points each of which is between
two of the vertices. Color green the set of all points each of
which is between two of the red or blue colored points. You
should now have your model colored. What is the set of all
points which either are colored or are between two of your
colored points?
10-3 Models of Cubes
Most of you already know that if you want to make an ordinary

box you need six rectangular faces for it. They have to fit and
you have to put them together correctly. There is a rather easy
way to make a model of a cube .
Draw six squares or cardboard as in the drawing

on heavy paper
above. Cut around the boundary of your figure and fold £>r crease)
along the dotted lines. Use cellulose tape or paste to fasten it
together. If you are going to use paste it will be necessary to
have flaps as indicated in the drawing below.
N '
399 10-3
You will te asked to make several models of a cube in the

exercises.
Can the surface of a cube be regarded as the union of 2-simplex-
es (that is, of triangles together with their interiors)? Can a
solid cube be regarded as the union of 3-simplexes (that is of solid
tetrahedrons)? The answer to both of these questions is "yes". We
shall explain one way of thinking about these questions.

Each face of a cube can be considered to be the union of two
2-simplexes. The drawing on the left below shows a cube with
two of itsfaces subdivided into two 2-simplexes each. The face
ADEH appears as the union of (ADE) and (AEH) for example. The
other face which is indicated as subdivided is CDEF. It appears
as the union of (CDF) and (DFE). The other faces have not been
subdivided, but we can think of each of them as the union of two
2-simplexes. Thus the surface of the cube can be thought of as the
union of twelve 2-simplexes.
H H
With the surface regarded as the union of 2-simplexes we may

regard the solid cube as the union of 3-simplexes (solid tetra
hedrons) as follows. Let P be any point in the interior of
the cube. For any 2-simplex on the surface, (CDF), for example,
(PCDF) is a 3 -simplex. In the figure on the right above, P is
indicated as inside the cube. The 1-simplexes (PC), (PD), and
(PF) are also inside the cube. Thus with twelve 2-simplexes on
the surface, we would have twelve 3-simplexes whose union would
10-4 400
be the cube. The solid cube is the union of 3-simplexes in this

"nice" way.
Exercises 10-3
Make two models of cubes out of cardboard or heavy paper.
Make them with each edge 2" long.
On one of your models, without adding any other vertices, draw

segments to express the surface of the cube as a union of
2-simplexes. Label all the vertices on the model A, B, C, D,
E, F, G, and H. Think of a point P in the interior of the
cube. Using this point and the vertices of the 2-simplexes on
the surface list the twelve 3-simplexes whose union is the
solid cube.
On the same cube as in Problem 2, mark a point in the center

of (Each should be on one of the segments you drew
each face.
in Problem 2.) Draw segments to indicate the surface of the
cube as the union of 2-simplexes using as vertices the vertices
of the cube and these six points you have marked. The
new
surface is now expressed as the union of how many 2-simplexes?
Think about a geometric figure formed by putting a square -based
pyramid on each face of a cube. This is one example of a
polyhedron. The surface of this polyhedron has how many tri
angular faces? Can you set up a one-to-one correspondence
between this polyhedron, vertex for vertex, edge for edge, and
2-simplex for 2-simplex, and the surface of the cube subdivided
into 2-simplexes as in Problem 3?
10-4 Polyhedrons
A polyhedron is
the union of a finite number of simplexes. It
could be just one simplex, or maybe the union of seven simplexes,
or maybe of 7,000,000 simplexes. What we are saying is that it is
401 10-4
the union of some particular number of simplexes. In the pre

vious section, we observed that a solid cube, for example, was
the union of twelve 3-simplexes. The figures below represent
the unions of simplexes.
The figure on the left union of a 1 -simplex

represents a
and a 2-simplex which does not contain the 1 -simplex. It is
therefore of mixed dimension. In what follows, we shall not
be concerned with polyhedrons (or polyhedra) of mixed dimension.
We assume that a polyhedron is the union of simplexes of the
same dimension. We shall speak of a 3-dimensional polyhedron

as one which is the union of 3-simplexes. A 2-dimensional
polyhedron is one which is the union of 2-simplexes. A 1-dimen-
sional polyhedron is one which is the union of 1-simplexes. (Any
finite set of points could be thought of as a 0-dimensional
polyhedron but we won't be dealing with such here.)
The figure on the right above represents a polyhedron which
seems to be the union of two 2-simplexes (triangular regions) but
they don't intersect nicely. We prefer to think of a polyhedron
as the union of simplexes which intersect nicely as in the middle
two figures. Just what do we mean by simplexes intersecting nicely?
There is an easy explanation for it. If- two simplexes o£ the same
dimension intersect nicely, then the intersection must be_ a_ face,
or an edge, or a_
vertex of each.
10-4 402
Let us look more closely at the union of simplexes which do

not intersect nicely. In the figure
on the right the 2-simplexes (DEF)
and (HJK) have just the point H
in common. They do not intersect
nicely. While H is a vertex of f
(HJK), it is
not of (DEF). How
ever, the polyhedron which is the
union of these two 2-simplexes is
also the union of three 2-simplexes which do intersect nicely,
(DEH), (DHF), and (HJK).
The figure on the left rep
resents the union of the 2-sim
plexes (ABC) and (PQR). They
do not intersect nicely. Their
intersection seems to be a quadri
lateral together with its interior.
On the right we have indicated

how the same set of points (the
same polyhedron) can be consid
ered to be a finite union of 2-
simplexes which do intersect
nicely. The polyhedron is the
union of the eight 2-simplexes,
(ACZ), (CZY), (PZW), (XYZ), (WXZ),
(BWX), (XYR),and (YQR) .
These examples suggest afact about polyhedrons. If a poly
hedron is the union of simplexes which intersect any way at all
then the same set of points (the same polyhedron) is also the union
of simplexes which intersect nicely. Except for the exercises at
the end of this section, we shall always deal with unions of sim
plexes which intersect nicely. Ws will regard a polyhedron as
403 10-4
having associated with it a particular set of simplexes which

intersect nicely and whose union it is. When we say the word
"polyhedron," understand the simplexes to be there.
we
Is a solid cube a polyhedron, that is, is it a union of 3-

simplexes? We have already seen that it is. Is a solid prism
a polyhedron? Is a solid square-based pyramid? The answer to
all of these questions is yes. In fact, any solid object each of
whose faces is flat (that is, whose surface does not contain any
curved portion ) is a 3 -dimensional polyhedron. It can be expressed
as the union of 3-simplexes.
As examples let us look at a solid pyramid and a prism with
a triangular base .
X Z X Z
P <r \--/
In the figure on the left the solid pyramid is the union of

the two 3-simplexes (ABCE) and (ACDE). The figure in the middle
represents a solid prism with a triangular base. The prism has
three rectangular faces. Its bases are (PQR) and (XYZ). Here
we see how it may be expressed as the union of eight 3-simplexes.
We use the same device that we used for the solid cube. First we
think about the surface as the union of 2-simplexes. We already
have the bases as 2-simplexes. think of each rectangular

Then we
face as the union of two 2-simplexes. In the figure on the right

above, the face YZRQ is indicated as the union of (YZQ) and
(QRZ), for instance. Now think about a point F in the interior
of the prism. The 3-simplex (FQRZ) is one of eight 3-simplexes
each with F as a vertex and whose xinion is the solid prism. In
the exercises you will be asked to name the other seven.
10-4 404
Finally, express a solid prism with a non-triangular

how do we
base as a 3 -dimensional polyhedron (that is, as a union of 3-sim-
plexes with nice intersections)? We use a little trick. We first
express the base as a union of 2-simplexes and therefore the solid

prism as a union of triangular solid prisms. And we can then ex
press each triangular solid prism as the union of eight 3-simplexes.
We can do this in such a way that all the simplexes intersect nicely
There is a moral to our story here. To do a harder- looking

problem, we first try to break it up into a lot of easy problems
each of which we already know how to solve (or at least are able
to solve) .
Exercises 10-4
1. Draw two 2-simplexes whose intersection is one point and
(a) the point is a vertex of each.
(b) the point is a vertex of one but not of the other.
2. Draw three 2-simplexes which intersect nicely and whose union

is itself a 2-simplex. (Hint: start with a 2-simplex as the
union and subdivide it . )
3. You are asked to draw various 2-dimensional polyhedrons each

as the union of six 2-simplexes. Draw one such that
(a) No two of the 2-simplexes intersect.

(b) There is point common to all the 2-simplexes
one but
no other point is common to any pair.
(c) The polyhedron is a rectangle together with its interior.

405 10-4
4. The figure on the right rep

resents polyhedron as the
a
union of 2-simplexes without
nice intersections. Draw a
similar figure yourself and
then draw in three segments
which will make the polyhedron
the union of 2-simplexes which
intersect nicely.
5. The 2-dimensional figure on

the right can be expressed as
a union of simplexes with nice
intersections in many ways.
Draw a similar figure and:
(a) By drawing segments ex

press it as the union of
six 2-simplexes without
using more vertices. G
(b) By adding one vertex near the middle (in another drawing
of the figure), express the polyhedron as the union of
eight 2-simplexes all having the point in the middle as
one vertex.
(a) List eight 2-simplexes
whose union is
the surface
of the triangular prism on
the right. (The figure is
like that used earlier.)
(b) Regarding F as a point in
the interior of the prism
list eight 3-simplexes
(each containing F) whose union is the solid prism.
(c) The figure the triangular prism PQRXYZ

shows as the union
of three 3-simplexes which intersect nicely. Name them.
10-5 406
10-5 One -Dimensional Polyhedrons

A 1 -dimensional polyhedron is the union of a certain number of
1-simplexes (segments). A 1 -dimensional polyhedron may be contained
in a plane or it may not be. Look at a model of a tetrahedron.
The union of the edges is a 1 -dimensional polyhedron. It is the
union of six 1-simplexes, and does not lie in a plane. We may
think of the figures below as representing 1-dimensional polyhedrons

that do lie in a plane (the plane of the page).
There are two types of 1-dimensional

polyhedrons which are of
special interest. A polygonal path is a 1-dimensional polyhedron
in which the 1-simplexes can be considered to be arranged in order
as follows. There is a first one and there is a last one. Each
other 1-simplex of the polygonal path has one vertex in common
with the 1-simplex which precedes it and one vertex in common
with the 1-simplex which follows it. There are no extra inter
sections. The first and last vertices (points) of the polygonal
path are called the endpoints.
Neither of the 1-dimensional polyhedrons in the figures above
is polygonal path. But each contains many polygonal paths. The
a
union of (AB), (BC), (CD), (DG) and (GH) is a polygonal path
from A to H. The union of (JD) and (DE) is a polygonal
path from J
to E and consists of just two 1-simplexes.
407 10-5
In the drawing oftetrahe a

dron on the right, the union of
(PQ), (OR), and (RS) is a
polygonal path from P to S
(with endpoints P and S) . The
1-simplex (PS) is itself a
polygonal path from P to S.
Consider the 1 -dimensional poly
hedron which is the union of the
edges of the tetrahedron, and
find another polygonal path from
P to S in it. (Use a model if
it helps you see it . ) How many
such polygonal paths are there
from P to S?
The union ofpaths that have exactly their end-
two polygonal
points in common is called a simple closed polygon (it is also
a simple closed curve). The 1-dimensional polyhedron on the
right is not a simple closed
polygon. But it contains exactly A
one simple closed polygon, namely
the union of the polygonal paths
ABC and ADC which have end-
points A and C in common.
Another way of describing a
simple closed polygon is to say
that it is1-dimensional polyhe
a
dron which is in one piece and has the property that every vertex
of it is in exactly two 1-simplexes of it. The simple closed
polygon ABCD is then looked on as the union of (AB), (BC), (CD)
and (DA) .
10-5
The union of the edges of the cube

in the drawing is a 1 -dimensional
polyhedron. It contains many
B
simple closed polygons. One is the
union of (AB), (BE), (EG), and (OA)
Another is the union of (AB), (BC),
(CD), (DE), (EG), and (GA) .
List the vertices naming at
least two more simple
closed polygons containing (BE) and (GA). (Use a model if
It
helps you see it.)
There is one very easy relationship on any simple closed poly
gon. The number of 1-simplexes (edges) is equal to the number of
vertices. Consider the figure on the right. Suppose we start at
some vertex. Then we take an
edge containing this vertex. Next
we take the other vertex contained
in this edge and then the other
edge containing this second vertex.
We may think of numbering the
vertices and edges as in the fig

ure. continue the process. We
We
finish with the other edge which

contains our original vertex. We
start with a vertex and finish with
an edge after having alternated
vertices and edges as we go along.
Thus the number of vertices is the
same as the number of edges.
409 10-5
Exercises 10-f
The figure the right repre
on
sents a 1 -dimensional polyhe
dron. How many polygonal paths
does it contain with endpoints
A and B? How many simple
closed polygons does it contain?
(a) The union of the edges of

a 3-simplex (solid tetra
hedron) contains how many
simple closed polygons?
(b) Name them all.

(c) Name that is not con
one
tained in a plane.
(Use a model if you wish.)
Let P and vertices of

Q be
a cube which are diametrically
opposite each other (lower
front left and upper back
right). three polygonal
Name C ^ j (B
paths from P to Q each of
which contains all the verti
ces of the cube and is in the
union of the edges. (Use a
model if you wish.)
Draw a -dimensional polyhedron which is the union of seven

1
1-simplexes and contains no polygonal path consisting of more

than two of these simplexes.
Draw a simple closed polygon on the surface of one of your

models of a cube which intersects every face and which does
not contain any of the vertices of the cube.
10-6 410
10-6 Two -Dimensional Polyhedrons

A 2 -dimensional is
union of 2-simplexes.
polyhedron a As
stated before, we will agree that the 2-simplexes are to intersect
nicely. That is, if
two 2-simplexes intersect, then the inter
section is either an edge of both, or a vertex of both. There are
many 2-dimensional polyhedrons; some are in one plane but many
are not in any one plane. The surface of a tetrahedron, for
instance, is not in any one plane. Let us first consider a few
2-dimensional polyhedrons in a plane. In drawing 2-simplexes in
a plane we shall shade their interiors.
Every 2-dimensional polyhedron
in a plane has a boundary in that
plane. The boundary is itself a
1 -dimensional polyhedron. The
boundary may be a simple closed
polygon as in the figure on the
right. In the figure on the right below we have indicated a poly
hedron as the union of eight 2-simplexes. (ABC) is one of them.
The boundary is the union of two
simple closed polygons, the inner
square and the outer square .
These two polygons do not inter
sect.
The figure on the right repre

sents 2-dimensional polyhedron
a
which is the union of six 2-simplex
es. The boundary of this polyhedron
in the plane is the union of two sim
ple closed polygons which have exactly
one vertex of each in common, the point P.
411 10-6
polyhedron in the plane has a boundary

Suppose a 2 -dimensional
which is a simple closed polygon (and nothing else). Then the
number of 1-simplexes (edges) of the boundary is equal to the
number of 0-simplexes (vertices) of the boundary. You have already
seen, in the previous section, why this must be true.
polyhedrons which are not in any
There are many 2-dimensional
one plane. The surface of a tetrahedron is such a polyhedron.
The surface of a cube is another. We have seen that the surface
of a cube may be considered to be expressed as a union of 2-simplex-

es . Here we 2-dimensional polyhedrons which are them
have some
selves surfaces or boundaries of 3 -dimensional polyhedrons. Let
us consider these two surfaces, the surface of a tetrahedron and
the surface of a cube.
\
\\
\\
\ N
You may look at the drawings above or you may look at some
models Let us count the number of vertices, the number
(or both).
of edges and the number of faces. But the surface of a cube can
be considered in at least two different ways. We can think of the
faces as being square regions (as in the middle figure) or we may

think of each square face as subdivided into two 2-simplexes (as
in figure on the right). V/e will use F for the number of
the
faces, E for the number of edges and V for the number of
vertices. If you are counting from models and do not observe
patterns to help you count, it is usually easier to check things
off as you go along. That is, mark the objects as you count them.
10-6
Let us make up a table of our results.
F E V
Surface of
tetrahedron ? 6 ?
??
Surface of cube
(square faces) ? ? 8
Surface of cube
(two 2-simplexes 12
on each square face)
It is
not easy from Just these three examples to observe any
relationship among these numbers. What we are looking for is a
relationship which will be true not only for these 2-dimensional
polyhedrons but also for others like these. See you can dis if
cover a relationship which is true in each case.
Exercises 10-6
1. Make up a table as in the text showing F, V, and E for the
2-dimensional polyhedrons mentioned there.
2. (a) Draw a 2-dimensional polyhedron in the plane with the
polyhedron the union of ten 2-simplexes such that its
boundary is a simple closed polygon.
(b) Similarly draw another such polyhedron such that: its

boundary is the union of three simple closed polygons
having exactly one point in common.
(c) Draw another, such that its boundary is the union of two
simple closed polygons which do not intersect.
3. Draw a 2-dimensional polyhedron in the plane with the number

of edges in the boundary
(a) equal to the number of vertices,
(b) one more than the number of vertices,
(c) two more than the number of vertices.

413 10-7
Draw a 2-dimensional polyhedron which is the union of three

2-simplexes with each pair having exactly an edge in common.
Do you think that there exists in the plane a polyhedron which
is the union of four 2-simplexes such that each pair has exactly
an edge in common? Does one exist in space?
On one of your models of a cube, mark six points one at the

center of each face. Consider each face to be subdivided into
four 2-simplexes each having the center point as a vertex.
Count F (the number of 2-simplexes), E (the number of 1-sim-
plexes), and V (the number of 0-simplexes) for this subdivision
of the whole surface . Keep your answers for later use .
Do Problem 5 without using without doing any actual
a model and
counting. Just figure out how many of each there must be. For
instance, there must be 14 vertices, 8 original ones and 6
added ones.
*7. Express the polyhedron on the right

as a union of 2-simplexes which
intersect nicely (in edges or
vertices of each other) .
10-7 Three -Dimensional Polyhedrons
A 3 -simplex is one 3 -dimensional polyhedron. A solid cube

is another 3 -dimensional polyhedron. Any union of 3-simplexes is
a 3 -dimensional polyhedron. We will assume again that the simplexes
of a polyhedron intersect nicely. That is, that two 3-simplexes if

intersect, the intersection is a 2-dimensional face (2-simplex) of
10-7 414
each or an edge (l-slmplex) of each or a vertex (0-simplex) of each.

Any-dimensional polyhedron has a surface (or boundary) in
3
space. This surface is itself a 2-dimensional polyhedron. It is

the union of several 2-simplexes (which intersect nicely) . The
surface of the 3 -dimensional polyhedron represented by the drawing
on the right is something of a
mess. It consists of the surfaces
of three tetrahedrons which have
exactly one point in common.
The simplest kinds of surfaces
of 3 -dimensional polyhedrons are
called simple surfaces. The surface
of a cube and the surface of a
3-simplex are both simple surfaces. There are many others. Any
surface of a 3 -dimensional polyhedron obtained as follows will be
a simple surface. Start with a solid tetrahedron. Then fasten
another to it so that the intersection of the one you are adding
with what you already have is face of the one you are adding.
a
You may keep adding more solid tetrahedrons in any combination or
of any size provided that each one you add in turn intersects what
you already have in a set which is exactly
union of one, two or
a
three faces of the 3-simplex you are adding. The surface of any
polyhedron formed in this way will be a simple surface.
Class activity. Take five models of regular tetrahedrons of

edges 3". Put a mark on each of the four faces of one of these.
Now fasten each of the others in turn to one of the marked faces.
The marked one should be in the middle and you won't see it any
more. The surface of the object you have represents a simple sur
face. You can see how to fasten a few more tetrahedrons to get
more and more peculiar looking objects. Suppose it is true that
whenever you add a solid tetrahedron the intersection of what you
add with what you already have is oneface, two faces, or three
faces of the one you add. The surface of what you get will be
a simple surface.
10-7
One also fasten solid cubes together to get various 3-di-

can
mensional polyhedrons. If you wish them to have simple surfaces,
you must follow a rule like the one given before. The cubes must
be fastened together in such a way that the intersection of the
polyhedron you already have with the cube you are adding is a set
which is bounded on each surface by a simple closed polygon. For
example, the intersection might be a face or the union of two or
more adjacent faces of the cube you are adding.
Finally we mention an interesting property of simple surfaces.
Draw any simple closed polygon on a simple surface. Then this
polygon separates the simple surface into exactly two sets each of
which is connected, i.e., is in one piece.
Class activity. On the surface of one of the peculiar 3 -dimen
sional polyhedrons (with simple surface) that you have constructed
above, let one student draw any simple closed polygon (the wilder
the better). It need not be just one face. Then let another
student start coloring somewhere on the surface but away from the
polygon. Let him color as much as he can without grossing the
polygon. Then let another student start coloring with another
color at any previously uncolored place. Color as much as possible
but do not cross the po lygon . When the second student has colored
as much as possible, the whole surface should be colored.
If you don't carefully follow the instructions for constructing
a polyhedron with a simple surface, you may get a polyhedron whose
surface is not simple. Suppose, for instance, you fasten eight
cubes together as in the drawing on the next page. The polyhedron
looks something like a square doughnut. Note that in fitting the
eighth one, the intersection of the one you are adding with what
you already have is the union of two faces which are not adjacent.
The boundary (on the eighth cube) of the intersection is two simple
closed polygons not just one as it should be. There are many
simple closed polygons on this surface which do not separate it at
all.
10-7 416
The polygon J does not separate it. The polygon K does.

Illustrate this by coloring as much as you can of. each without
crossing the polygon.
Exercises 10-7
Using a block of wood (with corners sawed off possible), if
draw a simple closed polygon on the surface making it inter
sect most or all of the faces of the solid. Start coloring
at some point. Do not cross the polygon. Color as much as
you can without crossing the polygon. When you have colored
as much as you can, start coloring with a different color on
some uncolored portion. Again color as much as you can with
out crossing the polygon. You should have the whole surface
colored when you finish.
Go through the same procedure as in Problem 1 but with another
3 -dimensional solid. Use one of your models or another block
of wood. Make your simple closed polygon as complicated as
you wish.
417 10-8
3. How many different kinds of polyhedrons (in terms of their

intersections) can you construct from just two cubes that
intersect nicely, I.e., whose intersection is a face, an edge,
or a vertex? Illustrate by sketches or models.
4. Take 3 cubes of the same size. Place them together so that

their union has a simple surface. How many different polyhe
drons can you construct in this way?
5. Take 3 of the
cubes same size to be placed together so that
they intersect nicely.
(a) Construct at least 5 different polyhedrons formed

in this way.
(b) Do they all have simple surfaces?
(c) Could more than 5 such polyhedrons be constructed?
*6. Show that it is possible to fit 7 cubes together so as to

form a polyhedron without a simple surface.
10-8 Counting Vertices, Edges, and Faces - The Euler Formula

In Section 10-6 you were asked to do some counting. We look
at the problem in another way. A few of you may have discovered
a relationship between F, E, and V. Consider the tetrahedron
in the figure below. Its surface is a simple surface. What rela
tionship can we. find among the vertices, edges, and faces of it?
10-8 418
There are the same number of edges and faces coming into the point
A, three of each. One may see that on the base there are the same
number of vertices and edges. We have two objects left over: the
vertex A at the top and the face (BCD) at the bottom. Other
wise we have matched all the edges with vertices and faces. So
V + F - E = 2. Now let us ask what would be the relationship if
one of the faces or the base were broken upsimplex- into several 2
es. Suppose we had the base broken up into three 2-simplexes by

adding one vertex P in the interior of the base. The figure on
the right on the previous page illustrates this. Our counting
would be the same until we got to the base and we would be able
to match the three new 1-simplexes which contain P with the
three new 2-simplexes on the base. We have lost the face which
is the base but we have picked up one new vertex P. Thus the
number of vertices plus the number of 2-simplexes is again two
more than the number of 1-simplexes. V + P - E = 2. A
Next let
us look at a cube. ' '
We have a drawing of one on the I
right. The cube has how many faces? I

)
How many edges? How many vertices?
Is the of the number
sum of vertices
and the number of faces two more than the number of edges? Let us
see why this must be.
(1) The number of vertices on the top face is the number of
edges on the top face.
(2) The number of vertices on the bottom face is the number

of edges on the bottom face .
(3) The number of vertical faces is the number of vertical

edges.
All the vertices and edges are now used up. All the
vertical faces are now used up. We have the top and
bottom faces left.
So V + F - E must be 2.
419 10-8
What would happen if each face were broken up into two 2-simplexes?
For each face of the cube you would now have two 2-simplexes. But
for each face you would have one new 1-simplex lying in it. Other
things are not changed. Hence V + F - E is again 2.
Suppose we have any simple surface. Then do you suppose that
V + F - E = 2? In the exercises you will be asked to verify this
formula, which is known as the Euler Formula, in several other
examples. Euler (pronounced "Oiler") is the name of a famous
mathematician of the early l8th century.
Let us now observe that the formula does not hold in general
for surfaces which are not simple. Consider the two examples below.
In the figure above on the left (the union of the two tetrahe
drons having exactly the vertex A in common), V + F - E = ?
Count and see. Use models of two tetrahedrons if
you wish.
V + F - E should be 3 . On each tetrahedron separately the number
of faces plus the number of vertices minus the number of edges is
2. But the vertex A would have been counted twice. So V + F
is less than E + 4.
one
The figure on the right above is supposed to represent the
union of eight solid cubes as in the last section. The possible
ninth one in the center is missing. Count all the faces (of cubes),
edges and vertices which are in the surface. For this figure
V + F - E should be 0. (As a starter, V should be 32)
10-8
Finally we put the Euler Formula in

general setting.
a more
Suppose we have a simple surface and it is subdivided into a number
(at least three) of non-overlapping pieces. We require that two if
of these pieces intersect then the intersection be either one point
or a polygonal path. The number E is the number of these inter
sections of pairs of pieces which are not Just points. The number
V is the number of points each of which is contained in at least
three of these pieces. Then V + F - E = 2.
Exercises 10-8
1. Take cardboard model of a non-regular tetrahedron.
a In each
face add a vertex near the middle. Consider the face as the
union of three 2-simplexes so formed. Give the count of the
faces, edges, and vertices of the 2-simplexes on the surface.
How do the faces, edges, and vertices of this polyhedron com
pare with those of the polyhedron you get by attaching four
regular tetrahedrons to the four faces of a fifth?
2. Take a model of a cube. Subdivide it as follows. Add one
vertex in the middle of each edge. Add one vertex in the
middle of each face. Join the new vertex in the middle of
each face with the eight other vertices now on that face.
You should have eight 2-simplexes on each face. Compute F,
V, and E. Do you get V + F - E = 2?
3. Make an irregular subdivision of any simple surface into a

number of flat pieces. Each piece should have a simple closed
polygon as its boundary. Count F, V, and E for this sub
division of the surface.
4. Take a cardboard model oftetrahedron.

a Mark the midpoint of
each edge. In each of the four faces draw the lines joining the
midpoints of the edges. In this way each face has been sub
divided into four 2-simplexes. Count the number of faces, ver
tices, and edges of this simple surface and determine the value
of V + F - E.
421 10-8
5. Three solid cubes can be placed together in two different ways

to form the two polyhedrons sketched below. In each case find
V, F, and E by counting and then compute V + F - E.
//
(a) (b)
///
6. Place four solid cubes together as in the sketches below.
Find V + F - E in each case.
(a) (b)
////
Chapter 11
VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS
11-1 Areas of Plane Figures
In your earlier work with measurement you studied ways of find

ing areas of the interiors of various plane figures. This section
will largely be a review, but several new geometric figures will be
introduced.
You recall that area of a surface is the number of square units
contained in it. When we speak of the area of a rectangle, for
instance, we will mean the area of the rectangular closed
region.
To find the measure of the area of a rectangle you multiplied
the measures of the length and width.
Stated as a formula, A, — . = bh.
b
A symbol such as the rectangle in "A--" will sometimes be
used. This identifies further the particular figure which is being

discussed.
If adjacent sides of a rectangle are congruent, the figure is
a square .
2
Thus in this case A = s-s or A = s .
A parallelogram has the same area as a rectangle of the same

height and base, as shown in the following figure:
/!" A
b
Stated as formula, A/ — 7 = bh.

11-1
Suppose adjacent sides of the parallelogram are congruent as in

the following figure. Such a figure is called a rhombus.
li.
b
Since it is a parallelogram, its area can be found by the formula

= bh
A^
The area of a triangle is found by comparing it with a
parallelogram .
In any triangle, ACB, if CD is constructed parallel to AB, and

BD parallel to AC", then ABDC is a parallelogram. CB
separates
the interior of
the parallelogram into two regions of equal area.
The area of the parallelogram is found by multiplying b and h.
Thus the area of the triangle can be found by the formula
your study of circles you learned by one or more methods

From
that if
r is the measure of the radius of a circle, the measure
of the area is found by multiplying the square of r by TT . That
is,
AQ
= Trr2
Review Exercises 11-la
Find the area of each of the following figures after:

(a) first making a rough drawing of the figure, and
(b) indicating the measurements on the drawing.
Figure Measurements
1. Rectangle ABCD AB is 4" long, BC is 12" long.

2. Rectangle ABCD AB is -^
ft. long, AD is 5 ft .
long.
425 11-1
3 . Square ABCD AB is 13 in. long

4 . Square XYZW YZ is 3^
ft. long
5. Parallelogram ABCD AB is 16 in. long; the height

is 15 in.
6 . Rhombus ABCD CD is 6.5 cm. long; the height
is 5 cm.
7 . Rhombus RSTU Sf is 5.2 ft. long; height is

4.6 ft.
8. Right triangle ABC Angle A is the right angle, and
AB is 14 cm. long, AC is
9.3 cm. long.
9 . Triangle XYZ The base YZ is 38 ft. long,
the height XW is 37 ft.
10. A circle Length of radius is 4.5 in.
(TT ^ 3.14)
11. Determine the area of the interior of each of the following

figures:
5"
ll-1 426
12. Find the area of the shaded portion.
Another geometric figure with which we need to become familiar

is trapezoid, such as ABCD below.
a A trapezoid is a quadrilateral,
only two of whose sides are parallel .
b, B
If adiagonal (such as AC) is drawn, the interior of the trape

zoid is separated into tw« triangular regions. Note that the
altitudes of both triangles are congruent, but the bases b, and
bp, of the two triangles have different measures. The area of
the trapezoid is the sum of the areas of the two triangles:
Area of ABCD = Area of ABC + Area of ADC
ABCD
= hb
Notice that the lengths of AD and BC are not involved in the

computation for obtaining the area of the trapezoid.
427 11-1
Example: In the trapezoid ABCD find the area by finding

the sum of the areas of the two triangles into which the diagonal
separates it.
D 7" C
6 15 = 45
1AABC
i 6 7 = 21 45 + 21 = 66
AADC 2
The area of the trapezoid is 66 square inches.
The above method of finding the area of a trapezoid can be

simplified by using the distributive property.
A b B
1
1 h
" h •
b ->
"ABCD 2 bi 2
Then by the distributive property,
A ABCD =
\ h
<bl
+
b2)
The formula may also be written:

b)
ABCD b0) or or h
This shows that we can also think of the area of a trapezoid

as being obtained by multiplying the measure of the height by the
average of the measures of the bases.
11-1 428
Exercises 11-lb
In Problems 1 to 5, find the area of trapezoids with the given
measurements .
Height. Upper Base Lower Base
1. 8 in. 6 in. 13 in.

2. 16 in. 35 in. 37 in.
3. 13 cm. 11 cm. 27 cm.
4. 5.4 ft. 9.8 ft. 12.7 ft.

2| ft. ft. ft.
6j-
5. 3^
*6. The area of a trapezoid is 696 sq. in. The lengths of the
bases are 23 in. and 35 in. Find the height of the trape
zoid.
*7. piece of land between two streets is the shape of a trapezoid:
A
374'
130'
418'
It is to be sold at 30^ a square foot. Using the measurements

given in the figure,
(a) Find the area in square feet.
(b) Find the selling price of the land.

429 ll-1
Area of a_
Regular Polygon.
(a) (b)
Recall that a regular polygon is defined to be a polygon whose

sides have equal measures and whose angles have equal measures.
Join the center of the regular polygon to each vertex of the
polygon. (The center is the point in the interior which is equally
distant from the vertices of the polygon.) If there are n ver
tices there will be n congruent triangles.
area of any such regular polygon will be the
The sum of the
areas of the triangles. In Figure (a), for instance, we will first
find the area of triangle APB:
There are five such triangles, so:

T 1
A hb
=
|h(b +b+b+b+b)
But (b+b+b+b+b) is the measure of the perimeter of the
polygon. Thus =
75-
hp. In words, the area of a regular poly-
gon is found by
b multiplying 1
^ the measure of the height of the
congruent triangles by the measure of the perimeter.
11-1 430
Exercises 11-lc
Find the areas of the following regular polygons:
Kind of Polygon Distance from the Length of a
Center to a Side Side
1. Hexagon 17.3 inches 20 inches
2. Pentagon 27.5 inches 40 inches
3. Octagon 72.5 feet 60 feet

4. Decagon 30.8 inches 20 inches
Area of a Circle
Consider circle 0 in the figures below.
We say that a regular polygon of sides is inscribed in a

n
circular region if the vertices of the regular polygon are points
on the circle. It is clear from the figures above that the more
sides the inscribed polygon has the shorter will be the length of
each side. Also you will notice that as n gets larger and larger
it will be more and more difficult to distinguish between the regu
lar polygon and the circle.
We could say that the area of the interior of the inscribed
polygon is approximately equal to the area of the interior of the

circle. It will always be less than the area of the circle since
there will always be points on the circle that are not vertices of
431 11-1
the inscribed regular polygon. Therefore there is always some

portion of the area of the circle which is not contained in the
interior of an inscribed regular polygon. However, for large
values of n the areas are very close and we can think of the
area of the interior of the circle as the upper limit of that
of the inscribed regular polygons. We could say that:
(Area of polygon) < (Area of circle).
It
should also be noted that the larger we take n (the
number of sides) the closer is the measure of the distance of the
center of the inscribed polygon to a side to the radius of the
circle. Likewise the closer is the perimeter to the circumference
of the circle. Now we have seen that the number of square units
of area in the polygon is ^ hp. But we have just observed that
when n gets very large h gets close to r and p gets close
to 2 TT r so we are led to conclude:
If r the number of linear units in the radius of a circle,
is
and A the number of square units of area in its interior, then
A =
ir(2irr)
A = irr2
Exercises 11-ld
Compute the area of the interior of each of the following
circles. The measurements in each case are in inches.
Express the answer in terms of TT.
(a) r = 5 (d) r =
(b) r = 10 (e) d = 30
(c) r = 20 (f ) d = 28
11-2 432
2. By examining the results of (a), (b), (c) in Problem 1

above tell the effect on the area of a circle if
its radius
is doubled.
3. (a) BRAINBUSTER: Imagine that you have Inscribed a regular
polygon of 20 sides in a circle and that you have divided
this polygon into 20 congruent triangles by joining its
center to each vertex. Show that these triangles can be
rearranged into a parallelogram whose height is almost
the radius of the circle and the length of whose base Is
almost one half the circumference of the circle.
(b) BRAINBUSTER: that you have circumscribed a regu

Imagine
lar polygon of n sides (n very large) about a circle
0. (This means that each side of the regular polygon
contains exactly one point of the circle.) Develop a
plausible argument to support the following statement:
(Area of circle) < (Area of circumscribed polygon)
Together with our discussion above this would show that
(Area of inscribed polygon) < (Area of circle) <
(Area of circumscribed polygon)
11-2 Planes and Lines

In the following sections of this chapter you will be concerned
with surface area and volume of solids. As an aid in this study
you will find patterns for models at the end of the chapter. Your
teacher will explain to you how these models are to be made. Ref
erence will be made to these models in this section and also
throughout the remainder of the chapter.
Before studying this section make Models 4, 5, and 7.
Before going on, let us review briefly some of the simple ideas
about planes and lines. You are already somewhat familiar with
parallel planes. These are planes which do not have any points in
433 11-2
common, that is, whose intersection is the empty set. Such a

pair of planes is suggested by the floor and ceiling of some
classrooms or by different floors of an apartment house, or by
the covers on a book when the book is closed. Find at least
five examples of pairs of parallel planes suggested by things in
your classroom.
Imagine flagpole standing in the middle of
a a level play
ground, and think of the lines on
the playground which run through
the base of the pole as shown.
What relation does there appear
to be between the line represented
by the flagpole lines
/
and these
drawn on the playground? Our s
experience certainly suggests that
the pole is perpendicular to each of these lines. In fact, if it
were not, then from certain positions the pole would
appear like this, which is not
at all in accord with our observa
tion. describe this relation
We
ship by saying that the pole is

perpendicular to the playground.
In general a line which meets a
plane in a point A is said to be
perpendicular to the plane if it is perpendicular to every line
in the plane through A. If a segment lies on a line perpendicular
to a plane, we will say that the segment is perpendicular to the
plane.
11-2
Now try the following simple

experiment. Take a piece of note
book paper as shown and fold it
over so AD falls on BC. The
crease you have made is represented
by the dotted segment §R. Then
/ AQR and BQR /
are both right B
angles. How do you know? Now take

the paper and set it. on your desk
as shown, in the position of a
partly opened book, so that seg
ments AQ and B§ lie on the
plane of the desk top. Would you
agree that QR is now perpendicu
lar to the desk top? If so, notice B
that you have found a line perpen desk

dicular to a plane by making it
perpendicular to just two different lines in the plane. This
illustrates the following property of perpendiculars.
Property If a line is perpendicular to two distinct inter
!_.
secting lines in plane, it is perpendicular to the plane.

a
If you help to put up Christmas tree, check to see whether

a
or not it is perpendicular to the floor by seeing if it is perpen

dicular as viewed from two different points not in the same line
from a point on the tree. If
so, it is perpendicular from all
points of view. This is an application of Property 1.
As another example, examine Model and look at one of the
5
segments which connect a vertex of one hexagonal end with a vertex

of the other. As you see, this segment is a part of two rectangles.
It is therefore perpendicular to two segments in each hexagon. By
Property the segment is therefore perpendicular to the planes of
1
both hexagons. Examine Model similarly and satisfy yourself in

4
the same way that every edge of the solid is perpendicular to the
planes of two of its rectangular faces. Notice the line where
435 ll-2
two walls of your classroom meet. What relation does it have to

the planes of the ceiling and floor?
Examine Model 7 to satisfy yourself that the result actually
applied to this also.
Now try another experiment. Tie one end of a string to some
convenient point Q in your classroom which has a clear space
below it. If nothing else is available tie it to a yardstick
placed over the back of a couple of chairs, and have someone hold
the ends so they won't move. Now select a point R on the floor
and notice how much string it
takes to join Q to R. By
varying Rtry to find the point
S on the floor which requires
the least amount of string. When
you have located the point S,
notice the position QS of the
string. What relation does it
seem to have to the floor?
Would
you agree with the following statement?
Property The shortest segment from point outside
2-.
Q
a plane r to the plane r is the segment perpendicular to that
plane .
This shortest distance is called the distance from to r.
Q
Imagine now several nails in the ceiling of your room, to each

of which is attached a string. In each case the string is then
attached to the nearest point of the floor as in our experiment
above. What do you expect about the lengths of the different
strings? Will they be all the same? This illustrates the follow
ing fact:
Property If
planes are parallel the (perpendicular)
two
3-.
distances from different points of one plane to the other plane

are all the same.
The constant distance in Property is called the distance
3
between the parallel planes. Actually the segments involved in

Property are perpendicular to both planes. We have already
3
noticed this for the lateral edges of right prism.

a
11-2 436
Exercises 11-2
Give five pairs of parallel planes with lines
examples of
perpendicular to both planes in each example.
Examine Models and 7. Note the sets of4 parallel planes and
the distance between them.
Make models 9 and 10. Note the sets of parallel planes and
the distances between them.
If two parallel planes P,
and PO are intersected by
a plane r in lines J? , and
-/ 0, then J ,
J
must be
c. 1
parallel to 0. Explain why

2*
this is true.
5. We actually could have proved

Property 2 instead of observ
ing it by experiment. Give
the reasons in the following
proof.
Let S be the point of r so
that Q~S~ is perpendicular to r. Draw segment SR.
(a) l_ QSR is a right angle. Why?
(b) Q~R is the hypotenuse of a right triangle. Why?
(c) §R~ is longer than QS. Why?
But since R was any point of r except S, this shows that

QS is the shortest segment.
437 11-3
BRAINBUSTER: A segment
Q
has its ends on the parallel i
planes
t^
and Pg. If §3" J_
is perpendicular to ?„, prove
it must also be perpendicular
i
to P . [Hint: Draw two planes S
through
11-3 Right Prisms

Since you have already studied some examples of right prisms,
this section will be in the nature of a review. Do you remember
what kind of a figure is called a right prism? Let us review its
description.
Imagine congruent polygons so placed in parallel planes
two
that when the segments are drawn joining corresponding vertices
of the polygons, the quadrilaterals formed are all rectangles.
These rectangles and original polygons determine closed regions.
The union of these closed regions is called a right prism. The
segments are its e dge s , and the points where two or more edges
meet are vertices. The rectangular closed regions are called
lateral faces (or faces). The original polygonal closed regions
are called the bases. The segments joining corresponding vertices
of the two bases are called lateral edges. It is well to point
out that the edges are perpendicular to the bases and that, in
fact, if
the edges are perpendicular to the bases the faces are
automatically rectangles.
A right prism is triangular, rectangular, hexagonal, and
so on, according to the shape of its bases.
11-3 438
Consider Models 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 (making those of this set

which you have not already made). These are examples of right
prisms.
You remember to find the surface area and volume of right
how
prisms. The surface area is the sum of the areas of the bases
and faces. The volume is the product of the measure of the surface
area of one base and the measure of the altitude.
Rectangular Right Prisms
One right prism with which you are rather familiar is the rec
tangular right prism. A good example is a cereal box. The figure
below represents such a prism.
We shall let the measures of its length, width, and height be

~A>
represented by ^ , frj and respectively. Furthermore, we

,
shall let represent the measure of its surface area and

V
S
represent the measure of its volume. Recall the following formulas:
#£
2(
= Jt*> + J>£ +
S
B,
)
= or = where is the measure of the

B
V
V
area of the base (B = jtV You will notice that in prism of

a
).
this type all faces are rectangles, so any pair of parallel faces
can be considered as the bases. Can you state these formulas in
words? Try it.
439 ll-3
Cube.
A cube is a special case of the rectangular right prism in
that all of its edges are congruent.Let us designate the measure
of its edges by s as in the figure below. Study again Model 1.
Since a cube is a right prism its surface area and volume are
obtained in the same manner as you used for the rectangular right
prism. The formulas, however, can be shortened since
The formula for surface area may be developed as follows:
S = 2 ( Jtv + JA + wA )
S = 2 (s-s -f s-s + s-s)
S = 2 (s2 + s2 + s2)
S = 2 (3s2)
S = 6s2
The formula for the volume of a cube may be developed in a

similar manner as follows:
v ^
V = s-s-s
As an example consider a cube having the measure of its edges

2. Since s = 2, then
S = 6-22 = 6-4 = 24,
and V = 23 = 8.
11-3
Triangular Right Prism.

This is another prism which you have studied. Again study
Model 6. The bases of right triangular regions; how
Model 6 are
ever, the bases can be any type of triangular region. Consider
the figure below. Let the measures of the edges and one altitude
of the triangular bases be b, c, d. and a respectively. Also,
let the measure of the lateral edges of the prism be ^ . Now
let us develop the formulas for surface area and volume of this
type of prism.
b
Since the area of the surface is the sum of the areas of the
bases and the faces, we have:
^
(Ji
A-
d)
S =
2(2 ab) + + +
b
c
d)
ab
(b
=
A
+ +
+
S
= ab p,
A
+
S
where isthe measure of the perimeter of the triangular base.

p
You have used the volume formula before, but it is given below
by way of review.
= ab or =
V
V
where is the measure of the area of the base.

B
11-3
Hexagonal Right Prism.

familiar with this prism. Study your Model 5.
You are also
The bases may be any six-sided polygonal regions; however, we will
consider only regular hexagons. Consider the following figure.
Let the measures of the lateral edges be / , the edges of the

bases be b and the altitudes of the triangles into which the
bases are divided be a. The formulas for S and V are now
as follows:
S = ap + 6 b ^,
-|
where, as you remember, p is the measure of the perimeter of the
hexagon .
or B^,
V
-| ap^ V
= =
where B is the measure of the area of the base.

Right Circular Cylinder.
A right circular cylinder, which you have studied before, is
not a prism. It is being introduced, however, because the formula
for finding its volume has the same general form as does the right
11-3 442
prism. That is: V = B//, where B is

the measure of the base.
2
Recall that B = IT r , where r is the measure of the radius
of the circular base. The formula then is:
V =
7rr2/£ .
The formula for the area of the surface will be remembered as:
S = 2.TTT ^ + 27rr2,
which may be written as S =

2Trr(A. + r).
Exercises 11-3
Compute the volume of each right rectangular prism whose
measures are as follows:
(a) S = 1,* = 2, = 2
S
a|,
^/= 2,
A
l,
=
l,
(b) =
2
(c) S ^ = =
A
=
2
2. Calculate the surface area of each right rectangular prism of

Problem .
1
3. Find the surface area and volume for Model 6.

4. Construct Model 8. Find the area of its surface and its
volume
.
Refer to patterns for Models 5, 7, find the

4,
5. (a) and
8
perimeters of the bases.
(b) Are these perimeters all equal to each other?
(c) Find the volumes of these four models. Use your ruler
to find any additional measurements which you need.
(d) Are the volumes equal?

11-4
(e) List the models in the order of the measures of their

volumes from smallest to largest.
(f ) On the basis of your experience in this problem, what
conjecture ("conjecture" is a big word for what we
hope is intelligent guess) would
an you make about the
area of the interior of a circle as compared with those
of polygons whose perimeters equal the circumferences
of the circle?
(a) When you computed the volumes of Models 4 and 6, did

you find them equal?
(b) Check (a) by filling one with salt and pouring it

into the other.
(c) Find the perimeters of the bases of these models.
Are the perimeters equal?
11-4 Oblique Prisms
that we have reviewed right prisms, we will study general

Now
prisms of which right prisms and oblique prisms are special cases,
Models 9, 10, 11, and 12 are examples of oblique prisms. The
description of oblique prisms is quite similar to the one you
studied in Section 11-3 of right prisms. An oblique prism may
be described as follows.
Again, consider two congruent polygons. Imagine them so
placed in parallel planes that when the segments are drawn Join
ing corresponding vertices of the polygons the quadrilaterals
formed are all parallelograms, of which, at least two must be
non-rectangular. This means that the lateral edges are not
perpendicular to the bases. These parallelograms and original
polygons determine closed regions. The union of these closed
regions is called an oblique prism. The segments are its edges,
and the points where two or more edges meet are vertices. The
closed regions formed by the parallelograms are called lateral
faces (or faces). The original polygonal closed regions are
11-4 444
called bases. The segments joining corresponding vertices of the

two bases are called lateral edges.
Wherein does the above description differ from the one for
the right prism?
An oblique prism may be illustrated by the following figure.
The triangles ABC and DBF, in parallel planes, are the bases.
The parallelograms ABED, ACPD, and CBEP are the lateral faces.
The lateral edges are AD, BE, and OF. Models 9, 10, 11, and 12
will help you to understand this better. In particular, compare
Models 6 and 11 by pointing out the bases, lateral faces and lat
eral edges.
Now do the same for Models 7 and 9. In these last cases did
you have any difficulty identifying the bases? How did you decide?
The difficulty here illustrates an interesting property of Models
4, 7, 9, 10. In these models all faces are parallelograms.
(Recall that rectangle is a special case of a parallelogram.)
a
In these figures any pair of opposite faces may be considered
the bases and the other faces are then the lateral faces. Such
figures can really be thought of as prisms in three ways. Because
their faces are all parallelograms, such prisms are given the
mouth-filling name parallelepipeds . The rectangular prisms which
you studied earlier are the special parallelepipeds where all the
faces are rectangles.
445 ll-4
As in the study of the right prisms we are interested in

finding the surface area and volume of oblique prisms. There is
no problem in finding the surface area, since this is obtained
by finding the sum of the areas of the bases and lateral faces.
Of course, in finding the areas of the lateral faces, you will be
finding the areas of the parallelograms rather than rectangles.
let us consider the volume of an oblique prism. This will
Now
require a bit more study. As a beginning, let us consider a stack
of rectangular cards which are congruent. You may make such a
stack or use a deck of playing cards. When you have the cards
stacked so that all adjacent cards fit exactly you have an
illustration of a right prism similar to the following illustra
tion in cross section.
Now push the cards a bit so that the deck will have the following
appearance in cross section.
You now have an illustration of an oblique prism. Of course

it is not a perfect prism due to the thickness of the cards. The
cards no longer fit smoothly. You can easily feel the effect by
running your fingernail over the edges, and it can be apparent to
the eye also if
the stack of cards gets far out of the vertical.
Still the irregularities seem to be rather small, especially if
we imagine we have very thin cards, perhaps made of tissue paper.
Next let us consider a similarity between the two stacks

illustrated above. You note that the bases are congruent and the
446
distances between the bases are equal. In view of this discussion

it would seem that we have the basis for making the following
conjecture.
Conjecture: If prisms have congruent
two bases and equal heights,
they have equal volumes.
To test this conjecture look at Models 6, 11, and 12. Do they

appear to have congruent bases? Do they have equal heights? For
this it help to stand them on their bases and lay a ruler
may
across their upper bases to see if
it seems level. Do you agree
that these models have congruent bases and equal heights? Now
fill Model 6 with salt and pour into Model Did you have too ll.
much salt or not enough, or did it seem to be just right? (This
sounds like the three bears ! ) Do your results on this experiment
confirm the conjecture above?
Carry out the same experiment with Models 7, 9, and 10. (For
this experiment treat the small parallelograms as the bases since
otherwise you do not get congruent bases.) Does the result con
firm the conjecture?
Since the conjecture seems to be borne out in practice, we
will list it now as a property.
Property If two prisms have congruent bases and equal
_4.
heights, they have equal volumes.

From Property the volume of any prism is the same as that
4
of a right prism whose base is congruent to the given one and

having the same height. But since we know how to find the volume
of the right prism, we obtain at once the following formula:
The number of cubic units of volume in any
prism is obtained from the formula
= Bh
V
where is the number of square units of area in its base and

B
the number of linear units in its height.

h
For example, the base of Model ll is a right triangle with

sides having lengths approximately inches and 2-r- inches. Check
2
11-5
these measurements on your model. The number B of square inches

in the area of the base is therefore
n
Thus the area of the base is •£ sq. in. Why? You should find
the height is 4 in. (Note this is not the same as the length
of the lateral edge which is about 4rr in.) Thus h = 4.
V = = 9
(f)4
and the volume is 9 cu. in.
Exercises 11-4
1 . Check the accuracy of the last calculation by taking your cubic
inch measure, Model 1, and see if 9 fillings of it will just
fill Model 11.
2. Is a lateral edge of a right prism an altitude of the prism?

Why?
3. Is a lateral edge of an oblique prism an altitude of the prism?

Why?
4. In finding the volume of an oblique prism a student accident

ally used the length of a lateral in place of the height
edge
of the prism. If he made no other errors, was his answer too
large or too small?
11-5 Pyramids
Make and examine carefully the five Models 13, 14, 15, 16, and
17. These are examples of pyramids . What common property do you
observe of these five models?
You should see in each case a figure obtained by joining the
vertices of a polygon to a point not in the plane of the polygon,
thus forming triangles. The pyramid consists of the closed tri
angular regions and the closed region of the original polygon.
11-5
The closed region of the original polygon is called the base of

the pyramid and the other faces its lateral faces. The point to
which the vertices of the polygon are Joined we shall call the
apex of the pyramid. (Many books call this the vertex of the
pyramid, but we have chosen the term apex since each corner of
the polygon is also called a vertex.) The edges meeting at the
apex are called lateral edges. For example, in the figure^ the
base is the interior of quadri
lateral ABCDj the lateral faces
are the closed regions of the tri
angles ABQ, BCQ, CDQ, and DAQj
the lateral edges are AQ,
C§, D§J and the apex is Q.
Point out the bases, lateral B~~ C
faces, lateral edges, and apex on each of the Models 14 and 16.
Notice that in Models 13, 15, and l6 the bases are closed
square regions. These are called square pyramids. Similarly
Model 14 is a hexagonal pyramid. What kind of a pyramid is
Model 17? Why?
Although there probably was no argument about the answer to
the last question, there might be disagreement over identifying
the base. All the faces are triangular closed regions, so how
do we distinguish which one is the base? The answer of course
is that can't. Any one of the four faces can be considered
we
as the base, so this figure can be looked at as a triangular
pyramid in four different ways. (Compare the case of the
parallelepiped which could be considered a prism in three ways.)
Because it has just four faces this figure is generally called a
tetrahedron. (Tetra comes from the Greek word for four.) A tetra
hedron with its interior is sometimes called a 3-simplex which was
discussed in detail in Chapter 10.
11-5
Now look again at the five pyramid models. In each case

imagine the segment drawn from the apex perpendicular to the plane
of the base. This segment is called the altitude and the length
of the altitude is the height of the pyramid. Compare the heights
of Models 13, 14, 15, and 16.Laying a ruler across them may help
in estimating heights. Do you find the models have equal heights?
Model 17 has four heights, depending upon which face is taken as

the base. Take the smallest triangular region as the base and
compare the height with that of the other models. Do all five of
these models seem to have the same height?

It is not always easy to imagine Just where the foot of the
altitude will be for a pyramid. In one of the models the altitude
coincides with one of the lateral edges, so the foot of the alti
tude is a vertex of the base. Find the model and the edge. In
another model the foot of the altitude is entirely outside the
base. Which model? For the other three the foot of the altitude
is somewhere in the interior of the base.
The most symmetrical pyramids are called regular pyramids .
To be regular, a pyramid must meet two conditions. First, its
base must be the closed region of a regular polygon. (A regular
polygon is one whose sides are congruent and whose angles are
congruent.) Which of the models meet this first condition? Sec
ond, the foot of the altitude must be at the center of this regu
lar polygon. Which of the models appear to be regular polygons?
It is shown in the problems on the next page that the second
condition is really the same as saying that the lateral edges all
have equal lengths, a fact much easier to recognize by looking
at the model.
11-5 450
Exercises 11-'
Look at the figure which is
supposed to show a regular
pentagonal pyramid with apex
A and altitude
A§. Since Q,
is the center of the pentagon

it is the same distance from
S and from T. Suppose AQ
is 4 inches long and §T
and QS are each 3 inches long.
(a) How can you find the lengths of "AS and
(b) What are these lengths?
(c) Do AS" and AT have equal lengths?
(d) Is triangle AST isosceles?
(e) Can the reasoning above be used to show that all five of
the lateral edges have the same length?
(a) Does the reasoning in the last problem depend on the

fact that the base is a pentagonal region or would it
work for any regular polygonal region?
(b) Does the reasoning depend on the particular lengths given,

or would it apply to any lengths?
(c) Complete the following statement:

If pyramid
a is regular then its are all
congruent .
Look again at the figure of Problem 1, with the base a regular

pentagonal region, but this time suppose we know that the lat
eral edges all have the same lengths but do not know where the
foot of the altitude is located. To
Q be definite, suppose
the height of the prism (i.e. length of !S<£) is 12 inches, and
that each of the lateral edges ~Ks and "Eft is 13 inches long.
451 ll-5
(a) How can you find the lengths of §3" and
(b) What are these lengths?
__
(c) Are they equal?
(d) Can this reasoning be used to show that the distances

from Q, to all five vertices of the polygon are equal?
(e) Does this show Q is the center of the regular polygon?
(f) Is the pyramid a regular pyramid?
4. (a) Does the reasoning of Problem 3 depend on the particular

measurements and the fact the base is a pentagon?
(b) If not, complete the following statement:

If, in a pyramid with the closed region of a regular
_
polygon as base, the are all equal in
length, then the pyramid is .
5. Construct a model of a tetrahedron in which all four faces

are equilateral triangular regions. Such a figure is called
a regular tetrahedron.
6. (a) How many altitudes does a regular tetrahedron have?
(b) These altitudes of a regular tetrahedron are .
7. The base of a regular pentag-

onal pyramid is 16 in. on a
side. If the lateral edges of
the pyramid are each 17 in.,
find the lateral area of the
pyramid, that is the sum of the
areas of all five lateral faces.
Hint: Draw segment A"M from
apex A This is the
to a midpoint of a side of the pentagon.
altitude of this triangular face. Its measurement is called
the slant height of the regular pyramid. In the figure
(AM)2 + 82 = 172.
11-6 452
8. A regular square pyramid has a base which is 10 Inches on a

side. Its slant height (see problem previous page) is 12
inches.
(a) Find its total area (sum of areas of lateral faces and
the base) .
(b) Find the lengths of the lateral edges.

9. The base of a regular square pyramid is 10 feet on a side.
The altitude of the pyramid is 12 feet.
(a) Find the total area.
*(b) Find the lengths of the

lateral edges. Hint: How
far is it from Q to M?
Use this to find the slant
height.
11-6 Volumes of Pyramids
anything now about finding volumes of pyramids?

Can we do
In the section on prisms we found it useful to consider models
made up of stacks of cards. Perhaps you and your classmates would
like to make a similar model for a pyramid. so, get some heavy If
cardboard (such as grocery cartons) and make a series of square
pieces to pile on each other. As a suggestion make the bottom one
7
6 inches on a side, the next one 50- in a side, etc., going down
by -g
inch each time. Theoretically you will have 48 square pieces,
but actually you will have to omit the very top ones as they get
too small to work with. However, you should be able to go up at
least to the 1 inch by 1 inch square. To avoid having the
square pieces fall apart when you move them, make a hole in the
center of each one and run a cord through them, preferably an
elastic cord to hold them firmly together.
ll-6
If you want a larger model, start with a square one foot on
a side. This will take twice as many layers and eight times as
much cardboard. A deluxe model might be made by cutting the
square regions out of TT inch masonite or something similar in
your wood shop. The larger model would take a little over 32
square feet of material, the smaller a little more than 4 square
feet.
Such a model should convincingly remind you of a square pyra
mid, there are irregularities at the edges as in
though of course
the case of the prism. By shoving the square pieces around you
can make this model assume approximate shapes of all kinds of
square pyramids. When the square pieces are piled up with the
center holes directly above each other it appears as a regular
pyramid like our Model 13 . By pushing it to one side the apex
is no longer above the center of the base. You can very probably
push it far enough so that the apex is over a corner of the base
as in Model 15, and possibly even into the position of Model 16
where the perpendicular outside the base.
from the apex is
In all this moving around we clearly have not changed the base
of the pyramid or its height, which is after all just the thickness
of our stack of square pieces. Moreover, we have not changed the
amount of cardboard in the pile. It looks like a good guess then
that any two pyramids with congruent bases and congruent altitudes
have equal volumes.
Let us try this out on Models 13, 15, and 16 which clearly
have congruent square bases and whose heights are the same as we
saw earlier. Fill Model 13 with salt and try emptying it into
Model 15 and then into 16. Do your results confirm the guess
above?
On the basis of this experiment and the evidence of our card
board model we write the following property:
Property J5-. If two pyramids have congruent bases and con
gruent altitudes they have equal volumes.
11-6 454
To find what the actual volume of a pyramid is however, we

must eventually compare it
figure whose volume we know.
with some
As an experiment take Model 13, the regular square pyramid and

Model 4, the rectangular right prism. How do the bases of these
two models compare (if

take the small square as the base for
we
Model 4)? How do their heights compare? Do you agree they have
congruent bases and equal heights? The interior of Model 4 is
clearly larger than the interior of Model 13, but how much larger?
Fill Model 13 with salt and pour it into Model 4. Keep on doing
this until Model 4 is full. According to your results the interior
of Model 4 is times that of Model 13?
how many
Repeat the experiment with Model 14 and Model 5. Did you get
the multiple in this case? Make a third trial with Model 17
same
and Model 6. On the basis of these experiments do you agree with
the following property?

Property The volume of a pyramid is one third that of a
_6.
prism whose base is congruent to the base of the prism and whose
height is the same as that of the prism.
Since we know how to find the volume of a prism this leads at
once to a formula for finding the volume of any pyramid:
where stands for the number of square units of area in the

B
base and the number of linear units in the height.

h
Exercises 11-6
1. Find the volume of the pyramids, the measurements of whose
bases and heights are as follows:
(a) area of base = 12 square inches, height = Inches.

7
(b) area of base = 100 sq. cm., height = 24 cm.
(c) area of base = 14,400 sq. ft., height = 60 ft.

11-7
2. Model 13 has a square base of inches on a side and a

1-p-
height of 4 inches. Check these measurements with your

model . Then find the volume of Model 13 .
3. What is
the height of a pyramid whose volume is 324 cu. m.
and whose base is a square, 9m. on a side?
4. The of Cheops in Egypt is

Pyramid 480 ft. high, and its
square base is 720 ft. on a side. How many cu. ft. of
stone were used to build it? (Assume that the pyramid was
solid.) How many cu. yards?

*5. Find the total area of the regular triangular pyramid whose
lateral edge is 12 inches.
*6. The side of the square base of a pyramid is doubled. The
height of the pyramid is halved. How is the volume affected?
11-7 Cones
Anyone who has eaten an ice cream cone has at least a rough
idea of the figure called a cone, or more strictly a right circu
lar cone. Let a circle be drawn as shown below, with center C,
and let V be a point not in the plane of the circle so that
segment VC is perpendicular to this plane.
If all the segments from V were drawn to the points of the circle,
the union of all these segments, together with the closed circular
region, forms a right circular cone . Theclosed circular region
is called the base of the cone, and the union of the segments is
11-7 456
its lateral surface . The point V is called the vertex of the

cone. In the description right circular cone the word circular
indicates that the base is the closed circular region and the word
right means that VC is perpendicular to the plane of the circle.
Here we consider only right circular cones and when the word cone
is used it will mean this type.
Segment W is called the altitude of the cone, and the
length of this segment is the height of the cone. If Q is a
point of the circle, what kind of triangle is VCQ? Why? If
you know the height of the cone and the radius of its base can
you find the length of V§? How? If R is another point of the
circle, do VQ and VR have the same length? This constant
distance from vertex V to the different points of the circle is
called the slant height of the cone.
If h is the number of linear units in the height of the
cone, r the number of linear units in the radius, and s the
number of linear units in the slant height, write an equation
relating h, r, and s. If you know any two of these numbers
can you find the third from this equation?
one
As an example, suppose the
radius of the base of a cone is
10 in. and the height is 24 in.
What is the slant height of the
cone? Did you find the slant
height to be 26 in.?
Make and examine Model 18.
Point out the base, the vertex,
and the lateral surface. Approxi
mately what is the slant height?
Do you find it is about 4 inches?
Do you find the radius a little
less than an inch? Writing these
as decimals and rounding to one decimal place, we may take the
slant height as 4.1 inches and the radius as 0.9 Inches. What
is the height of the model? It should be a nice counting number.
457 11-7
How can we find the volume of a cone? Suppose we use the

method used on pyramids and compare a cone with a cylinder having
the same height and same sized base. Take Models 18 and 8. Com
pare their bases. Are the circles the same size? Do the two models
appear to have equal heights? How did you test this?
Now fill Model 18 with salt and empty it into Model 8. Continue
till Model 8 is full. On the basis of this experiment, the volume
of Model 8 is how many times that of Model 18? This illustrates
the following property.
Property J-. The volume of the interior of a cone is one third
that of a cylinder of the same height and whose base has the same
radius .
Since we have already learned how to find the volume of a
cylinder, this leads at once to the formula for finding the
volume of a cone:
V = Trr2 h.
p
Since irr is actually the number of square units B of area
in the base, the formula could be written as
Comparing this with Property 6 shows that we have the same rule
for finding the volume of a cone as for a pyramid.
As an example refer back to the cone mentioned above where the
radius of the base was LO inches and the height 24 inches.
Then r = 10, h = 24, so by the formula above
= - TT (10)2 24 = 800ir
and the volume is 800ir cu. in. or about 2512 cu. in.
* Lateral Area of a Cone
To lateral area of a cone, look at Model 18. If we

find the
take it apart again, the lateral surface goes back into a sector
of a circle as shown in the pattern for the model.
11-7 if 58
(Notice that a sector of a circle is bounded by two radii and a

part of the circle.) That is, the model which looks like this
flattens out into a sector of a circle that looks like this,
2-TT
The lateralarea of the cone has the same measure as the area
of the shaded part we are trying to find. The two points marked
Q in the figure come from the same point of the model. The rest
of the large circle is shown in dotted lines to help you follow
the reasoning.
Let s be the number of units in the slant height of the cone
and r be the number of units in the radius of its base. Do the
markings on the figure above on the two segments and the arc show
the correct number of units in their lengths? Why?
11-7
Now sector of a circle, such as we have on the previous

In a
page, the area is proportional to the arc. For example, the if
arc between the two points marked Q is one quarter of the circle,
then the shaded area is one quarter of the interior of the circle.
p
But the circumference of the circle is 2irs and its area is ITS .
If L stands for the number of square units in the shaded area,
we find therefore, the proportion:
27TT L
If multiply both sides of the equation by ITS , what value

you
do you find for L?
This reasoning justifies the following conclusion:
Property £3. If the slant height of a right circular cone is
s units and the radius of its base r units, the number L of
square units in its lateral area is given by the formula:
L = irrs.
As an example refer again to the cone where the radius of the
base is inches long and the height 24 inches. You recall
10
we found the slant height to be 26 inches. In this problem we
have, therefore, r = 10; s = 26, so
L = TT 10-26 = 260 TT * 8l6.4
and the lateral area is about 8l6.4 square inches.
Exercises 11-7
1. If stands for the number of square units in the total
T
area of the cone (counting the base) write a formula for T
in terms of r and s.
2. The slant height of a cone is 12 ft. and the radius of its
base 3 ft. Find its lateral area and its total area in
terms of IT.
3. A cone has a height of 12 ft. and its slant height is 15 ft.
Find the radius, the lateral area, the total area, and the
volume .
11-8 460
4. The radius of the base of a cone is 15 inches and the volume

is 2700 TT cubic inches. Find its height, slant height, and
lateral area.
5. Construct Models 19a, 19b, and 19c. Actually

are 19a and 19b
identical except for the lettering and can be cut out at the
same time. Be sure to put the letters on, as we will need
them to identify the different vertices. Notice that the

letters do not refer to particular angles but identify a
particular vertex after the model is assembled.
*ll-8 Dissection of ja Prism

According to our experiments with pyramids, the volume of
a pyramid is one third that of a prism having the same height
as the pyramid and having a base which is congruent to the base
of the pyramid. It is natural to ask whether we could see this
by putting together three identical pyramids to form the prism.
Unfortunately, a little experimentation seems to show this is not
possible. However, we can get a kind of substitute, as we shall
see.
Examine Models 19a, 19b, and 19c. They are all tetrahedrons
or triangular prisms. First compare Models 19a and 19b. How
does face ABC of Model 19a compare with face SRQ of Model
19b? How do their heights compare if we consider these faces
as bases? (Actually these questions are a little ridiculous since
we have already noticed the patterns are identical for the two
models so all their measurements must agree.) In any case the
two tetrahedrons ABCQ and QRSC, that is, Models 19a and 19b
have interiors with equal volumes.
Now compare Models 19a and 19c. This time the models
definitely do not look alike. However, compare face ABQ of
Model 19a with face BCR of 19c. Do you find them congruent?
Place the models on the desk with these faces in contact with
the top of the desk. Notice that in these positions you can
11-8
push the models together so that the two faces marked BCQ coincide.
What can you say of the heights of these two models when placed in
this position? Models 19a and 19c, when looked at in this way, are
triangular pyramids with congruent bases and congruent altitudes.
What can you say about their volumes? What property are you using?
You should have concluded that the three Models 19a, 19b, 19c
have equal volumes. put the three models together so that
Now
faces BCQ of Models 19a and 19c coincide and so that faces
QRC of 19b and 19c coincide. What is the resulting figure?
Is it a triangular prism?
These three models with equal volumes can thus be assembled
to form a prism whose base is the same as the face ABC of Model
19a, and whose height is the same as that of 19a. This shows
again the result stated in Property 6. Actually the work is Just
the process of dissecting a prism into tetrahedrons which you
discussed in Chapter 10 except that here we have been particularly
interested in the volumes of the pieces.
If we Model 19a as originally given, we can think of
imagine
Models 19b and 19c as two more tetrahedrons which have been invent
ed having the same volume as 19a and so that they can be combined
with 19a to produce a prism of the same base and height.In this
particular case the base of 19a is an equilateral triangle, and
one of the lateral edges is perpendicular to the plane of the base.
Could this still have been done if ABCQ were any triangular
prism? The answer is yes.
11-8 462
Model 1 - Inch - Cube
Model 2 - Half Cubic Inch (not half inch cube)
Model 3 - Half- inch cube.
I
463 ll-8
Model 4 - Rectangular Right Prism
•r
•
'2
.. i
'2 '2
it
, i
'2
"
Tob
11-8
Model 5 - Right Hexagonal Prism
4" 4" 4" 4" 4" 4" 4"
\ A
465 11-8
Model 6 - Right Triangular Prism.
(Base is Interior of a Right Triangle)

Make an extra copy of the base to use for the other base, but use
only one tab so the top can be opened.
V Tab
11-8 466
Model 7 - Right Prism with Rhombus as Base
(also Parallelepiped)
'60
1 II 1 "
'2 2
\
11-8
Model 8 - Right Circular Cylinder

It will easier to draw the circular bases with your own compass
be
using the radius of the circle below rather than trying to trace
the circle as shown. Make two copies of the circle, since there
are two bases. Attach the lower base firmly (with tape) but attach
the top base only at one point so it can be readily opened.
o
O"
6"
11-8 468
Model 9 - Oblique Prism with Rhombus as Base

(Also parallelepiped)
o
er
4 13" 4 11" 4l3-" 4

64 64 64 64 64
469 11-8
Model 10 - Oblique Prism with Rhombus as Base

(Also Parallelepiped)
o
CT
11-8 470
Model 11 - Oblique Triangular Prism

(Base is Interior of a Right Triangle)
Make an extra copy of the triangle to use for the other base, but
use only one tab in attaching it, so the top can be opened if
desired.
75°30' 4?
/99°20'
"
Tab
11-8
Model 12 - Oblique Triangular Prism

(Base is the Interior of a Right Triangle)
Make an extra copy of the triangle to use for the other base, but
use only one tab in attaching it so the top can be opened if
desired.
83'
32
"
\84°I5'
104'
4_L"
^32
Tab
11-8 472
Model 13 - Regular Square Pyramid

473 11-8
Model 14 - Recular Hexagonal Pyramid

11-8
Model 15 - Square Pyramid

475 11-8
Model 16 - Square Pyramid

ll-8
Model 17 - Triangular Pyramid (Tetrahedron)
'4^r
477 11-8
Model 18 - Right Circular Cone

It will better to draw these circles with your own compass
be
using the radii of the circles drawn rather than trying to trace
them. The radius of the small circle is supposed to be the same
as in Model 8.
11-8 478
Model 19a
11-8
Model I9b
ll-8 480
Model 19c
The remaining segments not labeled for length are the same
length as the segments in Models 19a and 19b joining the same end-
points. That is, segment B§ here has the same length as segment
in Model 19a.
481
Summary of Properties for Chapter 11
Property !_. If a line is perpendicular to two distinct intersect

ing lines in a plane, it is perpendicular to the plane.
Property £. The shortest segment from a point Q outside a plane
r to the plane r is the segment perpendicular to that plane .
Property If two planes are parallel the distances (perpendicular)
3_.
from different points of one plane to the other plane are all the
same .
Property If two prisms have congruent bases and equal heights

4_.
they have equal volumes.

Property -5. If two pyramids have congruent bases and congruent
altitudes, they have equal volumes.
Property The volume of a pyramid prism is one -third that of a
-6.
whose base is congruent to the base of the prism and whose height
is the same as that of the prism. (V = •*• Bh, where stands for
B
the of square units of area in the base
number and the number
h
or linear units in the height.)
Property The volume of the interior of a cone is one third
7..
that of
IP
cylinder of the same height and whose base has the
a
same radius. (V = •*• irr or

i
= •*•
Bh)
V
h
Property £}. If the slant height of a right circular cone is s
units and the radius of its base r units, the number of

L
square units in its lateral area is given by the formula,

= irrs.
L
Chapter 12
THE SPHERE
12-1 Introduction
If coin, you might
you were asked to describe the shape of a
say that it is "round." But this definition is vague. To describe
it more accurately, you might say that it is "circular." This is
more accurate because you have already learned a careful definition
of a circle:
A circle isset of points in a plane such that all points
a
of the set lie at the same distance from a particular point,
P, called the center.
Recall how you use a compass to draw a circle with a given

center and radius. The point of the compass is placed at the
center. The compass holds the point of the pencil at a constant
distance (the radius) from the center as you draw the circle.
We call the drawing a circle, but the drawing merely represents
the circle, just as a drawing of a line segment represents a line

segment .
When we talk about circles, we talk about points in a plane.

Suppose we consider all
the points in space. What is suggested
by the following expression? "
A set of points in space whose
distance from a particular point are all the same." This set
of points would be more than a circle. We would have a surface,
like the surface of a ball. Such a surface we call a sphere .
The point from which the distances are measured is called the
center of the sphere. Some people might call such a surface "per
fectly round" but this is not as definite a term as "sphere."
The surface of the earth is a fairly good representation of
a sphere. But it Is not exactly a sphere because of its mountains
12-1 484
and its valleys.Also, the earth is somewhat flattened at the

poles. (The length of the equator Is 24,902.39 miles and that
of the great circle through the poles is 24,860.49 miles.) The
surface of a basketball is a better representation of a sphere.
The surface of some Christmas tree ornaments, or the surface of
a BB shot, are even better representations of a sphere because
they are smoother.
Many objects are spherical, that is, have the shape of a
sphere. Some of these objects, such as ball bearings, are important
to industry. Some, like rubber balls, are used as toys. It
is because of these spherical objects and, most of all,
many
the shape of the earth, that it is important to learn about some
of the properties of spheres. This we shall do in this chapter.
Before we go any further, we should emphasize that it is the
surface that we call the sphere. On a ball, only that portion
that we could paint represents the surface. In a gas-filled

weather balloon, only the portion of the balloon exposed to the
air is the surface.
A very interesting representation of a sphere is a soap bubble.
Have you ever wondered why a soap bubble takes the shape of a
sphere? There is a very definite physical reason for this. We
will learn more about this property at the end of this chapter.
Exercises 12-1
List as many games as you can in which a spherical object,
such as a ball, is involved.
List as many spherical objects as you can which are used as
containers.
Fishing is a popular sport and an important industry. Can
you think of any spherical objects which are very useful in
certain kinds of fishing?
485 12-1
List some objects, useful in a home, that are shaped like

spheres.
Consider a coin such as a fifty-cent piece, Assume the coin

has no thickness.
(a) What geometric figure does the edge of the coin suggest?
(D) Suppose you use one finger

to hold the coin in an up
right position as shown
at the right. When hit
sharply on one edge the
coin rotates very rapidly.
What geometric idea is
represented by the edge of
the rotating coin?
(c) Does the geometric idea represented by the rotating edge

have any thickness?
In the study of geometry of a plane we sometimes refer to an

object as having only two dimensions. Name an object which
has three dimensions.
Refer to the reading, and review the definition of circle.

Write a definition of sphere.
(a) Suppose all

the points of a sphere are a distance v from
the center, C, of the sphere. How can you describe the
set of points such that all points are located a distance

less than v from C?
(b) How can you describe the set of points such that all
points are located a distance greater than v from C?
12-2 486
12-2 Great and Small Circles

Suppose we let a ball repre
sent a sphere. Arrows, shot at
the ball, pierce
the surface, or
skin, as shown at the right. It
would be possible to shoot many
such arrows, piercing and pass
ing through the ball. Assuming
that each arrow pierces the
surface of the ball, as shown
in the drawing, in how many
distinct points must each arrow pierce the surface if the length
of the arrow is greater than the diameter of the sphere (see below
for definition of "diameter")?
Each arrow that pierces the ball may be thought of as a line
which intersects the sphere. Let us think about all such lines
which intersect a particular sphere in two distinct points. Some
lines will pass through the upper part of the sphere, some through
the lower part, and some through both parts. We can imagine infi
nitely lines passing through the sphere. Every line
many such
which passes through the sphere intersects the sphere in two
distinct points.
Each of these lines contains a line segment whose endpoints
lie on the sphere. Let us consider this set of line segments.
Are all such segments congruent, that is, do they have the same
length? No, but there is
subset of these which are congruent--
a
those which pass directly
through the center. A line segment
whose endpoints lie on the sphere and which passes directly

through the center is called a diameter of the sphere. Will
each line segment whose endpoints are on the sphere have the
same length as a diameter? Do you see why it is necessary to
include "passes through the center" in our definition of a
diameter?
487 12-2
The line passing through the poles of the earth is called the
axis of the earth. This is approximately the line about which the
earth revolves. If we think of the earth as a sphere, the diameter
contained in the axis intersects the sphere at the North Pole and
at the South Pole. We think of these two points, represented by
the poles, as being "directly opposite" each other. Since the pre
fix "anti" means opposing, we could call these points "anti-polar"
points. But the poles are not the only points on earth having this
property, since each diameter of the earth will contain two such
points. So, we use a different name. The endpoints of any diameter
of a sphere are called antipodal points. (This is pronounced
"an - tip - o - dal.") We say, then, that each endpoint of a diam
eter of a sphere is an antipode of the other endpoint. (In "anti-
pode" the accent the first syllable.) Thus, the North Pole
is on
represents a point which is an antipode of the point represented
by the South Pole . Every point on a sphere has one antipode .
(See Problem 20 in Exercises 12-4.) We can connect any point, P,
of a sphere with the center of the sphere. The line through these
two points will Intersect
the sphere in the antipode of point P.
As an example of antipodal points, think of the point on the
surface of the earth on which you are standing. The antipode of
this point would be on the far side of the earth. You might think
of hole dug straight down through the center of the earth, coming
a
out on the other side. Where would it come out? You might find
it interesting to locate the antipode of the place where you live.
To do so, use a globe representing the earth. North Pole
Now think of the earth as a
sphere with a vertical axis as
shown at the right. Consider the
horizontal planes represented in
the drawing. One plane just touches
the sphere at the North Pole, and
one just touches the sphere at the
South Pole. Such a plane, which South Pole -^
just touches, or intersects the sphere at one point is said to be

tangent to the sphere.
12-2 488
We can think of many tangent planes because each point on the

sphere may represent the point where a particular plane is tangent
to the sphere .
Suppose we lower the horizon

tal plane as shown in the second
drawing at the right. Will the
plane intersect the sphere in
just one point? The intersection
set of a sphere and a plane as
shown at the right will be a
simple closed curve, circle. What
happens to the length of the circle
as we move the plane lower? The
circles will increase in size
until we reach the "middle" of
the sphere. We call this circle
at the middle the equator. From
that position, as we go lower,
the circles decrease in length
until the intersection set again
consists of one point at the
South Pole. Thus, a plane which intersects a sphere, may have an
intersection set with the sphere which consists of one point or
is a circle. Of course, it is also possible that the intersection
set of a plane and a sphere will be the empty set, that is, the
plane and sphere do not intersect at all.
Suppose we consider the set of circles
the surface of the
on
earth which are intersections of the earth with planes parallel
to the equator. In this set, the equator has two properties which
none of the other circles of
the set have. First, its length is
greater than the lengths of the other circles. Second, its plane
passes through the center of the sphere. We call the equator a
a great circle and the other circles small circles.

489 12-2
But we do call
the equator the only great circle since
not
we need to consider great circles paths between any two points
on a sphere. We have, therefore, this definition:
Definition: A great circle on a sphere is any intersection
of the sphere with a plane through the center of the sphere.
Definition: All circles on a sphere which are not great
circles are called small circles.
All great circles on a sphere have the same length since their
radii are equal to the radius of the sphere. The length of every
great circle on a sphere is greater than the length of any small
circle on that sphere.
Again, think of the earth as a sphere. We can imagine many
great circles of this sphere. A
particular set of great circles of
the earth is the set whose members
pass through the North and South
Poles. Consider half of such a
great circle. On the earth, half
of a great circle, with the poles
as endpoints, is called a meridian.
We sometimes use the term "semi
circle" in talking about half of
a circle.
The small circles whose planes are parallel to the plane
of the equator are called parallels of latitude. These circles
have their centers on the axis of the earth and their planes per
pendicular to the axis of the earth.
You know that when you face north, east will be to your right,
west to your left and south at your back. On the surface of the
earth east and west from the point where you stand will be along
the parallel of latitude through this point. When we want to
emphasize that a direction is exactly east, we sometimes say
"due east."
12-2 490
Meridians and parallels of latitude will be discussed more

carefully later. At that time we shall discuss how points on
the surface of the earth can be located by means of these great
and small circles.
You already know that, in a plane, the shortest distance
between two points is along a straight line. On a sphere this
is not true, although it may appear to be true when you think
of two points rather close together on the earth. Can a plane,
flying from New York to San Francisco travel along a path which
is a straight line? Of course not, it must follow the curvature
of the earth. On a sphere, it turns out to be true that the
shortest distance between any two points is a path along a
great circle that passes through the two points. (You may
have heard of "the great circle route" for airplanes and ships.)
The proof of this important fact is much too difficult to be
given here. However, by using a string stretched around a globe
you may test this statement.
Exercises 12-2
your best to answer each question in Problems 1-6. When

Do
asked to explain your answer give what reasons you can, but do
not feel that you have to prove that your answers are correct.
You should be prepared, however, to supply reasons for your
answers in most cases. The purpose of these questions is to help
you start thinking about some of the properties of spheres. You
will find it extremely helpful to make drawings on a large ball
or other spherical object.
some Such drawings will help you "see"
the things we talk about.
1. (a) Is there an antipode of any given point on a sphere?
(b) Is there more than one antipode of any given point on

a sphere?
12-2
In the drawing at the right,

C is the center of the sphere.
A and B are antipodal points.
The great circle passing
through A and B is shown
as a curve. D is a point on
this great circle passing
through A and B. Curves not seen from the front are shown
as dotted lines.
(a) Measuring along a straight line through the interior of
the sphere which distance is greater, AB~ or A"C*?
(b) Measuring the surface of the sphere, is it farther from
A to D or from A to B?
(c) Is there any point on this great circle farther from

A than B, measuring either on a line through the
interior or along the great circle on the sphere?
Explain.
(d) Do all great circles containing A pass through point

B? Explain .
(e) Do any other great circles passing through A also pass

through point D? Explain.
(a) How many great circles pass through a given point, such
as the North Pole, of a sphere?
(b) How many small circles pass through a given point of a

sphere?
(c) Can a small circle pass through a pair of antipodal

points on a sphere? Explain.
(a) On a sphere, does every small circle intersect every

other small circle? Explain.
(b) On a sphere, does every great circle intersect every

other great circle? Explain.
12-2
5. (a) In how many points does each meridian cut the equator?
Explain .
(b) In how many points does each meridian cut each parallel
of latitude?
(c) Does a parallel of latitude intersect any other parallel
of latitude? Explain.
6. In the drawing shown at the
right, C represents the
center of a sphere with point
A on the surface of the sphere.
(a) Assume that D is a

point between A and C
on AC. Where is D located with respect to the sphere?

<->
(b) E is a point on AC but is not on AC. Must E be
inside the sphere?
,<->
/ \
(c) B is a point on AC and is on the sphere. What is
the relation between points A and B ? Explain.
(d) Assume a point E is the antipode of point A. Will

E be on AC? Explain.
(e) If AB is a diameter of the sphere, what name can we
give to AC" or BC~?
7. In the chapter on Circles in Volume I, the interior of a circle

was defined to be all points of a set, including the center
itself, whose distance from the center is less than the radius.
(a) Using the above definition as an example, define the
interior of a sphere.
(b) Similarly, define the exterior of a sphere.
(c) Similarly, define a sphere.

493 12-2
*8. What is the intersection set of a plane and a sphere? In

this section we said that if
such a set was not the empty
set then it was a point or a circle. The first case is
quite obvious, but suppose someone questioned the case
where the intersection set is a circle.
Explain why such an intersection must be a circle. The
following questions may be of some help, or you may try some
other means of doing this.

In the drawing at the
right, C is the center of
a sphere and m is a plane
intersecting the sphere .
Suppose we think of a
line perpendicular to m
CD,
and intersecting m at point
A. Then let us think of point
R as any point of the inter
section of plane m with the
sphere .
(a) If AR and AC are

drawn what is the measure of / RAC? Why?
(b) What particular kind of angle is /_ RAC?
(c) If segments AR, RC~, and CA are drawn, what geometric

figure is suggested? Explain.
(d) Locate another point P as shown in the drawing. How

does the measure of PAC compare with / RAC? Why?
(e) What kind of a triangle is A PAC?
(f) How does the length of AP compare with AR? Why?
(g) Repeat questions (a), (b), and (c) above, replacing R

with any other point of the intersection set of plane
m and the sphere. How do your results compare?
12-3
(h) Compare A^, AP and any other such segments. What can
you conclude?
(i) Does this prove that the intersection set of plane m and
and sphere is a circle? Why?
12-3 Properties of Great Circles

Can you remember learned that the earth is spherical?
when you
Some young children are amazed when they learn that the earth is
spherical. This is not strange, however, for we know that at the
time Columbus was living many intelligent adults believed the earth
was generally flat, much like a plane. Suppose this were true.
How then could a person go "around the world"?
We use the term "navigate" to describe the process of directing
our movements on earth. Deciding what course, or direction, a ship
or airplane is to follow is the responsibility of the navigator.
To avoid unnecessary expenses, the navigator must try to direct
the movement of the ship, or airplane, along the most direct
route between stopping places.
Suppose you want to take a short trip. By a short trip we
mean keeping within the boundaries of one of the smaller states,
such as Connecticut. For such a trip you can use a road map as
a guide. Most road maps are flat, like planes. Let us assume
that the actual surface of the country is flat and that the roads
Joining cities are all straight segments. Or, we can assume you
will use a small plane and can travel along straight line segments.
For such a trip it would be easy to decide on the shortest route.
Thus, it would be easy to decide which direction to follow.
However, if
you are planning a trip from San Francisco to
London or from New York to Buenos Aires, a road map is of little
help. For planning such a trip, a model of the earth, such as a
globe, would usually be more helpful than a map in the form of
a plane. You will find that sometimes things are not what they
seem to be.
495 12-3
understand travel on the globe better, let us review some

To
fundamental properties of spheres. In Exercises 10-2 two funda
mental ideas about spheres were introduced. These ideas deal with
great circles. The first idea may be stated as a property.
Property I_. Every pair of distinct great circles intersect
in two antipodal points.
This property is easily proved as

follows:
(1) Every great circle of a
sphere lies on a plane
through the center of the
sphere .
(2) All planes containing a

great circle have the
center in common, and
thus any two such planes must intersect.
(3) The intersection set of any two intersecting planes is

a line.
(4) This line intersects the sphere in antipodal points
two
since the line passes through the center.
(5) Thus, these antipodal points are the points of intersec

tion of the two great circles on the two planes.
We will use this property in discussing distances between points
on a sphere.
In the previous section we stated that the shortest distance
on the surface of a sphere between any two points on the sphere
is measured along the path of great circle In the study of
a
geometry in high school mathematics this statement is proved.

We will
not do so now.
Assume you are to find the shortest route between two points
on the globe. Suppose you are to travel from the North Pole to
12-3 496
the South Pole. Is there one shortest route? You should be able
to find many possible "shortest "routes. Each meridian is a possi
ble route. If
we think of the earth as a sphere, the meridians
are congruent. Thus, it does not matter which meridian is selected

as your route. For any two antipodes, then, all great circle paths
for the sphere being congruent, there are any number of paths one
can take.
But, what if
the two points are not antipodes? How many
possible paths along a great circle route are there? There are
only two possible great circle paths between two such points and
both lie on the same great circle. This is the next important
property .
Property £. Through any two points of a sphere, which are not
antipodes, there is exactly one great circle.
We can prove this property as follows:
(1) Think of any two points,
A and B, on a sphere
which are not antipodes.
(2) Since A are notand B

antipodes, a line through
A and the center of the
sphere, C cannot pass
through B. (Similarly,
BC does not contain A. )
(3) Through the three points

A, B, and C there can
pass exactly one plane,
because these three points are not contained in one line.
(4) The one plane containing A, B, and C, contains only

one great circle with center at C.
(5) This great circle is thus the only great circle passing
through A and B.
12-3
This property tells us that if two points on the sphere are

not antipodes, there is exactly
one shortest route between these
two points. Of course, there are
two directions one can travel along
a great circle containing A and
B. In the drawing at the right we
see that one route, ADB, would

pass through D, the other, ACB,
through C. Since A and B are B
not antipodes, one route must be
shorter than the other. We natu
rally choose the one which is
shorter. pick the shortest route in the drawing?
Can you
From the point of view of shortest distance, the great circles
on a sphere behave like straight lines on a plane. We have shown
also that through any two points there is Just one great circle
unless the points are antipodal. But great circles on a sphere do
not behave like straight lines in all respects for any two great
circles intersect in two points. There are no parallel great
circles on a sphere.
Exercises 12-3
Use a globe and length of string and a ruler to answer ques
tions 1-3.
1. Locate Nome, Alaska and Stockholm, Sweden on the globe.
(a) Place one endpoint of the string on the location of Nome.

Place the string on a northern path, passing through the
North Pole. Continue until you reach Stockholm. Care
fully mark on the string a point which falls on the loca
tion of Stockholm. What is the distance on the globe in
inches from Nome to Stockholm as represented by the seg
ment marked on the string?
12-3 498
(b) Using a string and ruler, what is the distance form Nome
to Stockholm along a route directly east from Nome?
(c) From your results the shorter distance

above, what is
between the two points represented by Nome and Stockholm,
a path following a great circle; or a path following a
small circle on the line of latitude?
2. (a) What the distance from Nome, Alaska to Rome, Italy
is
along a great circle route which passes through a point
near the North Pole?
(b) What is
the distance from Nome to Rome along a south
easterly course passing through the southern tip of
Hudson Bay, and through a point on the border between
Spain and France?
(c) How do your results in (a) and (b) compare?
3. A merchant living in Singapore, Malaya plans to take a non-stop

flight to Quito, Ecuador. What is the best route between these
two points?
4. Explain going due north would be the shortest although not

why
necessarily the safest or best, route in traveling to a point
on the earth directly north of your starting point.
5. (a) Explain why going due east is not always the most
efficient way of getting to a point directly to the east.
(b) When is a route due east or west always the most efficient?
*6. Given three points on a sphere. Can a circle on the sphere

(small or great) be drawn through all three points?
7. BRAINBUSTER: hunter set out walking due south from his camp.
A
He walked for about two hours without seeing any game. Then
he walked 12 miles due east. At this point he saw a bear
which he shot. To return to camp he traveled directly north.
What color was the bear? (Note: This problem does have an
answer. )
499 12-4
12-4 Locating Points on the Surface of the Earth

You already know how to locate points in a city by the streets
and street numbers. Suppose, that you are planning to
however,
visit a friend who has just moved to a farm. You need some instruc
tions to find the location of your friend's new home. What kind
of information do you need? "He lives in the country" is not very
helpful. "He lives northeast of Daly City" is also very vague.
You need more information! The following instructions are much
more specific: "Start from where you are now. From this point,
go east 2 miles, then go north for 1 mile." These instructions
give you three things: a starting (or reference) point, the direc
tions you must follow from the starting point, the distances you
must travel in those directions.
Imagine that you are a pilot of a transoceanic airplane, or
the captain of an ocean ship. It is your responsibility to help
navigate, or direct the course, of the ship or plane. The course
will follow various headings, or "paths." Before any directions
for the headings have any meaning, you must know where you are.
That is, you must know your location on the earth. By keeping
track of the location of the plane or ship on maps, it is possible
to determine the correct headings for a safe crossing. Your first
job is to find your location. How can this be done?
To locate points on the earth's surface, we think of the earth
as a sphere and define two sets of curves on the sphere. One set
of curves consists of the
circles called parallels
which mentioned in Section
we
2. There we had a set of

parallel planes slicing the
earth in horizontal sections
as shown at the right . The top
plane is
tangent to the North
Pole, and the bottom plane is
tangent to the South Pole. The
intersection of each of the re
maining planes and the earth is a
12-4 500
circle. The determined by these planes are all small

circles
circles except for the equator, which is a great circle. All such
circles are called parallels of latitude. They are called
"parallels" because they are determined by planes parallel to the
plane passing through the equator.
The second set of curves consists of the meridians, which
also have been described earlier in this chapter. Remember that
meridians are halves of great circles such that the half-circles
have the poles as endpoints. Thus, each great circle through the
poles consists of two meridians. Each meridian has a diameter the
axis of the earth.
Let A be some point on the
sphere as shown at the right.
There is exactly one plane through
A, perpendicular to the axis of the
earth. This plane contains the
parallel of latitude through A.
There is exactly one meridian
through A because the point
A and the North Pole (or South
Pole) determine one great circle.
Since that great circle passes
through the poles, the arc of the
great circle containing A is a meridian. Thus, through each
point of a sphere, except the poles, there is exactly one parallel
of latitude and one meridian.
It remains only to find numerical names for the meridians and
parallels of latitude. How can we do this? In some towns, a
street, having a north-south direction, determines a reference
line. All locations on one side of the line are considered to
be in the western part of the town. Streets on the other side
of the line are in the eastern part of the town. The streets are
numbered consecutively from the reference line, the zero line.
Using this idea, we select one of the meridians on the earth as
501 12-4
a reference label this the zero meridian. The other

line. We
meridians are east or west of the zero meridian, Just as streets

in a town are east or west of the street used as a reference.
Actually, the zero meridian for the earth has been designated.
It is the meridian which passes through a certain location in
Greenwich (pronounced Gren - ich), England. Greenwich is near
London. We sometimes refer to this meridian as the Greenwich
meridian, even though the meridian itself passes through one
particular point of the town. The meridian at Greenwich is
sometimes called the prime meridian. This has nothing to do
with a prime number.
The intersection of the Greenwich meridian and the equator
is marked 0°. From this point, we follow the equator east, or
west, reach the meridian which passes through the antl-
until we
pode of the Greenwich point that, is, lies on the great circle
through Greenwich and the North Pole. This meridian intersects
the equator at a point which is one -half way around the equator
from the point labeled 0°. This point is labeled l8o°. We can
think of a plane intersecting f^r--^ /Greenwich
the earth in this great circle.
The plane separates the earth into
two hemispheres, or half -spheres,
as shown in the drawing at the
right. The the left
hemisphere on
as you look at the drawing, is
named the western hemisphere.
The hemisphere the right is the
on
eastern hemisphere.
The great circle, which we call
the equator, is divided into 360
equal parts as shown at the right
in a view as seen from the North
Pole . The whole numbers between
0 and l8o
are assigned to the
points on the half equator.
12-4 502
to the left of 0 . The same is done for

the points on the other
half of the equator. Each of these points names the meridian pass
ing through that point . Any point on earth may be located by the
meridian passing through the point. For example, Los Angeles is
approximately on the meridian 120 west of the Greenwich meridian.
Tokyo is approximately on the meridian 140 east of Greenwich. We
say the longitude of Los Angeles is about 120° W(west). The
longitude of Toky.o is about 140° E.
The parallels of latitude are located in the following way.
The equator is designated the zero parallel. All points above the
equator are in the northern hemisphere, points below in the south
ern hemisphere. We choose any meridian, for instance that meri
dian through Greenwich. The part of the meridian from the inter
section with the equator to the North Pole is divided into 90
equal parts, assuming that the earth is a sphere. The whole num
bers between 0 and 90 are
assigned to these points. Each
point determines a parallel of
latitude. A similar pattern is
followed for points on the meri
dian south of the equator. For
any point on earth, we may locate
the parallel of latitude contain
ing the point. For example,
New Orleans is approximately on
the parallel 30° north of the
equator. Wellington, New Zealand
is approximately on the parallel 40° south of the equator. We
say that New Orleans has a latitude of about 30 N (north) . The

latitude of Wellington is approximately 40° S.
Some of the parallels are given special names. The Arctic and
Antarctic Circles are the parallels located about 23-w- degrees
from the North and South Poles. The Tropic of Cancer is about
23-i. degrees north of the equator, and the Tropic of Capricorn
503 12-4
is the same distance south of the equator.

Portions of spheres
between two parallels of latitude are sometimes called zones.
Some of these zones are also given special names as shown in the
drawing at the right. Can
you locate the zone in which you
North Frigid
live? Can you name the hemi Zone Arctic
live? Could Circle
sphere in which you
there be two different correct North
Temperate Tropic of
answers? Zone Cancer
To locate a point on earth,
Torrid
we name the meridian and the paral- Equator Zone
lei of latitude passing through
South Tropic of
the point. Thus we name the lon Temperate Capricorn
gitude and the latitude of a point Zone
For example: 90° W, 30° N locates Antarctic
Frigid Circle
a point in the city of New Orleans
South
Zone
We say that New Orleans is located
approximately at this point on earth. Durban, South Africa is

located at approximately 30° E, 30° S. Note that the longitude
is always listed first. Do the longitude and latitude of a point
help you locate the hemisphere in which the point is located?
Notice that latitude and longitude give a coordinate system on the
sphere Just as the X-axis and Y-axis give a coordinate system in
the plane.
Exercises 12-4
1. Using a globe, find location of each of the
the approximate
following cities. Indicate the location by listing the longi
tude first, followed by the latitude. Be sure to include the
letters E or W and N or S in your answers .
(a) New York City (e) Paris
(b) Chicago (f) Moscow
(c) San Francisco (g) Rio de Janeiro
(d) London (h) Melbourne, Australia

12-4 504
2. Greenwich, England is located approximately on parallel

the
of latitude labeled 52° N. Without getting further infor
mation, write the location of Greenwich.
3. Chisimaio, Somalia, in eastern Africa, is located on the

equator (or very near the equator). It is about 42 degrees
east of Greenwich. Without using a reference, write the
location of Chisimaio.
4. Find answers to the following, using such reference materials
as encyclopedias, maps, and social science and history books:
(a) What is the parallel separating North from South Korea?
(b) Find states, parts of

some whose boundaries are along
parallels of latitude.
(c) What parallel of latitude was involved in the dispute
between the United States and Great Britain about
their boundary in the Northwest?
(d) What parallel of latitude was connected with the
Missouri Compromise?
(e) What parallel of latitude is associated with the Mason

and Dixon line?
(f ) Can you guess the reason for the name of the country
Ecuador in South America?
5. Using a map or a globe, find the cities located by the follow

ing:
(a) 58° W, 35° S.
(b) 175° E, 4l° S.
6. Using a map or a globe, find the cities located by the follow

ing:
(a) 122° E, 35°N.
(b) 4° W, 41° N.
505 12-4
7. (a) Compare the location of the city in your answer for

5(a) with the location of the city in your answer for
6(a).
(b) Similarly, compare the locations of the cities determined
by 5(b) and 6(b).
(c) What kind of points do these locations suggest?
8. (a) Determine the location of your home town.
(b) Determine the antipodal point of this location.
(c) If you could travel from a spot in your home town through
the center of the earth, would you come out in China?
9. What point in the United States is closest to Moscow, Russia?

10. What is
the northernmost point In the great circle route
between Chicago and Calcutta?
11. Locate and name one point on the great circle route between
San Francisco and Melbourne, Australia.
12. Without looking at a map or using a reference, guess the
answers to the following questions:
(a) Is Reno, east of Los Angeles? That is, does the

Nevada
meridian through Reno lie east of the meridian through
Los Angeles?
(b) About where would the meridian through Miami, Florida

strike South America?
(c) Which of the following cities is closest to being on the

same parallel of latitude with New York City: San Fran
cisco; Portland, Oregon; or Seattle, Washington?
(d) Which of the following cities is closest to being on
same parallel of latitude with New York City: London;
Madrid; or Casablanca, Morocco?
12-4 506
13 . Use a map or reference to find the answers to the questions

in the previous problem.
14. Find two pairs of points on the earth which are antipodes
and give their latitude and longitude.
*15. Are there two different points on the earth which have the
same latitude longitude?
and If so, where are they, and
if not, explain why there are none.
*l6. Are there any points on the earth that have more than one
location in terms of latitude and longitude? Explain why,
or why not.
*17. Determine a way of finding the location of
antipodal an
point, say of 90° W, 45° N, without using a globe or
map. Then find the antipodal points of each of the following:
(a) 80° W, 25° S.
(b) 100° E, 65° N.
(c) 180° W, 51° S.
*l8. Find the reasons for the location of the Arctic Circle and
the Tropic of Cancer.
*19. Where and what is the International Date Line?
*20. Southeast of Australia, there is located a group of islands

called the Antipodes Islands. They received this name because
they are antipodal to Greenwich. Without using a reference,
write the location of the Antipodes. When it is midnight
in Greenwich, what time of day is it at the Antipodes? When
it is in Greenwich, what season is it
the middle of summer
in the Antipodes? Does this mean that when it is June 21st
in Greenwich it is December 21st in the Antipodes?
507 12-5
12-5. Volume and Area of a Spherical Solid

In previous chapters a cube has been discussed in detail.
Remember that it is
surface. We speak of the volume of a cube.
a
By that is meant the volume of the rectangular solid whose surface
is a cube. The measure of this volume is the number of cubical
solids necessary to "fill" it; the number might not be a counting
number. If the measure of an edge of the cube is e then the
V , of the volume is
3
measure, e . The volume of the cube is
3
e cubic units. The subscript, c , merely means that this refers
to the cube.
A sphere is a surface. By the volume of a sphere we will mean
the volume of the solid whose surface is a sphere. In this section
we give a formula for the measure, V , of the volume. Let r
s
stand for the radius (that is the number of units in the length
of the radius) of the sphere and see first how we can get an
approximation for its volume. Build around this sphere the
smallest possible cube. This
cube should touch the sphere
as indicated in the diagram. The
edge of the cube has measure 2r.
Hence
Vc
=
(2r)3 = 8r3,
since (2r)3 =
(2r)(2r)(2r)
=
{2-2-2)(r-r.r) = 8r3.
Since the sphere lies entirely

within the cube, the volume of
the sphere is less than the volume of the cube. Hence
ir s O_3
12-5 508
Now think of constructing a cube entirely within the sphere so

that all vertices of the cube lie on
the sphere. You can visualize
the remaining portion. The points
A and B are shown as opposite
vertices of the cube, and C is
the center of the sphere and of the
cube. You see that C lies on the
segment AB. Hence A and B
are antipodes. ADE is a right
triangle, so
O O O O
(ADr = * + * = 2 e .
where e is the number of units

in AE. Now ADB is a right triangle and hence
(AT5)2 + (S15)2 =
(AB)2.
But BD = e and TB = 2r. Hence
2
2e - e = (2r)2,
2
3e = 4r2,
4 2 2.2
(r-r)
c-e
« o = f rw_rx
(— — ;(—=;
e =
A3 / 2rx3 8r3
Hence, V = e ( ~ ) = r3 =
Since the volume of the sphere is larger than the volume of this
cube,
Therefore,
Vs
509 12-5
We have obtained two numbers between which the measure of the

volume of the sphere lies. Actually these numbers are not very
close to each other as you can see by letting r = 2 and computing
the volumes of the two cubes. To find an accurate formula for the
volume of a sphere is a task far too difficult at this time. It
can be proved that the volume of a spherical solid is units,
4 3
-4-
TTT
where TT is the same number we met when working with circles, and
r is the measure of the radius of the sphere. Notice that
that 43 certainly lies n
4
or
3
irr
4,
•sv TT % so ->T between 1.53r and
.
The number IT is a real number though not a rational number; it
is an irrational number. Its decimal form has been computed to
many places. To five decimal places it is
TT = 3.14159 ••• .
We were able to approximate the volume of the sphere but we

,
cannot, at this time, approximate the area of the surface (the

area of the skin of the orange, so to speak). The formula for
surface area will have to be accepted now; it will be proved in
one of your later courses.
area of the surface of a sphere is 47rr units, where
2
The
r is the measure of the radius of the sphere. great circle
A
r and hence its area is irr units.

2
on a sphere has radius

Hence another way to think of the formula for the area of a sphere
is: The area of the surface of a sphere is times the
4
area of one of its great circles.

If the radius of a sphere is given in inches, the volume is meas
ured in cubic inches and the surface area is in square inches.
Other units are handled in similar fashion.
a
Let us now develop ideas which will assist us in discussing

the soap bubble. Suppose, first, we consider a sphere of radius
units. Then our formulas give us
2
= 4ir-22 = l6ir and = in-23 = 4£ir

&
V0
s
3
s
for the area and volume of the sphere respectively. Suppose we

12-5 510
have a cube with the same volume as this sphere. How would the
area of the cube compare with that of the sphere? The volume
of the sphere is a little more than 32, since IT is a little
more than 3. Hence, if
the number of units in the edge
e is
must be a little greater than 32,
3
of the cube, then e since
e
3
is the volume of the cube. As a result, e is a little
larger than 3. In other words, the length of the edge of the
cube having the same volume as the sphere will be a little more
o
than 3 units. Since the cube has six faces, A
'•"'
= 6e . Hence
its area will be greater than 6-3
2
=
54. This number is certainly
greater than l6ir , (Why?) the surface area of the sphere. we If
had done this work more accurately, the areas would be found to be:
A0s * 50.26, Art

c
% 62.48,
which reveals a somewhat greater discrepancy.

Suppose we try another example and consider the sphere of
radius 5 units. Than our formulas give us
=
4ir-52 = 1007T and Vg
=
As
Here V is about 52? and so, for a cube of the same volume,
V0c * 527. Hence e3 £ 527, so that e is alittle more than 8
o
since 8
3
= 512. Accordingly, A is a little more than 6-8 =
384. In this example, A0 £ Again the

S
3l4.l6 and Art
C
~ 384.
area of the sphere is decidedly less than the area of the cube
of equal volume. These are two examples of the following fact:
If a sphere and a cube have equal volumes, the surface
area of the sphere is the smaller.
In fact, a stronger statement is true:
If any solid has the same volume as a sphere, surface the
area of the sphere is less than or equal to the surface
area of the solid.
511 12-5
Now to our soap bubble film has a certain elasticity

I The soap
to it. This elasticity "pulls in" the film as much as possible.
A given volume of air is trapped inside the bubble. Hence the
>
physical property requires the surface to have as small an area
as possible for the given volume . As stated in the preceding
paragraph this area will be least when the surface is a sphere.
This is why soap bubbles are spherical in shape.
Exercises 12-5
For each sphere whose radius is given below, find the volume
22
of the corresponding spherical solid. Use TT- as the approx
imation for TT.
(a) r = 3 Inches (e) r = 5.6 inches
(b) r = 10 feet (f) r = 6.6 inches
(c) r = 4 yards (g) r = 8.4 mm.
(d) r = 6 cm. (h) r = 4.2 ft.

In Problems 2, 3, 5 and 6 use 3.14 as the approximation
for TT.
2. For the various spheres of Problem 1 find the surface area.
3. An oil tank is in the shape of a sphere whose diameter is 50
feet. The tank rests on a concrete slab.
(a) If paint costs per gallon and a gallon covers
$6 400
square feet, find the cost of the paint for the surface.
(b) If oil costs 13 cents per gallon find the value of the
oil in the tank. Assume that the tank is full, (l cu.
ft. £ ?i gallons).
12-5 512
4. Suppose your mother has a bowl in the hemisphere

shape of a
of radius 8 inches. She borrows a bowlful of sugar and
wishes to pay for the sugar rather than return it. Assume
that sugar costs 10 cents per pound and that 1 pound
occupies 32 cubic inches. Use TT % 3. How much does your
mother pay?
5. A mapmaker -wishes to produce globes made of plastic

100
sheeting. The diameter of each globe is to be 18 inches.
Find the cost of the globes if
the plastic costs 50 cents
per square foot.
6. A spherical balloon has a diameter of 40 feet. How much

gas will it hold when all the air has been pushed out?
7. (a) If the radius of a sphere is doubled what effect does

this have on the volume? On the surface area?
(b) If the radius of a sphere is tripled what effect does

this have on the volume? On the surface area?
8. Two spheres have radii in the ratio

3
% .
(a) Find the ratio of their volumes.

(b) Find the ratio of their surface areas.
9. OPTIONAL. In this section performed some computations to
we
help us determine the volume of a sphere. These computations
gave us only approximate results. It was stated that the
correct formula for the volume of a sphere is V = -wirr .
43
o
It was also stated that we would not attempt to prove this
formula at this time. Later, in more advanced courses in
mathematics, you will learn to prove that the formula given
is correct.
Try the following experiment to verify that the formula
for the volume of a sphere is correct. All measuring for this
experiment must be carefully done.
513 12-5
OBJECTIVE: To verify that the formula for the volume of a

sphere is
MATERIALS : (a) A sphere (a Softball will do nicely)
(b) A container (one having an interior shaped
in the form of a rectangular solid, such as
a half -gallon, paper milk carton with top
cut off ) .
(c) A ruler (graduated in l6ths of an inch or

in tenths of a centimeter) .
(d) A container with about one quart of water.
DIRECTIONS: RULER
(l) Measure the diameter . . I .
as shown at the right,

Compute the radius of
the sphere.
90°
(2) Measure the length and
width of the interior of
the container. Partially
fill the container with
water. Mark the water
level carefully. Immerse
the sphere in the water
so that it is completely
covered with water. Care
fully mark the new water
level . Find the measure
of the distance the water
level was raised.
(3) Find the product of the measures of the following:
the length of the interior of the container; the
width of the interior of the container; the distance
the water level was raised.
12-6
CO Is the answer to (3) the volume of the sphere?

Explain why, or why not.
(5) Compute the value of r 3 , using the radius of the
3
sphere. Is r less than the volume of the sphere?
Find the product of ir and r
3
(6) Is this answer "
less than the volume of the sphere?

(7) Divide the answer for (3) by the answer for (6).
If you did all of your work carefully, you should
obtain an answer approximately equal to !•*• or 1.3,
l 4
Did you? How does 1-i- or 1.3 compare with •*• ?
12-6 Finding Lengths of Small Circles

How would we find the length of a circle of latitude? In
this section we will show how this may be done using values of
cosines of angles. First draw a picture of the earth. Call N
the North Pole, C the center of the earth, P some point on
the surface of the earth and E the point directly south of P
on the equator. The figure shows
the great circle through P and
E. Then the measure in degrees
of the angle PCE is the latitude
of point P. Let A be chosen so
that PAC is a right angle and
choose B on the axis of the
earth so that PBC is a right
angle. Then PBCA is a rec
tangle and hence PB is congruent
to CA, that is, the lengths PB
and CA are equal . But
CT
is equal to the cosine of angle PCA
Thus if L is the latitude of P, we have
cos L
515 12-6
The equator is the great circle shown in the diagram as being in

a plane perpendicular to the paper and passing through E. The
radius of the circle is CE. Call e the length of this great
circle. Hence, the length of the equator is 2ir(CE) = 2Tr(CP), or
e =
2ir(CP).
Why is CP = CE? The circle of latitude at P has center at B,
has radius BP and has its plane perpendicular to l^C". Denote
the measure of the length of the circle of latitude by p. Hence
p =
27r(BP) =
27r(CA).
Accordingly,
To CA
cos, L =
What property justifies the second equality in the line above?

Since, cos L° = £, it follows that p = e cos L°.
The length of the equator is about 25,000 miles. This gives

P £ 25,000 cos L° ,
where L° is
the latitude of the point P. the latitude of a If
point is known, the length of the small circle through the point
can be found by using values of the cosines of various angles given
in the table of Chapter 9.
Example latitude of a certain city is 35° . Find the
. The
approximate length of the small circle through the city. The
length of the small circle is about 25,000(cos 35°) miles, that is
25000(0.8192) miles, which is 20480 miles.
Exercises 12-6
Find to the nearest ten miles the length of the circle of lat
itude which passes through the point with latitude given below.
(a) 15°
(b) 75°
(c) 45°
12-6 516
City A has longitude 15 E. and city B has longitude

25° E. The cities are on the same parallel of latitude,
30° N.
(a) Find the length of the circle of latitude on which the

cities lie.
(b) The diagram represents
the circle of latitude.
Find the length of the
semicircle OBC.
(c) Find the difference

between the longitudes
of A and B.
(d) Length of arc AB is

? (fractional part)
of the length of the
semicircle.
(e) Find the length of AB.
(f ) An airplane travels close to the surface of the earth

and follows the parallel of latitude from A to B.
If it travels 400 m.p.h., how long does it take for
the journey?
3. (a) How far is it between meridian 10° W. and 70° W. at

latitude 40° N. along the parallel of latitude?
4. By sun-time is meant the time as determined by the position
of the sun. Standard time zones should not enter into this
. problem.
(a) If sun-time is 7:00 a.m. at meridian 10° W., find the

sun-time at 70° W.
(b) If sun-time is 7:00 a.m. at meridian 70° W., find the

sun-time at 10° E.
517 12-6
*5. City D is
at longitude 90° W and latitude 60° N. City
E is at longitude 170° W. and latitude 60° N. The sun is
"directly over" city D at 7:00 a.m.
(a) At what time is the sun directly "over" city E?
(b) Did you need to find the length of the circle of latitude
60° N. in order to find your answer to (a)?
(c) If the cities had been at latitude 30° N. would the
answer to (a) have changed?
*6. Cities A and B have both the latitude 40° N and are
in the same time zone, that is, a person does not change his
watch in going from one to the other. The sun rises exactly
one hour later at A than at B. How far apart are the cities
and which direction is A from B?
Chapter 13
RELATIVE ERROR
13-1 Greatest Possible Error

When you use numbers to count separate objects you need only
counting numbers. In counting you set up a one-to-one correspond
ence between the objects counted and the members of the set of
counting numbers. When you count the number of people in a class
room you know the result will

counting number; there may be
be a
exactly 11, but there cannot be 11-jr or ICW . If
there are a
great many people, or if
you are not sure you have counted correct
ly > you may say there are "about 300," rounding the number to the
nearest hundred.
When you measure something, the situation is different. When
you have measured the length of a line segment with a ruler divided
into quarter-inches, the end of the segment probably fell between
two quarter-inch marks, and you had to Judge which mark appeared
closer. Even if
the end seemed to fall almost exactly on a
quarter-inch mark, if
you had looked at it through a magnifying
glass you would probably have found that there was a difference.
And if
you had then changed to a ruler with the inches divided
into sixteenths, you might have decided that the end of the seg
ment was nearer to one of the new sixteenth-inch marks than to a
quarter-inch mark.
In any discussion of measurement we assume proper use of
Instruments. Improper use of instruments can occur through
Ignorance, or carelessness. These mistakes can be corrected by
learning how to use the instrument and by careful inspection dur
ing the measurement process. Scientists and mathematicians agree
that measurement cannot be considered exact, but only approximate.
The important thing to know is Just how inexact a measurement may
13-1 520
be, and to state clearly how inexact it may be.

A I 2 B 3
^ I i i i I , ,
Look at the line above, which shows a scale divided into one-
inch units. The zero point is labeled
"A", and point B is
between the 2-inch mark and the 3 -inch mark. Since B is clearly
closer to the two-inch mark, we may say that the measurement of
segment AB is 2 inches. However, any point which is more than
li inches from A and less than 2-^- inches from A would be
the endpoint of a segment whose length, to the nearest inch, is
also 2inches. The mark below the line shows the range within
which the endpoint of a line segment 2 inches long (to the
nearest inch) might fall. The length of such a segment might
be almost i
inch less than 2 inches, or almost -* inch more
than 2 inches. We therefore say that, when a line segment is
measured to the nearest inch, the "greatest possible error" is

•^
inch. This does not mean that you have made a mistake (or
that you have not). It simply means that, if you measure properly
to the nearest inch, any measurement more than 1-5- ^
inches and
T
less than 2^- inches will be correctly reported in the same way,
as 2 inches. Consequently such measurements are sometimes stated
as -f TJ-)
(2 — d.
inches. (The symbol "+"
— is read "plus, or minus".)
The greatest possible error in this measurement is 75- inch. When we
state a measurement as 2 inches in this Chapter we mean i
75-)
(2
inches or 0.5) inches. In the everyday world this is often
(2
4^
not the case. However, in industrial and scientific work the great
est possible error should be specifically stated. For example,
a
measurement should be given as inches, or

(2
(2
+ 0.05) 0.005)
+-
inches, not simply as inches.

2
Often in business and industry the term "tolerance" is used.

By tolerance we mean the greatest error which is allowed. The
521 13-1
tolerance might set by the person who is purchasing a certain

be
manufactured product or by the operation of a machine. For
instance, an automobile manufacturer might specify that the
cylinders of an engine should have a diameter of 5 inches with
a tolerance of one -thousandth of an inch. This means the diameter
cannot vary more than 0.001 inch from 5 inches; the dimension
would be given as (5 ± O.OOl) inches. On the other hand, a
producer of water pumps might demand a tolerance different from
0.001 inch. Laws often specify tolerance for instruments in
commercial use like scales for weighing. Scales are allowed to
vary within certain limits. Court cases are sometimes decided
on the basis of tolerances allowed in the calibration of police
car speedometers.
23
Exercises 13-1
1. Draw a line and mark on it
scale with divisions of -rr
a inch.
Mark the zero point C. Place a point between 1-^- and 1-r- ,
but closer to ITT, and call the point D. How long is CT5
1
to the nearest -jr inch?
2. Between what two points on the scale must D lie if the

measurement to the nearest
1
-jr inch, is to be l^f
3
inches?
How far from l4- inches is each of these points?
O T
this
t
3. measurement of stated inches?
jr)
Why may ZJT5 be +

(l^-
4. (a) The measurement of a line segment was stated to be
l^
inches. This segment must have been measured to the
nearest of an inch.
(b) The endpoint of the segment must have fallen between

and .
1
1
(e) The measurement might be stated as (I-* + inches.

)
(d) The "greatest possible error" in the measurement of this

segment is .
13-2 522
5. The measure of a line segment was stated as
(a) Between what marks on the scale must the end of this
segment lie?
(b) What is the greatest possible error?
6. If a measurement is stated to be •& inch, this means that

the measurement was made to the nearest of an inch,
and the unit Is inch.
7. When you measure to the nearest T- inch, what is the greatest
possible error?
8. A meter stick is divided into centimeters and tenths of a centi
meter. A line segment was measured with such a scale, and
stated to be 3yW centimeters.
(a) What was the unit of measurement?
(b) The measure is (3~ + ).

(c) What was the greatest possible error?
9. Scientists sometimes measure to the nearest j-^ of a
centimeter. The greatest possible error for such a unit
is cm .
10. The greatest possible error in a measurement is always what

fractional part of the unit used?
13-2 Precision and Significant Digits

Consider the two measurements, 1CW inches and 12^-
inches.
As commonly used, these measurements do not indicate what unit of
measurement was used. Suppose that the unit for the first measure
ment is inch, and the unit for the second measurement is
^
TJ-
inch. Then we say that the first measurement is more precise than
the second, or has greater precision. Notice also that the great
est possible error of the first measurement is — of TT inch,
523 13-2
or -TTT
inch, and of the second is -* of -* inch, or -jr inch.
The greatest possible error is less for the first measurement, than
for the second measurement. Hence the more precise of two measure
ments is the one made with the smaller unit, and for which the
greatest possible error is therefore the smaller.
It is very important that measurements be stated so as to
show correctly how precise they are. In this chapter we adopt the
1.1
convention that the denominator of the fractional part of a measure
ment indicates the unit of measurement which was used. If a line
segment is measured to the nearest TT inch, and the measurement is
ft q
2rr inches, we shall not change the fraction to -rr, for that would
make it
appear that the unit was -^ inch, rather than rr inch.
If a line segment is measured to the nearest T=- inch, and the
measurement is closer to
3 1
3 inches than to 2-jj- or 3-jr inches,
we shall state it to be 3-jr inches, so that it is clear that
1
the unit used is inch.
-jr
Usually scientific measurements are expressed in decimal form.

For instance, it is known that one meter is about 39.37 inches.
This means that a meter is closer to 39.37 inches than it is to
39.38 inches or 39.36 inches. In other words, one meter lies
between 39.375 inches and 39.365 inches.
The measurement, 39.37 inches includes significant digits.
4
They are significant in that they tell us the precision of our

measurement. The place value of the last significant digit to the
right indicates the precision, in this case one hundredth of an
inch.
All non-zero digits are significant. zero may or may not
A
be significant. Zeros are significant when they are between non

zero digits as in numerals like 2007 significant digits),
(^
80,062 significant digits), and 3.08 significant digits).

(5
(3
Zeros are not significant in numerals such as 0.008 and 0.026

because the zeros are used only to fix the decimal point.
13-2 524
If we were told that something is 73,000 feet long, it is

not clear whether or not the zeros at the end are significant and
actually indicate the precision. There is doubt about the pre
cision of such a measurement. The unit of measurement may have
been 1,000 feet, 100 feet, 10 feet, or 1 foot. In a case
like this, a zero is sometimes underlined to show how precise the
measurement is. feet (3 significant digits)
For example, 73,000
means that the measurement is precise to the nearest 100 feet,
73,000 feet (4 significant digits) means that the measurement is
precise to the nearest 10 feet, and 73,000 feet (5 significant
digits) means that the measurement is precise to the nearest foot.
If no zero is underlined, we understand that the measurement was
made to the nearest 1000 feet. If a measurement is stated as
5.640 feet we understand, without underlining the zero, that it
is significant and that the unit is one thousandth of a foot, for
otherwise the zero would not be written at all.
When a number is written in scientific notation, all of the
digits in the first factor are significant. For example, the
measurement 2.99776 x 10 cm. /sec., for the velocity of light,
has significant digits; the measurement 2.57 x 10~" cm. for
6
the radius of the hydrogen atom, has 3 significant digits; the

measurement for the national debt in 1957, 2.8 x 10 dollars,
has 2 significant digits; 4.800 x 10 has 4 significant digits.
In the last case, the two final zeros are significant.o Were they
not, the number should have been written as 4.8 x 10 .
Exercises 13-2
1. Suppose you measured a line to the nearest hundredth of an

inch. Which of the following states the measurement best?
3.2 inches 3.20 inches 3.200 inches
525 13-2
2. Suppose you measured to the nearest tenth of an inch.

Which of the following should you use to state the result?
4 inches 4.0 inches 4.00 inches
3. Tell which measurement in each pair has the greater precision.
(a) 5.2 feet feet
2^-
(b) 0.68 feet, 23.5 feet
(c) 0.235 inches, 0.146 inches.

4. What your age to the nearest year, that is, what
is is your
nearest birthday -- tenth, eleventh, twelfth
?
All of you who say "13" must be between and IS-i-
years old.
5. (A) For each measurement below tell the place value of the
last significant digit.
(B) Tell the greatest possible error of the measurements.
(a) 52700 feet (d) 52.7 feet

(b) 5270 feet (e) 0.5270 feet
(c) 52700 feet (f) 527.0 feet

Which of the measurements in Problem is the most precise?
6.
(a)
5
(b) Which is the least precise?
(c) Do any two measurements have the same precision?
7. Show by underlining a zero the precision of the following

measurements:
(a) 4200 feet measured to the nearest foot.

(b) 23,000 miles, measured to the nearest hundred miles.
(c) 48,000,000 people, reported to the nearest ten-thousand.

13-3 526
8. Tell the number of significant digits in each measurement:
(a) 520 feet (e) 25,800 ft.

(b) 32.46 in. (f) 0.0015 in.
(c) 0.002 in. (g) 38.90 ft.
(d) 403.6 ft. (h) 0.0603 in.
9. How many significant digits are in each of the following:
(a) 4.700 x 105 (d) 6.70 x 10"4
(b) 4.700 x 104 (e) 4.7000 x 10
(c) 4.7 x 1015 (f) 2.8 x 109
13-3 Relative Error , Accuracy and Percent of Error
While two measurements with the same precision

may be made
(that is, with the same unit) and therefore with the same greatest
possible error, this error is more important in some cases than in
others. An error of -* inch in measuring your height would not
be very misleading, but an error of
l inch in measuring your
75-
nose would be misleading. We can get a measure of the importance

of the greatest possible error by comparing it with the measure
ment. Consider these measurements and their greatest possible
errors :
4 in. + 0.5 in.: 58 in. + 0.5 in.
Since these measurements are both to the nearest inch, the
made
greatest possible error in each case is 0.5 inch. we divide If
the measure of the greatest possible error by the number of units
in the measurement we get these results: ( Note that the measures
are numbers and the measurements are not. We shall refer to the
number of units in the measurement as the measure).
= °-125
%r
= * °-0086
527 13-3
quotients 0.125 and 0.0086 are called relative errors .

The
The relative error of a measurement is defined as the quotient of
the measure of the greatest possible error by the measure.
greatest possible error
Relative error = measure of the the measure
Percent of error is
relative error expressed as a percent.
the
In the above two examples the relative error expressed as a percent
is 12.5% and 0.86%. When written in this form it is called the
percent of error.
The measurement with a relative error of 0.0086 (0.86%) is
more accurate than the measurement with a relative error of 0.125
(12.5%). By definition a measurement with a smaller relative error
is said to be more accurate than one with a larger relative error.
The terms accuracy and precision are used in industrial and
scientific work in a special technical sense even though they are
often used loosely and as synonyms in everyday conversation. Pre
cision depends upon the size of the unit of measurement, which is
twice the greatest possible error, while accuracy is the relative
error or percent of error. For example, 12.5 pounds and 360.7
pounds are equally precise, that is, precise to the nearest 0.1
of a pound (greatest possible error in each case is 0.05 pound).
The two measurements do not possess the same accuracy. The second
measurement is more accurate. You should verify the last statement
by computing the relative errors in each case and comparing them.
An astronomer, for example, making a measurement of the distance
to a galaxy may have an error of a trillion miles (1,000,000,000,000
miles) yet be far more accurate than a machinist measuring the
diameter of a steel pin to the nearest 0.001 inch.
Again, a measurement indicated as 3.5 inches and another as
3.5 feet are equally accurate but the first measurement is more
precise. Why?
13-3 528
Exercises 13-3
In all computation express your answer so that it includes two
significant digits.
1. State the greatest possible error for each of these measurements.
(a) 52 ft. (e) 7.03 in.

(b) 4.1 in. (f) 0.006 ft.
(c) 2580 mi. (g) 54,000 mi
(d) 360 ft. (h) 54,000 mi.
2. Find the relative error of each measurement in Problem 1.
3. Find the greatest possible error and the percent of error for
each of the following measurements.
(a) 9.3 ft. (c) 930 ft.

(b) 0.093 ft. (d) 93,000 ft.
4. What do you observe about your answers for Problem 3? Can
you explain why the percents of error should be the same
for all of these measurements?
5. Find the precision of the following measurements.

(a) 26.3 ft. (d) 51,000 mi.
(b) 0.263 ft. (e) 5.1 ft.
(c) 2630 ft. (f) 0.051 in.
6. How many significant digits are there in each of the following
measurement s ?
(a) 52.1 in. (c) 3.68 in.
(b) 52.10 in. (d) 368.0 in.

7. Find the relative error of each of the measurements in
Problem 6.
529 13-3
8. From your answers for Problems 6 and 7, can you see any
relation between the number of significant digits in a
measurement and its relative error? What is the relation
between the number of significant digits in a measurement
and its accuracy?
9. Without computing, can you tell which of the measurements

below has the greatest accuracy? Which is the least accurate?
23.6 in 0.043 in. 78l2 in. 0.2 in.

10. Arrange the following measurements in the order of their
precision (from least to greatest).
(a) 36|
in., 27^
in., 32jj in., 46y
in., 22^-
in.
(b) 4.62 in., 3.041 in., 3 in., 82.4 in., 0.3762 in.
*11. Arrange the following measurements in order of their accuracy
(from least to greatest):
(6 +
^)
ft. (3.2 + 0.005) in. (7.2 + 0.05) miles
(3| +
^)
in. 3 yd. (4 +
J) in. .
12. Count the number of significant digits in each of the follow

ing:
(a) 43.26 (e) 0.6070 (l) 76,000
(b) 4,607 (f) 0.0030 (j) 43,000
(c) 32.004 (g) 4.0030 (k) 0.036
(d) 0.0062 (h) 0.03624 (J) 200.00004.
13. Express the following in scientific notation:

(a) 463,000,000 (d) 32.004 (g) 36.8 x 105
(b) 327,000 (e) 2 (h) 0.8 x 10"7
(c) 0.000462 (f) 0.0000400 (i) 72 billion.

13-4 530
14. By inspection arrange the following numbers in order of their

magnitude, from least to greatest. List by letter only.
(a) 3.6 x 105 (f) 4.1 x 106
(b) 3.5 x 108 (g) 3.527 x 102
(c) 4 x 10"6 (h) 3.55 x 108

(d) 3.527 x 108 (i) 3.4 x 10"7
(e) 3.5 x 10"12 (j) 3.39 x 10"8
15. BRAINBUSTER. A master machinist measures a 34 inch piston

head to the nearest 0.0001 inch while an astronomer measures
by the parallax, to Canis Major (the star Sirius)
the distance
correct to the nearest 10,000,000 miles. The distance to
-i o
Sirius is 8.6 light years (l light year % 6 x 10 miles).
Which measurement is more accurate?
13-4 Adding and Subtracting Measures
Since measurements are never exact, the answers to any ques

tions which depend on those measurements are also approximate.
For instance, suppose you measured the length of a room by making
wall, which you called
123
two marks on a A and B, and then measur
ing the distances from the corner to A, from A to B, and
from B to the other corner. Measurements such as these whose
measures are to be added, should all be made with the same preci
sion. Suppose, to the nearest fourth of an inch, the measurements
were 72-jr inches, 40jr inches, 22-r- inches. You would add the
2 2
measures to get 135^.
Therefore the measurement is 135^
inches.
Of course, the distances might have been shorter in each case. The
measures could have been almost as small as 72^, ô4, and 22jj in
which case the distance would have been almost as small as 13 5tr
2
inches, which is three-eighths of an inch less than 135jp inches.
531 13-4
Also, each distance might have been longer by nearly one -eighth
of an inch, in which case the total length might have been almost
p
three-eighths of an inch longer than 133^ inches. The greatest
possible error of a_ sum is the sum of the greatest possible errors.
If we were adding measures of 37.6, 3.5, and 178.6, the great
est possible error of the sum would be 0.5+0.5+0.5 or 1.5 .
The result of this addition could be shown as 219.7 + 1.5 .
Computation involving measures is very important in today's
world. Many rules have been laid down giving the accuracy or
precision of the results obtained from computation with approxi
mate measures. Too many rules, however, might create confusion
and would never replace basic knowledge of approximate data. If
the meaning of greatest possible error and of relative error is
understood, the precision and accuracy of the result of computa
tion with data can usually be found by applying common
approximate
sense and Judgment. Common sense would tell us that with a large
number of measurements the errors will, to a certain extent, cancel
each other.
The general principle is that the sum or difference of measures

cannot be more precise than the least precise measure involved.
Therefore to add or subtract numbers arising from approximations,
first round each number to the unit of the least precise number
and then perform the operation.
As we have the greatest possible error of a sum (or

seen,
difference) of several measures is the sum of the greatest possible
errors of the measures involved. (To estimate the expected error
of a sum, taking into account the way the errors would often cancel
each other, we need to use some ideas of probability, not yet at
our disposal. )
13-5 532
Exercises 13-4
. Find the greatest possible error for the sums of the
measurements in each of the following.
(a) ^ in., 6|
in., 3§ in.
(b) in., in., in.

6|
3^-
3
(c) 4.2 in./ 5.03 in.
(d) 42.5 in., 36.0 in., 49.8 in.
(e) 0.004 in., 2.1 in., 6.135 in.
(f) 2in., lin., 3 in.
2. Add the following measures:
(a) 42.36, 578.1, 73.4, 37.285, 0.62
(b) 85.42, 7.301, 16.015, 36.4
(c) 9.36, 0.345 1713.06, 35.27

3. Subtract the following measures:
(a) 7.3 - 6.28
(b) 735 - 0.73
(c) 5430 - 647
13-5 Multiplying and Dividing Measures
of units in the area of a rectangle

You know that the number
is found by multiplying the number of units in the length by the
number of the same units in the width. Suppose that the dimensions
of a rectangle are 3-^ inches and 1-^- inches. Since the measur
3
1
ing was done to the nearest TT inch, the measures can be stated
11 31
''
as 3-jj- rr and This means that the length might be almost

1^-
TT.
+
+_
as small as 3rr inches and the width almost as small as Ifr inches
533 13-5
////
The length might be almost as large as inches and the width
almost as large as inches.
'///// /
I T inches <
3 inches
4-
Look at the drawing to see what outside lines this means. The
show how the rectangle would look if the dimensions were as large
as possible. The inner lines show how it would look if the length
and width were as small as possible. The shaded part shows the
difference between the largest possible area and the smallest
possible area with the given measurements.
1
To find these areas, we multiply 3rr x
5
ITT to find the small -
3 7
est possible area, and 3rr x 1A- to find the largest possible area.
13 • —
325 — =
^-^—y
5
hence the area may be as small
as square inches.
PI
-rip , hence the area may be as large
21
as 6rjf square inches
These results show that there is a difference of more than 1

square inch in the two possible areas.
If we find the area by using the stated length and width, we
find:
3-jj.xl^- = TpX^- =
-2^= 5j^, hence the computed area is
square inches.
13-5 534
However, since we have seen that the area might be either larger or
smaller than this number of square inches, it would not be correct
to give the result in this way, which means (by our agreement) that
the area has been found to the nearest l6th of a square inch.
The area could be as much as (67-17
- 5rzr) or TJT square inches
11 - R
or TH£- square inches less than 3rr
1 1
greater, or (5r7r 5?nr)
3<3
square inches. Thus, it could be given as + THT square

(5r^
inches.
The statement of a rule for multiplication of approximate
data in fractional form would be difficult. However, when data
are expressed in decimal form a rough guide can be employed for
finding a satisfactory product. The number of significant digits
in the product of two numbers is not more than the number of signif
icant digits in the less accurate factor. For example: The area
of the rectangle 10.4 cm. by 4.7 cm. would be stated as 49 sq.cm,
10.4
4.7
4l6
The area is 49 sq. cm.

^f one £f the two factors contains more significant digits
than the other, round off the factor which has more significant
digits S£ that it_ contains only one more significant digit than
the other factor.
If we wish to find the circumference of a circle with the
diameter equal to 5-1 we use ir £ 3.14 as in the above rule.
Division is defined by means of multiplication. Therefore
it is reasonable to follow the procedures used for multiplication
in doing divisions involving approximate data.
When a multiplication or division involves an exact number as
2 in the formula for the circumference of a circle (C = 2irr),
the approximate number determines the number of significant digits
in the answer. We ignore the exact number in determining the sig
nificant digits in the answer. An exact number is a number that la
not found by measuring.
535 13-5
Exercises 13-5
1. Suppose a rectangle is 2-^
inches long and inches wide.
1^
Make a drawing of the rectangle. Show on the drawing that the
is
(2^
length inches and the width inches.
(l-|
-J-)
^)
+
+
Then find the largest area possible and the smallest area
possible, and find the difference, or uncertain part. Then
find the area with the measured dimension, and find the result
to the nearest -%
square inch.
2. Multiply the following approximate numbers.
(a) 4.1 x 36.9
(b) 3.6 x 4673
(c) 3.76 x (2.9 x 104)

. Divide the following approximate numbers
3
3.632 0.83 .
(a) -=-
(b) 0.000344 ^- 0.000301
(c) (3.14 x 106) 8.006

4-
4. Find the area of a rectangular field which is 835-5 rods

long and 305 rods wide.
5. The circumference of circle is stated = ird, in which
d
C
a
is the diameter of the circle. If IT is given as 3.141593,

find the circumferences of the following circles whose diameters
have the following measurements:
(a) 3.5 in.
(b) 46.36 ft.

(c) miles.
6
13-5 536
6. A machine stamps out parts each weighing 0.625 Ib. How

much weight is there in 75 of these parts?
7. Assuming that water weighs 62.5 lb. per cu. ft., what is
the volume of 15,610 Ibs?
8. (a) (b)
Given m(/_ A)
= 22 Given: m(/ S) = 73
sin 22° =
0.3746 tan 73° = 3.2709
AB =
(34 + 0.5) ST =
(67+0.5)
Find: BC Find: RT
There are many rough rules for computing with approximate

data but they have to be used with a great deal of common sense.
They don't work in all cases. The modern high speed computing
machine which adds or multipliesper second
thousands of numbers
has to have special rules applied to the data which are fed to it.
Errors involved in rounding numbers add up or disappear in a very
unpredictable fashion in these machines. As a matter of fact
"error theory" as applied to computers is an active field of
research today for mathematicians.
INDEX
The reference Is to the page on which the term occurs.

accuracy, 527
addition, 3, 12, 18. 19
additive Inverse, 223
altitude, 163, 449, 456
angle(s), 158
corresponding, 147
angle of elevation, 327
antipodal points, 487, 495
antipode, 487, 496
approximate number, 534
approximation, 250
arc, 151
Arctic and Antarctic Circles, 502
area, 60, 423
associativity, 222, 257
axes, 23
axis of symmetry, 182
betweenness, 396
bisecting
a line segment, 153
an angle, 154
Cantor, Georg, 249
center of sphere, 483
chance events. 293
circle, 424, 430, 458, 483
circle of latitude, 515
closed region, 437
closed triangular region, 447
closure, 222, 256
combinations, 287
committee of the whole, 268
commutativity, 222, 256
compass, 189, 483
completeness, 258
cone, 174, 455
congruence, l8l
congruent, 187, 437
constant of propertionality, 373
continuum of real numbers, 263
converse, 193, 350
corresponding sides, 331
cosine of an angle, 339, 363
cotangent of an angle, 363
counting number, 222, 519
cube, 398, 439, 508, 510
curve, 163
cylinder, 173
decagon, 430
decimal expansion, 234
decimal point, 125
density, 225, 257
diameter, 486
direction, 8, 21
direct variation, 372
distance, 21
distributivity, 222, 257, 427
division, 42, 122, 127
drawings, 143, 166
drawing to scale, 328
elasticity. 511
ellipse, 183
empirical probability, 306
enumerated, 249
enumerating, 247
equation, 60, 71, 79, 84, 94, 97
equator, 484
equilateral triangle, 182, 201
error theory, 536
existence, 06, 89
expected error, 531
exponent, 109, 116, 119, 125
Euler formula, 417
factorial, 280
fiducial point, 3
formula, 60
Galileo, 38l
gram, 137
graph, 30, 51, 53, 96
great circle, 488, 489, 494
greatest possible error, 520, 526, 531
Greenwich meridian, 501
half -line, 3
height, 449, 456
hemisphere, 501
hexagon, 163, 183, 430
hexagonal right prism, 44l
hypotenuse, 204, 205
identity, 18, 222,227
independent events, 319
indirect measurement, 327
indirect reasoning, 244
inequality, 72, 75, 79, 84, 100
integers, 3, 9, 221
interior, 391
intersect nicely, 401
intersecting
line and plane, 176
plane, 175
inverse, 18, 42, 257
inverse variation, 376
irrational number, 243, 246, 253
isosceles triangle, 182, 201
lateral area, 457
lateral edge, 437, 440
lateral face, 443
lateral surface, 456
latitude, 502, 503
light year, 113
lines
concurrent , 162
parallel, 147
perpendicular, 146
liter, 137
logarithm, 259
longitude, 502, 503
major axis, 183
median, 163
meridian, 489
meter, 129
metric system, 129
minor axis, 183
multiplication, 35, 89, 119, 126, 289
multiplication property, 282
multiplicative Inverse, 223
mutually exclusive events, 314
navigate, 494
North Pole, 487, 500
number
approximate , 534
counting, 3, 519
irrational, 243, 246
large, 107, 112
line, 1, 9, 19, 47, 74, 255
negative, 8, 9
positive, 3, 12
rational, 1, 9, 234, 254
real, 255
small, 115
transcendental, 259
number line,
1, 9, 19, 47, 74, 255
number phrase, 65
number sentence. 59, 69, 78, 9^
oblique prism, 443
obtuse triangles, 202
octagon, 163, 430
one-dimensional, 394, 407
one-to-one correspondence, 2, 255
open phrase, 65, 78
order, 223, 257
origin, 3, 21
parabola, 102, 38l
parallel plane, 432,
parallelepipeds, 444
parallelogram, 148, 215, 423, 444
parallels of latitude, 489, 500
Pascal, 270
Pascal triangle. 265, 288
pentagon, 163, 430, 451
periodic decimal, 233, 235, 236
permutation, 272, 275, 276, 284
perpendicular, 434
perspective, 169
phrase, 65, 78
pi, 509
plane figures, 146
plotting, 25
polygon, 163, 4l6
regular, 429
simple closed, 407
polygonal path, 406
polyhedron, 400, 411
precise, 522
precision, 522, 527
prism, 460
hexagonal , 171
oblique, 443
rectangular, 169
right, 437, 443
triangular, 170
probability of A or B, 312
probability of A and B, 318
protractor, 146. 194
pyramid, 172, 447, 452
Pythagoras, 203
Pythagorean property, l8l, 343
quadrants, 27
quadrilateral, 163, 215
radius, 152
rational number, 234, 254
real number line, 262
real numbers. 255
reciprocal, 43
rectangle, 215, 423
rectangular closed region. 437
rectangular right prism, 438
regular polygon, 429
regular pyramid, 449
relations, 51
relative error, 527
remainder, 232
right circular cone, 455, 456
right circular cylinder, 44 1
right prisms, 437, 443
right triangles, 202
scale, 166
scalene triangle, 182, 201
sector, 458
segment, 152, 394
directed. 3, 12
selections, 287
semicircle, 489
sentence
compound, 76
number, 59, 69, 78, 94
open, 71, 79
sextant, 327
significant digit, 523
similar triangles, 327, 328, 334
simple closed polygon, 407
simple surface, 4l4
simplex, 394, 395
0-simplex, 395
1-simplex, 395
2-simplex, 395, 399
3-simplex, 395, 401. 403, 413
sine of an angle, 259, 340
sketch, 143
slant height, 456
slope, 353
small circle, 488, 489, 514
solids, 169
solution set, 71, 73, 79, 84, 95
South Pole, 487, 502
sphere, 483, 510
square, 215
square root, 206
straightedge, 393
subtraction, 46
surface, 399, 4ll, 423, 499
symmetry, lol
table of square roots, 362
tangent, 487
tangent of an angle, 259, 340
tetrahedron, 391
terminating decimal. 232, 236
three-dimensional, 404, 413
tolerance, 521
AT.-' '.'3
transcendental number, 259
transversal, 147
trapezoid, 215, 426
triangle, 149, 392
triangular region, 393, 426, 440
triangular right prism, 440
trigonometric ratios, 259, 336
trillion, 527
Tropic of Cancer, 502
two-dimensional, 395, 401, 410
uniqueness, 86, 89
union, 399, 406
variation, 327, 367
inverse, 376
direct, 372
vinculum, 233
volume, 432, 452, 507
'•'
67 167 A A 30
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Mathematics for junior high school.

Prepared under the supervision

Public Domain, Google-digitized

We have determined this work to be in the public domain,

ARTES SCI EN TI A VE RITAS

_School Mathematics Study Group:

R. D. Anderson, Louisiana State University

J. A. Brown, University of Delaware

Lenore John, University of Chicago

B. W. Jones, University of Colorado

P. S. Jones, University of Michigan

J. R. Mayor, American Association for the Advancement of Science

P. C. Rosenbloom, University of Minnesota

Veryl Schult, Supervisor of Mathematics, Washington, D.C.

National Science Foundation.

1960 by Yale University.

R. D. Anderson, Louisiana State University

The increasing contribution of mathematics to the culture of

In most instances the material will have a familiar note, but

1. RATIONAL NUMBERS AND COORDINATES 1

3. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION, DECIMALS, AND THE METRIC SYSTEM . 107

4. DRAWINGS AND CONSTRUCTIONS 143

INDEX following 177

Key ideas of junior high school mathematics emphasized in

Mathematics is fascinating to many persons because of its

RATIONAL NUMBERS AND COORDINATES

1-1 The Number Line

We think of the line in the drawing below

as extending indefinitely in each direction. We choose any point

unit segment and measuring this length successively to the right of

shown in the following figure.

this natural process we associate with each rational num

Remark ; You might think that this one-to-one correspondence

Properties of the Number Line

relative positions of numbers such as 3, 0,

have located the corresponding points on the line it is easy to

We also think of the number 3

length 2 to begin at 3 instead of at 0. The arrow (directed

The arrows suggest a move of

units in reaching the point (4 + 2). We also interpret the pic

Applications of the Number Line

To compareprofits and losses B «>

(e) 3.75 (f) 1.125

2. Represent each of the following sums by means of three arrows

(b) 1+6 (e) | + 1.25

3. Locate the following numbers on a number line and determine

4. On some recent automobiles, speedometers use a form of the

(a) 10 m.p.h. (c) 35 m.p.h.

5. Locate on a number line the midpoints of the following

(a) From 0 to 2. (c) From i to -4 .

(b) From jj to ^. (d) From 2 to 6.5.

6. Use a diagram representing addition by means of arrows on the

number to show that 2+3=3+2.

What property of addition does this illustrate?

9. How would you show that 2 •

1-2 Negative Rational Numbers

In the preceding discussion of number line there is a very

Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit

Here temperatures less than zero are represented by numbers to the

in a raised position as in +2, +%

this unless we want to emphasize the positive character of a num

I = {..., -4, -3, -2, -i, o, 1, 2, 3, 4,---).

The negative numbers are as real and as useful as the posi