Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sedimentary Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Erosion and deposition by supercritical density flows during channel

avulsion and backfilling: Field examples from coarse-grained
deepwater channel-levée complexes (Sandino Forearc Basin,
southern Central America)
Jörg Lang ⁎, Christian Brandes, Jutta Winsemann
Institut für Geologie, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Callinstraße 30, 30167 Hannover, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Erosion and deposition by supercritical density flows can strongly impact the facies distribution and architecture of
Received 14 November 2016 submarine fans. Field examples from coarse-grained channel-levée complexes from the Sandino Forearc Basin
Received in revised form 5 January 2017 (southern Central America) show that cyclic-step and antidune deposits represent common sedimentary
Accepted 6 January 2017
facies of these depositional systems and relate to the different stages of avulsion, bypass, levée construction and
Available online 12 January 2017
channel backfilling. During channel avulsion, large-scale scour-fill complexes (18 to 29 m deep, 18 to 25 m wide,
Editor: Dr. J. Knight 60 to N120 m long) were incised by supercritical density flows. The multi-storey infill of the large-scale scour-fill
complexes comprises amalgamated massive, normally coarse-tail graded or widely spaced subhorizontally strati-
Keywords: fied conglomerates and pebbly sandstones, interpreted as deposits of the hydraulic-jump zone of cyclic steps. The
Scour fill large-scale scour-fill complexes can be distinguished from small-scale channel fills based on the preservation of a
Channel fill steep upper margin and a coarse-grained infill comprising mainly amalgamated hydraulic-jump zone deposits.
Cyclic steps Channel fills include repeated successions deposited by cyclic steps with superimposed antidunes. The deposits
Antidunes of the hydraulic-jump zone of cyclic steps comprise regularly spaced scours (0.2 to 2.6 m deep, 0.8 to 23 m long)
Avulsion
infilled by intraclast-rich conglomerates or pebbly sandstones, displaying normal coarse-tail grading or backsets.
Channel-levée complex
These deposits are laterally and vertically associated with subhorizontally stratified, low-angle cross-stratified or
sinusoidally stratified sandstones and pebbly sandstones, which were deposited by antidunes on the stoss side
of the cyclic steps during flow re-acceleration. The field examples indicate that so-called spaced stratified deposits
may commonly represent antidune deposits with varying stratification styles controlled by the aggradation rate,
grain-size distribution and amalgamation. The deposits of small-scale cyclic steps with superimposed antidunes
form fining-upwards successions with decreasing antidune wavelengths, indicating waning flows. Such cyclic
step-antidune successions form the characteristic basal infill of mid-fan channels, and are inferred to be related
to successive supercritical high-density turbidity flows triggered by retrogressive slope failures.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Deposits related to supercritical density flows are increasingly
recognised as an important element of turbidite systems (e.g., Postma
and Cartigny, 2014; Pickering et al., 2015; Talling et al., 2015; Covault
et al., in press). The morphodynamics of supercritical density flows
are relatively well understood from analogue and numerical models
(Kostic and Parker, 2006; Fedele et al., 2009, 2011; Spinewine et al.,
2009; Kostic et al., 2010; Cartigny et al., 2011, 2014; Kostic, 2011,
2014). It has long been known that density flows may attain supercrit-
ical flow conditions even over relatively gentle (N0.6°) slopes (Walker,
1967; Komar, 1971; Hand et al., 1972; Hand, 1974). Bedforms such as
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lang@geowi.uni-hannover.de (J. Lang).
antidunes and cyclic steps are widely recognised from seismic and
bathymetric data of modern submarine fan systems (Fildani et al.,
2006; Lamb et al., 2008; Heiniö and Davies, 2009; Kostic, 2011;
Armitage et al., 2012; Covault et al., 2014, in press; Tubau et al., 2015;
Zhong et al., 2015; Symons et al., 2016). However, sedimentary facies
related to supercritical flows and hydraulic jumps have only recently
been incorporated into depositional models, and well-documented
field examples remain rare (Ito et al., 2014; Postma and Cartigny, 2014;
Postma et al., 2014; Ventra et al., 2015). Submarine fans dominated by
supercritical density flows are typically small (radius b 10 km), coarse-
grained and occur on active continental margins characterised by steep
gradients (“supercritical fans”; Hoyal et al., 2011, 2014; Hamilton
et al., 2015; Pickering and Hiscott, 2015). Their facies distribution and
architecture are closely related to the morphodynamics of the supercrit-
ical flows (Hoyal et al., 2011, 2014).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2017.01.002
0037-0738/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
80 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102
This study presents outcrop examples of Upper Eocene coarse-
grained channel-levée complexes of the Sandino Forearc Basin (south-
ern Central America). These channel-levée complexes form part of
submarine fans, which were probably deposited on the lower basin
slope (Winsemann, 1992; Kumpulainen et al., 1999; Brandes et al.,
2007b; Struss et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c). Exposures in coastal cliffs
perpendicular and parallel to strike allow for a detailed analysis of the
sedimentary facies and facies architecture. The studied successions in-
clude deposits of cyclic steps and antidunes, which form an important
component of the coarse-grained channel-levée complexes and occur
in all sub-environments of these systems. This study aims to contribute
to the understanding of the role of supercritical density flows for the
deposition of coarse-grained channel-levée complexes from an early-
stage of avulsion, bypass, levée construction and channel backfilling.
The characteristic sedimentary facies and vertical and lateral facies suc-
cessions are documented and interpreted in terms of flow dynamics,
which can contribute to bridge the gap between observations from
flume-tank experiments, the most important source of information on
active processes so far, and morphodynamic evidence acquired from
modern submarine fans. The observations from the excellently exposed
field examples can contribute to the recognition of similar deposits
under poor outcrop conditions and in cores.
2. Deposition by supercritical density flows
Supercritical flows are defined by Froude numbers larger than unity.
The dimensionless Froude number Fr defines the ratio of inertial to
gravitational forces in the flow. For density flows the densimetric
Froude number Fr′ is given by Fr′ = Ū / √(g'h), where Ū is the mean
flow velocity, h is the flow depth and g′ is the reduced acceleration
by gravity with g′ = (ρf − ρw) / ρf, where ρf is the density of the flow
and ρw is the density of the ambient water. Unidirectional supercritical
flows produce a range of bedforms, including stable and unstable
antidunes, chutes-and-pools and cyclic steps (Hand et al., 1972;
Alexander et al., 2001; Fedele et al., 2009, 2011, in press; Cartigny
et al., 2014). Supercritical flows over mobile sediment beds are
characterised by in-phase relationships between disturbances of the
upper, free flow surface and the morphology of the sediment-flow
interface. Such disturbances may be expressed as stable or unstable
antidune waves or hydraulic jumps (Kennedy, 1963; Allen, 1984;
Alexander et al., 2001; Cartigny et al., 2014). In density flows, antidune
waves and hydraulic jumps form at the interface between the flow and
the ambient fluid, or at internal density boundaries within stratified
flows (Hand et al., 1972; Prave and Duke, 1990; Mulder et al., 2009;
Ito, 2010; Postma and Cartigny, 2014). Deposits of stratified density
flows commonly reflect the conditions within the actively depositing
basal layer of the flow (Hand et al., 1972; Postma et al., 2009; Cartigny
et al., 2013).
Antidunes are bedforms deposited by stable or unstable wave trains,
which may be quasi-stationary over timescales relative to local aggrada-
tion rate, or significantly migrating upflow or downflow. Increasing
Froude numbers cause the antidunes to become unstable and lead to
the formation of internal breaking waves (Kennedy, 1963; Alexander
et al., 2001; Cartigny et al., 2014). Deposits of stable antidunes are com-
monly characterised by sinusoidal stratification (Russell and Arnott,
2003; Fielding, 2006; Ito and Saito, 2006; Ito, 2010; Mukti and Ito,
2010; Hirst, 2012; Lang and Winsemann, 2013; Ielpi et al., 2016;
Slootman et al., 2016) and preservation of three-dimensional wavy
bedforms, which may resemble hummocky cross-stratification (Walker,
1967; Prave and Duke, 1990; Yagishita, 1994; Vincente Bravo and
Robles, 1995; Mulder et al., 2009). Deposits of unstable and breaking
antidunes are characterised by gently dipping backsets and foresets
and concentric trough-fills, accompanied by frequent internal trunca-
tions (Hand, 1974; Eriksson, 1980; Lang and Winsemann, 2013). The
wavelengths of antidune deposits range from few decimetres to several
tens of metres (Prave and Duke, 1990; Ito, 2010; Duller et al., 2008;
Winsemann et al., 2011; Lang and Winsemann, 2013). In general,
antidune deposits commonly display low-angle cross-stratification
and/or subhorizontal stratification. Low-angle cross-stratified deposits
are characterised by gently (b 10°) upflow or downflow dipping sets,
while subhorizontally stratified deposits are characterised by very low
dip angles and frequent low-angle truncations between laminae sets.
The development of the particular stratification style depends on the
antidune wavelength, the aggradation rate and repeated episodes of
erosion and deposition (cf., Cartigny et al., 2014). Further characteristics
of antidune deposits include sets of divergent or convergent laminae,
pinch-and-swell of the bed thickness and convex-up laminae sets
(Hand, 1974; Brennand, 1994; Blair, 1999; Alexander et al., 2001;
Fielding, 2006; Duller et al., 2008; Winsemann et al., 2009; Lang and
Winsemann, 2013; Cartigny et al., 2014; Dietrich et al., 2016).
Cyclic steps and chutes-and-pools are characterised by the occur-
rence of hydraulic jumps, which separate supercritical from subcritical
flow domains around the developing bedform (Fig. 1). Cyclic steps are
formed by regularly spaced trains of hydraulic jumps, which cause ero-
sion on the lee sides and deposition on the stoss sides of the bedforms
while they migrate upslope (Winterwerp et al., 1992; Taki and Parker,
2005; Kostic et al., 2010; Cartigny et al., 2014) (Fig. 1). In general, de-
posits of cyclic steps are characterised by upflow dipping backsets,
which are deposited on the stoss side of the bedform and onlap the
erosional bed boundary (Kostic and Parker, 2006; Cartigny et al.,
2011, 2014; Postma and Cartigny, 2014; Postma et al., 2014; Dietrich
et al., 2016). According to the depositional model by Postma et al.
(2014) and Postma and Cartigny (2014), cyclic-step deposits comprise
(i) deposits of the hydraulic-jump zone, which are dominated by virtu-
ally traction-less suspension settling, and (ii) stoss side deposits, which
are deposited by traction carpets with downflow increasing flow ca-
pacity and bed-shear stress, and decreasing sediment concentration.
These deposits may display ‘spaced stratification’ (cf., Hiscott, 1994),
which displays several centimetre thick sets, or ‘crude stratification’
(cf., Hiscott, 1994), which lacks sharp or erosional set contacts, due
to high rates of aggradation (Talling et al., 2012; Cartigny et al., 2013;
Postma et al., 2014).
In contrast to the regularly spaced upflow-migrating hydraulic
jumps defining cyclic steps, chutes-and-pools are characterised by
irregularly spaced, step-wise migrating hydraulic jumps (Alexander
et al., 2001; Taki and Parker, 2005; Kostic, 2011; Kostic et al., 2010;
Cartigny et al., 2014). Deposits of cyclic steps may be difficult to distin-
guish from those of chutes-and-pools because the formative flow condi-
tions and depositional processes are very similar and they eventually
form part of a continuum of processes and transitional depositional
forms (Taki and Parker, 2005; Kostic et al., 2010; Kostic, 2011, 2014;
Cartigny et al., 2014).
Different bedforms related to supercritical density flows may also
reflect variations in flow density and grain sizes. Flume experiments
with saline density flows demonstrate that antidunes can be deposited
from bedload alone (Taki and Parker 2005; Fedele et al., 2009, 2011;
Spinewine et al., 2009; Kostic et al., 2010). In contrast, cyclic steps are
formed predominantly by the transport of suspended load (Kostic
et al., 2010; Kostic, 2011), and their formation is generally characterised
by suspension settling downflow of the hydraulic jump (Cartigny et al.,
2011, 2014), although examples are known of aggradation also
upflow of hydraulic jumps, under probably high depositional rates
(e.g., Ventra et al., 2015). Cyclic steps were originally observed to form
in hyperconcentrated flows with sediment concentrations as high as
40% by volume (Winterwerp et al., 1992).
3. Regional setting and previous work
The Sandino Forearc Basin, formerly also referred to as the Nicaragua
Trough or Nicaragua Basin (Weyl, 1980; Astorga, 1988; Winsemann,
1992), belongs to the forearc area of the Central American arc-trench
system (Fig. 2A). The Cocos and Nazca Plates, remnants of the oceanic
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102
Fig. 1. Schematic sketch to illustrate the geometry, flow characteristics and dynamic zones of a cyclic-step train (modified after Cartigny et al., 2011; Covault et al., 2014).
Farallón Plate, are subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate along the
northwest-southeast trending Middle America Trench. The present-
day subduction velocity off Costa Rica, relative to the Caribbean Plate,
is 8.5 cm/year (DeMets, 2001).
The Sandino Forearc Basin (Fig. 2A) is situated beneath the present-
day coastal plain, shelf and slope of western Nicaragua and northwest-
ern Costa Rica and is fronted by an outerarc (Ranero et al., 2000;
Struss et al., 2008). The eastern boundary of the Sandino Forearc Basin
is formed by the Mateare Fault and the Costa Rica Fault Zone (Weyl,
1980; Astorga et al., 1991; Brandes and Winsemann, acc.). To the
south the Sandino Forearc Basin is bounded by the Hess Escarpment
(Seyfried et al., 1991; Winsemann, 1992, Barboza et al., 1993). The
Sandino Forearc Basin has a length of about 300 km and a width of
100 km. It may continue farther north into the Tehuantepec Basin,
offshore Guatemala and southwestern Mexico (Dengo, 2007).
The basement of the Sandino Forearc Basin probably consists of
an assemblage of older island-arc elements, which were accreted to
the continental Chortís Block during the Cretaceous (Mann et al.,
2007; Rogers et al., 2007a, 2007b; Brandes and Winsemann, acc.).
The fill of the Sandino Forearc Basin (Fig. 2B) has an average thick-
ness of 10 km, which exceeds 13 km in the central and northern
parts of the basin (e.g., Barboza et al., 1993; Ranero et al., 2000;
Struss et al., 2008; Stephens, 2014). It mainly consists of Upper
Cretaceous to Lower Miocene deep-water deposits (referred to as
the Rivas, Brito and Masachapa Formations), unconformably
overlain by up to 1300 m thick Middle Miocene to Pleistocene
shallow-water and continental deposits (Kolb and Schmidt, 1991;
Winsemann, 1992; Kumpulainen et al., 1999; Ranero et al., 2000;
Struss et al., 2007b, 2008; Brandes and Winsemann, acc.). From 68
to 30 Ma a linear subsidence trend can be observed, followed by a
short pulse of very rapid subsidence at the beginning of the late Oli-
gocene (Struss et al., 2008; Brandes and Winsemann, acc.). Since
then there has been a moderate subsidence. During the late Miocene,
flexural uplift along the present-day coastal plain started and was ac-
companied by a westward shift of the basin depocentre (Ranero
et al., 2000). The slow uplift continues along parts of the central
coast until today, and thickness variations across the main anticlines
indicate ongoing deformation (Struss et al., 2008).
3.1. Brito Formation
Previous work on the stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Upper
Palaeocene to Lower Oligocene Brito Formation has been published
by several authors (e.g., Baumgartner et al., 1984; Astorga, 1988;
Winsemann and Seyfried, 1991; Winsemann, 1992; Clowser et al.,
1993; Kumpulainen et al., 1999; Brandes et al., 2007b; Struss et al.,
2007a, 2007b, 2007c). The hydrocarbon potential was analysed by
Struss et al. (2008). The deposits of the Upper Eocene Brito Formation
mainly represent coarse-grained channel-levée complexes and inter-
channel deposits, probably deposited on the lower slope of the Sandino
81
Forearc Basin (Winsemann, 1992; Kumpulainen et al., 1999; Brandes
et al., 2007b; Struss et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c). The channel-levée com-
plexes overlie lobe deposits of early to middle Eocene age (Winsemann,
1992; Clowser et al., 1993).
The Upper Eocene Brito Formation is exposed along the Pacific coast
of northwestern Costa Rica and southwestern Nicaragua (Fig. 3). The
Costa Rica section is about 2500 m thick and the sedimentary succession
is characterised by large open folds with northwest-southeast trending
axes. Within this section coarse-grained channel complexes are inter-
bedded with up to 370 m thick interchannel and levée deposits. The
Nicaragua section is exposed parallel to strike and dips towards the
southwest. The sedimentary succession is about 800 to 1000 m thick
and consists of channelised coarse-grained sandstones and conglom-
erates, encased by interchannel and levée deposits, forming laterally
extensive thin- to medium-bedded fine-grained sandstones and silt-
stones (Figs. 3B, 4).
Palaeoflow data, mainly obtained from slump-fold axes, indicate
flows from east and northeast and a palaeoslope dip towards the west
and southwest (Fig. 3A). These palaeoflow data are in agreement with
the east-west to northeast-southwest trend of channel sandstone
bodies. Some slump-fold axes trend east-west and northeast-
southwest, indicating flows away from the channels oblique or parallel
to the palaeoslope. The compositional and textural immaturity of sand-
stones and conglomerates implies that the sediment was derived from
the nearby volcanic arc. Sub-rounded to well-rounded large clasts indi-
cate intense wave reworking along coastal cliffs (Winsemann and
Seyfried, 1991; Winsemann, 1992; Kumpulainen et al., 1999).
Resedimented neritic carbonates and bioclasts of corals, larger foraminif-
era, molluscs and echinoids have been derived from local carbonate
ramps (Seyfried et al., 1991; Winsemann and Seyfried, 1991;
Winsemann, 1992). The occurrence of reworked wood fragments in
sandstones and terrestrial type III kerogen in black shales (Struss et al.,
2008) indicates that hyperpycnal turbidity currents generated at river
mouths also transported sediment directly from the terrestrial area into
the ocean (cf., Plink-Björklund and Steel, 2004).
The channel-levée complexes of the Brito Formation are overlain by
deep-water slope deposits of the Upper Oligocene to Lower Miocene
Masachapa Formation, recording the increased phase of basin subsi-
dence during the late Oligocene (Struss et al., 2008; Brandes and
Winsemann, acc.). Towards the top, the slope deposits of the Masachapa
Formation pass into deltaic deposits (Struss, 2008).
3.2. Depositional architecture of the channel-levée complexes in the Upper
Eocene Brito Formation
Individual channel-levée complexes are 80 to 120 m thick, about 5 to
11 km wide and comprise several shingled channel-levée systems
(Fig. 4), with channels often showing nested or laterally offset stacking
patterns. Some channel-levée complexes are underlain by major slump
complexes, which resulted from sediment failure on the relatively steep
82 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102

Fig. 2. Overview of the study area. (A) Location and plate-tectonic setting of the Sandino Forearc Basin (modified from Brandes et al., 2008; Struss et al., 2008). (B) Cross-section of the
Sandino Forearc Basin (modified from Struss et al., 2008).

levée slopes (Winsemann, 1992; Brandes et al., 2007b; Struss et al.,
2007a, 2007b, 2007c). The channel-levée complexes are comparable
in dimension, thickness and grain size with those described from
other coarse-grained deep-water settings (e.g., Nilsen and Abbott,
1981; Clark and Pickering, 1996; Kirschner and Bouma, 2000; Dutton
et al., 2003; Kane et al., 2009a).
The channel-levée complexes of the Nicaragua section were proba-
bly deposited in a distal upper-fan to proximal mid-fan environment
(Winsemann, 1992; Kumpulainen et al., 1999; Struss et al., 2007b),
as suggested by the occurrence of lens-shaped channels with low aspect
ratios, the coarse-grained conglomeratic channel fills and the lateral
shingling of channel-levée systems (Normark et al., 1979; Bouma,
2000; Dutton et al., 2003). Lens-shaped channels with higher aspect ra-
tios (width/depth ratios) of the Costa Rica section point to a slightly
more distal mid-fan environment (Winsemann, 1992; Struss, 2001).
Individual channel-levée complexes probably represent third- or
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102 83

Fig. 3. Location and stratigraphy of the studied outcrop sections. (A) Outcrops of Upper Eocene channel-levée complexes of the Brito Formation along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and
Nicaragua. Data on the palaeoslope, palaeoflows and channels are compiled from Winsemann (1992), Brandes (2001), Struss (2001), Brandes et al. (2007b) and Struss et al. (2007a, 2007b,
2007c). (B) Stratigraphic column, showing the generalised stratigraphy of the Upper Palaeocene to Lower Miocene Brito and Masachapa Formations in the Sandino Forearc Basin
(compiled from Winsemann, 1992; INE, 1995; Struss et al., 2007c, 2008; Struss, 2008).

fourth-order depositional sequences, which are organised into a larger-
scale fining-upward retrogradational sequence set, probably related
to overall sea-level rise during the late Eocene (Winsemann, 1992;
Brandes, 2001).
In general, channel and levée deposits display erosive contacts and
levée beds cannot be traced into the adjacent channels. The main
phase of levée growth must therefore have occurred during the ero-
sional channel phases when most of the flows bypassed the channels,
and levée deposition resulted from extensive overspill of turbidity
flows with considerable supra-levée thickness (Winsemann, 1992;
Brandes et al., 2007b; Struss et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c).
Channels are filled with thick- to very thick-bedded conglomerates,
pebbly sandstones, thin- to thick-bedded sandstones and very thin- to
medium-bedded siltstones and mudstones, deposited from debris flows
and high- and low-density density turbidity currents (Winsemann,
1992; Kumpulainen et al., 1999; Brandes et al., 2007b; Struss et al.,
2007a, 2007b, 2007c). They often display meter-scale thinning- and
fining-upwards trends. The deposits consist of volcaniclastic material
and are partly rich in resedimented neritic carbonates, bioclasts of
corals, large foraminifera, molluscs, echinoids and wood fragments.
Trace fossils (Ophiomorpha isp. and Thalassinoides isp.) can be fre-
quently observed within sandy channel-fills (Winsemann, 1992). The
lens-shaped channels are 20 to 900 m wide and 5 to 50 m thick with
aspect ratios of up to 86:1. Individual channels occur either as isolated
features or are organised into larger-scale complexes. Stacking patterns
range from offset (nested) to vertically stacked (Struss et al., 2007a,
2007b, 2007c).
Associated levée deposits consist of laterally extensive very thin- to
medium-bedded fine-grained sandstones and siltstones with minor
mudstones, showing Bouma Ta-d and less frequently Bouma Te divisions
(Winsemann, 1992; Brandes et al., 2007b; Struss et al., 2007a, 2007b,
2007c). Flame structures, convolute bedding and rip-up clasts are com-
mon. Slump- and slide-horizons are up to 40 m thick and more than one
hundred meters wide, and result from levée failure. Most of the slump-
fold axes trend north-south, but occasionally northeast-southwest or
east-west trending slump-fold axes occur. Away from the channels
there is a decrease in sandstone bed thickness, percentage of amalgam-
ation, number of sandstone beds and net-to-gross sand ratio, indicating
a lateral decrease in the strength of overbank flows away from the
channel. Intercalated erosively based, medium- to very thick-bedded,
coarse-grained sandstones and pebbly sandstones are interpreted
as representing crevasse-splay and crevasse-channel deposits. Trace
fossils are occasionally observed (Chondrites isp., Thalassinoides isp.,
Ophiomorpha isp.). Levée deposits are organised into discrete packages
of 0.5 to 3 m thickness displaying larger-scale thickening- and
coarsening-upwards cycles of 3 to 10 m and locally up to 20 to 40 m.
Fining- and thinning-upward cycles are less common. Individual pack-
ages commonly have sharp and subhorizontal bounding surfaces
and are separated by very thin- to thin-bedded mudstone or siltstone
beds (Winsemann, 1992; Brandes, 2001; Brandes et al., 2007b; Struss,
2001; Struss et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c).
In the Nicaragua section, crevasse-splay deposits are scarce within the
levée deposits, whereas slump deposits occur frequently (Winsemann,
1992; Brandes et al., 2007b; Struss et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c), which is
an indicator for a more proximal environment associated with deeper
channels and higher levées (Piper et al., 1999). The levée deposits of
the Costa Rica section frequently contain crevasse-splay and crevasse-
channel elements, whereas slump deposits are rare (Winsemann, 1992;
84 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102

Fig. 4. Schematic cross-sections of channel-levée systems exposed along the Pacific coast of southwestern Nicaragua (modified after Brandes, 2001). For location see Fig. 3A. Log localities
are shown on the inset maps. (A) Cross-section of the channel-levée system Punta Sucia – Playa el Tamarindo – Punta Hermosa and representative logs from the channel-fill and levée
deposits. (B) Cross-section of the channel-levée system Punta Guacalito – Punta el Roble – Punta Lavadero del Muerto and representative logs from the channel-fill and levée deposits.

Struss, 2001), indicating increasing overspill processes related to spilling of the uppermost parts of turbidity currents, which may attain
shallower mid-fan channels and lower levées. Continuous overspill at a significant supra-levée flow thickness (Peakall et al., 2000). The scarce
both sides of channels is a volumetrically more important process in occurrence of slump deposits points to less steep levées associated with
mid-fan environments, and is caused by gradual, spatially extensive the shallower channels (Piper et al., 1999).
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102 85

4. Database and methodology 5. Deposits related to supercritical density flows

This study is based on a detailed lithological and photo-panel analy-
sis of coastal cliffs on the Pacific coast of northwest Costa Rica and south-
west Nicaragua. Where accessible, outcrops were measured at the scale
of individual beds, noting grain size, bed thickness, bed contacts, inter-
nal sedimentary structures and bed geometry. Palaeoflow directions
were obtained from cross-stratification and clast imbrications. The
terminology for gravel-clast fabric is after Walker (1975). The fabric
notation uses symbols a and b for the clast long and intermediate
axes, respectively, with indices (t) and (p) denoting axes orientation
transverse or parallel to flow direction, and index (i) denoting axes
imbrication. The notation Tabcde for turbidite deposits refers to the
Bouma divisions (Bouma et al., 1962). From photo panels, the 2D archi-
tecture and major bounding surfaces have been mapped in order to
document the larger-scale stacking pattern of facies associations and
architectural elements. The sedimentary facies, facies associations,
architectural elements and stacking patterns were interpreted in
terms of palaeoflow conditions and their temporal and spatial evolu-
tion. For the description of the stacking patterns, the terminology of
Pickering et al. (1995) was applied.
5.1. Large-scale amalgamated scour-fill complexes
Large-scale amalgamated scour-fill complexes were observed at
Punta Naranjo, Punta el Sucirio and Playa las Tablas and at several
small islands between Punta Naranjo and Punta el Sucirio (Nicaragua;
Figs. 3A, 5, 6A–D).
5.1.1. Description
Large-scale amalgamated scour fills are 18 to 29 m deep, 18 to 25 m
wide and have flow parallel lengths of 60 to N120 m. Amalgamated
scour fills comprise vertically or nested stacked scour fills, commonly
making individual scours difficult to discern. Individual scours are 6 to
8 m deep and 10 to 24 m long (length/depth aspect ratios of 1.6 to 3).
The scours have concave-up basal erosive surfaces and are steep-
walled, locally displaying near vertical boundaries (Figs. 5A, B, G,
6A, B, 7A). The basal infills of the scours commonly comprise clast- or
matrix-supported conglomerates, consisting of subrounded to well-
rounded cobbles to boulders (diameter up to 3 m), which are mostly
derived from volcanic rocks. Siltstone and sandstone intraclasts (up

Fig. 5. Facies architecture of large-scale amalgamated scour fills. For locations see Fig. 3A. (A) Overview photo and line drawing of the Punta Naranjo section (Nicaragua). Two large-scale
scours are incised into levée deposits. (B) The same two large-scale scours viewed from the southwest. The lateral offset between the scours is ~30 m. (C) Close-up view of the basal part of
Scour 2. Note the coarse-tail normal grading and crude stratification. Person for scale is 1.8 m. (D) Imbricated boulders with an a(p)a(i) fabric at the top of the basal conglomeratic fill
of Scour 2. Person for scale is 1.75 m. (E) Large intraclast (black outline), which was derived from levée deposits, embedded in coarse-tail normally graded and crudely stratified pebbly
sandstone. Person for scale is 1.87 m. (F) Close-up view of the basal part of Scour 2 viewed from the northwest. Finer-grained scour-margin deposits (darker beds) occur in the lower part of
the picture and are interbedded with pebbly sandstone, bearing large intraclasts. In the upper part of the picture an erosional surface is overlain by imbricated conglomerates and crudely
stratified pebbly sandstones. Persons for scale are 1.7 m. Photo by courtesy of H. Seyfried. (G) Photo and line drawing of large amalgamated scours backfilled with pebbly sandstone (Punta
el Sucirio, Nicaragua).
86 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102

Fig. 6. Facies architecture of large-scale amalgamated scour fills at the Punta las Tablas section (Nicaragua). For location see Fig. 3A. (A) Overview photo and line drawing of the Punta las
Tablas section. A large scour complex is incised into levée deposits. Levée deposits at the scour margin are slumped. Parts of a second scour fill occur at the top of the section. The inter-
pretive line drawing is modified after Struss et al. (2007a). (B) Close-up of the northwestern margin of the scour. Note the steepness of the scour margin. Person for scale is 1.75 m (circled).
(C) Close-up of the northwestern margin of the scour. Levée deposits at the scour margin are slumped and partly incorporated as intraclasts into the scour fill. Person for scale is 1.75 m
(circled). (D) Close-up of the scour fill. Note the amalgamation, crude stratification and large intraclasts (backpack for scale is 0.6 m high).

to 2.5 m in diameter) are subangular to angular and may display preser-
vation of internal structures (Figs. 5C, E, F, 6D). The conglomerates are
mainly massive or coarse-tail normally graded. Imbricated large boul-
ders with an a(p)a(i) fabric may occur at the top of the conglomeratic
scour fills (Fig. 5D). Occasionally backsets could be observed. The
upper parts of the scour fills commonly consist of pebbly sandstones,
which overlie the basal conglomerates. The overlying pebbly sandstones
display coarse-tail normal grading or crude or spaced subhorizontal
stratification, which is often discontinuous (Figs. 5C, D, 6D). Commonly,
the stratification becomes more distinct in the finer-grained upper parts
of the scour fills. Scattered cobble- to boulder-sized outsized clasts typ-
ically occur. Within the pebbly sandstones the scours form several
small-scale, 3 to 6 m thick, fining-upwards cycles. At the scour margins
up to 1 m thick finer-grained intercalations may be preserved. These
marginal deposits consist of thin- to medium-bedded siltstones and
fine-grained sandstones, which are massive or planar-parallel lami-
nated (Fig. 5F).
The scours are incised into siltstones and fine-grained sandstones
interpreted as levée and interchannel deposits (Winsemann, 1992;
Brandes, 2001; Struss et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c). The bedding in the
underlying deposits is locally strongly disrupted at the scour margins.
Beds are bent upwards and large rip-up clasts are incorporated into
the scour fills. Levée deposits at the scour margins are locally slumped
and parts of the slumped deposit are incorporated into the scour fill
(Fig. 6A–C).
5.1.2. Interpretation
The large-scale amalgamated scour-fill complexes are interpreted as
deposits of major hydraulic jumps. Intense erosion and the formation of
wide scours are attributed to the strong vortices generated by hydraulic
jumps (Long et al., 1991; Russell and Arnott, 2003; Cartigny et al., 2014).
Massive and normally graded conglomerates and pebbly sandstones in-
dicate hindered settling from suspension with negligible horizontal
shear due to the abrupt flow deceleration by hydraulic jumps (Leclair
and Arnott, 2003; Lennon and Hill, 2006; Postma et al., 2009, 2014,
2015). Intraclasts are characteristic features of erosional hydraulic-
jump zones, where pressure fluctuations and intense turbulence with
upward-directed flow trigger liquefaction and potential rip-up of the
unconsolidated substratum (Komar, 1971; Lennon and Hill, 2006;
Postma et al., 2009, 2014; Ito et al., 2014). Massive suspension fall-out
allows for the settling of sediment together with the disrupted substra-
tum and the preservation of coherent undeformed chunks of underly-
ing strata (Lennon and Hill, 2006; Postma et al., 2009, 2014, 2015). The
crude to widely spaced subhorizontal stratification in the upper parts
of the scour fills indicates decreasing sediment concentration and in-
creasing bed-shear stress, which may occur rapidly downflow of the
hydraulic jump (Postma and Cartigny, 2014; Postma et al., 2014). Im-
bricated clasts at the contact between conglomerates and pebbly sand-
stones indicate the interface between a basal high-density and an
upper, less dense flow layer (Postma et al., 1988, 2014; Cartigny
et al., 2013). These structures correspond to unit Tb4 in the
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102 87

Fig. 7. Characteristic geometries and dimensions of cyclic-step and antidune deposits. (A) Large-scale scour fills representing deposits of large-scale cyclic steps during initial channel
avulsion. Scour fills comprise amalgamated conglomerates and pebbly sandstones. The upper parts of the scour fills consist of crudely or spaced stratified pebbly sandstones. Locally,
finer-grained marginal deposits are preserved. (B) Small-scale cyclic-step deposits with superimposed antidune deposits, representing the characteristic infill of channels. Basal scour
fills are normally coarse-tail graded and are structureless or display backsets. The middle part comprises low-angle cross-stratified, subhorizontally stratified or sinusoidal stratified
pebbly sandstone. The top is formed by sinusoidally stratified sandstone.

depositional model for cyclic steps by Postma et al. (2014) and result
from flow acceleration and dilution with increasing distance downflow
of the hydraulic jump on the stoss-side of a cyclic step. Finer-grained
intercalations at the scour margins represent deposits of the subse-
quent waning flow stages and probably relate to the flow tail. The
multi-storey amalgamated fill of the scours points to individual flow
events, leading to repeated phases of erosion and deposition.
Large-scale scours, which commonly form linear trains, are a
well documented phenomenon from modern submarine fan surfaces
and are generally interpreted as formed by cyclic steps (Fildani et al.,
2006, 2013; Lamb et al., 2008; Heiniö and Davies, 2009; Kostic, 2011;
Armitage et al., 2012; Symons et al., 2016). The dimensions of the
scours in the Nicaragua section are similar to those of cyclic steps ob-
served on several modern small submarine fans offshore California
(Fildani et al., 2006, 2013; Normark et al., 2009; Maier et al., 2013;
Covault et al., 2014; Tubau et al., 2015). Trains of cyclic steps are
interpreted as representing an incipient stage of channel avulsion.
Flows spilling over the levée confinement form trains of cyclic steps,
which are typically net-erosional and incise the levée. Erosion and
breaching of the levée wall by cyclic steps may finally trigger channel
avulsion (Fildani et al., 2006, 2013; Armitage et al., 2012). Hydraulic
jumps are commonly thought to be triggered at a slope break (Komar,
1971; Mutti and Normark, 1987; Wynn et al., 2002a). Experiments
demonstrated that a hydraulic jump, formed at the downflow end of
a flume, will migrate upslope and thereby initiate a train of cyclic
steps (Taki and Parker, 2005; Spinewine et al., 2009; Muto et al.,
2012). The facies characteristics and depositional geometries in
the Sandino Forearc Basin match field examples of hydraulic-jump de-
posits from canyon and channel fills from the Tabernas Basin, Spain
(Postma et al., 2014), and the Kazusa Basin, Japan (Ito et al., 2014),
although the dimensions of the scours and the grain-sizes are larger
in the Sandino Forearc Basin. Similar, commonly even larger, scours
are also observed in channel-lobe transition zones of many modern
submarine fans and are also related to hydraulic jumps (Mutti and
Normark, 1987; Wynn et al., 2002a; Macdonald et al., 2011). However,
large-scale scours related to the channel-lobe transition zone are
typically associated with lobe deposits and infilled by deposits of
backstepping lobes (Mutti and Normark, 1987; Deptuck et al., 2008;
Hofstra et al., 2015).
5.2. Channel-fill successions
Channel-fill successions are exposed at Punta Santa Ana, Punta
el Sucirio, Punta Sucia, Playa el Tamarindo, Playa las Tablas, Punta
88 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102

Lavadero del Muerto, Bahía Jobo, Punta Descartes, Playa Guaria and
Bahía Cuajiniquil (Fig. 3A). The channel-fill successions include regular-
ly spaced scours infilled by conglomerate or pebbly sandstone, which
are laterally and vertically associated with laterally more extensive,
subhorizontally stratified, low-angle cross-stratified or sinusoidally
stratified pebbly sandstones and sandstones (Figs. 7B, 8, 9).
5.2.1. Regularly spaced scours infilled by conglomerates and pebbly
sandstones
5.2.1.1. Description. Scours are 0.2 to 2.6 m deep and 0.8 to 23 m
long, having aspect ratios (length/depth) between 2.1 and 13.3
(Fig. 7B). Most scours are asymmetric with steeper upflow margins

Fig. 8. Field examples of small-scale cyclic-step deposits with superimposed antidune deposits. For locations see Fig. 3A. (A) Photo panel, showing nested scour fills, which are interpreted
as cyclic-step deposits forming part of a channel fill (N′ Bahía Jobo, Costa Rica). (B) Photo panel, showing three laterally and vertically stacked scours, forming part of the channel fill shown
in Fig. 4A (N′ Playa el Tamarindo, Nicaragua). (C) Three vertically stacked successions of basal cyclic-step deposits overlain by antidune deposits (N′ Playa el Tamarindo, Nicaragua),
forming part of the channel fill shown in Fig. 4A.
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102 89

Fig. 9. Field examples of deposits of small-scale cyclic steps and superimposed antidunes. For locations see Fig. 3A. (A) Photo panel, illustrating lateral facies changes between small-scale
hydraulic-jump and antidune deposits within a channel fill (Punta la Flor, Nicaragua). (B) Close-up of A, showing a lenticular scour fill related to a hydraulic jump, which is intercalated
with low-angle and sinusoidally stratified sandstones deposited by antidunes. Rule is 0.2 m long (circled). (C) Close-up of A, showing low-angle cross-stratified sandstones and pebbly
sandstones, deposited by antidunes. (D) Close-up of A, showing subhorizontally stratified pebble conglomerates and pebbly sandstones deposited by antidunes. Rule is 0.2 m long.
(E) Photo panel, showing sinusoidally stratified sandstones and pebbly sandstones, deposited by stable antidunes as part of a channel fill (Punta Santa Ana, Nicaragua). (F) Close-up of
E, showing cross-stratified pebbly sandstone, representing deposition by breaking antidunes. (G) Close-up of E, showing cross-stratified pebbly sandstone in the lower part and a normally
graded scour fill in the upper part. (H) Sinusoidally stratified pebbly sandstone deposited by stable antidunes. The image is located just outside of the photo panel (Fig. 9E).

(Fig. 10A, D, E). The bases of the larger scours are characterised by reg-
ularly spaced, scoop-shaped, smaller-scale scours (Figs. 8B, 10A, C, E).
Scour fills consist of conglomerates or pebbly sandstones (Fig. 10).
The conglomerates are matrix-supported, comprising fine- to coarse-
grained sandstone. Clasts range from granules to cobbles with rare boul-
ders (diameter up to 0.8 m). Clasts are mostly derived from volcanic
rocks and are subrounded to well-rounded. Intraclasts consist of
mudstone, siltstone and fine-grained sandstone and are angular to
subrounded. The clast fabric is commonly chaotic, although the long
axes of elongate components may display crude imbrication with
an a(p)a(i) fabric. In general, the coarsest grain sizes occur within the
largest scours. Pebbly sandstones contain granule- to pebble-sized
clasts, with rare cobble-sized clasts. Internally the scour fills are mas-
sive, normally graded, coarse-tail normally graded or display backset
90 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102

Fig. 10. Photos and line drawings of deposits of the hydraulic-jump zone of cyclic steps, occurring within channel-fill successions. For locations see Fig. 3A. (A) Large scour filled by matrix-
supported conglomerates, displaying multiple cut-and-fill structures. (Punta Lavadero del Muerto, Nicaragua). Person for scale is 1.87 m. (B) Scour fill comprising matrix-supported
conglomerate, passing upwards into pebbly sandstone (N′ Playa el Tamarindo, Nicaragua). Visible part of the rule is ~0.9 m long. (C) Scour fill comprising low-angle cross-stratified pebbly
sandstone (N′ Playa el Tamarindo, Nicaragua). Visible part of the rule is ~0.65 m long. (D) Scour fill comprising cross-stratified pebble conglomerate (Punta Descartes, Costa Rica). Rule is
0.2 m long. (E) Two laterally stacked scours (Punta Descartes, Costa Rica). Rule is 0.2 m long.
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102
stratification (Figs. 8, 9A). Downflow and upwards, scour fills typically
evolve from a coarser-grained structureless division into a finer-
grained division with backsets. Individual backsets are 2 to 15 cm
thick and display normal or normal coarse-tail grading (Fig. 10B–D).
Backsets dip upflow at low angles and display concave- or convex-up
geometries with tangential basal contacts. In some scour fills backsets
are only indicated as crude discontinuous upflow-dipping stratification.
Backsets are either truncated at the upper boundary of the scours or
pass downflow and upwards into laterally extensive subhorizontal or
low-angle stratified pebbly sandstones (Fig. 8B, C).
5.2.1.2. Interpretation. Structureless and stratified coarse-grained scour
fills are interpreted as cut-and-fill structures, which record rapid ero-
sion instantaneously followed by deposition. These features are com-
monly related to hydraulic jumps, where intense scouring and rip-up
of the substratum is caused by pressure fluctuations and the strong
vortices (Long et al., 1991; Russell and Arnott, 2003; Cartigny et al.,
2014). The preservation of angular, partly imbricated, intraclasts
and steep scour margins indicates rapid deposition by highly concen-
trated flows immediately after scouring (Russell and Arnott, 2003;
Winsemann et al., 2009; Postma et al., 2014). The intense scouring
and rip-up of the substratum followed by deposition of structureless
beds indicate an explosive behaviour of the hydraulic jump, which is re-
lated to the dampening of gradual vertical dissipation of energy by the
internal stratification within high-density flows, leaving the upper
layer of the flow hardly affected (Postma et al., 2009). The steep up-
flow margins of most scours suggest retrogressive breaching as a
mechanism of backward propagation of the hydraulic jump. During
breaching, erosion is counteracted by negative pore pressure related
to shear dilatancy, allowing for the temporary formation of very steep
scour margins (Van den Berg et al., 2002; Cartigny et al., 2014). The
characteristic occurrence of scoop-shaped, smaller-scale scours at the
base of larger scours is related to the migration of the hydraulic jump
(cf., Duller et al., 2008; Cartigny et al., 2014), probably representing
the continuously shifting location of maximum turbulent impingement
and associated erosion within the overall structure of the migrating
hydraulic jump. The lateral transition from structureless deposits into
backsets points to a downflow increase in flow velocity and a decrease
of the sediment fall-out rate (Leclair and Arnott, 2003; Postma et al.,
2014; Postma and Cartigny, 2014).
5.2.2. Subhorizontal, low-angle cross-stratified and sinusoidal stratified
sandstones and pebbly sandstones
5.2.2.1. Description. Laterally extensive medium- to thick-bedded fine- to
coarse-grained sandstones and pebbly sandstones display subhorizontal
stratification, low-angle cross-stratification or sinusoidal stratification
(Figs. 8C, 9, 11). Beds display normal grading or normal coarse-tail
grading. Pebbly sandstones contain granules to pebbles, with rare
cobbles. Clasts are granule- to pebble-sized and subangular to rounded.
Intraclasts, consisting of angular to subangular mudstone and siltstone,
are very common. Disc- or blade-shaped clasts are commonly imbri-
cated displaying an a(p)a(i) fabric. In general, pebbly sandstones are
more commonly low-angle cross-stratified or subhorizontally strati-
fied, while sinusoidal stratification is more abundant in the finer-
grained sandstones. The internal stratification is characterised by di-
verging and converging laminasets and internal low-angle truncations,
which may be associated with discontinuous layers of coarser clasts
(Fig. 11C, D). The wave crests of sinusoidal stratified beds may be ver-
tically stacked or display upflow or downflow offsets (Figs. 8C, 11D).
Wavelengths range from 2.6 to 18 m in pebbly sandstones and from
0.5 to 8 m in sandstones with amplitudes ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 m.
The beds pinch and swell (Fig. 11A). The thickness of the internal
laminasets is 2 to 10 cm and commonly displays a spaced stratification
style. Within individual beds the sets commonly display thinning-up
trends. Basal bed contacts are erosional. Soft-sediment deformation
91
structures are very common and include convolute bedding and flame
structures. Convolute bedding may either obscure the sedimentary
structures or amplify primary sinusoidal stratification (Fig. 9E, H).
Locally, intercalated lenticular beds occur within the laterally exten-
sive pebbly sandstones (Fig. 9A–D). These isolated lenticular beds are
0.1 to 0.4 m thick, 0.8 to 1.5 m wide and generally contain more and
coarser clasts than the surrounding tabular deposits. Internally, these
isolated lenticular beds display either low-angle foreset or backset
stratification. Laterally extensive trains (up to 20 m) of lenticular beds
comprise trough and sigmoidal cross-stratified pebbly sandstone
(Fig. 12). Rarely, climbing sets of sigmoidal cross-stratified sandstone
are observed (Fig. 12B). Troughs are 0.2 to 1 m deep, 1 to 4 m wide
and have a spacing of 2 to 4 m. Upwards the cross-stratified sandstone
passes gradually into sinusoidal stratified sandstone (Fig. 12D).
5.2.2.2. Interpretation. Subhorizontally stratified, low-angle cross-
stratified and sinusoidally stratified sandstone and pebbly sandstone
are interpreted as antidune deposits (Cheel, 1990; Russell and Arnott,
2003; Lang and Winsemann, 2013; Cartigny et al., 2014). Sinusoidal
stratification indicates high rates of aggradation by stable quasi-steady
supercritical flows, allowing for the preservation of both the stoss
and lee sides of stable antidunes (Ito and Saito, 2006; Ito, 2010; Lang
and Winsemann, 2013). Vertically stacked wave crests indicate quasi-
stationary antidunes, while upflow or downflow offset crests indicate
upflow or downflow bedform migration. Subhorizontal stratification,
low-angle cross-stratification and internal truncations indicate deposi-
tion by upflow- or downflow-migrating stable antidunes, causing
more discontinuous aggradation (Fielding, 2006; Duller et al., 2008;
Ito, 2010; Lang and Winsemann, 2013). Pinch-and-swell of the beds
is related to lateral changes in bedform thickness (Mulder et al.,
2009). Antidune waves in density flows are considered to form as
interfacial instabilities at the boundary between the flow and the am-
bient water or, in stratified density flows, at internal density interfaces
(Prave and Duke, 1990; Mulder et al., 2009; Ito, 2010). The dynamics
of these instabilities are controlled by the vertical velocity gradient,
the density contrast and layer thickness within the flow (Cartigny
et al., 2013). The relatively short wavelength of the antidunes suggests
that antidunes relate to the thin basal high-density layer of a stratified
density flow.
Isolated lenticular beds with backsets or foresets are interpreted as
products of erosion and subsequent deposition by breaking antidune
waves, which are triggered by pulsating unstable flows or bed topogra-
phy (Alexander et al., 2001; Duller et al., 2008; Lang and Winsemann,
2013; Cartigny et al., 2014). The local occurrence of breaking antidune
deposits suggests an autogenic control on antidune wave-breaking, for
example by bed topography or pulsating flows.
Laterally extensive trains of lenticular beds, displaying trough or
sigmoidal cross-stratification, may either represent deposits of dunes
modified at Froude-transcritical flow stage or asymmetric downflow
migrating antidunes (Fielding, 2006; Fedele et al., 2009, 2011, in
press; Ito, 2010; Sequeiros et al., 2010). However, a clear distinction
between dunes and downflow migrating antidunes is hardly possible
from outcrop observation. Experiments by Sequeiros et al. (2010)
have shown that downflow-migrating antidunes have the same geom-
etries as dunes and also display flow separation in the lee of the
bedform, and therefore based the distinction between both types of
bedforms on the phasing between bedform and interfacial undulation.
The observed gradual downflow transitions of cross-stratified beds
into subhorizontally stratified deposits of antidunes may point to a
deposition by downflow migrating antidunes as shown in experi-
ments by Fedele et al. (2009). The occurrence of these distinct
bedforms may be controlled by the grain-size distribution. Both super-
critical dunes and asymmetric downflow-migrating antidunes relate
to coarser grain sizes at constant flow conditions (Fedele et al., in
press). Alternatively, dune-scale cross-stratification can represent depo-
sition by lower-density flows in off-axis channel settings (Pickering et al.,
92 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102

Fig. 11. Photos and line drawings of antidune deposits from channel-fill successions. For locations see Fig. 3A. (A) Subhorizontally stratified, sinusoidally stratified and low-angle cross-
stratified pebbly sandstone, displaying intense amalgamation (Punta el Sucirio, Nicaragua). (B) A scour filled by conglomerate with steeply dipping backsets (Bahía Cuajiniquil,
Costa Rica). (C) Subhorizontally stratified pebbly sandstone (N′ Bahía Jobo, Costa Rica). Lens cap diameter is 8 cm. (D) Sinusoidally stratified pebbly sandstone, which is overlain by a
coarser-grained scour fill. The arrow indicates soft-sediment deformation at the bed top (Bahía Cuajiniquil, Costa Rica). Rule is 0.2 m long.

2015) and is commonly associated with bypass surfaces (Stevenson
et al., 2015).
5.2.3. Lateral and vertical successions within the channel-fill deposits
5.2.3.1. Description. The scour fills and the laterally extensive stratified
beds form complex lateral and vertical complexes (Figs. 7–9). The
base of each complex is a laterally extensive erosive surface associated
with scour fills, which are commonly amalgamated to form scour
complexes that consist of laterally and vertically nested stacked
smaller-scale scours. The scour complexes are 10 to 34 m long and 0.4
to 4.5 m thick. Laterally the smaller-scale scours are regularly spaced
(0.8 to 6 m), giving the base of the scour-fill complexes an undulating
to irregular shape (Fig. 10A, C, E). Vertically, up to four nested, slightly
offset stacked scours may occur. The nested scours and their infills
commonly become smaller and finer-grained upwards. Laterally, the
scour complexes form regular trains with spacing ranging from 10.5 to
25 m. Because the scour width and spacing are of similar magnitudes,
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102 93

Fig. 12. Examples of cross-stratified pebbly sandstones. For locations see Fig. 3A. (A) Trough cross-stratified pebbly sandstone, interbedded with sinusoidally stratified pebbly sandstone
(N′ Bahía Jobo, Costa Rica). Lens cap diameter is 8 cm. (B) Climbing dune cross-stratification in pebbly sandstone (Bahía Cuajiniquil, Costa Rica). Rule is 0.2 m long. (C) Trough cross-
stratified pebbly sandstone passing laterally into sinusoidally stratified pebbly sandstone. Top is towards the right (Punta Descartes, Costa Rica). Rule is 0.2 m long. (D) Trough cross-
stratified pebbly sandstone, passing downflow into sinusoidally stratification. The top is towards the right (Punta Descartes, Costa Rica). Lens cap diameter is 8 cm.

scours truncate each other laterally. In some sections the dimensions of
the laterally stacked scours decrease downflow.
The basal scour fills are overlain by tabular, subhorizontally strati-
fied, low-angle cross-stratified or sinusoidally stratified sandstones
and pebbly sandstones. Upwards and downflow, gradual transitions
from scour fills into laterally more extensive beds are common
(Figs. 7–9). The pebbly sandstones form 1 to 4.3 m thick successions,
which pass into 0.9 to 2 m thick sandstone successions. The pebbly
sandstone and sandstone beds are characterised by upward fining,
thinning and a decreasing wavelength of sinusoidal bedforms.
Together, the coarse-grained basal scour fills and overlying laterally
extensive sandstones and pebbly sandstones form 1.5 to 7.3 m thick
complexes. Up to six such complexes were observed to form ~ 20 m
thick vertical stacks. Within the upper parts of the thicker complexes,
the number and size of scours decreases and scours become more
isolated, although they are connected by laterally extensive erosional
surfaces (Fig. 8C).
5.2.3.2. Interpretation. Regularly spaced scours related to hydraulic
jumps are interpreted as indicating a cyclic-step origin (Kostic and
Parker, 2006; Cartigny et al., 2011, 2014; Postma and Cartigny, 2014;
Postma et al., 2014; Bain and Hubbard, 2016). The basal part of each
succession comprises scour fills that pass upwards and downflow
from structureless, poorly sorted deposits into backsets, representing
deposition in the hydraulic-jump zone of cyclic steps. The migration of
the cyclic steps constantly shifts the focus of erosion and deposition,
94 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102
forming the laterally extensive basal erosional surface and leading to the
nested stacking of the scour fills. Gradual lateral and vertical transitions
from hydraulic-jump zone deposits into antidune deposits point to
the formation of superimposed antidunes on the stoss sides of cyclic
steps. Deposition on the stoss sides of cyclic steps is characterised
by downflow decreasing sediment concentration and increasing bed-
shear stress, causing a downflow evolution of the flow from steady de-
position to alternating phases of erosion and deposition (Postma and
Cartigny, 2014; Postma et al., 2014). The superimposed antidunes
form due to flow thinning and acceleration downflow of the hydraulic
jump, where supercritical flow conditions are re-established until the
next hydraulic jump occurs.
The formation of cyclic steps with superimposed antidunes may
occur at Froude numbers between 1 and 1.5 (Cartigny et al., 2014;
Kostic, 2014; Zhong et al., 2015). Modern examples of antidunes
superimposed on the stoss sides of cyclic steps have been recognised
in bathymetric data and confirmed by numerical simulation of the
formative flow conditions by Zhong et al. (2015). Similar bedforms de-
veloped on glacilacustrine delta plains during catastrophic lake drainage
(Winsemann et al., 2011). In contrast, Ventra et al. (2015) related cyclic
steps with superimposed antidunes within a delta-front succession to
fluctuations of the Froude number in unsteady hyperpycnal flows. In
the case of the studied successions, the observed lateral and vertical
transitions from cyclic-step into antidune deposits are consistent with
the model by Zhong et al. (2015).
The migration of the cyclic steps causes the complex stacking and
amalgamation of the scour fills and antidune deposits. The repeated ver-
tical stacking of successions of scour fills and antidune deposits indi-
cates deposition by successive flow events, which might have been
triggered by retrogressive slope failures (Mulder and Alexander, 2001;
Migeon et al., 2012; Hughes Clarke, 2016). Upwards, the overall fining,
thinning and decrease in scour size and antidune wavelength point to
deposition by successively smaller-scale flows.
Internally, the cyclic step-antidune successions indicate an evolu-
tion from an early stage, supercritical, unstable flow with cyclic steps
as the dominant bedforms, towards a later stage, more stable, super-
critical flow with antidunes as the dominant bedform (cf., Cartigny
et al., 2014). The antidune deposits commonly evolve upwards from
migrating to quasi-stationary antidunes, have shorter wavelengths,
are finer grained, thinner bedded and display less amalgamation than
the antidune deposits in the lower parts of the successions. These trends
point to waning flow conditions, resulting in a progressive decrease
in Froude number (Duller et al., 2008; Lang and Winsemann, 2013;
Cartigny et al., 2014). Flume experiments by Spinewine et al. (2009)
show cyclic steps passing downflow into antidunes. The lateral juxtapo-
sition of cyclic steps and antidunes may lead to the vertical stacking of
these bedforms under waning flow conditions, where antidunes replace
the cyclic steps further upslope.
5.3. Levée deposits
Levée deposits comprise laterally extensive, thin- to medium-
bedded fine-grained sandstones and siltstones with minor mudstones
(Figs. 4, 13A), which thin and fine away from channels. Beds commonly
show Bouma Ta–d divisions. Flame structures and convolute bedding
are very common and decrease in number away from the channel fills
(Winsemann, 1992; Brandes, 2001; Brandes et al., 2007b; Struss,
2001; Struss et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c). Bedforms deposited from su-
percritical density flows commonly occur within the coarser-grained
crevasse-splay and crevasse-channel deposits (Fig. 13B–F).
5.3.1. Description
Crevasse-splay and crevasse-channel deposits comprise lenticular or
tabular medium- to thick-bedded, medium- to coarse-grained sand-
stone and pebbly sandstone. Isolated lenticular up to 0.5 m thick pebbly
sandstone beds have erosional basal contacts and are normally graded.
Rip-up clasts derived from the underlying finer-grained levée deposits
are very common in the lower parts of these beds. The pebbly sandstone
passes upwards into coarse-grained sandstone with short-wavelength
(1–2 m) sinusoidal stratification (Fig. 13B, D). Tabular beds have
erosional basal contacts and display sinusoidal stratification with
wavelength between 1 and 8 m. Beds commonly form several metres
thick, fining-upwards successions, displaying upward-decreasing
wavelengths (Fig. 13D). Locally, isolated, 0.1 to 0.3 m thick and 0.6 to
2 m wide lenticular beds occur (Fig. 13C, E, F). Internally, these beds dis-
play low-angle, convex-up cross-stratification, dipping alternatively
upflow or downflow, or concentric fills.
5.3.2. Interpretation
Lenticular beds, which are normally graded and contain abundant
rip-up clasts, are interpreted as scour fills related to hydraulic jumps
(Russell and Arnott, 2003; Postma et al., 2009, 2014, 2015). Sinusoidally
stratified sandstone and pebbly sandstone within the levée deposits
are interpreted as deposits of aggrading stable antidunes, while associ-
ated lenticular low-angle cross-stratified beds point to deposition by
breaking antidunes (Cheel, 1990; Russell and Arnott, 2003; Lang
and Winsemann, 2013; Cartigny et al., 2014). The transition from nor-
mally graded pebbly sandstones into sinusoidally stratified pebbly
sandstones (Fig. 13B, E) points to a cyclic-step origin, as inferred for
the channel-fill successions. These deposits mainly occur in crevasse-
splay and crevasse-channel deposits attributed to single breaches in
the flanks of channels, where channel overflow is directed to a lower
level of the levées (Nilsen and Abbott, 1981; Dutton et al., 2003;
Morris et al., 2014), or represent early depositional stages under
unsteady flow conditions from flows that overspilled the channel-
margins, with consequent loss of energy as flows became unconfined
in the overbank area (Zelt and Rossen, 1995). The common association
with antidune deposits indicates that supercritical flow conditions are
commonly attained during crevasse-splay or crevasse-channel forma-
tion. Antidune wavelengths are much shorter than those observed in
sediment waves on modern levées (Normark et al., 1980, 2002). The ex-
posed antidune deposits may either represent deposits of stratified
flows, where bedform wavelength is controlled by the thickness of the
dense basal layer (Postma and Cartigny, 2014; Cartigny and Postma,
2016), or they may be superimposed on larger-scale bedforms beyond
the scale of the outcrops.
6. Discussion
The studied coarse-grained channel-levée systems indicate that
cyclic-step and antidune deposits represent important sedimentary
facies in these depositional systems, pointing to supercritical density
flows, which have only recently been incorporated into turbidite depo-
sitional models (Postma and Cartigny, 2014). Bedforms are very similar
to those described from other outcrops (Ito et al., 2014; Postma et al.,
2014; Ventra et al., 2015), seismic data (Heiniö and Davies, 2009;
Armitage et al., 2012) and modern systems (Covault et al., 2014;
Zhong et al., 2015). The analysis of these deposits provides insight into
the variability of the conditions and the role of supercritical density
flows for the evolution of channel-levée systems.
The majority of the studied channel-fill successions of the Brito
Formation have previously been interpreted as deposits of high-
density turbidity currents (Winsemann, 1992; Kumpulainen et al.,
1999; Brandes et al., 2007b; Struss et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c), following
older established depositional models (e.g., Lowe, 1982; Pickering et al.,
1986; Postma et al., 1988; Kneller and Branney, 1995; Shanmugam,
1996, 2000). Massive and normally graded conglomerates and sand-
stones were interpreted as deposited by rapid suspension fall-out
from high-density turbidity currents (cf., Lowe, 1982; Postma et al.,
1988; Talling et al., 2012) or sandy debris flows (cf., Shanmugam,
1996, 2000). Normal grading was attributed to hindered settling
(cf., Postma et al., 1988) and waning flow conditions (cf., Lowe, 1982;
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102 95

Fig. 13. Examples of levée deposits with bedforms related to supercritical flows. For locations see Fig. 3A. (A) Characteristic large-scale architecture of levée deposits, comprising laterally
thinning siltstone and sandstone beds (Bahía Cuajiniquil, Costa Rica). Cliff is ~25 m high. (B) Close-up of A, showing an erosively-based (arrows) crevasse-splay deposit consisting of basal
structureless coarse-tail normally graded pebbly sandstone overlain by sinusoidally stratified pebbly sandstone (Bahía Cuajiniquil, Costa Rica). Hammer is 0.3 m long. (C) Low-angle cross-
stratified pebbly sandstone, forming part of a crevasse-splay deposit (N′ Bahía Jobo, Costa Rica). Rule is 0.2 m long. (D) Sinusoidally stratified sandstone interpreted as antidune deposits
(N′ Bahía Jobo, Costa Rica). Rule is 1 m long. (E, F) Scoured sinusoidally stratified and low-angle cross-stratified pebbly sandstones (arrows). Person for scale is 1.72 m. (F) Close-up of A.

Kneller and Branney, 1995). Alternations of massive and graded de-
posits would point to rapid variations of the sediment concentration
(cf., Sohn, 1997). Individual beds deposited by high-density turbidity
currents commonly display tabular geometries and a broad thickness
maximum with a lateral extent of up to several kilometres (Talling
et al., 2012).
Fine and spaced planar stratification in (pebbly) sandstones de-
posited by high-density turbidity currents were both interpreted as
deposits of traction carpets, which form as dense near-bed layers and
are driven by the overlying flow (cf., Lowe, 1982; Hiscott, 1994; Sohn,
1997; Talling et al., 2012). The thickness of the planar stratification
sets depends primarily on the bed aggradation rate (cf., Talling et al.,
2012). The development of erosional set contacts and finer stratification
indicates flows, in which the suppression of turbulence is low and ve-
locity pulsations can reach the bed, while more widely spaced stratifi-
cation indicates strong dampening of turbulence by stratified high-
density flows (Hiscott, 1994; Cartigny et al., 2013).
6.1. Supercritical high-density turbidity flows
Our re-examination of the outcrops suggests that high-density tur-
bidity currents were commonly supercritical, as indicated by frequent
deposits of cyclic steps and antidunes. In the studied succession massive
and normally graded conglomerates and pebbly sandstones are gener-
ally restricted to scour fills (Figs. 5, 6, 8). Features as steep margins,
scooped bases and abundant rip-up clasts point to erosion by hydraulic
jumps (Komar, 1971; Vincente Bravo and Robles, 1995; Leclair and
Arnott, 2003; Lennon and Hill, 2006; Postma et al., 2009, 2014;
Cartigny et al., 2014) or megaflutes, which are attributed to erosion by
highly turbulent low-density flows and commonly record sediment by-
pass (Elliott, 2000; Wynn et al., 2002a; Lien et al., 2003; Kane et al.,
2009b). The geometry and dimensions of the observed scours are typi-
cal for hydraulic-jump zones, where scouring is considered to be imme-
diately followed by deposition, as indicated by massive or normally
graded infills, strong amalgamation, abundant rip-up clasts and soft-
96 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102
sediment deformation (Leclair and Arnott, 2003; Russell and Arnott,
2003; Postma et al., 2009, 2014). Sedimentary structures within sand-
stones and pebbly sandstones in the studied succession include sinusoi-
dal, subhorizontal stratification and low-angle cross-stratification
(Fig. 11), while planar stratification is virtually absent. These deposits
display all further characteristics of antidune deposits, including diver-
gent or convergent laminae, pinch-and-swell of the bed thickness, inter-
nal low-angle truncations and convex-up laminae sets (cf., Allen, 1984;
Alexander et al., 2001; Fielding, 2006; Duller et al., 2008; Ito, 2010; Lang
and Winsemann, 2013; Cartigny et al., 2014). The antidune deposits are
characterised by highly variable lamina thickness and may display a
crude or spaced stratification style (Figs. 8, 11). The stratification
style of antidune deposits is controlled by the aggradation rate, grain-
size distribution and amalgamation (Duller et al., 2008; Lang and
Winsemann, 2013; Cartigny et al., 2014) and many so-called ‘crudely
stratified’ or ‘spaced stratified’ deposits may actually represent antidune
deposits.
6.1.1. Variability of bedforms and flow conditions
The bedforms observed in the studied channel-levée complexes en-
compass the full range of bedforms related to supercritical flows known
from both experimental (Hand et al., 1972; Alexander et al., 2001;
Cartigny et al., 2014) and outcrop studies (Fielding, 2006; Duller et al.,
2008; Lang and Winsemann, 2013). Deposits of cyclic steps may be dif-
ficult to distinguish from those of chutes-and-pools because the forma-
tive flow conditions and depositional processes are very similar (Taki
and Parker, 2005; Kostic et al., 2010; Kostic, 2011; Cartigny et al.,
2014). The observed nested scours (Fig. 8) indicate steadily migrating
hydraulic jumps, in contrast to the stepwise migration of hydraulic
jumps in the chute-and-pool stability field (Cartigny et al., 2014).
Postma et al. (2014) state that scour fills associated with antidunes
may rather represent deposits of chutes-and-pools. The establishment
of aggrading supercritical flows on the stoss-sides of the observed cyclic
step indicates relatively low mean Froude numbers (~1.5) at the lower
limit of the cyclic-step stability field (Cartigny et al., 2014; Ventra et al.,
2015; Zhong et al., 2015). Cyclic-step deposits described by Postma et al.
(2014) from outcrops in the Tabernas Basin (Spain) lack superimposed
antidune deposits. The lack of superimposed antidune deposits may
relate to higher incoming Froude numbers of the turbidites in the
Tabernas Basin, resulting in lower conjugate Froude numbers downflow
of the hydraulic jump. When these flows subsequently resume to super-
critical conditions and traverse the antidune stability field, the flows are
non-depositional or erosional. In some outcrop sections, more isolated,
deep scour fills with steeply dipping backsets in association with
antidune deposits were observed (Playa el Tamarindo section, Fig. 8C),
which may represent deposits of chutes-and-pools. These chute-and-
pool deposits occur in the upper parts of the cyclic step-antidune suc-
cessions, matching the probably lower energy flows of successively
smaller flow events or pulses of overall waning flows.
The occurrence of cyclic steps with superimposed antidune deposits
may also reflect variations of the flow density and grain sizes. High
suspended sediment concentration and entrainment of sediment by
erosion promote the formation of hydraulic jumps (Kostic, 2011).
Finer grain sizes may foster the formation of antidunes under flow
conditions that would otherwise cause the formation of cyclic steps
(Cartigny et al., 2014; Fedele et al., in press). The deposition of the cyclic
step-antidune successions points to surge-type high-density flows,
where the highly erosive, dense and coarse-grained head of the flow is
followed by a less dense and finer-grained body (Lowe, 1982; Mulder
and Alexander, 2001). Repeated surveys of modern submarine channels
demonstrated that cyclic steps can form and migrate in response to very
short-lived surge-type flow events (Hughes Clarke et al., 2012, 2014;
Hughes Clarke, 2016). Once a train of bedforms is established on
the seafloor, each subsequent flow will interact with these bedforms
and contribute to their growth and migration (Kostic, 2014; Hughes
Clarke, 2016). Flow conditions during the passage of the body of a
density flow are more sustained and thus provide quasi-steady flow
conditions indicated by aggrading quasi-stationary antidune deposits.
The preservation of thick successions of bedforms related to supercriti-
cal flows further indicates longer-lived flows, which maintained steady
hydraulic conditions within the active depositional layer. Alternatively,
the thick successions may point to highly aggradational conditions,
especially for bedforms primarily related to bedload (i.e., antidunes).
Bedform aggradation was probably fostered by intense fall-out of sedi-
ment suspended in the dense basal layer, which added to bedform
growth. The preservation of the observed bedforms is likely caused
by a combination of longer-lived flows and intense sediment fall-out.
The occurrence of intense soft-sediment deformation in some section
(Figs. 9E, -H, 10A, E) provides further evidence of sustained highly
aggradational conditions. Locally, these structures are truncated and
amalgamation occurs (Fig. 9F, G), implying that syn-sedimentary defor-
mation triggered small-scale changes of the bed topography, which may
have interacted with the flow.
6.2. Implications for the evolution of channel-levée systems
The evolution of submarine channels is thought to be characterised
by an early phase of incision, bypass and levée construction, followed
by a subsequent stage of aggradational backfilling (e.g., Mutti and
Normark, 1987; Clark and Pickering, 1996; Pickering and Hiscott,
2015). The occurrence of deposits related to supercritical density
flows can be linked to these generalised phases of channel evolution,
which are therefore present in all sub-environments of the channel-
levée complexes (Fig. 15A).
The observed large-scale scours are interpreted as formed by hy-
draulic jumps related to cyclic steps, which developed during an
early stage of channel avulsion (Fig. 15A). Such large-scale cyclic
steps relate to flows spilling over the confining levées and may pre-
cede the development of an incipient channel (Kostic and Parker,
2006; Fildani et al., 2006, 2013; Armitage et al., 2012; Covault et al.,
2014). The orientation of these incipient channels is controlled by
the local slope gradients of the levées, and incision may be amplified
if pre-existing depressions are exploited (Brunt et al., 2013). Trains
of cyclic steps are triggered at slope breaks (Kostic, 2011), which
may be represented by the base of the levée wall (Brunt et al.,
2013). Erosion by supercritical density flows decreases the local re-
lief of the levée wall, reduces the confinement, and thus increases
the probability of an avulsion to occur (Armitage et al., 2012). The
scour fills were probably deposited when avulsion was fully in prog-
ress and high-density flows passed through the evolving channel.
However, the preservation potential of such basal cyclic-step de-
posits is generally low due to intense erosion during subsequent chan-
nel avulsion (Armitage et al., 2012). Large-scale scours may easily be
mistaken for small-scale channels (Wynn et al., 2002a; Hofstra et al.,
2015). The scour fills at Punta Naranjo and Playa las Tablas (Figs. 5, 6)
were previously interpreted as infills of small U-shaped channels by
Struss et al. (2007a, 2007b, 2007c). However, the geometry with the
preservation of steep upper margins and the infill by amalgamated
hydraulic-jump deposits indicates that these features most likely repre-
sent large-scale scour fills related to cyclic steps.
The erosive bypass-channel stage is characterised by entrenchment
of the channel floor and transport of sediment towards the channel
mouth and lobe (e.g., Mutti and Normark, 1987; Clark and Pickering,
1996; Pickering and Hiscott, 2015). Only the earliest phase of channel
formation is purely erosional, while overbank deposition rapidly gains
importance (Armitage et al., 2012; Brunt et al., 2013). Levées are con-
structed from flows overspilling the channel margins. Bedforms related
to hydraulic jumps and antidunes within crevasse-splay and crevasse-
channel deposits indicate supercritical flow conditions during levée
construction.
In the studied succession, the initial channel-backfilling phase is
characterised by deposition of small-scale cyclic step with superimposed
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102 97

antidunes (Fig. 15A, B). The channel fills related to the backfilling phase
have lenticular geometries with widths of N900 m (cf., Struss et al.,
2007b). During backfilling, flows typically splay from the main conduit
into more marginal areas of the channel as the channel becomes
overfilled (Bayliss and Pickering, 2015). The observed overall reduction
of the cyclic-step dimensions, antidune wavelengths, grain sizes and
bed thickness during channel backfilling indicate smaller magnitudes
of the individual density flows probably caused by upslope losses by
sedimentation. The uppermost part of some channel fills consists of
deposits of low-density residual flows (Struss et al., 2007b), which
were probably deposited after upslope avulsion when the channel no
longer represented a major conduit.
6.3. Comparison with modern examples
The size of the Eocene submarine fan(s) is not exactly known.
During the Eocene the drainage area supplying the Sandino Forearc
Basin was probably significantly larger than today. This configuration
changed during the late Oligocene (Brandes and Winsemann, in
review), when a major phase of extension affected southern Nicaragua

Fig. 14. Seismic section from the Limón Backarc Basin, showing Pleistocene to recent channel-levée systems, which may serve as an analogue for those of the Upper Eocene Brito Formation
(modified after Brandes et al., 2007a). Location is given in Fig. 2. (A) Zoomed-in view of a 7 km wide channel-levée system. The channel is underlain by high-amplitude reflector packages
(HARP). (B) Shoreline-parallel seismic section, crossing six individual channels (CH). (C) Dip-parallel seismic section.
98 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102

and created the intra-arc basin of the Nicaragua depression (Funk et al.,
2009). The Nicaragua depression is drained today by the Río San Juan,
leading to high sediment input into the backarc basins and the develop-
ment of the Río San Juan delta (Brandes et al., 2007a, 2007b) and the re-
lated large deep-sea fan in the West Colombian Basin (Bowland, 1993).
A modern analogue for the late Eocene system may thus be the deep-
water channel-levée systems of the Limón Backarc Basin offshore
eastern Costa Rica (Figs. 2A, 14). These Pleistocene to recent channel-
levée systems have been deposited in a water depth of approximately
500 m and probably form part of a larger fan complex at least 40 km
in width, which is fed by river systems. The channel-levée systems
are up to 7 km wide and laterally stacked (Brandes et al., 2007a)
(Fig. 14A, B) and comparable to those of the Upper Eocene channel-
levée complexes in the Sandino Forearc Basin. The channels are 0.8 to
2.3 km wide and approximately 150 m deep (Fig. 14A, B). Downslope
the channel-levée systems pass into fields of cyclic steps (Fig. 14C).
These cyclic steps are characterised by gently upslope-dipping reflec-
tions and undular seafloor topography. The wavelength of the cyclic
steps ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 km. The field of cyclic steps occurs ~2 km
downslope of a break in slope.

Fig. 15. Schematic depositional model. (A) Sketch of a submarine fan, showing the occurrence of deposits of supercritical density flows (grey). (B) Schematic cross-section of the cyclic
steps with superimposed antidunes (modified from Zhong et al., 2015).
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102
Supercritical density flows, forming large-scale cyclic steps, are
interpreted to have contributed to the early incision of channels and
the early deposition of the basal channel fills. The role of large-scale cy-
clic steps for the inception of channels on modern submarine fans is a
well-documented phenomenon (Fildani et al., 2006, 2013; Lamb et al.,
2008; Heiniö and Davies, 2009; Armitage et al., 2012; Covault et al.,
2014; Zhong et al., 2015) and has also been shown in flume tank exper-
iments (Taki and Parker, 2005; Spinewine et al., 2009; Muto et al.,
2012). Channels related to supercritical density flows represent early-
stage erosive channels that have a low sinuosity (Fildani et al., 2013;
Covault et al., 2014; Zhong et al., 2015). Channel sinuosity increases
during the later stages of channel evolution (Fildani et al., 2013).
Comparing the dimensions of cyclic-step and antidune deposits
from field examples to those known from bathymetric and seismic
surveys is hampered by a gap in scale. Besides limitations by outcrop
size on the one side and resolution issues on the other (cf., Covault
et al., in press), this mismatch in dimension probably originates from
different flow conditions (e.g., flow volume, thickness and density)
and/or the state of the channel (bypassing vs. backfilling). The large-
scale scour fills presented in this study and other field examples (Ito
et al., 2014; Postma et al., 2014) are just as large as the smallest scours
known from bathymetric data of modern systems (Normark et al.,
2009; Maier et al., 2013; Covault et al., 2014; Tubau et al., 2015;
Dorrell et al., 2016). Typically, scour trains and sediment waves ob-
served in bathymetric and seismic surveys are one to three orders
of magnitude larger (cf., Wynn et al., 2002a, 2002b; Ito et al., 2014).
The fields of cyclic steps associated with modern channel-levée sys-
tems in the Limón Backarc Basin, for example, have wavelengths
between 1.5 and 2.5 km (Fig. 14C). This poses clear practical limits
on the possibility to recognise deposits of large-scale cyclic steps in
outcrops.
The cyclic-step deposits observed in the Sandino Forearc Basin relate
to high-density turbidity flows, in which the development and geome-
try of cyclic steps were controlled by the thickness of the dense basal
layer of the flow (cf., Postma and Cartigny, 2014), resulting in relatively
small scours and short wavelengths. In contrast, most modern examples
of cyclic steps probably relate to low-density turbidity flows, where
bedform wavelengths are controlled by the total thickness of the overall
non-stratified flow (Postma and Cartigny, 2014; Cartigny and Postma,
2016). Modern examples of cyclic steps from passive continental
margins are connected to high-volume, low-density turbidity flows
(Kostic and Parker, 2006; Heiniö and Davies, 2009; Zhong et al., 2015)
and thus attain far larger dimensions. Cyclic steps formed in overbank
areas (Fildani et al., 2006; Normark et al., 2009; Armitage et al., 2012)
are also related to the low-density upper part of the flow, which over-
spills the channel confinement (Peakall et al., 2000). Other modern
cyclic steps are described from underfilled bypass channels, and grain-
sizes point to low-density flows (Lamb et al., 2008; Maier et al., 2013;
Covault et al., 2014; Tubau et al., 2015), where erosion generally ex-
ceeds deposition. The statistical analysis of bedforms observed on the
modern seafloor indicates that small-scale cyclic steps are formed by
high-density flows in confined settings (Symons et al., 2016). Finally,
the differences in flow conditions may also relate to the modern sea-
level highstand, which in many instances causes an overall lower
input of sediment to deep marine systems (e.g., Pickering and Hiscott,
2015). In contrast, the late Eocene channel-levée complexes in
the Sandino Forearc Basin were deposited during a period of high sedi-
ment supply from the volcanic arc (Winsemann and Seyfried, 1991;
Winsemann, 1992; Kumpulainen et al., 1999).
7. Conclusions
The studied Upper Eocene coarse-grained channel-levée complexes
from submarine fans of the Sandino Forearc Basin show that deposits
related to supercritical density flows are important sedimentary facies
within these successions. The morphodynamics of cyclic steps and
99
antidunes strongly impacted the evolution of the channel-levée systems
from the early stage of avulsion, levée construction and backfilling.
▪ Deposits of supercritical density flows are characterised by (i) steep-
walled scours filled by coarse-tail normally graded conglomer-
ates and pebbly sandstones, commonly comprising backsets, and
(ii) subhorizontally stratified, sinusoidally stratified or low-angle
cross-stratified pebbly sandstones and sandstones. Bedforms are
interpreted as representing deposits of cyclic steps, stable antidunes
and breaking antidunes.
▪ Large-scale scour-fill complexes are 18 to 29 m deep, 18 to 25 m
wide and 60 to N120 m long. The multi-storey infill of the scours
comprises amalgamated conglomerates, pebbly sandstones and
finer-grained scour-margin deposits. These scours are interpreted
as related to the formation of large-scale cyclic steps, which formed
during channel avulsion. Large-scale scour-fill complexes related to
cyclic steps can be distinguished from small-scale channel fills based
on the preservation of a steep upper margin and an infill comprising
amalgamated hydraulic-jump zone deposits.
▪ The channel-fill deposits are characterised by deposits of small-scale
cyclic steps with superimposed antidunes. Regularly spaced scours
(0.2 to 2.6 m deep, 0.8 to 23 m long) filled by conglomerates or peb-
bly sandstones, displaying normal coarse-tail grading or backsets,
represent deposits of the hydraulic-jump zone of cyclic steps. The
scour fills pass upwards and downflow into subhorizontal, low-
angle and sinusoidally stratified sandstones and pebbly sandstones
interpreted as antidune deposits. The antidunes formed on the
stoss-side of the cyclic steps due to flow re-acceleration downflow
of the hydraulic jump. Repetitive cyclic step-antidune successions
form the characteristic infill of mid-fan channels, and were deposited
from successive supercritical high-density turbidity flows, probably
triggered by retrogressive slope failures. The association of cyclic
step and antidune deposits points to relatively low Froude numbers
at around 1.5 as shown in flow simulations by Zhong et al. (2015).
The field examples indicate that so-called crudely or spaced stratified
deposits may commonly represent antidune deposits with varying
stratification styles controlled by the aggradation rate, grain-size dis-
tribution and amalgamation.
▪ The dimensions of the cyclic-step and antidune deposits in the
Sandino Forearc Basin are smaller than those known from modern
submarine fan systems. This difference probably relates to the depo-
sition by stratified high-density turbidity flows, where bedform
wavelengths are controlled by the thickness of the dense basal layer
actually responsible for sedimentation and bedform development.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank editor J. Knight, reviewer D. Ventra and an
anonymous reviewer for their efforts and constructive comments on
the manuscript. This study benefitted from previous field work with
A. Astorga, S. Rohs, I. Struß and C. Vandré. We thank D. Hoyal, J. Fedele,
G. Gaillot and M. Perillio for insightful discussion. Comments by
D. Hoyal and P. Talling on an earlier version of the manuscript helped
to sharpen our ideas. We also would like to thank A. Astorga, L. Campos,
M. Montenegro, H. Seyfried, M. Solís, F. Wezel and N. Zamora for support
and hospitality.
References
Alexander, J., Bridge, J.S., Cheel, R.J., Leclair, S.F., 2001. Bedforms and associated sedimen-
tary structures formed under supercritical water flows over aggrading sand beds.
Sedimentology 48, 133–152.
Allen, J.R.L., 1984. Sedimentary structures: their character and physical basis. Develop-
ments in Sedimentology 30. Elsevier, Amsterdam (663 pp.).
Armitage, D.A., McHargue, T., Fildani, A., Graham, S.A., 2012. Postavulsion channel
evolution: Niger Delta continental slope. AAPG Bulletin 96, 823–843.
100 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102
Astorga, A., 1988. Geodinámica de las cuencas del Cretácico Superior - Paleógeno de la
región “forearc” del Sur de Nicaragua y Norte de Costa Rica. Revista Geologica de
América Central 9, 1–40.
Astorga, A., Fernandez, J.A., Barboza, G., Campos, L., Obando, J., Aguilar, A., Obando, L.G.,
1991. Cuencas sedimentarias de Costa Rica: evolucion geodinamica y potencial de
hidrocarburos. Revista Geologica de América Central 13, 25–59.
Bain, H.A., Hubbard, S.M., 2016. Stratigraphic evolution of a long-lived submarine channel
system in the Late Cretaceous Nanaimo group, British Columbia, Canada. Sedimentary
Geology 337, 113–132.
Barboza, G., Astorga, A., Bottazzi, G., Barrientos, J., Muñoz, A., Darce, M., Duarte, M.,
Espinoza, M., 1993. Integrated petroleum evaluation report, Pacific margin, Sandino
basin, Nicaragua. INE Internal Report (199 pp.).
Baumgartner, P.O., Mora, C., Butterlin, J., Sigal, J., Clacon, G., Azema, J., Bourgois, J., 1984.
Sedimentación y paleogeografía del Cretácico y Cenozoico del litoral Pacifíco de
Costa Rica. Revista Geologica de América Central 1, 57–136.
Bayliss, N.J., Pickering, K.T., 2015. Deep-marine structurally confined channelised sandy
fans: Middle Eocene Morillo system, Ainsa Basin, Spanish Pyrenees. Earth-Science
Reviews 144, 82–106.
Blair, T.C., 1999. Sedimentary processes and facies of the waterlaid Anvil Spring Canyon
alluvial fan, Death Valley, California. Sedimentology 46, 913–940.
Bouma, A.H., 2000. Coarse-grained and fine-grained turbidite systems as end member
models: applicability and dangers. Marine and Petroleum Geology 17, 137–143.
Bouma, A.H., Kuenen, P.H., Shepard, F.P., 1962. Sedimentology of some Flysch Deposits:
A Graphic Approach to Facies Interpretation. Elsevier, Amsterdam (168 pp.).
Bowland, C.L., 1993. Depositional history of the western Colombian Basin, Caribbean Sea,
revealed by seismic stratigraphy. GSA Bulletin 105, 1321–1345.
Brandes, C., 2001. Faziesarchitektur grobklastischer Channel-Levee-Komplexe im Bereich
des Sandino-Beckens, SW-Nicaragua. (Diploma Thesis). Universität Hannover (127 pp.).
Brandes, C., Winsemann, J., 2017. From an incipient island arc to a doubly vergent orogen:
a review of geodynamic models and sedimentary basin-fills of southern Central
America. Island Arc (acc.).
Brandes, C., Astorga, A., Back, S., Littke, R., Winsemann, J., 2007a. Fault control on sediment
distribution patterns, Limón Back-arc Basin. Journal of Petroleum Geology 30, 25–40.
Brandes, C., Struss, I., Vandré, C., Winsemann, J., 2007b. Architecture of proximal, midfan
levee deposits, Punta Farallónes La Flor, Nicaragua. In: Nilsen, T.H., Shew, R.D.,
Steffens, G.S., Studlick, J.R.J. (Eds.), Atlas of Deep-Water OutcropsAAPG Studies in
Geology 56. AAPG, Tulsa, pp. 271–273.
Brandes, C., Astorga, A., Littke, R., Winsemann, J., 2008. Basin modelling of the Limón
Back-arc Basin (Costa Rica): burial history and temperature evolution of an island-
arc related basin system. Basin Research 20, 119–142.
Brennand, T.A., 1994. Macroforms, large bedforms and rhythmic sedimentary sequences
in subglacial eskers, south-central Ontario: implications for esker genesis and melt-
water regime. Sedimentary Geology 91, 9–55.
Brunt, R.L., Di Celma, C.N., Hodgson, D.M., Flint, S.S., Kavanagh, J.P., van der Merwe, W.C.,
2013. Driving a channel through a levee when the levee is high: an outcrop example
of submarine down-dip entrenchment. Marine and Petroleum Geology 41, 134–145.
Cartigny, M.J.B., Postma, G., 2016. Turbidity current bedforms. In: Guillén, J., Acosta-Yepes,
J., Chiocci, F.L., Palanques, A. (Eds.), Atlas of Bedforms in the Western Mediterranean.
Springer, Cham, pp. 29–33.
Cartigny, M.J.B., Postma, G., van den Berg, J.H., Mastbergen, D., 2011. A comparative study
of sediment waves and cyclic steps based on geometries, internal structures and
numerical modelling. Marine Geology 280, 40–56.
Cartigny, M.J.B., Eggenhuisen, J.T., Hansen, E.W., Postma, G., 2013. Concentration-
dependent flow stratification in experimental high-density turbidity currents and
their relevance to turbidite facies models. Journal of Sedimentary Research 83,
1046–1064.
Cartigny, M.J.B., Ventra, D., Postma, G., van den Berg, J.H., 2014. Morphodynamics and
sedimentary structures of bedforms under supercritical-flow conditions: new in-
sights from flume experiments. Sedimentology 61, 712–748.
Cheel, R.J., 1990. Horizontal lamination and the sequence of bed phases and stratification
under upper-flow-regime conditions. Sedimentology 37, 517–529.
Clark, J.D., Pickering, K.T., 1996. Architectural elements and growth patterns of submarine
channels: application to hydrocarbon exploration. AAPG Bulletin 80, 194–220.
Clowser, D.R., Cutler, I., Girges, M.H., Laing, J.F., Wall, D., 1993. Nicaragua (Project
CAM-009): Biostratigraphic and Geochemical Studies of Outcrop Samples, Report
No. 4782/IB, Project No. Ib/15429. Simon Petroleum Technology Limited, Llandudno,
Gwynedd, UK.
Covault, J.A., Kostic, S., Paull, C.K., Ryan, H.F., Fildani, A., 2014. Submarine channel initia-
tion, filling and maintenance from sea-floor geomorphology and morphodynamic
modelling of cyclic steps. Sedimentology 61, 1031–1054.
Covault, J.A., Kostic, S., Paull, C.K., Sylvester, Z., Fildani, A., 2017. Cyclic steps and related
supercritical bedforms: building blocks of deep-water depositional systems, western
North America. Marine Geology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2016.12.009
(in press).
Demets, C., 2001. A new estimate for present-day Cocos-Caribbean plate motion: implica-
tions for slip along the Central American volcanic arc. Geophysical Research Letters
28, 4043–4046.
Dengo, C.A., 2007. Petroleum geology. In: Bundschuh, J., Alvarado, G.E. (Eds.), Central
America: Geology, Resources and Hazards. Taylor and Francis Group, London,
pp. 895–916.
Deptuck, M.E., Piper, D.J., Savoye, B., Gervais, A., 2008. Dimensions and architecture of late
Pleistocene submarine lobes off the northern margin of East Corsica. Sedimentology
55, 869–898.
Dietrich, P., Ghienne, J.F., Normandeau, A., Lajeunesse, P., 2016. Upslope-migrating
bedforms in a proglacial sandur delta: cyclic steps from river-derived underflows?
Journal of Sedimentary Research 86, 113–123.
Dorrell, R.M., Peakall, J., Sumner, E.J., Parsons, D.R., Darby, S.E., Wynn, R.B., Özsoy, E.,
Tezcan, D., 2016. Flow dynamics and mixing processes in hydraulic jump arrays: im-
plications for channel-lobe transition zones. Marine Geology 381, 181–193.
Duller, R.A., Mountney, N.P., Russell, A.J., Cassidy, N.C., 2008. Architectural analysis of a
volcaniclastic jökulhlaup deposit, southern Iceland: sedimentary evidence for super-
critical flow. Sedimentology 55, 939–964.
Dutton, S.P., Flanders, W.A., Barton, M.D., 2003. Reservoir characterization of a Permian
deep-water sandstone, East Ford field, Delaware basin, Texas. AAPG Bulletin 87,
609–627.
Elliott, T., 2000. Megaflute erosion surfaces and the initiation of turbidite channels.
Geology 28, 119–122.
Eriksson, K.A., 1980. Hydrodynamic and paleogeographic interpretation of turbidite
deposits from the Archean Fig Tree Group of the Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa. GSA Bulletin 91, 21–26.
Fedele, J.J., Guentzel, C., Hoyal, D.C., 2009. Experiments on bedforms created by density
currents. Proceedings of RCEM 2009, pp. 833–840.
Fedele, J.J., Hoyal, D.C., Draper, J.M., 2011. Supercritical bedforms under density currents.
Proceedings of RCEM 2011, pp. 1–9.
Fedele, J.J., Hoyal, D.C., Barnaal, Z., Tulenko, J., Awalt, S., 2017. Bedforms created by gravity
flows. In: Budd, D., Hajek, E., Purkis, S. (Eds.), Autogenic Dynamics and Self-Organization
in Sedimentary Systems. SEPM Special Publication 106. http://dx.doi.org/10.2110/
sepmsp.106.12 (in press).
Fielding, C.R., 2006. Upper flow regime sheets, lenses and scour fills: extending the range
of architectural elements for fluvial sediment bodies. Sedimentary Geology 190,
227–240.
Fildani, A., Normark, W.R., Kostic, S., Parker, G., 2006. Channel formation by flow stripping:
large-scale scour features along the Monterey East Channel and their relation to
sediment waves. Sedimentology 53, 1265–1287.
Fildani, A., Hubbard, S.M., Covault, J.A., Maier, K.L., Romans, B.W., Traer, M., Rowland, J.C.,
2013. Erosion at inception of deep-sea channels. Marine and Petroleum Geology 41,
48–61.
Funk, J., Mann, P., McIntosh, K., Stephens, J., 2009. Cenozoic tectonics of the Nicaraguan
depression, Nicaragua, and Median Trough, El Salvador, based on seismic-reflection
profiling and remote-sensing data. GSA Bulletin 121, 1491–1521.
Hamilton, P.B., Strom, K.B., Hoyal, D.C., 2015. Hydraulic and sediment transport properties
of autogenic avulsion cycles on submarine fans with supercritical distributaries.
Journal of Geophysical Research - Earth Surface 120, 1369–1389.
Hand, B.M., 1974. Supercritical flow in density currents. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology
44, 637–648.
Hand, B.M., Middleton, G.V., Skipper, K., 1972. Antidune cross-stratification in a turbidite
sequence, Cloridorme Formation, Gaspé, Québec. Sedimentology 18, 135–138.
Heiniö, P., Davies, R.J., 2009. Trails of depressions and sediment waves along submarine
channels on the continental margin of Espirito Santo Basin, Brazil. GSA Bulletin 121,
698–711.
Hirst, J.P.P., 2012. Ordovician proglacial sediments in Algeria: insights into the controls on
hydrocarbon reservoirs in the In Amenas field, Illizi Basin. In: Huuse, M., Redfern, J.,
Le Heron, D.P., Dixon, R.J., Moscariello, A., Craig, J. (Eds.), Glaciogenic Reservoirs.
Geological Society of London, Special Publication 368, pp. 319–353.
Hiscott, R.N., 1994. Traction-carpet stratification in turbidites-fact or fiction? Journal of
Sedimentary Research 64, 204–208.
Hofstra, M., Hodgson, D.M., Peakall, J., Flint, S.S., 2015. Giant scour-fills in ancient channel-
lobe transition zones: formative processes and depositional architecture. Sedimentary
Geology 329, 98–114.
Hoyal, D.C., Sheets, B., Wellmer, R.W., Box, D., Sprague, A., Bloch, R., 2011. Architecture of
Froude critical-supercritical submarine fans: tank experiments versus field observa-
tions. AAPG Search and Discovery Article #90124.
Hoyal, D.C., Demko, T., Postma, G., Wellmer, R.W., Pederson, K., Abreu, V., Fedele, J.J., Box,
D., Sprague, A., Ghayour, K., Strom, K., Hamilton, P., 2014. Evolution, architecture
and stratigraphy of Froude supercritical submarine fans. AAPG Search and Discovery
Article #90189.
Hughes Clarke, J.E., 2016. First wide-angle view of channelized turbidity currents links
migrating cyclic steps to flow characteristics. Nature Communications 7, 118960.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11896.
Hughes Clarke, J.E., Brucker, S., Muggah, J., Hamilton, T., Cartwright, D., Church, I., Kuus, P.,
2012. Temporal progression and spatial extent of mass wasting events on the Squamish
prodelta slope. In: Eberhardt, E., Froese, C., Turner, K., Leroueil, S. (Eds.), Landslides
and Engineered Slopes: Protecting Society Through Improved Understanding. Taylor
and Francis Group, London, pp. 1091–1096.
Hughes Clarke, J.E., Videra Marques, C.R., Pratomo, D., 2014. Imaging active mass-wasting
and sediment flows on a Fjord Delta, Squamish, British Columbia. In: Krastel, S.,
Behrmann, J.H., Volker, D., Stipp, M., Berndt, C., Urgeles, R., Chaytor, J., Huhn, K.,
Strasser, M., Bonnevie Harbitz, C. (Eds.), Submarine Mass Movements and Their
Consequences VIAdvances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research vol. 37.
Springer, Cham, pp. 249–260.
Ielpi, A., Ventra, D., Ghinassi, M., 2016. Deeply channelled Precambrian rivers:
remote sensing and outcrop evidence from the 1.2 Ga Stoer Group of NW Scotland.
Precambrian Research 281, 291–311.
INE, 1995. Geological Field Guide of Sandino Basin Onshore. Instituto Nicaragüense de
Energie (INE), Managua (47 pp.).
Ito, M., 2010. Are coarse-grained sediment waves formed as downstream-migrating
antidunes? Insights from an early Pleistocene submarine canyon on the Boso
Peninsula, Japan. Sedimentary Geology 226, 1–8.
Ito, M., Saito, T., 2006. Gravel waves in an ancient canyon: analogous features and forma-
tive processes of coarse-grained bedforms in a submarine-fan system, the Lower
Pleistocene of the Boso peninsula, Japan. Journal of Sedimentary Research 76,
1274–1283.
 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102
Ito, M., Ishikawa, K., Nishida, N., 2014. Distinctive erosional and depositional structures
formed at a canyon mouth: a lower Pleistocene deep-water succession in the Kazusa
forearc basin on the Boso Peninsula, Japan. Sedimentology 61, 2042–2062.
Kane, I.A., Dykstra, M.L., Kneller, B.C., Tremblay, S., McCaffrey, W.D., 2009a. Architecture of
a coarse-grained channel–levée system: the Rosario Formation, Baja California,
Mexico. Sedimentology 56, 2207–2234.
Kane, I.A., McCaffrey, W.D., Martinsen, O.J., 2009b. Allogenic vs. autogenic controls on
megaflute formation. Journal of Sedimentary Research 79, 643–651.
Kennedy, J.F., 1963. The mechanics of dunes and antidunes in erodible-bed channels.
Journal of Fluid Mechanics 16, 521–544.
Kirschner, R.H., Bouma, A.H., 2000. Characteristics of a distributary channel-levee-
overbank system, Tanqua Karoo. In: Bouma, A.H., Stone, C.G. (Eds.), Fine-Grained
Turbidite SystemsAAPG Memoir 72. AAPG, Tulsa, pp. 233–244.
Kneller, B.C., Branney, M.J., 1995. Sustained high‐density turbidity currents and the depo-
sition of thick massive sands. Sedimentology 42, 607–616.
Kolb, W., Schmidt, H., 1991. Depositional sequences associated with equilibrium coast-
lines in the Neogene of southwestern Nicaragua. In: MacDonald, D.I.M. (Ed.),
Sedimentation, Tectonics and Eustasy: Sea-level Changes at Active MarginsIAS
Special Publication 12. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 259–272.
Komar, P.D., 1971. Hydraulic jumps in turbidity currents. GSA Bulletin 82, 1477–1487.
Kostic, S., 2011. Modeling of submarine cyclic steps: controls on their formation,
migration, and architecture. Geosphere 7, 294–304.
Kostic, S., 2014. Upper flow regime bedforms on levees and continental slopes: turbidity
current flow dynamics in response to fine-grained sediment waves. Geosphere 10,
1094–1103.
Kostic, S., Parker, G., 2006. The response of turbidity currents to a canyon-fan transition:
internal hydraulic jumps and depositional signatures. Journal of Hydraulic Research
44, 631–653.
Kostic, S., Sequeiros, O., Spinewine, B., Parker, G., 2010. Cyclic steps: a phenomenon of su-
percritical shallow flow from the high mountains to the bottom of the ocean. Journal
of Hydro-Environment Research 3, 167–172.
Kumpulainen, R.A., Högdahl, K., Ólafsson, G., Muñoz, A., Valle, M., 1999. Sedimentology
and stratigraphy of the fore-arc basin in southwestern Nicaragua. In: Elming, S.Å.,
Widenfalk, L., Rodrigues, D. (Eds.), Geoscientific Research in Nicaragua: Swedish-
Nicaraguan Joint Project during the Period 1981–1991. Luleå Technical University,
Luleå, pp. 107–116.
Lamb, M.P., Parsons, J.D., Mullenbach, B.L., Finlayson, D.P., Orange, D.L., Nittrouer, C.A.,
2008. Evidence for superelevation, channel incision, and formation of cyclic steps
by turbidity currents in Eel Canyon, California. GSA Bulletin 120, 463–475.
Lang, J., Winsemann, J., 2013. Lateral and vertical facies relationships of bedforms
deposited by aggrading supercritical flows: from cyclic steps to humpback dunes.
Sedimentary Geology 296, 36–54.
Leclair, S.F., Arnott, R.W.C., 2003. Coarse-tail graded, structureless strata: indicators of an
internal hydraulic jump. In: Roberts, H.H., Rosen, N.C., Filion, R.H., Anderson, J.B.
(Eds.), Shelf Margin Deltas and Linked Down Slope Petroleum Systems: Global
Significance and Future Exploration Potential. SEPM, Houston, pp. 817–836.
Lennon, J.M., Hill, D.F., 2006. Particle image velocimetry measurements of undular and
hydraulic jumps. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 132, 1283–1294.
Lien, T., Walker, R.G., Martinsen, O.J., 2003. Turbidites in the Upper Carboniferous
Ross Formation, western Ireland: reconstruction of a channel and spillover system.
Sedimentology 50, 113–148.
Long, D., Rajaratnam, N., Steffler, P.M., Smy, P.R., 1991. Structure of flow in hydraulic
jumps. Journal of Hydraulic Research 29, 207–218.
Lowe, D.R., 1982. Sediment gravity flows: II depositional models with special reference to
the deposits of high-density turbidity currents. Journal of Sedimentary Research 52,
279–297.
Macdonald, H.A., Wynn, R.B., Huvenne, V.A., Peakall, J., Masson, D.G., Weaver, P.P.,
McPhail, S.D., 2011. New insights into the morphology, fill, and remarkable longevity
(N0.2 my) of modern deep-water erosional scours along the northeast Atlantic
margin. Geosphere 7, 845–867.
Maier, K.L., Fildani, A., Paull, C.K., McHargue, T.R., Graham, S.A., Caress, D.W., 2013. Deep-
sea channel evolution and stratigraphic architecture from inception to abandonment
from high-resolution Autonomous Underwater Vehicle surveys offshore central
California. Sedimentology 60, 935–960.
Mann, P., Rogers, R.D., Gahagan, L., 2007. Overview of plate tectonic history and its unre-
solved tectonic problems. In: Bundschuh, J., Alvarado, G.E. (Eds.), Central America:
Geology, Resources and Hazards. Taylor and Francis Group, London, pp. 201–237.
Migeon, S., Mulder, T., Savoye, B., Sage, F., 2012. Hydrodynamic processes, velocity struc-
ture and stratification in natural turbidity currents: results inferred from field data in
the Var Turbidite System. Sedimentary Geology 245, 48–62.
Morris, E.A., Hodgson, D.M., Brunt, R.L., Flint, S.S., 2014. Origin, evolution and anatomy of
silt-prone submarine external levées. Sedimentology 61, 1734–1763.
Mukti, M.M., Ito, M., 2010. Discovery of outcrop-scale fine-grained sediment waves in the
lower Halang Formation, an upper Miocene submarine-fan succession in West Java.
Sedimentary Geology 231, 55–62.
Mulder, T., Alexander, J., 2001. The physical character of subaqueous sedimentary density
flows and their deposits. Sedimentology 48, 269–299.
Mulder, T., Razin, P., Faugeres, J.-C., 2009. Hummocky cross-stratification-like structures
in deep-sea turbidites: Upper Cretaceous Basque basins (Western Pyrenees,
France). Sedimentology 56, 997–1015.
Muto, T., Yamagishi, C., Sekiguchi, T., Yokokawa, M., Parker, G., 2012. The hydraulic
autogenesis of distinct cyclicity in delta foreset bedding: flume experiments. Journal
of Sedimentary Research 82, 545–558.
Mutti, E., Normark, W.R., 1987. Comparing examples of modern and ancient turbidite
systems: problems and concepts. In: Leggett, J.K., Zuffa, G.G. (Eds.), Marine Clastic
Sedimentology. Graham and Trotman, London, pp. 1–38.
101
Nilsen, T.H., Abbott, P.L., 1981. Paleogeography and sedimentology of Upper Cretaceous
turbidites, San Diego, California. AAPG Bulletin 65, 1256–1284.
Normark, W.R., Piper, D.J.W., Hess, G.R., 1979. Distributary channels, sand lobes, and
mesotopography of Navy submarine fan, California Borderland, with applications to
ancient fan sediments. Sedimentology 26, 749–774.
Normark, W.R., Hess, G.R., Stow, D.A.V., Bowen, A.J., 1980. Sediment waves on the
Monterey Fan levee: a preliminary physical interpretation. Marine Geology 37, 1–18.
Normark, W.R., Piper, D.J., Posamentier, H., Pirmez, C., Migeon, S., 2002. Variability in form
and growth of sediment waves on turbidite channel levees. Marine Geology 192,
23–58.
Normark, W.R., Paull, C.K., Caress, D.W., Ussler, W., Sliter, R., 2009. Fine-scale relief related
to Late Holocene channel shifting within the floor of the upper Redondo Fan, offshore
Southern California. Sedimentology 56, 1690–1704.
Peakall, J., McCaffrey, B., Kneller, B., 2000. A process model for the evolution, morphology,
and architecture of sinuous submarine channels. Journal of Sedimentary Research 70,
434–448.
Pickering, K.T., Hiscott, R.N., 2015. Deep Marine Systems. Wiley, Chichester (657 pp.).
Pickering, K., Stow, D., Watson, M., Hiscott, R., 1986. Deep-water facies, processes and
models: a review and classification scheme for modern and ancient sediments.
Earth-Science Reviews 23, 75–174.
Pickering, K.T., Clark, J.D., Smith, R.D.A., Hiscott, R.N., Lucchi, F.R., Kenyon, N.H., 1995.
Architectural element analysis of turbidite systems, and selected topical problems
for sand-prone deep-water systems. In: Pickering, K.T., Hiscott, R.N., Kenyon, N.H.,
Ricci Lucci, F., Smith, R.D.A. (Eds.), Atlas of Deep Water Environments: Architectural
Style in Turbidite Systems. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 1–10.
Pickering, K.T., Corregidor, J., Clark, J.D., 2015. Architecture and stacking patterns of lower-
slope and proximal basin-floor channelised submarine fans, Middle Eocene Ainsa
System, Spanish Pyrenees: an integrated outcrop–subsurface study. Earth-Science
Reviews 144, 47–81.
Piper, D.J.W., Hiscott, R.N., Normark, W.R., 1999. Outcrop-scale acoustic facies analysis
and latest Quaternary development of Hueneme and Dume submarine fans, offshore
California. Sedimentology 46, 47–78.
Plink-Björklund, P., Steel, R.J., 2004. Initiation of turbidity currents: outcrop evidence of
hyperpycnal flow turbidites. Sedimentary Geology 165, 29–52.
Postma, G., Cartigny, M.J.B., 2014. Supercritical and subcritical turbidity currents and their
deposits – a synthesis. Geology 42, 987–990.
Postma, G., Nemec, W., Kleinspehn, K.L., 1988. Large floating clasts in turbidites: a mech-
anism for their emplacement. Sedimentary Geology 58, 47–61.
Postma, G., Cartigny, M.J.B., Kleverlaan, K., 2009. Structureless, coarse-tail graded Bouma
Ta formed by internal hydraulic jump of the turbidity current? Sedimentary Geology
219, 1–6.
Postma, G., Kleverlaan, K., Cartigny, M.J.B., 2014. Recognition of cyclic steps in sandy
and gravelly turbidite sequences, and consequences for the Bouma facies model.
Sedimentology 61, 2268–2290.
Postma, G., Hoyal, D.C., Abreu, V., Cartigny, M.J.B., Demko, T., Fedele, J.J., Kleverlaan, K.,
Pederson, K.H., 2015. Morphodynamics of supercritical turbidity currents in the
channel-lobe transition zone. In: Lamarche, G., Mountjoy, J., Bull, S., Hubble, T.,
Krastel, S., Lane, E., Micallef, A., Moscardelli, L., Mueller, C., Pecher, I., Woelz, S.
(Eds.), Submarine Mass Movements and Their Consequences. Springer, Cham,
pp. 469–478.
Prave, A.R., Duke, W.L., 1990. Small-scale hummocky cross-stratification in turbidites:
a form of antidune stratification? Sedimentology 37, 531–539.
Ranero, C.R., von Huene, R., Flueh, E., Duarte, M., Baca, D., McIntosh, K., 2000. A cross
section of the convergent Pacific margin of Nicaragua. Tectonics 19, 335–357.
Rogers, R.D., Mann, P., Emmet, P.A., 2007a. Tectonic terranes of the Chortís block based on
integration of regional aeromagnetic and geologic data. In: Mann, P. (Ed.), Geologic
and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate in Northern Central AmericaGSA
Special Paper 428. The Geological Society of America, Boulder, pp. 65–88.
Rogers, R.D., Mann, P., Emmet, P.A., Venable, M.E., 2007b. Colon fold belt of Honduras:
Evidence for Late Cretaceous collision between the continental Chortís block and
intraoceanic Caribbean arc. In: Mann, P. (Ed.), Geologic and Tectonic Development
of the Caribbean Plate in Northern Central AmericaGSA Special Paper 428. The
Geological Society of America, Boulder, pp. 129–149.
Russell, H.A.J., Arnott, R.W.C., 2003. Hydraulic jump and hyperconcentrated-flow deposits
of a glacigenic subaqueous fan: Oak Ridges Moraine, Southern Ontario, Canada.
Journal of Sedimentary Research 73, 887–905.
Sequeiros, O.E., Spinewine, B., Beaubouef, R.T., Sun, T., Garcia, M.H., Parker, G., 2010.
Bedload transport and bed resistance associated with density and turbidity currents.
Sedimentology 57, 1463–1490.
Seyfried, H., Astorga, A., Amann, H., Calvo, C., Kolb, W., Schmidt, H., Winsemann, J., 1991.
Anatomy of an evolving Island Arc: tectonic and eustatic control in the south Central
American forearc area. In: MacDonald, D.I.M. (Ed.), Sedimentation, Tectonics and
Eustacy: Sea-level Changes at Active MarginsIAS Special Publication 12. Blackwell
Science, Oxford, pp. 273–292.
Shanmugam, G., 1996. High-density turbidity currents: are they sandy debris flows?
Journal of Sedimentary Research 66, 2–10.
Shanmugam, G., 2000. 50 years of the turbidite paradigm (1950s–1990s): deep-water
processes and facies models – a critical perspective. Marine and Petroleum Geology
17, 285–342.
Slootman, A., Cartigny, M.J.B., Moscariello, A., Chiaradia, M., de Boer, P.L., 2016. Quantifica-
tion of tsunami-induced flows on a Mediterranean carbonate ramp reveals cata-
strophic evolution. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 444, 192–204.
Sohn, Y.K., 1997. On traction-carpet sedimentation. Journal of Sedimentary Research 67,
502-209.
Spinewine, B., Sequeiros, O.E., Garcia, M.H., Beaubouef, R.T., Sun, T., Savoye, B., Parker, G.,
2009. Experiments on wedge-shaped deep sea sedimentary deposits in minibasins
102 J. Lang et al. / Sedimentary Geology 349 (2017) 79–102
and/or on channel levees emplaced by turbidity currents. Part II. Morphodynamic
evolution of the wedge and of the associated bedforms. Journal of Sedimentary
Research 79, 608–628.
Stephens, J.H., 2014. Tectonic and Depositional History of an Active Forearc Basin, Sandino
Basin, Offshore Nicaragua. (PhD Thesis). The University of Texas, Austin (128 pp.).
Stevenson, C.J., Jackson, C.A.L., Hodgson, D.M., Hubbard, S.M., Eggenhuisen, J.T., 2015.
Deep-water sediment bypass. Journal of Sedimentary Research 85, 1058–1081.
Struss, I., 2001. Aufbau und Stapelungsmuster obereozäner Channel-Levee-Komplexe des
Sandino-Beckens, NW Costa Rica (Diploma Thesis, 111 pp.).
Struss, I., 2008. The Petroleum Potential of the Sandino Forearc Basin. (PhD Thesis).
Universität Hannover (176 pp.).
Struss, I., Blisniuk, P., Brandes, C., Kischkies, M., Winsemann, J., 2007a. Channel geometries
and internal deformation patterns of the Playa Las Tablas channel-levee system,
Nicaragua. In: Nilsen, T.H., Shew, R.D., Steffens, G.S., Studlick, J.R.J. (Eds.), Atlas of
Deep-Water OutcropsAAPG Studies in Geology 56. AAPG, Tulsa, pp. 265–267.
Struss, I., Brandes, C., Blisniuk, P.M., Winsemann, J., 2007b. Eocene deep-water channel–
levee deposits, Nicaragua: channel geometries and internal deformation patterns
of six outcrops. In: Nilsen, T.H., Shew, R.D., Steffens, G.S., Studlick, J.R.J. (Eds.), Atlas
of Deep-Water OutcropsAAPG Studies in Geology 56. AAPG, Tulsa (31 pp.).
Struss, I., Brandes, C., Vandré, C., Winsemann, J., 2007c. Lithofacies and depositional archi-
tecture of an upper fan channel complex, Punta Naranjo, Nicaragua. In: Nilsen, T.H.,
Shew, R.D., Steffens, G.S., Studlick, J.R.J. (Eds.), Atlas of Deep-Water OutcropsAAPG
Studies in Geology 56. AAPG, Tulsa, pp. 268–270.
Struss, I., Artiles, V., Cramer, B., Winsemann, J., 2008. The petroleum system in the Sandino
Forearc Basin, offshore western Nicaragua. Journal of Petroleum Geology 31, 221–244.
Symons, W.O., Sumner, E.J., Talling, P.J., Cartigny, M.J.B., Clare, M.A., 2016. Large-scale
sediment waves and scours on the modern seafloor and their implications for the
prevalence of supercritical flow. Marine Geology 371, 130–148.
Taki, K., Parker, G., 2005. Transportational cyclic steps created by flow over an erodible
bed. Part 1. Experiments. Journal of Hydraulic Research 43, 488–501.
Talling, P.J., Masson, D.G., Sumner, E.J., Malgesini, G., 2012. Subaqueous sediment density
flows: depositional processes and deposit types. Sedimentology 59, 1937–2003.
Talling, P.J., Allin, J., Armitage, D.A., Arnott, R.W., Cartigny, M.J.B., Clare, M.A., Felletti, F.,
Covault, J.A., Girardclos, S., Hansen, E., Hill, P.R., Hiscott, R.N., Hogg, A.J., Hughes
Clarke, J., Jobe, Z.R., Malgesini, G., Mozzato, A., Naruse, H., Parkinson, S., Peel, F.J.,
Piper, D.J.W., Pope, E., Postma, G., Rowley, P., Sguazzini, A., Stevenson, C.J., Sumner,
E.J., Sylvester, Z., Watts, C., Xu, J., 2015. Key future directions for research on turbidity
currents and their deposits. Journal of Sedimentary Research 85, 153–169.
Tubau, X., Paull, C.K., Lastras, G., Caress, D.W., Canals, M., Lundsten, E., Anderson, K.,
Gwiazda, R., Amblas, D., 2015. Submarine canyons of Santa Monica Bay, Southern
California: variability in morphology and sedimentary processes. Marine Geology
365, 61–79.
Van Den Berg, J.H., Van Gelder, A., Mastbergen, D.R., 2002. The importance of breaching as
a mechanism of subaqueous slope failure in fine sand. Sedimentology 49, 81–95.
Ventra, D., Cartigny, M.J.B., Bijkerk, J.F., Acikalin, S., 2015. Supercritical-flow structures
on a Late Carboniferous delta front: sedimentologic and paleoclimatic significance.
Geology 43, 731–734.
Vincente Bravo, J., Robles, S., 1995. Large-scale mesotopographic bedforms from the
Albian Black Flysch, northern Spain: characterization, setting and comparison with
recent analogues. In: Pickering, K.T., Hiscott, R.N., Kenyon, N.H., Ricci Lucci, F., Smith,
R.D.A. (Eds.), Atlas of Deep Water Environments: Architectural Style in Turbidite
Systems. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 216–226.
Walker, R.G., 1967. Turbidite sedimentary structures and their relationship to proxi-
mal and distal depositional environments. Journal of Sedimentary Research 37,
25–43.
Walker, R.G., 1975. Conglomerates: sedimentary structures and facies models. In: Harms,
J.C., Walker, R.G., Spearing, D. (Eds.), Depositional Environments as Interpreted from
Primary Sedimentary Structures and Stratification Sequences. SEPM Short Course
Lecture Notes 12. SEPM, Houston, pp. 133–161.
Weyl, R., 1980. Geology of Central America. Borntraeger, Berlin (371 pp.).
Winsemann, J., 1992. Tiefwasser-Sedimentationsprozesse und -produkte in den Forearc-
Becken des mittelamerikanischen Inselbogensystems: eine sequenzstratigraphische
Analyse. Profil 2 (218 pp.).
Winsemann, J., Seyfried, H., 1991. Response of deep-water forearc systems to sea-level
changes, tectonic activity and volcaniclastic input in central America. In: MacDonald,
D.I.M. (Ed.), Sea-level Changes at Active Plate Margins: Processes and ProductsIAS
Special Publication 12. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 217–240.
Winsemann, J., Hornung, J.J., Meinsen, J., Asprion, U., Polom, U., Brandes, C., Bußmann, M.,
Weber, C., 2009. Anatomy of a subaqueous ice-contact fan and delta complex, Middle
Pleistocene, NW Germany. Sedimentology 56, 1041–1076.
Winsemann, J., Brandes, C., Polom, U., 2011. Response of a proglacial delta to rapid high-
amplitude lake-level change: an integration of outcrop data and high-resolution
shear wave seismics. Basin Research 23, 22–52.
Winterwerp, J.C., Bakker, W.T., Mastbergen, D.R., van Rossum, H., 1992. Hyperconcentrated
sand-water mixture flows over erodible bed. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 118,
1508–1525.
Wynn, R.B., Kenyon, N.H., Masson, D.G., Stow, D.A.V., Weaver, P.P.E., 2002a. Characteriza-
tion and recognition of deep-water channel-lobe transition zones. AAPG Bulletin 86,
1441–1462.
Wynn, R.B., Piper, D.J., Gee, M.J., 2002b. Generation and migration of coarse-grained
sediment waves in turbidity current channels and channel–lobe transition zones.
Marine Geology 192, 59–78.
Yagishita, K., 1994. Antidunes and traction-carpet deposits in deep-water channel sand-
stones, Cretaceous, British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Sedimentary Research 64,
34–41.
Zelt, F.B., Rossen, C., 1995. Geometry and continuity of deep-water sandstones and siltstones,
Brushy Canyon Formation (Permian) Delaware Mountains, Texas. In: Pickering, K.T.,
Hiscott, R.N., Kenyon, N.H., Ricci Lucci, F., Smith, R.D.A. (Eds.), Atlas of Deep Water
Environments: Architectural Style in Turbidite Systems. Chapman and Hall, London,
pp. 167–183.
Zhong, G., Cartigny, M.J.B., Kuang, Z., Wang, L., 2015. Cyclic steps along the South Taiwan
Shoal and West Penghu submarine canyons on the northeastern continental slope of
the South China Sea. GSA Bulletin 127, 804–824.