Facies Relationships Recorded in A Late Paleozoic Fluvio-Deltaic System (Paraná Basin, Brazil) Insights Into The Timing and Triggers of Subaqueous Sediment Gravity Flows PDF

SEDGEO-05145; No of Pages 18
Sedimentary Geology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
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Sedimentary Geology
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Facies relationships recorded in a Late Paleozoic fluvio-deltaic system

(Paraná Basin, Brazil): Insights into the timing and triggers of
subaqueous sediment gravity flows
Amanda H. Carvalho ⁎, Fernando F. Vesely
Departamento de Geologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Caixa Postal 19001, CEP 81531-980, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper aims at documenting the spatial and genetic relationships between fluvial and subaqueous gravity-
Received 5 September 2016 flow deposits in an ancient fluvio-deltaic system exposed in the eastern border of the Paraná Basin, southern
Received in revised form 14 December 2016 Brazil. The examined interval comprises the Pedra Alta sandstone and associated deposits, which are included
Accepted 15 December 2016
in the glacially-influenced, Late Paleozoic Itararé Group. Five facies associations were identified and comprise
Available online xxxx
the following coeval depositional settings from the more proximal to the more distal: A) braided fluvial/delta-
Editor: Dr. J. Knight plain, B) channel-mouth zone, C) delta-slope, D) distal marine glacially-influenced and E) non-cohesive densi-
ty-flow deposits. These facies associations form a conformable, shallowing-upward succession about 200 m
Keywords: thick, whose stacking pattern is interpreted as a postglacial progradation. The stratigraphic architecture suggests
Fluvial floods a genetic correlation between high-energy fluvial discharges (possibly related to meltwater release) and coarse-
Mass-transport deposits grained deposits (non-cohesive density-flow deposits) accumulated on the delta foreset and bottomset. Mass-
Non-cohesive density flows transport deposits were more likely triggered by sediment load increase on the delta slope due to high sediment
Hyperpycnal flows supply, rather than by relative sea-level fall. The stratigraphic evolution can be reconstructed considering an ini-
tial stage characterized by a grounded ice margin and the deposition of mudstones with ice-rafted debris (glacial
stage). This stage was succeeded by a second phase in which a fluvial system formed as a result of ice-margin re-
treat farther to the SE (postglacial stage). This glacial-postglacial stratigraphic succession is different from that
recognized by previous workers in the Itararé Group, a conclusion that impacts greatly in reservoir prediction
and modeling in the Paraná Basin.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction fluvial and subaqueous systems in order to link gravity-flow deposits

to its source are relatively rare (e.g., Tinterri, 2007; Paim et al., 2011) be-
Deposits derived from subaqueous sediment gravity flows play im- cause, often, fluvial and sediment gravity-flow facies form in distinct de-
portant roles as reservoirs and seals in deep-water petroleum systems positional systems tracts, lacking a genetic correlation (e.g., falling-stage
(Posamentier and Martinsen, 2011). The prediction of these deposits turbidites and lowstand incised-valley fills; Catuneanu, 2006). The pres-
in time and space in a sequence stratigraphic framework requires an un- ervation of time-equivalent and co-genetic fluvial and subaqueous, den-
derstanding of the triggers of sediment gravity flows and the relation- sity-flow deposits would be favored during normal regressions (i.e.,
ships of these triggers with external controlling factors such as where sedimentation rate outpaces the rate of base-level rise), when
eustasy, tectonics and climate (e.g., Mutti et al., 1996; Catuneanu, aggradation may occur both in the subaerial and subaqueous parts of
2006). Concerning the effects of climate, several authors argue that the depositional profile.
flood-generated, highly concentrated currents often originate The infilling of the Paraná Basin – southern South America – during
hyperpycnal flows at the river mouth, which, in turn, are efficient in the late Carboniferous to early Permian occurred essentially in marine
transferring sand to deeper waters to produce reservoir-quality de- to transitional environments influenced by multiple glacial cycles dur-
posits (e.g., Mutti et al., 1996; 2003; Mulder et al., 2003; Zavala et al., ing the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (e.g., Rocha-Campos, 1967; França and
2006; Mulder and Chapron, 2011). In the geological record, situations Potter, 1988; Santos et al., 1996; Souza, 2005; Vesely and Assine,
in which it is possible to establish stratigraphic relationships between 2006). In this context, high sediment supply during deglacial to postgla-
cial times gave rise to delta progradation even during a general rise in
⁎ Corresponding author.
base level. Presumably associated with these episodes of deltaic
E-mail addresses: amandah.carvalho@gmail.com (A.H. Carvalho), vesely@ufpr.br progradation, turbidites, slumps and debris-flow deposits have been
(F.F. Vesely). widely described (e.g., D'Ávila et al., 2008; Puigdomenech et al., 2014;
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2016.12.004
0037-0738/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Carvalho, A.H., Vesely, F.F., Facies relationships recorded in a Late Paleozoic fluvio-deltaic system (Paraná Basin, Brazil):
Insights into the timing and trig..., Sedimentary Geology (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2016.12.004
2 A.H. Carvalho, F.F. Vesely / Sedimentary Geology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Suss et al., 2014; Vesely et al., 2015), although a physical connection be- sequences and, besides the characteristic retrogradational trend, they
tween the different facies associations that make up these prograding identified in some units coarsening-upward successions on their tops,
wedges has not been documented. which would indicate late progradational stages. As in the model of
Marine, fjord or lacustrine, prograding wedges are reported in sever- França and Potter (1988), Vesely and Assine (2004, 2006) assumed
al ice-age successions worldwide (e.g., Kneller et al., 2004; Winsemann that the thick (up to 100 m) sand-rich units of the Itararé Group were
et al., 2007; Girard et al., 2012; Puigdomenech et al., 2014) and comprise at the base of the sequences resting on erosional unconformities.
deposits accumulated both close to the ice margin during ice advance The Pedra Alta sandstone, the object of the present study, crops out for
and stillstand as in distal proglacial/periglacial environments far from approximately 250 km2 west of Lapa, in southeastern Paraná State, south-
the influence of ice-margin fluctuations. Remarkable examples take ern Brazil (Fig. 1A). On the basis of regional correlations and surface map-
place in the late Ordovician basins of North Africa (e.g., Ghienne and ping, the Pedra Alta sandstone can be placed in the middle part of the
Deynoux, 1998; Le Heron et al., 2006; Ghienne et al., 2007, 2010; Itararé Group (i.e., Mafra Formation of Schneider et al., 1974; or Campo
Moreau, 2011; Girard et al., 2012), many of them related to the infill Mourão Formation of França and Potter, 1988), being stratigraphically
of paleodepressions (tunnel-valleys and glacial troughs) that constitute above the better-known Lapa (França et al., 1996) and Vila Velha
important hydrocarbon targets in subsurface (Le Heron et al., 2006). (Vesely et al., 2007) sandstones. The natural cliffs of the Pedra Alta sand-
The aim of this paper is to describe the stratigraphic architecture of co- stone were briefly described by D'Ávila (1999), who interpreted the facies
genetic fluvial and subaqueous sediment gravity-flow deposits recorded association as fluvial due to the abundance of large-scale trough and pla-
in the Pedra Alta sandstone, an informal sand-rich unit of the Itararé nar cross stratification. However, Vesely (2006) suggested a subaqueous
Group that crops out in the eastern margin of the Paraná Basin. The outwash-fan origin for the sandstone based on the jet-efflux model of
study area provides the opportunity to explore the role of fluvial input Powell (1990). Also, Vesely (2006) proposed that this sandy unit would
in generating sediment gravity flows and the effectiveness of mass-trans- be resting above an unconformity (Fig. 1B) that cuts mud-rich, submarine
port in redepositing fluvial-derived sediment on the delta slope. Depicting gravity-flow facies, being thus the base of a depositional sequence
the stratigraphic architecture of the Pedra Alta sandstone is also signifi- (deglacial sequence 3 of author's terminology).
cant for hydrocarbon exploration in the Paraná Basin, once several gas/
condensate shows and one sub-commercial accumulation were reported 3. Methods and terminology
in time-equivalent sandstones in subsurface (e.g., Campos et al., 1998).
Besides, the present study can also contribute to better delineate reservoir The Pedra Alta sandstone and subjacent strata were studied through
heterogeneities of prolific glaciated basins of Gondwana (e.g., Huuse et al., the examination of 86 outcrops almost homogeneously distributed
2012). through the study area, in the form of natural cliffs and road cuts
(Fig. 2). Facies were codified considering the schemes of Miall (1977)
2. Geological setting and previous work and Eyles et al. (1983) and a total of 406 paleocurrent data were mea-
sured in cross stratification and climbing ripples/dunes. Six main strati-
The Paraná Basin is a large (up to 1,600,000 km2) intracratonic basin graphical logs, at a 1:100 vertical scale, were assembled to describe
situated in southern South America, which embraces an Ordovician to stacking patterns. Laterally extensive outcrops were used to build photo
early Cretaceous stratigraphic record divided into five allostratigraphic sketches upon which bed and bedset boundaries were drawn, aiming to
units. The lower half of the Permo-carboniferous sequence comprises gla- provide a 2D spatial visualization of lateral and vertical facies distribution
cially-influenced deposits of the late Bashkirian to early Sakmarian Itararé (facies architecture). Subsequently, described facies were grouped in fa-
Group (França and Potter, 1988; Holz et al., 2010). This unit is up to cies associations considering their paleoenvironmental significance and
1300 m thick and is composed essentially of transitional to marine de- stratigraphic position.
posits, including mudstones, thick and thin-bedded turbidites, mass- Terminology for subaqueous sediment gravity-flows and their de-
transport deposits, subaqueous outwash and deltaic facies (Salamuni et posits is widely based on the classification of Mulder and Alexander
al., 1966; Rocha-Campos, 1967; Medeiros, 1971; Schneider et al., 1974; (2001). The term diamictite is used here to describe a matrix-supported,
França and Potter, 1988; Eyles et al., 1993; Vesely and Assine, 2004; poorly-sorted rock containing pebbles to boulders (b10%) supported by
Vesely, 2006, 2008; Rocha-Campos et al., 2008). Subglacial to terrestrial a mud-rich matrix. Sandy, matrix-supported, conglomeratic facies con-
ice-marginal facies are restricted to the lowermost part of the unit resting taining higher amounts of gravel are referred to as paraconglomerates.
onto glacially-abraded substrates (e.g., Vesely et al., 2015). Thin-bedded, regular alternations of silt, clay and very-fine sand are re-
Lithostratigraphically, Schneider et al. (1974), based on outcrop data, di- ferred to as rhythmites.
vided the Itararé Group into three formations, named, from base to top,
Campo do Tenente, Mafra and Rio do Sul. França and Potter (1988), on 4. Results
the other hand, proposed a subsurface division based on well-log correla-
tion, in which the Itararé Group would comprise three fining-upward suc- Fourteen sedimentary facies are recognized, including conglomer-
cessions, named from base to top, Lagoa Azul, Campo Mourão and Taciba ates, sandstones, diamictites, rhythmites and mudstones, whose charac-
formations. teristics and inferred formative processes are summarized in Table 1.
The formations mapped in subsurface by França and Potter (1988) These facies were grouped into five facies associations (Table 2) taking
are several hundreds of meters thick and were interpreted as unconfor- into account the genetic linkage among depositional processes and lat-
mity-bounded units recording major glacial-deglacial cycles. The stack- eral/vertical relationships observed in large outcrops. Considering that
ing pattern of these units is similar and exhibits an essentially this paper aims to highlight the downslope evolution of subaerial sys-
retrogradational (fining-upward) pattern with sand-rich intervals at tems into subaqueous gravity-flow deposits, facies associations are de-
the base and mud-rich intervals at the top, the latter consisting of an as- scribed from what we interpreted as the most proximal to the most
sociation of pebbly mudstones (diamictites), shales and rhythmites distal depositional environments (basinward direction), which is differ-
with minor sand interbeds. Although equivalent in terms of log motif ent from the traditional bottom up stratigraphic order.
and vertical trend, the middle unit (Campo Mourão Formation) is sand-
ier than the other two and can be considered the subsurface extension 4.1. Facies association A – braided fluvial/delta plain deposits
of the sand-rich Mafra Formation of Schneider et al. (1974). Subsequent
workers reinforced the idea of unconformity-bounded successions 4.1.1. Description
within the Itararé Group (e.g., Eyles et al., 1993; Vesely and Assine, This association is the main component of the Pedra Alta sandstone
2004, 2006). Vesely and Assine (2004) recognized five of these (Fig. 3A–C) and is characterized by medium-grained to pebbly, poorly to
A.H. Carvalho, F.F. Vesely / Sedimentary Geology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3
Fig. 1. Location and geological setting of study area. (A) Simplified map of the Paraná Basin showing the outcrop belt of the Itararé Group and location of the study area. (B) Stratigraphic
position of the study interval within the sequence-stratigraphic scheme proposed by Vesely and Assine (2004). According to the authors, the Pedra Alta sandstone would represent the
base of deglaciation sequence Ds-3. Rb marks the position of the Roncador bed, an usual stratigraphic marker in the Itararé Group. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
moderately sorted sandstones with large-scale trough and planar cross rose diagram presented in Fig. 4B, including all the 267 measurements
stratification (St/Sp; Fig. 3D–G), horizontally stratified sandstones (Sh; taken from this association, has a polymodal pattern, which suggests
Fig. 3G) and subordinate trough cross-stratified conglomerates (Gt). Fa- changes in main paleocurrent direction in time and space. Besides these
cies St/Sp is defined by trough-like to tabular beds (sensu Campbell, changes, a general northward paleocurrent trend in this facies association
1967), 15 to 200 cm thick, with well-developed fining-upward charac- can be recognized.
ter and are bounded by sharp-erosive surfaces. Bedsets are mainly tab-
ular and extent laterally throughout the larger exposures (up to 300 m), 4.1.2. Interpretation
forming sheet-like sediment bodies (Fig. 3A, B). Facies association A is interpreted as a result of deposition in braided
Horizontally-laminated facies (Sh) are less common, occur as thin (low sinuosity), high energy, fluvial streams (e.g., Miall, 1977). This is
(~ 30 cm) sheet-like beds interstratified with facies St/Sp (Fig. 3G), supported by the sandy-gravelly composition, absence of mudstones,
and consist of medium to fine grained, moderately-sorted sandstones. the presence of fining-upward successions (fluvial cycles), and the
Facies Gt occurs commonly as thin, granule/pebble-dominated con- main presence of large-scale trough and planar cross-stratification.
glomerate layers defining the base of trough cross-stratified sandstone Trough and planar cross-stratification result from the migration of
beds or, more locally, as trough-like to tabular beds up to 70 cm thick large bedforms (subaqueous dunes), under unidirectional, lower-flow
with clasts up to 20 cm in diameter. regime, bedload dominated currents. Although these structures can
Fig. 4A displays three vertical profiles representative of facies associ- occur in many depositional environments dominated by bedload trans-
ation A, in which a maximum thickness of 42 m was measured. A gen- port, the group of evidence presented here seems compatible with de-
eral grain-size trend cannot be observed, but the stacking pattern is posits typically found in ancient fluvial channel belts (e.g., Miall, 1977;
composed of multiple fining-upward successions about 15 m thick Collinson, 1996; Collinson et al., 2006; Nichols, 2009; Wakefield et al.,
each and lacking muddy interbeds. The bulk of such successions are 2015). Moreover, the absence of features indicative of wave and/or
made up of facies Sp/St and Gt (less common), whereas facies Sh is tide activity (e.g., wave ripples, hummocky cross-stratification, mud
more typical near the top of the fining upward cycles. drapes, flow reversal etc.) corroborates such interpretation. Facies Sh
Paleocurrent data taken from cross-stratified facies of different locali- is also interpreted as part of channel-fill deposits, but formed under
ties and stratigraphic levels show a relatively high degree of dispersion, upper flow regime conditions, probably in shallower flows on bar tops
but mean vectors varying from ENE to NW are dominant. The composite (e.g., Miall, 1977).
Fig. 2. Digital terrain elevation map of the study area (red square in Fig. 1) showing the location of examined outcrops, paleocurrent data and trace of geological section shown in Fig. 13B.
Outcrop localities where stratigraphic logs and photomosaics were assembled are also indicated.
The observed characteristics have long been associated with braid- paleocurrent directions is expected within fluvial systems prompt to
ed-fluvial systems (Coleman, 1969; Medici et al., 2015), which are the frequent channel avulsion (e.g., Cain and Mountney, 2009; Mckie and
most common channel-network style in proglacial fluvial plains (e.g., Williams, 2009).
Maizels, 2002; Marren, 2005; Bennett and Glasser, 2009). Given the
broad glacial setting of the Itararé Group, facies association A can be rea-
sonably ascribed to a proglacial fluvial system. These systems are typi- 4.2. Facies association B – channel-mouth zone deposits
cally coarse-grained and few modern examples contain fines (e.g.,
Russell and Marren, 1999; Russell et al., 2001; Maizels, 2002; Marren, 4.2.1. Description
2002, 2005), which supports such interpretation. However, the absence Facies association B crops out as a series of road cuts along BR-476
of deformational structures possibly generated by ice push (e.g., Van der highway, which exposes its facies laterally for 1.8 km (localities 11, 16,
Wateren, 1994) and hyperconcentrated-flow deposits typical of ice- 19 and 17; Fig. 2). The unit is highly heterogeneous and shows cut-
proximal outwash (e.g., Winsemann et al., 2007) suggests a distal and-fill surfaces filled with trough cross-stratified conglomerates and
proglacial rather than an ice-marginal environment. gravelly sandstones (St/Sp). This facies association also includes con-
Paleocurrent data (see Fig. 4) indicate a general paleoflow from glomerates and sandstones with climbing-dune cross stratification
south to north, which is similar to results from previous workers dealing (Gcd and Scd), climbing-rippled fine to very fine sandstones (Sr) and,
with the Itararé Group in adjacent regions (e.g., França et al., 1996). Al- more locally, muddy sandstones affected by soft-sediment deformation
though a polimodal paleocurrent pattern is observed, variability of (Sd), like folds (Fig. 5), normal faults, and chaotically deformed beds.
Table 1 Table 2
Summary of facies recognized and inferred formative processes. Facies code adapted from Summary of facies associations including their component facies and interpreted deposi-
Eyles et al. (1983). tional settings. Symbols indicate the relative abundance of facies in each association.
Facies Description Interpretation Facies Constituent Facies Depositional environment

association facies abundance
Gm Massive to crudely stratified Deposition from non-cohesive
ortoconglomerate/paraconglomerate; density flows (hyperconcentrated A Gt ++ Fluvial/delta plain
grain size varies from granules to flows) St/Sp +++++
boulders and the matrix is sandy to Sh +++
muddy-sandy. B Gcd +++++ Channel mouth bar
Gcd Climbing-dune cross-stratified and Migration of subaqueous dunes Scd ++++++
normally-graded conglomerates associated with traction plus fallout St/Sp +++
and gravelly sandstones. Dunes under sediment-laden stream flows Sr +++
display 1–3 m wavelength. Sd +++
Gt Trough cross-stratified Migration of subaqueous dunes C Fl(r) + Delta slope (mass-transport
conglomerates commonly disposed associated with Dm +++ deposits)
as thin layers (b10 cm) associated bedload-dominated, hydrodynamic Dm(r) +++++
with facies St/Sp or, more rarely, as flows under lower flow regime D Fl ++ Distal glaciomarine
beds up to 70 cm thick. Rl +++++
Sm Fine to medium, moderately sorted, Deposition from non-cohesive E Gm +++++ Delta slope (non-cohesive density
massive sandstone; it may contain density-flows (hyperconcentrated Sm +++++ flow deposits)
clay intraclasts and floating, to concentrated flows) St/Sp ++
extrabasinal, pebbles to cobbles.
Sh Horizontally stratified, moderately Migration of subaqueous dunes
sorted, fine to medium sandstone. associated with bedload-dominated, ripples (Sr) and plastic deformation such as folds and mud injections
hydrodynamic flows under upper
that resemble large flame structures (Sd) (Figs. 5C, 6).
flow regime
Sr Climbing rippled, well sorted, fine Migration of subaqueous ripples Paleocurrents measured from climbing dunes and ripples (facies
to very fine sandstones with rare associated with traction plus fallout Gcd, Scd and Sr; simplified rose diagrams in Fig. 2) show a consistent,
mud interbeds. under hydrodynamic flows unimodal pattern with a mean vector towards the northwest, which is
Scd Medium to fine sandstones with Migration of subaqueous dunes
the same direction of fold vergence. This is roughly parallel to the archi-
climbing-dune cross-stratification associated with traction plus fallout
(dunes 20 to 60 cm in wave length). under sediment-laden stream flows
tectural sketch of Fig. 6 and indicates that the horizontal facies change
St/Sp Trough/planar cross-stratified, Migration of subaqueous dunes recorded in that outcrop is oriented in the downflow direction.
gravelly to fine sandstones; beds are associated with
10 to 200 cm thick. bedload-dominated, hydrodynamic 4.2.2. Interpretation
flows under lower flow regime
The road cuts that expose facies association B allowed the observa-
Sd Poorly sorted sandstones with In situ, plastic deformation of
soft-sediment deformation unconsolidated sediment due to tion of a laterally continuous section roughly parallel to paleoflow direc-
loading and gravitational shear tion (Fig. 6). The high degree of lateral and vertical facies changes
Fl Thinly laminated mudstones often Mud settling combined with suggests a very dynamic depositional environment. It also indicates a
with dispersed granules to pebbles. deposition of ice-rafted debris
clear transition from proximal to distal deposits in the SE-NW direction
Fl(r) Folded and contorted, thinly Deposition from subaqueous mass
laminated mudstones movements (slumps)
as well as a coarsening-upward, progradational stacking pattern. Sandy
Rl Rhythmite characterized by the Deposition from turbidity currents and conglomeratic facies (facies St/Sp) generated by bedload-dominat-
millimetric alternation of mudstone combined with deposition of ed unidirectional flows are observed in the more proximal and upper
and fine to very fine sandstone; ice-rafted debris part of the exposure, whereas in the distal and lower parts, facies gener-
current ripples may be present in
ated by traction-plus-fallout such as sandstones and conglomerates
sandstone and dispersed clasts
(dropstones) are abundant. with climbing dunes/ripples and muddier deposits with soft-sediment
Dm(r) Massive diamictite with rounded to Deposition from subaqueous mass deformation dominate (Fig. 6).
angular polymytic granules to movements (slumps) This downdip transition of facies is interpreted as a result of flow de-
boulders dispersed in a muddy to
celeration and expansion in the channel-mouth zone (e.g., Reading and
sandy-muddy matrix. Structures of
penecontemporaneous deformation
Collinson, 1996). A fraction of the mud content that by-passed the fluvi-
(faults, folds and rafted blocks) are al plain was deposited here as suspended load as flows decelerated. The
common soft-sediment deformational structures result from in situ folding and
Dm Massive diamictite with rounded to Deposition from subaqueous mass upward injection of water-saturated unconsolidated sediment due to
angular, polymytic granules to movements (debris flow)
loading. Fold asymmetry (Fig. 5C) indicates vergence towards NW
pebbles dispersed in a muddy to
sandy-muddy matrix. (basinwards), pointing to a shear component parallel to the main
paleocurrent direction. An ice-push origin for this deformation is un-
likely because thrust faults, foliation and other structures that are com-
mon in glaciotectonized proglacial sediments were not observed (e.g.,
Across the exposures it can be observed that the different facies Van der Wateren, 1994; Bennett and Glasser, 2009).
change laterally and vertically on very short distances. The sketch Coarse-grained, climbing dune stratification is usually associated with
shown in Fig. 6, which was assembled based on a photomosaic from the high-energy flows (e.g., Mutti et al., 1996; Ghienne et al., 2010), once its
easternmost sector of the main road cut of BR-476 (locality 11 in Fig. 2), formation requires transport of coarse (sand and gravel) particles as
illustrates well these facies changes. In general, this exposure shows a suspended load. These structures are a typical component of the “flood-
coarsening-upward profile and a reduction of grain size towards the dominated fluvio-deltaic systems” of Mutti et al. (1996) and its origin, ac-
west. Facies St/Sp occurs at the eastern side of the outcrop and comprises cording to these authors, is associated with the entrance of sediment-
truncated, trough-like, fining-upward sediment bodies, about 1–2 m laden stream flows into the basin. Similarly, according to Ghienne et al.
thick, and composed of poorly sorted sand and gravel. It overlies and (2010) climbing dune cross-stratification results from unconfined
passes westward to facies Gcd and Scd, which consist of conglomerates mouth-bar deposition related to expanding, sediment-laden flows enter-
and gravelly to medium-grained sandstones displaying climbing dunes ing a water body, in distal outwash plain settings (fluvial/subaqueous
20 to 300 cm of wavelength. The lower and westernmost sector of the ex- transition). Recent research by Reesink et al. (2015) envisaged other pos-
posure is dominated by fine to muddy sandstones displaying climbing sibilities for climbing dune formation, besides relationship to extreme
Fig. 3. Field examples of facies association A. (A) General view of the Pedra Alta cliff showing tabular bedsets of cross-stratified sandstone. Photo oriented from NNE to SSW. (B) Interpreted
bedsets. (C) Large scale trough cross-stratification. (D–E) Detail of photos “B” and “C”, respectively, showing a closer view of trough cross-stratified sandstones. (F) Oversized clast within
lamination of facies St/Sp. (G) Horizontally laminated sandstones (facies Sh) and planar cross-stratified sandstones (facies St/Sp).
floods, including slow burial of abandoned dune forms by cohesive clay, 4.3. Facies association C – delta slope deposits
fast burial by mass movements processes and local dominance of deposi-
tion over dune migration. Therefore, although extreme floods may not be 4.3.1. Description
necessary to build climbing dunes, it is clear that its origin is likely related Facies association C is exposed in scattered outcrops throughout the
to flows with high concentrations of suspended load. study area. It is composed of diamictites and mudstones, often with soft-
Based on field evidence, facies association B deposits can thus be sediment deformational structures and rafted blocks, which include fa-
interpreted as resulting from a transitional fluvial-marine environment cies Fl(r), Dm, Dm(r) (Fig. 7). Facies Fl consists of laminated mudstones
(channel-mouth zone). Following Ghienne et al. (2010), we associate whereas Fl(r) is a variant displaying cm-thick, folded horizons where
climbing-dune structures to a deltaic wedge (fluvial/subaqueous transi- original bedding is still recognizable (Fig. 7A). Diamictites are character-
tion), relating them to the entrance of periodic floods, associated to ized by subrounded to angular (rare), granules to cobbles (b 5% of rock
major meltwater discharges into the basin. volume) dispersed in a muddy or sandy-muddy matrix. Clasts within
Fig. 4. (A) Stratigraphic logs representative of facies association A. Note the predominance of trough cross-stratified sandstones. (B) Synoptic diagram showing all paleocurrent data
measured from facies association A.
diamictites are mostly of sandstone, mudstone, granite, quartz and are discernible, such as shear planes, folds and allochthonous sandstone
schist. blocks. Sandstone blocks range in size from few meters to tens of meters
The facies defined as Dm(r) is characterized by heterogeneous (Fig. 7B, C), are often tilted (up to 80o) and folded and vary in grain size
diamictites in which resedimentation features (cf., Eyles et al., 1983) from fine sand to gravel. Because of the low degree of internal
Fig. 5. Field examples of facies association B. (A–B) Climbing-dune cross-stratified conglomerates (facies Gcd) passing upward to climbing-dune cross-stratified sandstones (facies Scd).
(C) Plastically deformed muddy sandstones (facies Sd) displaying an asymmetrical fold whose vergence indicates transport towards the NW (to the right in the image). (D) Current ripples
in fine-grained sandstones (facies Sr).
deformation in these blocks, original structures can be easily observed fluvial origin and the lack of subglacial features (e.g., striated surfaces
in some of the larger ones (up to 50 m), comprising mostly cross-strat- and clast pavements) do not support a glaciogenic origin for these facies
ification, horizontal lamination and climbing ripples, similar to what is (e.g., Eyles et al., 1983). Mass-transport deposits result from
observed in facies associations A and B. Homogeneous and massive resedimentation of previously deposited material by non-Newtonian
diamicites were labeled as facies Dm (Fig. 7D), which lack any kind of gravity flows, including creeps, slides, slumps and debris flows, where
stratification or deformational feature. particles do not move freely with respect to others and the flow is
The vertical stacking of facies association C is illustrated in Fig. 8. The sustained mainly by the cohesive strength of the matrix (e.g., Nemec,
succession is dominated by diamictites with evidence of resedimentation 1990; Martinsen, 1994; Posamentier and Martinsen, 2011). These pro-
(Dm(r)) intercalated with sandstone units. These sandstone units, which cesses commonly evolve one to another due to flow transformation
are up to 5 m thick, often deformed and displaying interpenetrative rela- that take place as the mass moves downslope and loses its coherence.
tionships with adjacent diamictites, correspond to rafted blocks instead of As a consequence, the geological record commonly presents intermedi-
in situ deposits. On both logs, the diamictite succession is overlain by ate characteristics between these end-members.
cross-stratified sandstones of facies association B. Large, tilted sandstone blocks within diamictites that protrude from
vegetated land are interpreted as slide blocks (e.g., Nemec et al., 1988)
4.3.2. Interpretation derived from instability and collapse of fluvial and channel-mouth
This facies association is mud-dominated, shows plastic deformation zone deposits (associations A and B) because trough and planar cross-
represented by folded horizons of mudstones (facies Fl(r)) and folded stratification are still recognizable. Facies Fl(r) and Dm(r), which char-
blocks within diamictites (facies Dm(r)), and lacks current-generated acteristically present plastic deformation, are interpreted as deposits
structures, pointing to deposition in a subaqueous environment due to of subaqueous slumps derived from failure of muddy slopes whereas
a combination of suspension settling and sediment gravity flows. massive diamictites (facies Dm) are the product of cohesive debris
Diamictites and deformed mudstones are interpreted as mass-transport flows, i.e., sediment gravity flows of plastic behavior in which support
deposits resulting from slope failure. The presence of rafted blocks of mechanism is the cohesive strength of the matrix (Stow et al., 1996).
Fig. 6. 2D diagram based on the interpretation of a photomosaic from locality 11 (see Fig. 2). The sketch shows the lateral and vertical facies changes that characterize facies association B.
Note a decrease in grain size from left to right (downflow direction) and the general coarsening-upward trend associated with the progradation of channel-mouth bars.
By consequence, massive diamictites can be considered as the final 4.4.2. Interpretation

product of mass-flows, when remobilized deposits were completely Facies association D is interpreted as a distal marine subaqueous en-
disaggregated, mixed and homogenized (e.g., Eyles and Eyles, 2000). vironment in which deposition took place below wave base by suspen-
sion settling and diluted turbidity currents. The alternation of sharp-
based sandstones and interbedded mudstones, the sparse presence of
4.4. Facies association D – distal marine glacially-influenced deposits ripples and rip-up mudstone clasts are typical of thin-bedded turbidites
deposited in distal glaciomarine environments (e.g., Bennett and
4.4.1. Description Glasser, 2009) or in prodeltaic settings (e.g., Mutti et al., 2003). Occa-
Facies association D corresponds to the lowermost stratigraphic sional surge-like turbidity currents of larger volume are recorded by
level of the studied succession and, based on the interpreted strati- thicker sand-rich beds. The occurrence of dropstones indicates that a
graphic architecture, records the most distal depositional setting of calving ice-margin was in contact with the water body, delivering ice-
the studied succession. It is composed of mud-dominated heterolithic rafted debris. The vertical diminution in the amount of dropstones sug-
facies characterized by horizontally laminated mudstones with gests a progressive reduction of ice-rafting possibly related to glacial
scattered dropstones (Fl) and rhythmites (Fig. 9), the latter being char- retreat.
acterized by a regular (rhythmic) alternation of fine sand to silt and
mud in the form of sharp-based, tabular, graded beds with thickness
ranging from few millimeters to few centimeters (facies Rl). Facies Rl 4.5. Facies association E – non-cohesive density-flow deposits
also contains polymictic dropstones, some of them faceted and striated,
ranging in size from granules to boulders and, more rarely, current rip- 4.5.1. Description
ples in sandy zones, trace fossils of the planolites ichnogenus and thin This facies association occurs as laterally discontinuous, coarse-
(few cm) layers rich in rip-up mudstone clasts. Thicker (tens of cm), grained units encased within mudstones of facies associations C
coarser-grained, and structureless event beds are very rare and display and D. It is composed of amalgamated, lenticular, often erosive-
erosive bases with concentrations of rip-up mudstone clasts. based, 1 to 2-m-thick beds of conglomerates and sandstones (Fig.
The vertical profile assembled for facies association D shows a ho- 11). Conglomerates are massive to crudely stratified (Fig. 12) and
mogeneous interval dominated by rhythmites of facies Rl (Fig.10) and may be supported by the clasts or by a silty-sandy matrix (facies
with coarse-grained deposits ascribed to facies association E (see Gm). Clasts are granules to boulders, rounded to subangular, com-
Section 4.5). In the lower eight meters of the interval there is an upward posed mostly of sandstone, granite, and quartz and may show a-
decrease in the amount of dropstones. The same is not observed in the axis imbrication indicating transport to the northwest (Fig. 12A).
upper part of the rhythmite succession, where dropstones occur with- Massive conglomerates often pass vertically and laterally into crude-
out a clear vertical change in their frequency. ly-stratified and normally-graded variants within the same bed (Fig.
Fig. 7. Field examples of facies association C. (A) Tight-folded pelites (facies Fl(r)) surrounded by massive diamictites. (B) Sandstone block within diamictites (facies Dm(r)). (C) Large slide
block protruding from vegetated land. This block has the same characteristics as the sandstones of facies association A, is tilted up to 80° and its internal stratification is locally folded. (D)
Massive diamictite with rounded to subrounded pebbles (facies Dm).
12A, B). This crude stratification is mostly horizontal, but low-angle, ‘high-density turbidity current’ and ‘high-density turbidite’ must be
inclined stratification may also be present. Conglomerates often lie avoided, because conceptually turbulence is suppressed in high-density
on erosive surfaces with a very irregular profile whereas their flows and cannot act as the only, or the main, particle-support
upper boundaries are sharp and plane. mechanism.
Facies Sm (Fig. 12B, C) occur interbedded with the conglomer- The presence of traction-generated structures in density-flow de-
ates and comprise medium to coarse-grained, massive to crudely, posits can be explained by deposition from long-lived flows (e.g.,
horizontally stratified sandstones often with oversized (floating) Zavala et al., 2011). Long-lived (or sustained) flows are commonly relat-
clasts up to 25 cm. Sandstone beds have both lower and upper ed to hyperpycnal flows originated when flood-related river discharges
sharp boundaries and do not display any well-developed internal enter sea or lake basins with sediment concentrations high enough to
grain size trend. More locally within this facies association, coarse overcome water-body density (e.g., Mulder and Syvitski, 1995;
to pebbly sandstones with dune-size cross stratification (facies St/ Mulder et al., 2003; Mutti et al., 2003; Zavala et al., 2006, 2011). While
Sp) may also occur (Fig. 12A). These cross-stratified units show Mulder and Syvitski (1995) and Mulder et al. (2003) state that
paleocurrents to the NW like that indicated by clast imbrication in hyperpycnal currents would transport only particles finer than medium
the conglomerates. sand through long distances, Mutti et al. (1996) and Zavala et al. (2011)
point that coarser-grained hyperpycnites are common in the ancient re-
4.5.2. Interpretation cord. According to Zavala et al. (2011), coarse-grained sediment are
The dominance of massive to weakly stratified sandstones and con- transported at the flow base as bedload due to shear forces provided
glomerates in facies association E, combined with the presence of float- by the overpassing long-lived hyperpycnal flow. This can originate
ing, oversized clasts and a-axis imbrication, indicate the action of three main facies, including crudely bedded conglomerates, pebbly
density flows instead of bedload-dominated currents (e.g., Middleton, sandstones with low-angle asymptotic cross-stratification and pebbly
1967; Lowe, 1982; Postma et al., 1988; Kneller and Branney, 1995; sandstones with diffuse planar lamination (see facies B1, B2 and B3 of
Kneller and Buckee, 2000; Mulder and Alexander, 2001; Dasgupta, Zavala et al., 2011).
2003; Zavala et al., 2006, 2011). Floating cobbles and boulders in massive sandstones, like those ob-
Considering the classification proposed by Mulder and Alexander served in facies association E, have been reported by Postma et al.
(2001), the examined deposits would lie into the category of non-cohe- (1988) and Kneller and Branney (1995) in high-density turbidity cur-
sive density flows, which include hyperconcentrated and concentrated rents, in their terminology, although different mechanisms for their de-
flows that have a transitional rheology between cohesive debris flows position are proposed. Postma et al. (1988) propose that these clasts
and turbidity currents and that support mechanisms may include would be suspended by strong turbulent lift and, assuming flow un-
grain-by-grain interactions (dispersive pressure), buoyancy and fluid steadiness, would be trapped and deposited in a “floating” position as
turbulence (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). Other authors, such as the flow freezes. According to these authors, these features are more
Lowe (1982) and Postma et al. (1988), treat these flows as high-density likely to occur in high-density turbidity currents that are confined with-
turbidity currents and their corresponding deposits as high-density tur- in subaqueous channels or canyons, where flow velocity, thickness and
bidites. However, as stated by Mulder and Alexander (2001), the terms transport capacity are maximized. However, Kneller and Branney
Fig. 8. Stratigraphic logs representative of facies association C. The sandstone units within the diamictite succession are large slide blocks.
(1995) associate floating clasts with quasi-steady turbulent currents, 4.6. Depositional architecture
whose deposits are formed by progressive aggradation. In the Itararé
Group, floating clasts in structureless sandstones were previously de- According to field observations, the five facies associations described
scribed and also associated to high-density turbidity currents by above are part of a conformable stratigraphic succession, about 200 m
França et al. (1996). thick and with a well-defined shallowing upward stacking pattern.
The limited lateral continuity of facies association E, its sandy-grav- Boundaries among the different associations are strongly transitional
elly nature and the high degree of amalgamation suggest transport and, in some instances, interfingering is indicated by lateral or longitu-
and deposition in confined settings. This confinement may be related dinal shifts from one association to another (Fig. 13). These characteris-
to subaqueous incisions cut and filled by the density flows (García- tics and the absence of unconformities or major facies breaks in the
García et al., 2011) or, considering the spatial association with mass- vertical succession point to a normal-regressive systems tract
flow deposits (facies association C), ponding on the irregular top sur- (highstand or lowstand) composed of coeval and genetically-related
faces of mass-transport deposits (Armitage et al., 2009). subaerial and subaqueous depositional systems (e.g., Catuneanu, 2006).
Fig. 9. Details of facies association D. (A–B) Small dropstones in rhythmites. (C) Dropstone-free, thinly laminated mudstone. Note the alternation of mm-thick silt (lighter) and clay
(darker) layers. (D) Large granite clast deforming rhythmite lamination.
A generalized paleodepositional model for this systems tract is illus- 5. Discussion

trated in Fig. 14, which portrays a progradational deltaic wedge that
evolved in response to the high sediment supply during a transition The evidence presented above shows that the Pedra Alta sandstone
from glacial to postglacial settings. A similar scenario of proglacial is the uppermost and more proximal part of a conformable, normal-re-
fluvio-deltaic progradational during an overall ice-sheet recession was gressive systems tract in which the fluvial feeding system can be
described by Ghienne et al. (2010) and Girard et al. (2012) in the late stratigraphically connected to co-genetic, subaquatic sediment gravi-
Ordovician glacial record of North Africa. Although delta-plain aggrada- ty-flow deposits. The examined succession is thus an excellent study
tion and related delta development in proglacial settings are most com- case to address, under an outcrop perspective, the relationships be-
monly related to a period of ice-front advance or stillstand (e.g., Powell, tween subaqueous density-flow deposits and fluvial floods, and the
1990; Marren, 2005; Moreau, 2011), several other factors such as the controls on slope instability and mass-transport deposits development.
volume and variability of sediment supply, the rate of ice retreat and Moreover, our results have also important implications for the se-
melting, the degree of glacial erosion, the nature and slope of the quence-stratigraphic architecture of the Itararé Group and, consequent-
bedrock or underlying deposit and the length of time over which aggra- ly, the heterogeneity of its reservoirs. In the following subsections these
dation can continue undisturbed by overriding advances of the glacier aspects are discussed separately.
will determine whether the proglacial zone will experience aggradation
or degradation (Maizels, 1979). For the study area, we propose that 5.1. Fluvial input and density-flows
when the dropstone-bearing fines of facies association D were
deposited, the ice margin was at least partially in contact with the The development of sediment gravity flows (hyperpycnal flows)
water body in order to calve and supply ice-rafted debris (Fig. 14A). due to the entrance of highly-concentrated, flood-generated river dis-
Subsequently, an ice-free shoreline probably existed (Fig. 14B) because charges into a receiver basin has been considered by several authors
of the development of a fluvio-deltaic complex at the top of the succes- (e.g., Mutti et al., 1996, 2003; Mulder and Alexander, 2001; Zavala et
sion (associations A and B). This suggests that the base-level rise that al., 2006, 2011; Paim et al., 2008, 2011; García-García et al., 2011). As
usually occurs associated with deglaciation in marine settings was a result, many ancient turbidites and associated deposits have been
outpaced by sedimentation rate. In this setting, oversteepening and interpreted as the deposits of hyperpycnal flows (hyperpycnites,
sediment load at the delta front lead to instabilization, collapse and Mulder et al., 2001) or treated as “flood-dominated delta-front lobes”
resedimentation of previously accumulated sediments, forming chaotic (Mutti et al., 1996, 2003), particularly in tectonically active basins char-
mass-transport deposits (association C) with slide blocks of fluvial and acterized by elevated catchments and steep subaerial and submarine
deltaic origin. The laterally discontinuous, coarse-grained, non-cohesive gradients.
density-flow deposits (association E) are probably related to the input Facies association A, on the basis of grain size, bedform dimension,
of hyperpycnal flows generated by high-magnitude floods (Fig. 14C). facies architecture and paleocurrent pattern (Figs. 3, 4), can be
The absence of structures diagnostic of wave activity in the delta-front de- interpreted as accumulated in a high-energy, fan-shaped, braided fluvi-
posits indicates delta development in a restricted basin or embayment al system. The basinward association with fine-grained deposits holding
(e.g., Winsemann et al., 2007) and/or rapid sedimentation influenced by ice-rafted debris suggests deposition in a proglacial (outwash) fan (e.g.,
flood-dominated rivers (e.g., Mutti et al., 2003). Lønne, 1995). Such proglacial areas are potentially affected by high-
sandy-gravelly density-flow deposits of facies association E, located

basinward, can thus also be associated with periods of extreme dis-
charges (major floods), during which sediment-laden jets by-passed
the channel-mouth zone and evolved into hyperpycnal flows, transfer-
ring coarse sediment (up to boulders) into deeper waters (e.g., Mutti et
al., 1996; Zavala et al., 2011). It is very unlikely that these density flows
that originated facies association E were triggered by slope failure and
downslope transformation of mass flows because: 1) the observed
mass-transport deposits are mud-dominated and lack boulder-size
clasts like those observed in facies association E and; 2) often, non-cohe-
sive density-flow facies are encased in mass-flow deposits and not
downslope from it. In the same way, the supply of boulders like those
observed in facies association E (non-cohesive density flow deposits)
also cannot be explained by the downslope resedimentation of fluvio-
deltaic sediments because particles this size were not recognized in fa-
cies associations A and B. Such arguments corroborate that the non-co-
hesive density-flow deposits are more likely related to episodic flood
events that bypassed the fluvial and channel-mouth zone as
hyperpycnal flows.
Hyperpycnal flows tend to be long-lived, different from slide-in-
duced density flows that are highly depletive (surge-like) currents
(e.g., Mulder and Alexander, 2001). A “hyperpycnal system” is consid-
ered as the subaqueous extension of the fluvial system (Zavala et al.,
2006, 2011). The discrimination of hyperpycnal (flood-generated) and
surge-like density-flow deposits is mostly based on the nature of
grain-size trends within individual beds, although additional criteria
have been suggested (see Paim et al., 2008, for a review). Hyperpycnites
show complex grain-size trends (e.g., Mulder et al., 2003; Zavala et al.,
2006, 2011) because of the long duration (hours to months) of the
flow, presence of waxing and waning current stages, and a common
pulsating character, which corresponds to velocity changes within one
single flood event (Mulder et al., 2003). Surge-like density flows, on
the other hand, generate deposits with a well-developed fining upward
trend because of flow unsteadiness (e.g., Mulder and Alexander, 2001).
Although the poor development of normal grading and the presence
of cross stratification in facies association E could indicate long-lived in-
stead of surge-like density flows, the typical coarsening-to-finning-up-
ward trend expected for hyperpycnites is lacking. Thus, a flow
continuum connecting river jets with subaqueous density flows like
suggested by Zavala et al. (2006) cannot be clearly demonstrated. How-
ever, as considered by Paim et al. (2011) in their study on fluvial-de-
rived turbidites from the Neuquen Basin (Argentina), a reacceleration
of the flood-derived jets on the delta slope may have occurred,
detaching the density flows from its parental floods.
Regardless possible flow transformations that may have occurred at
the delta slope, the genetic relationship between fluvial discharges and
density flows can be satisfactorily demonstrated in the studied succes-
sion by means of stratigraphic relationships among facies associations
(Figs. 6, 13), in a similar way to what is proposed by Mutti et al.
(1996). Considering the discussion above, it is interpreted that the
Fig. 10. Stratigraphic log representative of facies association D. Note sandstones attributed sand-rich deposits described in the present paper and placed in three
to association E encased within mudstones and sharp-based diamicite of association C at
different facies associations, comprise a downdip facies tract equivalent
the top of the succession.
to the flood-dominated systems (Mutti et al., 1996) that include the flu-
vial (association A), river-mouth (association B) and turbidite (associa-
magnitude flows because of the catastrophic release of meltwater (out- tion E) components.
burst floods or jökulhlaups; e.g., Russell et al., 2001; Marren, 2002, 2005;
Russell, 2007). 5.2. Controls on mass-transport deposits
Coarse-grained, climbing-dune cross-stratification like those recog-
nized in facies association B (Fig. 5) has been associated with flood- Different mechanisms have been suggested to explain the initiation
dominated systems (e.g., Mutti et al., 1996; Tinterri, 2007; Ghienne et of mass movements (e.g., Stow et al., 1996; Odonne et al., 2011;
al., 2010). Ghienne et al. (2010) recognized this stratification pattern Posamentier and Martinsen, 2011), including: high sedimentation
in glaciogenic, sheet sandstones from the Ordovician of northern Africa rates, seismic activity, storm-wave activity, base-level change, among
and interpreted them as a result of outburst floods in a channel-mouth others. In sequence stratigraphic models (e.g., Catuneanu, 2006), thick
environment. Similarly, in our study case, these structures are in de- mass-transport deposits are placed in the falling-stage systems tract
posits interpreted as channel-mouth zone deposits, which testify that due to the assumption that sea-level fall modify the shelf-slope profile
occasionally, flood-generated currents bypassed the fluvial plain. The causing instability and failure at the shelf margin. In addition, during
Fig. 11. Photomosaic (A) and sketch (B) representing facies association E. Note the erosive and often irregular boundaries between facies (Gm, Sm and St/Sp) and the dominance of
lenticular geometries.
Fig. 12. Field examples of facies association E. (A) Alternating massive and crudely stratified sandstone and conglomerate. Note the presence of crude stratification and clast imbrication in
facies Gm. Paleocurrents are to the left (west) as indicated by clast imbrication and cross-stratification in facies St/Sp. (B\
\C) Details of facies Sm and Gm. Note the presence of oversized
(floating) clasts in massive sandstones.
Fig. 13. Panoramic view (A) and geological cross section (B) showing the stratigraphic relationships among the different facies associations. Location of vertical logs of Figs. 4 and 8 and the
sandstone block illustrated in Fig. 7C are indicated in A. Blue dots in B represent described outcrops; numbers followed by an apostrophe (e.g. P61′) means a projected outcrop position.
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
base-level fall and lowstand, deltaic clinoforms may prograde to the As previously demonstrated, the studied succession has a conform-
shelf margin, forming shelf-edge deltas that are potential sites for able, progradational stacking pattern indicative of normal instead of
mass failure (e.g., Porebski and Steel, 2006). forced regression, meaning that the mass-transport deposits were
Fig. 14. Proposed depositional model for the studied interval. A and B show two different stages of deposition with respect to glacial to postglacial transition assuming that deposition
started when the ice margin was still in contact with water body, originating glaciomarine mudstones (A) and evolved to a distal proglacial environment influenced by a terrestrial ice
margin (B). (C) Generalized paleodepositional model showing the relationships among the different subenvironments and their correspondent facies associations.
emplaced during base-level rise. This indicates that relative sea-level of all ages (see papers in Huuse et al., 2012). However, as shown in the
change had a minor role as a trigger for mass-failure in this study case present paper, thick, reservoir-quality sandstone units with a very dif-
and that a trigger mechanism related to sediment supply seems more ferent architectural style may also be present. Moreover, these would
likely. The presence of allochthonous blocks of fluvial and deltaic origin be more difficult to map using seismic data because they are not associ-
within the mass-transport deposits suggests successive collapses of the ated with truncations and onlap terminations like is expected for un-
sand-rich segment of the fluvio-deltaic system due to a rapid conformity-related deposits.
progradation (e.g., Nemec et al., 1988). It is suggested that the high sed-
iment supply associated with glacial to postglacial transition caused the 6. Conclusions
rapid advance of the delta system and built a relatively steep and unsta-
ble delta slope (e.g., Lønne, 1995). Through the outcrop analysis of a Carboniferous succession of the
Most part of the mass-transport deposits identified in the studied Paraná Basin, southern Brazil, it was possible to document the strati-
succession comprises diamictites (i.e., gravelly sandy-mudstones). Al- graphic architecture of co-genetic fluvial and subaqueous gravity-flow
though it is well accepted that thick diamictite successions from Late Pa- deposits. From the results of this study some general conclusions re-
leozoic “glaciated” basins consist mostly of subaqueous mass-flow garding the transference of coarse sediment from the fluvial plain to
deposits (e.g., Visser, 1983; Gama et al., 1992; Eyles et al., 1993; Eyles the basin can be listed:
and Eyles, 2000; Kneller et al., 2004; Suss et al., 2014), different models
have been proposed to interpret these deposits in terms of timing, trig- • The glacial to postglacial transition was accompanied by the
ger mechanisms and the degree of glacial influence. Visser (1983), for progradation of a thick fluvio-deltaic complex in which a downslope,
instance, interpreted gravity flow “banded” diamictites of the Kalahari fluvial to gravity-flow facies relationships can be documented
Basin of southern Africa as the product of slumping of glaciogenic sedi- through geological mapping and stratigraphic analysis.
ments in front of the grounding line of a marine glacier. In the time • River-mouth to delta-slope settings present facies that can be ascribed
equivalent Grant Group of Western Australia, Eyles and Eyles (2000), to high-magnitude (flood-dominated) flows, such as climbing-dune
on the other hand, interpreted diamictites and associated facies as cross-stratification formed at the channel-mouth zone and confined
mass-flow deposits in a tectonically active basin without glacial sandy-gravelly hyperpycnal-flow deposits.
influence. • Mass-transport deposits that accumulated at the delta slope were
Similar to the present paper, Kneller et al. (2004) linked Pennsylva- more likely triggered by sediment overload than by sea-level fall.
nian mass-transport deposits from Argentina to instabilization in the These mass-flows deposited chaotically deformed beds and
front of deltas that prograded into paleovalleys during late stages of de- diamictites with slide blocks and do not evolved downslope to volu-
glaciation. The same was postulated by Suss et al. (2014), who studied a metrically important turbidity currents.
mass-transport deposit-bearing interval of the Itararé Group few tens of • In our study case diamictites are not genetically related to glacial pro-
kilometers from the area of the present study. The genetic association cesses neither are a product of resedimentation of ice-rafted deposits.
between deltaic progradations and mass-flow diamictites corroborates Instead, in the interpreted downslope facies tract, clasts within
the hypothesis of Eyles and Eyles (2000), in which the progressive diamictites were originally supplied by fluvial systems and later incor-
mixing of sand, mud and gravel supplied from high-energy rivers may porated in mass-flows producing homogeneous and matrix-support-
produce diamictites that can be misinterpreted as glaciogenic and con- ed admixtures of mud, sand and gravel.
sequently lead to unreliable paleoclimatic reconstructions. • Our results show that, at least in the studied succession, flood-related
hyperpycnal flows were more effective in transferring sand and gravel
5.3. Impacts on reservoir heterogeneity to deeper waters than mass failure.
• Different from conclusions of previous studies, our results show that
Previous works delineated the Itararé Group as composed of essen- the Pedra Alta sandstone is not unconformity-based and is not con-
tially retrogradational, unconformity bounded sequences (e.g., França fined in a paleovalley, impacting greatly in its geometry and internal
and Potter, 1988; Eyles et al., 1993; França et al., 1996) with thin and heterogeneities as a reservoir analog.
poorly-preserved progradational successions restricted to the upper
parts of those sequences (Vesely and Assine, 2006). Based on this
model, the thickest (up to 100 m) and more prolific sandstone units Acknowledgements
would be located in the lower part of the sequences, resting onto ero-
sional unconformities and often confined in paleovalleys (e.g., França We thank all colleagues that collaborated as field assistants and
Universidade Federal do Paraná for infrastructure. We are grateful to ed-
et al., 1996; D'Ávila, 1999). According to Vesely (2006), the Pedra Alta
sandstone would be one example of these unconformity-bounded, par- itor Jasper Knight and reviewers Julien Moreau and Carlos Zavala for
helpful suggestions that improved the quality of the manuscript. This
tially confined sandstone units.
The stratigraphic model proposed here differs from these previous research was financially supported by Agência Nacional do Petróleo,
Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis (ANP), Financiadora de Estudos e
studies by documenting a thick (up to 200 m) progradational succession
in the middle part of the Itararé Group. By consequence, the Pedra Alta Projetos (FINEP) and Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação
(MCTI), through ANP's human resources program - PRH-24 (Programa
sandstone, which culminates the progradation, does not rest on an un-
conformity and is not filling a paleovalley as previously considered. This Interdisciplinar em Engenharia de Petróleo e Gás Natural, UFPR) and;
CNPq (grant 461650/2014-2).
conclusion has a great significance for reservoir architecture because it
implies that the highest-quality reservoirs (the ones with better lateral
and vertical continuity) have a complex, interdigitated boundary with References
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Facies Relationships Recorded in A Late Paleozoic Fluvio-Deltaic System (Paraná Basin, Brazil) Insights Into The Timing and Triggers of Subaqueous Sediment Gravity Flows PDF

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SEDGEO-05145; No of Pages 18

Sedimentary Geology xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Facies relationships recorded in a Late Paleozoic ﬂuvio-deltaic system

1. Introduction ﬂuvial and subaqueous systems in order to link gravity-ﬂow deposits

Facies Description Interpretation Facies Constituent Facies Depositional environment

By consequence, massive diamictites can be considered as the ﬁnal 4.4.2. Interpretation

A generalized paleodepositional model for this systems tract is illus- 5. Discussion

sandy-gravelly density-ﬂow deposits of facies association E, located

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