HVAC DESIGN THUMB RULES

Anuj Bhatia

AIR-CONDITIONING CAPACITY

1) A ton of refrigeration (1TR) signifies the ability of air-

conditioning equipment to extract heat @ 12000 Btu/hr.
ASHARE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-
conditioning Engineers, Inc) has put together a table using
national average data showing the Sq-ft/Ton as follows:

Sq-ft/Ton High Average Low

Residential 600 500 380

Office 360 280 190

3) Each building is different and the design conditions differ

greatly between regions to region. Factors to consider when
figuring the sq-ft/ ton ratio include:

 Climate conditions (design temperatures)

 Expansive use of glass-particularly in the south and west

orientations

 High ceilings-increasing the conditioned volume of the

space

 Outside air requirements-especially important in high

occupant load areas like conference rooms and
classrooms.
 Heat generating equipment – example computers, copiers,
laser printers, big screen TV’s etc.

 Lighting-especially the extensive use of incandescent and

metal halide lights. Fluorescent lights are more efficient
and burn cooler-however; their ballasts generate a fair
amount of heat.

Application Average Load

Residence 400-600 sq. ft. floor area per

Apartment (1 or 2 room) ton

Church 400 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

20 people per ton

Office Building

Large Interior 340 sq. ft. of floor area per

Large Exterior ton

Small Suite 250 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

280 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

Restaurant 200 sq. ft. of floor area per

Bar or Tavern ton

Cocktail Lounge 9 people per ton

175 sq. ft. of floor area per

Application Average Load

ton

Computer Room 50 – 150 sq. ft. of floor area

Bank (main area) per ton

Barber Shop 225 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

250 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

Beauty Shop 180 sq. ft. of floor area per

School Classroom ton

Bowling Alley 250 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

1.5 – 2.5 tons per alley

Department Store

Basement 350 sq. ft. of floor area per

Main Floor ton

Upper Floor 300 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton
Small Shop
400 sq. ft. of floor area per
ton

225sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

Dress Shop 280 sq. ft. of floor area per

 Application Average Load

Drug Store ton

Factory (precision 150 sq. ft. of floor area per

manufacturing) ton

275 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

Groceries – Supermarket 350 sq. ft. of floor area per

Hospital Room ton

Hotel Public Spaces 280 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

220sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

Motel 400 sq. ft. of floor area per

Auditorium or Theatre ton

20 people per ton

Shoe Store 220 sq. ft. of floor area per

Specialty & Variety Store ton

200 sq. ft. of floor area per

ton

Air-conditioning requirements are higher (200 to 400 sq-ft/Ton)

for hot and humid regions and lower (150 – 200 sq-ft/Ton) for
cooler places.
Note: The figures above indicative only. It is recommended to
always generate a detailed heating and cooling load calculation
(such as using Manual J) for the building or space in question.

AIR CONDITIONER CAPACITY RANGES

The application and unit capacity ranges are as follows:

1. Room air conditioner - Capacity ranges 0.5 to 2 TR per

unit, suitable for an area of not more than 1000 square
feet

2. Packaged unit integral air-cooled condenser - Capacity

ranges 3 to 50 TR, suitable for a maximum an area of
1000 – 10000 square feet

3. Split system with outdoor air-cooled condenser - Capacity

ranges 0.5 to 50 TR, suitable for an area of 100 – 10000
square feet

4. Central air-conditioning chilled water system with air

cooled condensers – Capacity ranges of 20 to 400 TR,
suitable for an area of 4000 sq-ft and higher

5. Central air-conditioning chilled water systems with

outdoor water cooled condenser - Capacity ranges 20 to
2000 TR, suitable for an area of 4000 sq-ft and higher.

COOLING CAPACITY SELECTER FOR HOMES

Air conditioners are sized by cooling capacity in BTU's per hour.
To estimate the optimum capacity for any room, first calculate
the size of the area to be conditioned by multiplying its width
times its length, measured in feet. Then select the cooling
capacity needed using the table below, The BTU's associated
with the square footage will give an approximate optimum for
the space.

Cooling Capacity
Room Area Square Feet
(BTU range)

10X15 150 up to 5200

10X20 200 6000

15X20 300 7500

17X20 340 8000

18X25 450 10000

22X25 550 12000

25X28 700 14000

25X32 800 15000

25X34 850 16000

25X40 1000 18000

27.5X40 1100 20000

35X40 1400 24000

37.5X40 1500 28000

40X40 1600 32000

 Cooling Capacity
Room Area Square Feet
(BTU range)

Notes to using the table above

Cooling capacities are based on rooms occupied by two people

and having average insulation, number of windows, and sun
exposure.

To adapt the table for varying conditions, modify the capacity

figures as follows:

1. Reduce capacity by 10% if area is heavily shaded.

2. Increase capacity by 10% for very sunny areas.

3. Add 600 Btu/hr for each additional person if area is

occupied routinely by more than two people.

4. Add 4000 Btu/hr if area to be cooled is an average size

kitchen.

5. Add 1000 Btu/hr for every 15 sq/ft of glass exposed to

sun.

6. Add 3414 Btu/hr for every 1000 watts of electronic

equipment.

SUPPLY AIR REQUIREMENTS (MECHANICAL

COOLING & HEATING)
Equipment Type Approximate Example
Airflow Rate

Gas/Oil Furnace 1 CFM per 100 64000 Btu/hr

Btu/hr output output furnace =
640CFM

Electric Furnace 50 – 70 CFM per 10kW furnace =

kW input 10 x 70 = 700CFM

30kW furnace =

30 x 50 =
1500CFM

Electric Air- 400 CFM per ton 30000 Btu/hr

conditioning cooling

30000/12000=
2.5tons

2.5 x 400 = 1000

CFM

Heat Pump 450 CFM per ton 30000 Btu/hr

cooling

30000/12000=
2.5tons

2.5 x 450 = 1125

CFM
 Note the values vary significantly with the equipment. CFM/kW
tends to be higher with smallest equipment (5-15kW) and lower
as equipment becomes larger.

In general, the following guidelines may be noted:

 500 CFM/ton for Precision Air Conditioning

 400 CFM/ton for Comfort Cooling Air Conditioning

 200 CFM/ton Dehumidification

SELECTION OF CHILLERS

The following is used as a guide for determining the types of

liquid chillers generally used for air conditioning

 Up to 25 tons (88kW) – Reciprocating

 25 to 80 tons (88 to 280kW) – Reciprocating or Screw

 80 to 200 tons (280 to 700kW) – Reciprocating, Screw or

Centrifugal

 200 to 800 tons (700 to 2800kW) – Screw or Centrifugal

 Above 800 tons (2800 kW) – Centrifugal

Circumstances Favouring Air-Cooled or Water Cooled

Systems

Capacity Range (TR) Favourable System

40 to 200 Air-cooled chilled water

 system (explore the pros
and cons of using multiple
DX systems if possible)

200 and above Water-cooled chilled water

system

CHARACTERISTICS & TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF

VARIOUS COOLING SYSTEMS

Air-Cooled Water- Air-Cooled Water-

Characteri Cooled Chilled- Cooled
stics Packaged Packaged Water Chilled-
Equipmen Equipmen System Water
t t System

Typically
limited to
Building
1- to 4- Unlimited Unlimited Unlimited
Height
story
buildings

Minimum No Typically Typically Typically

Cooling limitation cost- cost- cost-
Capacity for modular effective effective effective
 Air-Cooled Water- Air-Cooled Water-
Characteri Cooled Chilled- Cooled
stics Packaged Packaged Water Chilled-
Equipmen Equipmen System Water
t t System

for projects for projects for projects

systems
>20 tons >100 tons >200 tons

Cooling Low-
Low High High
Control moderate

Maintenanc Moderate-
Low Moderate High
e high

Installed Moderate-
Low High High
Cost high

Operating Low-
Costs moderate Moderate-
Moderate Low
(energy (climate high
and water) dependent)

Typical 1- to 2- 1- to 2- Medium to Medium to

Application story story large very large
s buildings buildings in facilities facilities
hot/dry with and
 Air-Cooled Water- Air-Cooled Water-
Characteri Cooled Chilled- Cooled
stics Packaged Packaged Water Chilled-
Equipmen Equipmen System Water
t t System

limited
access to
climates water or campuses
maintenan
ce

CONVERTING KW/TON TO COP or EER

If a chiller's efficiency is rated at 1 KW/ton, the COP=3.5 and

the EER=12

kW/ton 12 / EER

kW/ton 12 /(COP x 3.412)

EER 12 / (kW/ton)

EER COP x 3.412

COP EER / 3.412

COP 12 / (kW/ton x 3.412)

TYPICAL EFFICIENCIES OF HVAC EQUIPMENT

A gas furnace has 78% AFUE efficiency (heat out delivered /

heat in fuel burned). An air conditioner or heat pump has 10
SEER or EER (Btu/hr/w). The heating part of a heat pump
achieves 6.6 Btu/hr/w heating season HSPF.

RECOMMENDED EFFICIENCY VALUES FOR UNITARY

& APPLIED HEAT PUMPS

Equipment Size Sub- Required

Type Category Category or Efficiency
Rating
Condition

Air Cooled Split System 13.0 SEER

(Cooling < 65,000 Btuh Single

13.0 SEER
Mode) Package

> 65,000 Btuh Split System

and and 11.0 EER
< 135,000 Single 11.4 IPLV
Btuh Package

> 135,000
Split System
Btuh and 10.8 EER
and Single
<240,000 11.2 IPLV
Package
Btuh
 Equipment Size Sub- Required
Type Category Category or Efficiency
Rating
Condition

Split System
> 240,000 10.0 EER
and Single
Btuh 10.4 IPLV
Package

Air Cooled < 65,000 Btuh Split System 8.0 HSPF

(Heating (Cooling Single

7.7 HSPF
Mode) Capacity) Package

> 65,000 Btuh 47°F db/43°F

and wb 3.4 COP

< 135,000 Outdoor Air

Btuh 17°F db/15°F

(Cooling wb 2.4 COP
Capacity) Outdoor Air

47°F db/43°F

>135,000 wb 3.3 COP

Btuh Outdoor Air

(Cooling 17°F db/15°F

Capacity) wb 2.2 COP
Outdoor Air

Water Source < 135,000 85°F Entering 14.0 EER

 Equipment Size Sub- Required
Type Category Category or Efficiency
Rating
Condition

Btuh
(Cooling
(Cooling Water
Mode)
Capacity)

< 135,000
Water-Source
Btuh 70°F Entering
(Heating 4.6 COP
(Cooling Water
Mode)
Capacity)

RECOMMENDED CHILLER PERFORMANCE LEVELS

ELECTRIC UTILIZATION INDEX (EUI)

Electric utilization index (EUI) is the ratio of annual electricity

consumption in kWh to the facility’s square footage.

Type of Building Common EUI

Grocery 61.0

Restaurant 38.9

Hospital / Health 16.4

Retail 12.1

School / College 10.3

Hotel / Motel 8.2

Office 7.5

Misc. Commercial 6.4

Warehouse 6.1

HEAT GAIN FROM OCCUPANTS AT VARIOUS

ACTIVITIES (At Indoor Air Temperature of 78°F)

Activity Total heat, Btu/h Sensible Latent

Adult, Adjusted heat, heat,

male Btu/h Btu/h

Seated at 400 350 210 140

rest

Seated, 480 420 230 190

very light
work,
writing

Seated, 520 580 255 325

eating

Seated, 640 510 255 255

light work,
typing

Standing, 800 640 315 325

light work
or walking
slowly

Light 880 780 345 435

bench
work

Light 1040 1040 345 695

machine
work,
walking
3miles/hr

Moderate 1360 1280 405 875

dancing

Heavy 1600 1600 565 1035

work,
lifting

Athletics 2000 1800 635 1165

The values are for 78°F room dry bulb temperature. For 80°F
dry bulb temperature, the total heat remains the same, but the
sensible heat value should be decreased by approximately 8%
and the latent heat values increased accordingly.

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH BUILDING ASSEMBLY

Typical Conductance U- Values in Btu / (hr square foot °F)

More insulation gives lower conductance. Less insulation gives

higher conductance.
These values include inside and outside air films, typical
construction, and effect of framing members.

 Heat conductance of building wall: Use 0.088 for R-13

insulated house wall.

 Heat conductance of building floor: Use 0.047 for R-13

insulated house raised floor.

 Heat conductance of building ceiling: Use 0.031 for R30

insulated ceiling including attic and roof.

 Heat conductance of building roof: Use 0.031 for R30

insulated roof including attic and ceiling.

 Heat conductance of window glass: Use 0.65 for dual pane

window.

Typical Resistance Values in (hr square foot °F) / Btu

More insulation gives higher resistance. Less insulation gives

lower resistance.

These values include inside and outside air films, typical

construction, and effect of framing members.

 Heat resistance of building wall: Use 11.3 for R-13

insulated house wall.

 Heat resistance of building floor: Use 21.4 for R-13

insulated house raised floor.

 Heat resistance of building ceiling: Use 32.5 for R30

insulated ceiling including attic and roof.
  Heat resistance of building roof: Use 32.5 for R30
insulated roof including attic and ceiling.

 Heat resistance of window glass: Use 1.54 for dual pane

window.

SOLAR LOADS

Solar – winter

The contribution of solar heat is ignored for the sizing of winter

heating equipment. It is most likely the greatest need for winter
heat will occur at a time when the sun is not out.

Solar – summer

Estimate 60 Btu/hr. / square foot enters every window on

average during the daylight hours. (Although there are about
450 Btu/hr. per square foot of sunlight, this amount is not
entering every window simultaneously, and there are many
other reasons to calculate with the lower rate. For discussion,
see solar through windows.)

This estimate assumes even distribution of windows around all

sides of the building, some overhangs, some window tinting,
and curtains that are left open. For other or non-average
window conditions, a better solar estimate may be necessary.

VENTILATION RECOMMENDATIONS

Application Occupancy CFM/perso

 (people/1000 n
ft2)

Food and Dining 70 20

Beverage rooms
Service Cafeteria, 100 20
fast food

Bars, 100 30
cocktail
lounges

Kitchen 20 15
(cooking)

Offices Office space 7 20

Reception 60 15
areas

Conference 50 20
rooms

Public Smoking 70 60
Spaces lounge

Elevators 30 60

Retail Basement & 20 25

stores, Street
Showrooms Upper floors 20 15

Malls and 70 15
arcades
 Smoking 25 25
lounges

Beauty 8 20
shops

Hardware 150 25
stores

Sports and Spectator 70 20

Amusemen areas
ts Games 30 15
rooms

Playing 100 15
rooms

Ballrooms 150 15
and discos

Theatres Lobbies 150 15

Auditorium 50 15

Education Classroom 50 15

Music rooms 20 20

Libraries 150 15

Auditoriums 30 30

Hotels, Bedrooms 50 30
Motels Living rooms 120 30
Resorts,
Lobbies 30 25
Dormitorie Conference 120 20
s rooms

Assembly 20 15
rooms

Dry 10 15
cleaning,
laundry

Gambling 30 15
casinos

Health Care Operating 20 20

Facilities rooms

Patient 20 20
rooms

Laboratories 20 30

Procedure 70 15
rooms

Pharmacies 100 20

Physical 100 15
therapy

EXHAUST AIR REQUIREMENTS

 Exhaust Air Requirements

Janitor Closets 10 Air changes/hr

Locker Rooms 10 Air changes/hr

Toilets 10 Air changes/hr

Mechanical/Electrical Rooms 12 Air changes/hr

Rooms with Steam System 25 Air changes/hr

(Laundry)

Battery Rooms 10 Air changes/hr

TYPICAL DESIGN VELOCITIES FOR HVAC

COMPONENTS

Equipment Velocity, Feet per

minute (FPM)

Intake Louvers Velocity (7000 400 FPM

CFM and greater)

Exhaust Louvers (5000 CFM and 500 FPM

greater)

Panel Filters

Viscous Impingement 200 to 800 FPM

Panel Filters (Dry-Type, Pleated Media)

Low Efficiency 350 FPM

Medium Efficiency 500 FPM

High Efficiency 500 FPM

HEPA 250 FPM

Renewable Media Filters

Moving-Curtain Viscous 500 FPM

Impingement

Moving-Curtain Dry-Media 200 FPM

Electronic Air Cleaners

Ionizing-Plate-Type 300 to 500 FPM

Charged-Media Non-ionizing 250 FPM

Charged-Media Ionizing 150 to 350 FPM

Steam and Hot Water Coils 200 min - 1500 max

Electric Coils

Open Wire Refer to Mfg. Data

Finned Tubular

Dehumidifying Coils 500 FPM

Spray-Type Air Washers 300 to 600 FPM

Cell-Type Air Washers Refer to Mfg. Data

High-Velocity, Spray-Type Air 1200 to 1800 FPM

Washers

CENTRIFUGAL FAN PARAMETERS

Centrifugal fans are by far the most prevalent type of fan used
in the HVAC industry today. They are usually cheaper than axial
fans and simpler in construction, but generally do not achieve
the same efficiency. Centrifugal fans consist of a rotating
wheel, or "impeller," mounted eccentrically inside a round
housing. The impeller is electrically driven by a motor
connected via a belt drive.

Paramet Backward Curve Forward

ers Curve

BC BI AF FC

Blades 6-16 6-16 6-16 24-64

Maximum 78 85 90 70
Efficiency
(%)

Speed High High High Low

Cost Medium Medium High Med-Low

Static Very high High Very high Low (5

Pressure (40in-wg) inch- w.g)

Power Non- Non- Non- Overloadi

Curve overloadin overloadin overloadin ng
g g g

Housing Scroll Scroll Scroll Scroll

AXIAL FAN PARAMETERS

Axial fans consist of a cylindrical housing, with the impeller
mounted inside along the axis of the housing. In an axial fan,
the impeller consists of blades mounted around a central hub
similar to those of an airplane propeller. Typically, axial fans are
more efficient than centrifugal fans.

Parameters Propellers Tube Axial Vane axial

Blades 2 to 8 4 to 8 5 to 20

Maximum 50 75 85
Efficiency (%)

Speed Medium High Very high

Cost Low Medium High

Static Low (up to ¾ Medium High (up to 8

Pressure in) in)

Power Curve Non- Non- Non-

overloading overloading overloading

Housing Annular ring Cylindrical Cylindrical

with guide
vanes on
downstream
side

FAN PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIPS

Variable Constant Law Equation

Rotational Fan Size Flow is (Q1 / Q2) =

Speed Air Density directly (N1 / N2)
proportional
Duct System
to speed

Pressure is (P1 / P2) =

directly [(N1 / N2)]2
proportional
to speed2

Power is (HP1 / HP2) =

directly [(N1 / N2)]3
proportional
to speed3

Fan Size and Tip Speed Flow and (Q1 / Q2) =

Rotational Air Density power is (HP1 / HP2) =
Speed directly [(D1 / D2)]2
proportional
to diameter2

Speed is (N1 / N2) =

inversely (D2 / D1)
proportional
to diameter

Pressure P1 = P 2
remains
constant
Variable Constant Law Equation

Fan Size Rotational Flow is (Q1 / Q2) =

Speed directly [(D1 / D2)]2

Air Density proportional

to Diameter2

Flow is (P1 / P2) =

directly [(D1 / D2)]2
proportional
to Diameter2

Power is (HP1 / HP2) =

directly [(D1 / D2)]3
proportional
to Diameter3

Rotational Fan Size Speed, flow (N1 / N2) =

Speed and Air Pressure and power (Q1 / Q2) =
Density are inversely (HP1 / HP2) =
proportional [(ρ1 / ρ2)]1/2
to square root
of density

Air Density Rotational Pressure and (P1 / P2) =

Speed power are (HP1 / HP2) =

Fan Size directly (ρ1 / ρ2) =

proportional
Duct System
to density

Flow remains Q1 = Q2
Variable Constant Law Equation

constant

GUIDE TO AIR OUTLET SELECTION

Tables below provide a general guide for the proper selection of

outlets based on design requirements of CFM per square foot
and air changes per hour (SMACNA 1990).

Floor Space Approximat

CFM per Sq Lps per Sq- e maximum

Type of Feet m air
Outlet changes/ho
ur for 10
feet ceiling

Grilles & 0.6 to 1.2 3 to 6 7

Registers

Slot Diffusers 0.8 to 2.0 4 to 10 12

Perforated 0.9 to 3.0 5 to 15 18

Panel

Ceiling 0.9 to 5.0 5 to 25 30

Diffuser

Perforated 1.0 to 10.0 5 to 50 60

Ceiling
REFRIGERANTS & ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

In general the comparison of 4 most common refrigerants

employed today on environmental factors is as below:

Criteria HCFC- HCFC-22 HFC- Ammonia

123 134a

Ozone 0.016 0.05 0 0

Depletion
Potential

Global 85 1500 1200 0

Warming
Potential
(relative
to CO2)

Phase out 2030 2020 N/A N/A

Date

Occupatio Low Low Low Low

n Risk

Flammabl No No No Yes
e

CURRENT & FUTURE REFRIGERANTS

Equipment Type Traditional Replacement

 Refrigerant Refrigerants

Rotary Screw - HCFC-22 R407C, HFC-134a

Chiller

Scroll Chiller HCFC-22 R407C, R-410A

Reciprocating HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

Chiller

Absorption Chiller R-718 (water) R-718

Centrifugal Chiller CFC-11, CFC-12 HFC-134a, HCFC-

123

Packaged Air HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

Conditioners

Heat Pump HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

PTAC, PTHP HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

Room Air HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

conditioning

RECOMMENDED SHEET METAL THICKNESS FOR

DUCTS

Rectangular Duct Round Duct

Greate Galvani Alumin Diamet Galvani Alumin

st zed um er zed um
Dimens Steel (gauge Steel (gauge
ion (gauge) ) (gauge) )

Up to 30 24 22 Up to 8 24 22
inch inch

31 – 60 22 20 9 – 24 22 20
inches inches

61 – 90 20 18 25 – 48 20 18
inches inches

91inche 18 16 49 – 72 18 16
s and inches
above

SHEET METAL THICKNESS & WEIGHTS

Gauge (or gage) sizes are numbers that indicate the thickness
of a piece of sheet metal, with a higher number referring to a
thinner sheet. The equivalent thicknesses differ for each gauge
size standard, which were developed based on the weight of
the sheet for a given material. The Manufacturers' Standard
Gage provides the thicknesses for standard steel, galvanized
steel, and stainless steel. The Brown and Sharpe Gage, also
known as the American Wire Gage (AWG), is used for most
non-ferrous metals, such as Aluminium and Brass.

The chart below can be used to determine the equivalent

sheet thickness, in inches or millimetres, for a gauge number
from the selected gauge size standard. The weight per unit
area of the sheet can also be seen in pounds per square foot
and kilograms per square meter.

Duct Thickness and Weight – Galvanized Steel

Galvanized Steel Carbon Steel

Gau m lb/f kg/ m lb/f kg/

in in
ge m t² m² m t² m²

0.16
8 4.270 6.858 33.482 0.1644 4.176 6.707 32.745
81

0.15
9 3.891 6.250 30.514 0.1495 3.797 6.099 29.777
32

0.13
10 3.510 5.638 27.527 0.1345 3.416 5.487 26.790
82

0.12
11 3.132 5.030 24.559 0.1196 3.038 4.879 23.822
33

0.10
12 2.753 4.422 21.591 0.1046 2.657 4.267 20.834
84

0.09
13 2.372 3.810 18.603 0.0897 2.278 3.659 17.866
34

0.07
14 1.994 3.202 15.636 0.0747 1.897 3.047 14.879
85

0.07
15 1.803 2.896 14.142 0.0673 1.709 2.746 13.405
10
Galvanized Steel Carbon Steel

Gau m lb/f kg/ m lb/f kg/

in in
ge m t² m² m t² m²

0.06
16 1.613 2.590 12.648 0.0598 1.519 2.440 11.911
35

0.05
17 1.461 2.346 11.453 0.0538 1.367 2.195 10.716
75

0.05
18 1.311 2.105 10.278 0.0478 1.214 1.950 9.521
16

0.04
19 1.158 1.860 9.083 0.0418 1.062 1.705 8.326
56

0.03
20 1.006 1.615 7.888 0.0359 0.912 1.465 7.151
96

0.03
21 0.930 1.493 7.290 0.0329 0.836 1.342 6.553
66

0.03
22 0.853 1.371 6.692 0.0299 0.759 1.220 5.955
36

0.03
23 0.777 1.248 6.095 0.0269 0.683 1.097 5.358
06

0.02
24 0.701 1.126 5.497 0.0239 0.607 0.975 4.760
76

0.02
25 0.627 1.008 4.920 0.0209 0.531 0.853 4.163
47

0.02
26 0.551 0.885 4.322 0.0179 0.455 0.730 3.565
17
Duct Thickness and Weight – Stainless Steel and
Aluminium

Stainless Steel Aluminum

Gaug
in mm lb/ft² kg/m² in mm lb/ft² kg/m²
e

0.312 13.00 63.49

0 7.938 0.3249 8.252 4.585 22.386
5 5 6

0.281 11.70 57.15

1 7.145 0.2893 7.348 4.083 19.933
3 7 7

0.265 11.05 53.96

2 6.746 0.2576 6.543 3.635 17.749
6 3 6

0.250 10.40 50.79

3 6.350 0.2294 5.827 3.237 15.806
0 4 7

0.234 47.62
4 5.954 9.755 0.2043 5.189 2.883 14.076
4 7

0.218 44.43
5 5.555 9.101 0.1819 4.620 2.567 12.533
7 7

0.203 41.26
6 5.159 8.452 0.1620 4.115 2.286 11.162
1 7

0.187 38.09
7 4.763 7.803 0.1443 3.665 2.036 9.942
5 8

0.171 34.92
8 4.366 7.154 0.1285 3.264 1.813 8.854
9 8

9 0.156 3.967 6.500 31.73 0.1144 2.906 1.614 7.882

 Stainless Steel Aluminum

Gaug
in mm lb/ft² kg/m² in mm lb/ft² kg/m²
e

2 8

0.140 28.56
10 3.571 5.851 0.1019 2.588 1.438 7.021
6 8

0.125 25.39
11 3.175 5.202 0.0907 2.304 1.280 6.249
0 8

0.109 22.22
12 2.779 4.553 0.0808 2.052 1.140 5.567
4 9

0.093 19.03
13 2.380 3.899 0.0720 1.829 1.016 4.961
7 9

0.078 15.86
14 1.984 3.250 0.0641 1.628 0.905 4.417
1 9

0.070 14.28
15 1.786 2.926 0.0571 1.450 0.806 3.934
3 4

0.062 12.69
16 1.588 2.601 0.0508 1.290 0.717 3.500
5 9

0.056 11.41
17 1.427 2.339 0.0453 1.151 0.639 3.121
2 9

0.050 10.15
18 1.270 2.081 0.0403 1.024 0.569 2.777
0 9

0.043
19 1.110 1.819 8.879 0.0359 0.912 0.507 2.474
7

20 0.037 0.953 1.561 7.620 0.0320 0.813 0.452 2.205

 Stainless Steel Aluminum

Gaug
in mm lb/ft² kg/m² in mm lb/ft² kg/m²
e

0.034
21 0.874 1.432 6.990 0.0285 0.724 0.402 1.964
4

0.031
22 0.792 1.298 6.339 0.0253 0.643 0.357 1.743
2

0.028
23 0.714 1.169 5.710 0.0226 0.574 0.319 1.557
1

0.025
24 0.635 1.040 5.080 0.0201 0.511 0.284 1.385
0

0.021
25 0.556 0.911 4.450 0.0179 0.455 0.253 1.233
9

0.018
26 0.475 0.778 3.800 0.0159 0.404 0.224 1.096
7

DUCT REINFORCEMENT

Maximum Duct Width (W) and Maximum Reinforcement

Spacing (RS)

Duct 26 gauge 24 gauge 22 gauge 20 gauge or

wall heavier

Static W RS W RS W RS W RS
Press
ure

½ in. 20 in. 10 ft. 20 in. NR 20 in. NR 20 in. NR

wg 18 in. NR

1 in. 20 in. 8 ft.

wg 14 in. 10 ft. 20 in. 8 ft. 20 in. 10 ft. 20 in. NR

12 in. NR 14 in. NR 18 in. NR

2 in. 18 in. 5 ft. 18 in. 8 ft. 18 in. 10 ft. 18 in. NR

wg 12 in. NR 14 in. NR

3 in. 12 in. 5 ft. 18 in. 5 ft. 18 in. 5 ft. 18 in. 6 ft.

wg 10 in. 6 ft. 10 in. NR 12 in. NR 14 in. NR

4 in. Not Accepted 16 in. 5 ft. 12 in. 6 ft. 12 in. NR

wg 8 in. NR 8 in. NR

DUCTWORK AIR CARRYING CAPACITY

Branch Duct Avg. CFM @ Duct Cross-

Size Static Pressure section

4” Round 30 CFM 12.57 Sq-in

5” Round 60 CFM 19.64 Sq-in

2 ¼” x 10” 60 CFM 23.00 Sq-in

2 ¼” x 12” 70 CFM 27.00 Sq-in

6” Round 100 CFM 28.27 Sq-in

3 ¼” x 10” 100 CFM 33.00 Sq-in

3 ¼” x 12” 120 CFM 39.00 Sq-in

7” Round 150 CFM 38.48 Sq-in

3 ¼” x 14” 140 CFM 46.00 Sq-in

8” Round 200 CFM 50.27 Sq-in

8” x 8” 260 CFM 64.00 Sq-in

10” Round 400 CFM 78.54 Sq-in

12 “ x 8” 440 CFM 96.00 Sq-in

12” 620 CFM 113.09 Sq-in

16” x 8” 660 CFM 128.00 Sq-in

14” Round 930 CFM 153.93 Sq-in

16” Round 1300 CFM 201.06 Sq-in

PIPE SELECTION

Pipe Steel Pipe Copper Pipe

Size
Flow Heatin Coolin Flow Heatin Coolin
Rate g BTUH g Tons Rate g BTUH g Tons

1/2" 1.8 18,000 1.5 1.5 15,000 1.3

GPM BTUH Tons GPM BTUH Tons

3/4" 4 GPM 40,000 3.3 3.5 35,000 2.9

BTUH Tons GPM BTUH Tons
 1" 8 GPM 80,000 6.7 7.5 75,000 6.3
BTUH Tons GPM BTUH Tons

1 1/4" 16 GPM 160,00 13.3 13 GPM 130,00 10.8

0 BTUH Tons 0 BTUH Tons

1 1/2" 24 GPM 240,00 20 Tons 20 GPM 200,00 16.7

0 BTUH 0 BTUH Tons

2" 47 GPM 470,00 39 Tons 45 GPM 450,00 38 Tons

0 BTUH 0 BTUH

2 1/2" 75 GPM 750,00 63 Tons 80 GPM 800,00 67 Tons

0 BTUH 0 BTUH

3" 130 1,300,0 108 130 1,300,0 108

GPM 00 Tons GPM 00 Tons
BTUH BTUH

4" 270 2,700,0 225 260 2,600,0 217

GPM 00 Tons GPM 00 Tons
BTUH BTUH

5" 530 5,300,0 442

GPM 00 Tons
BTUH

6" 850 8,500,0 708

GPM 00 Tons
BTUH
  Heating capacity BTUH based on a 20 degree F
temperature differential. Cooling capacity BTUH based on
10 to 16ºF temperature differential.

 Cooling capacity Tons based on a 10 degree F temperature

differential

 Selection guide for water systems

 Pipe sized for a maximum of 4 feet/100 feet pressure drop

 GPM = BTUH / 10,000 (for heating units designed for

20ºF)

 Temperature differential = MBH / GPM / 500

 MBH = BTUH X 1,000

 Ton of cooling = 12,000 BTUH

CLEANROOM DESIGN

Cleanroom airflow design conventionally follows the table

below to decide on the airflow pattern, average velocities and
air changes per hour. One has to first identify the level of
cleanliness required and apply the table below. Please note that
there is no scientific or statutory basis for this inference other
than the explanation that the table is derived from experience
over past two decades.
 Clean Airflow Av. Air
room Type Airflow changes/h
Class Velocity, r
fpm

1 Unidirectio 70-100 350-650

nal

10 Unidirectio 60-110 300-600

nal

100 Unidirectio 50-90 300-480

nal

1,000 Mixed 40-90 150-250

10,000 Mixed 25-40 60-120

100,000 Mixed 10-30 10-40

SOUND & ACOUSTICS

When trying to calculate the additive effect of two sound

sources, use the approximation as below (note that the
logarithms cannot be added directly).

Adding Equal Sound Pressure Levels

 Increase in Increase in
Number of Sound Power Sound Pressure
Sources Level Level
( dB) dB

2 3 6

3 4.8 9.6

4 6 12

5 7 14

10 10 20

15 11.8 23.6

20 13 26

Adding Sound Power from Sources at different

Levels

Sound Power Level Added Decibel to the

Difference between Highest Sound Power
two Sound Sources Level
(dB) (dB)

0 3

1 2.5

2 2

3 2
 Sound Power Level Added Decibel to the
Difference between Highest Sound Power
two Sound Sources Level
(dB) (dB)

4 1.5

5 1

6 1

7 1

8 0.5

9 0.5

10 or more 0

NOISE CRITERIA – OCCUPIED SPACES

Noise Criteria (NC) are the curves based on different dB levels

at different octave bands. Highest curve intercepted is NC level
of sound source. See table below

Occupied Spaces

Area Maximum NC

Conference Rooms NC 35

Corridors NC 40

Lobby NC 40
 Occupied Spaces

Area Maximum NC

Large Offices & Computer NC 40

Rooms

Small Private Office NC 35

Notes:

 The above NC levels must be attained in all octave bands.

 The above NC levels may be increased for the areas

equipped with fan coil units. The designer shall submit an
analysis showing the expected noise levels for the prior
approval of VA.

 The systems must be engineered and the use of acoustic

sound lining and sound attenuators should be considered to
achieve the design sound levels.

AVERAGE HEAT CONTENT (BTU) OF FUELS

Fuel Type No. of Btu/Unit

#2 Fuel Oil 140,000/gallon

#6 Fuel Oil 150,500 /gallon

Diesel 137,750/gallon

Kerosene 134,000/gallon
 Electricity 3,412/kWh

1,025,000/thousand cubic
Natural Gas*
feet

Propane 91,330/gallon

20,000,000/cord or
Wood (air dried)*
8,000/pound

Pellets (for pellet stoves;

16,500,000/ton
premium)

Kerosene 135,000/gallon

Coal 28,000,000/ton

GLAZING PROPERTIES

“U” Value
Material
(Btu / hr-ft2-°F)

Glass, single 1.13

Glass, double glazing .70

Single film plastic 1.20

Double film plastic .70

Corrugated FRP panels 1.20

Corrugated polycarbonate 1.20

Plastic structured sheet

 16 mm thick .58

8 mm thick .65

6 mm thick .72

Concrete block, 8 inch .51

ROOF INSULATION

The following table provides some rules-of-thumb on the cost

effectiveness of adding roof insulation to an existing building.

Is it cost effective to
Existing Condition
add insulation?

No insulation to R-6 Yes, always

Yes, if attic is accessible or

R-7 to R-19
if built-up roof is replaced

Greater than R-19 Not usually cost effective

ENERGY STAR BUILDING LABEL

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S.

Department of Energy (DOE) joined forces in establishing the
Energy Star Building Label, a voluntary, performance based,
benchmarking and recognition initiative. In February 1998, DOE
published Energy Star target performance levels for thermal
transmittance and solar heat gain factors for windows, doors
and skylights.
Region Item Energy Star

North Windows and

(Mostly Heating) Doors 0.35 / -

U factor / SHGC

Skylights, U 0.45 / -
factor / SHGC

Central (Heating Windows and

and Cooling) Doors 0.40 / 0.55
U factor / SHGC

Skylights, U 0.45 / 0.55

factor / SHGC

South Windows and

(Mostly Cooling) Doors 0.75 / 0.40

U factor / SHGC

Skylights, U 0.75 / 0.40

factor / SHGC

LIGHTING WATTAGE ESTIMATION

Location Rule of thumb (Watts/sq-

ft)

General Office Areas 1.5 to 3.0

 Location Rule of thumb (Watts/sq-
ft)

Private 2.0 -5.0

Conference Rooms 2.0 – 6.0

Public Places (Banks, Post

2.0 – 5.0
offices, Courts etc)

Precision Manufacturing 3.0 – 10.0

Computer Rooms/Data
2.0 – 5.0
Processing Facilities

Restaurants 1.5 – 3.0

Kitchens 1.5 – 2.5

Pubs, Bars, Clubhouses,

1.5 – 2.0
Taverns etc

Hospital Patient Rooms 1.0 – 2.0

Hospital General Areas 1.5 – 2.5

Medical /Dental Centres,

1.5 – 2.5
Clinics

Residences 1.0 – 4.0

Hotel & Motels (public places

1.0 – 3.0
and guest rooms)

School Classrooms 2.0 – 6.0

Dining halls, Lunch Rooms,

1.5 – 2.5
Cafeterias
 Location Rule of thumb (Watts/sq-
ft)

Library, Museums 1.0 – 3.0

Retail, Department &

2.0 – 6.0
Pharmacist Stores

Jewellery Showrooms, Shoes,

2.0 – 4.0
Boutiques etc

Shopping Malls 2.0 – 4.0

Auditoriums, Theatres 1.0 – 3.0

Religious Places (Churches) 1.0 – 3.0

Bowling Alleys 1.0 – 2.5

HEAT LOAD FROM OFFICE EQUIPMENT

RATE OF HEAT GAIN FROM MISCELLANEOUS
APPLIANCES

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED BY NUMBER OF POLES

POLES 60 CYCLES 50 CYCLES

2 3600 3000

4 1800 1500

6 1200 1000

8 900 750

10 720 600

________________________________________________________________