250 SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Properties of Materials
STRENGTH
For conventional steel construction, temperatures above 600°C are impractical
because they result in poor strength and poor oxidation resistance. Temperatures
up to 800°C are possible with high alloy or stainless steels, but strength at this
temperature is IO times less than that at room temperature. The maximum pressure
of a vessel is directly proportional to metal thickness. An algebraic relationship can
be derived easily from a force balance on a shell cross section. For a cylindrical shell
subject to internal pressure, the force balance, appropriately corrected by safety
factors and joint efficiencies, becomes

pR
1=----- ( 4-113)
0.9S - 0.6p

or
0.9Sr
( 4-114)
P =R+ 0.61

For a spherical shell, the equations are

pR
r=----- (4-ll5)
l.8S - 0.2p
or
I.8Sr
(4-116)
P = R + 0.21
where I is shell thickness. p the pressure, R the inside vessel radius a nd S r he
allowable tensile stress. These equations are dimensionally consistant, since stress
and pressure have the same units as dot and R. An additional allowance, typically 3
mm, is added to the thickness to compensate for corrosion of vessel walls. (For
vessels subject to external pressure, the discussion in Perr y , P 6-92, and the
corresponding chart in Fig. 6-133 can be employed profitably.) Approximate values
of S for carbon steel, aluminum, and stainless steels are given as a function of
temperature in Perry Tables 6-57, G~58, and 6-59, (pµ. 6-96 d1HJ 6-97). Additional
stress data for pipe including a more extensive list of materials are found in Perry
Tables 6-3 and 6-4. Some of these data are summarized for quick reference in Figure
4-45.
It is obvious from Figure 4-45 that process temperatures above 800°C cannot
be tolerated by conventional metals and alloys. Above this level, refractory metals,
graphite, or ceramics are necessary. Most refractory metals and graphite burn
readily in air and, if used: must be protected from the atmosphere or any other
oxygen-containing gases. ~umerous inexpensive ceramics are strong up to 1800° C,
but they are fragile and brittle. Kilns, heaters, and several other types of high
temperature equipment have composite construction. Mechanical and atmospheric
integrity is provided by an outer metal skin or shell, which is protected from high
process temperatures by refractory batting or brick lining.
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 251

1400
Titanium (mp= 1660°C)
1300

1200

1100

1000 Carbon steel

"'
E. (mp= 1500°CI
II)
900
::i
~ 800
ic
.
!
~
700

"'~ 600
.2
<(
500 Copper-based alloys
(mp= 950°C)
400

300
Aluminum
200
(mp = 66<>°CI
100

-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature, T (°C)

Figure 4-45 Stress-temperature relationships for important process met-

als and alloys.

CORROSION
Beyond temperature considerations, chemical processes are noted for their
antagonistic, corrosive chemical environment. Perry, Section 23, discusses cor-
rosion and its control in excellent and complete detail. Characteristics of practical
metallic and nonmetallic construction materials are also discussed at length.
The comprehensive review by Kirby [26) is highly recommended for experts
and beginners alike. In the brief treatment presented here, I cannot approach the
thoroughness of these references but attempt to present guidelines that will permit
you to make a reasonably intelligent selection from common construction
materials. ·
The need for experience and expert guidance becomes evident very quickly to
chemical engineers, who learn through experience the pitfalls that exist. A neophyte,
for example, might think that the blower downstream of an acid scrubber could be
made of carbon steel because acid vapors will have been removed by the time gases
reach the blower. The expert ( often because of sad experience) will be quick to point
out that this environment is. in fact, one of the most corrosive because there are
traces of acid gases in a moist airstream (not to mention the devastating effects of
process upsets). To be safe. one would specify blower materials suitable for the
252 SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT

worst possible situation. At the other extreme, given a high temperature gas stream
containing air, hydrogen chloride, and water, an engineer would automatically
consider expensive nickel-based alloys or ceramics, yet I know of one such exposure
where inexpensive aluminum metal is used. As long as gases are below the
maximum service temperature of the metal and above the acid dew point,
aluminum is superb-significantly better than .stainless steel in this environment.
Surprises such as this are welcomed by project managers. Those of a reverse nature
are not. In general, we should select a material that either has been proved by past
experience or is promising according to general performance criteria.

SPECU'JC MATERIALS
Cost data are readily available for equipment constructed of carbon steel, alloy
steel, co nvent ional plastics, fiberglass, fluorocarbon plastics, alummurn and its
alloys, copper and its alloys, stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and occasionally,
more exotic metals or alloys such as titanium, tantalum, tungsten or molybdenum,
zirconium, or the "stellites." A few words about each group are appropriate.
Based on strength, cost, and temperature resistance, carbon steel is out-
standing. That is the reason for its overwhelming popularity in the chemical process
industries. Susceptibility to atmospheric corrosion is often corrected by applying a
paint or similar exterior coating. Its limitations in the presence of aqueous
electrolytes are obvious, however, to anyone who owns an automobile near the
seacoast or in severe climates where salt is applied to the highways for snow and ice
control. For more substantial internal protection, carbon steel is frequently lined or
"clad" with rubber, glass, stainless steel, nickel alloy, or titanium. This provides
'corrosion resistance typical of the cladding with the strength and economic
advantages of carbon steel. Temperature is limited, of course, by the partner having
the least tolerance. Brick linings are usually much thicker than cladding. These
provide insulation also, loweri ng the. thermal exposure of the shell.
Conventional inexpensive plastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and
ABS, because of their inherent resistance to ionic solutions, are becoming more
popular as their mechanical characteristics improve. Because of low strength and
low decomposition temperatures, however, process applications are limited.
Fiberglass composites, having greater strength and reasonably good temperature
tolerance, are employed for some applications, such as atmospheric storage tanks,
in competition with carbon steel and other traditional materials. Fluorocarbon
plastics, as mentioned at the beginning of this book, exhibit superior corrosion
resistance and (for polymers) temperature tolerance. This comes at a high purchase
price that, combined with low strength, restricts their use considerably.
Aluminum is a moderately priced alternative to carbon steel or copper-based
metals, especially in heat transfer applications where high thermal conductivity is an
asset. Aluminum is also superior at low temperatures (-250 to -20° C) where
carbon steel becomes brittle and inadequate. Its light weight compensates
somewhat for relatively lower strength (see Figure 4-45). The strength of aluminum
declines seriously at about 200° C. It is general1y corroded badly by aqueous
electrolytic solutions. '
Copper and copper-based alloys, because of good corrosion resistance and
superior thermal conductivity, have been employed traditionally in heat transfer
equipment. In many applications, however, metal thermal resistance is insignificant
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 253

compared with film resistance. and copper has been supplanted to some extent.
especially in the food-processing industry, by stainless steel. The advantages of
copper and its alloys in salt solutions are witnessed by the prominence of brass trim
on ships. In fact, the name "admiralty" has been employed to designate a copper
alloy having superior resistance to marine environments.
The advent of stainless steel and its modern availability at a reasonable price
have made it second only to carbon steel in chemical process use. It is routinely.
almost automatically, specified for tower trays, mist-eliminator mesh, and other
items when the availability of a single versatile material often is more economical
than providing a spectrum of less flexible alternatives. Stainless steel is limited. as
mentioned earlier, in some environments. especially those containing chlorides.
Also. as with all electrically conductive metals, stainless steel should not be in direct
contact with a dissimilar metal in the presence of a liquid electrolyte. This creates the
equivalent of a short-circuited electrochemical cell, leading to rapid corrosion in
what would otherwise be an innocuous application.
In Perry Table 23-5 approximately 50 varieties of stainless steel are identified.
This represents only a fraction of those commercially available. The choice in a
particular situation usually depends on a combination of factors such as machin-
ability, wear resistance, acid tolerance, and high temperature performance. In this
text, .. stainless steel'tis employed generically because most metals so designated have
similar corrosion resistance and prices. In the cost charts of Chapter Five. the most
expensive stainless steel for a typical service is assumed. This assures flexibility for
final alloy selection without invalidating economic projections. The same is true of
copper-based and nickel-based alloys that as generic groups have similar corrosion,
temperature. and price characteristics.
Nickel and its alloys. known by such trade names as Hastelloy. lnconel.
Incoloy, Monel, and Nimonic, have been developed in a range of compositions
approaching those of stainless steel. Stainless steel itself contains a large amount of
nickel as well as chromium and iron. The so-called nickel-based alloys contain
nickel as the major ingredient rather than iron. As illustrated in Figure 4-45, the
strength and thermal properties of the two alloy types are similar. Nickel and its
alloys are superior in resistance to corrosion, especially by chlorides that attack
stainless steel. Applications in such environments, which are quite common.justify
the higher price (about double that of stainless steel) of nickel-based alloys.
Titanium and other premium metals or alloys are reserved for applications in
which servere, corrosive, abrasive, or high temperature exposure precJudes the
foregoing alternatives. Heat exchangers, pumps, and process vessels are on the list
of equipment that can be readily obtained in titanium and other less common
metals.

Selection Guide
As a quick guide to materials selection, Table 4-28 has been prepared from data in
handbooks and miscellaneous suppliers' catalogs. It is for tentative selection only.
(Don't blame me if you use it for formal design and the equipment dissolves.)
Ultimate selection usually is made by a materials specialist in consultation with
vendors. This might even include extensive corrosion testing in a pilot plant or
laboratory. The guidelines presented here, however, should be adequate for
 TABLE 4-28
CORROSION GUIDE FOR COMMON MATERIALS USED IN CHEMICAL PROCESS
CONSTRUCTION
Conatrvcllon Material

SIN/a OtlH>r Met.I• and Alloys

CarbonSIHI (ca) Aluminum· Cop,,.,-

and Alloy St-/ I•• I St.lnleu SIMia (&1) 8a1..,(AI) Baaad(Cu) Hlck•I-Bea.cl (HI)

Tem,,.,,.ture (' C):

ljiiij*"lf"I
400 600 -
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200 400 600 800 ·200
'I' I
I I j ij 11 JI II I I I I f I Ii
-200
jl
0
I IJ I ~
400
20() 20() 200 -200 0 200 20C 6()()
Exposure

Aqueous Solutions
Acetates xxxx AAAA AAAA AAAA BBBB
Ammonium salts BODE AAAA BBCC DEXX AABC
Caroonaies BBBB AAAA ODEE AABC BBCC
Chtor.oes DOEX ccco ODEE AAr.r. cccc
N1tra1es ano nimtes AAF\f\ AAAA aaoo 88(;0 AA8C
Sulfates and Sul(11es BBBB AAAA DODD 8BCC AAAA
Acid Sotuuons end we, Acid Vapors
rlBr xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx cccc
HCI xxxx xxxx xxxx CCXX cccc
HF xxxx xxxx xxxx cccc cccc
HN03 YlrXX AAAA xxxx xxxx AAAA
IV'.\04 ........ HHl)I DOXY. xxxx AOCX
H2P04 xxxx AABC xxxx ccxx AABC
Urgan,c acids xxxx AABC AABX AA8X AAAA
Basic Sotutions and Wet Vapors
Ca !OHJ2 BBOD AAAA xxxx AAAA AAAA
NaOH BBBB AAAA xxxx xxxx AAAA
NH30H xxxx AAAA 8800 AXAA AARC.
Food Intermediates
0.Jiry products xxxx AAAA DDXX RRDn AAAA
Frufl Juices xxxx AAAA ABOX BBBB BBBB
S1 ,gar syrups B_BBB AAAA AAAA 8888 AAAA
Vegerable oils BBBOBBBBB AAAAAAAAA AAAAA 880000 AAAAAAAAA
Vinegar xxxx AAAA BBBB eeee AAAA
Gases I mo,sll and
Cr)·ogen,.: L1quid3
Air A A .. A• .A,AABBODnn AAAAAAAAAAAAAUUUUYUOE AAAAAAAAAD AAAAAAABOD AAAAAAAAAAAAAAUl!O
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Flue gases XXXBBBBBBBBB XXXBBBBBBBBBBBBB XXXBB cccccc AAAAAAAAAAAAA
HBr xxxxxxxxxxxxx BBDXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXAA xxxxxxxx AABBBBBBBBBBBBB
HCI xxx xxxxxx xxxx BBOXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXAA xxxxxxxx AABBBBl!l!BBBBBBB
HI XXXXXXXXXXJtJtJ( UUUA AAAAAAAliliAli.0, xxxxxas xxxxxxxx I\AIBBilCCCCEEiEE
H2 OODXXXXXXXXXX AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AROORRRRRREIRB AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AA BOO BB xxxxxxxx AAABBBBBBBBBBBB
Halogenated hydrocarbons BBBOEXXXXXXXX BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB xxxxxx ccccccc AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Hydrocarbons BBBBBBBBBBBBB BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB AAAAAAAAAA cccccccccc AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
NH3 BBBBBBBBBBBBB BBOOOBOOBOOBBBBBBB RRRBBBB xxxxxxxx AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
N2 AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
02 AAAOXXXXXXXXX AAAAAAAAAAADDDDEE X XXX AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAABOD AAAAAAAAAAAAAA888
S02 BBXXBBBBBBBBB BBBXXBBBBBBBBBBBBB BBXXXBB cccccccc AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
S03 8XX88BBBl3BBB A XXRRRRARf.Hl9BBBB xxxee cccccc AAAAAAAAAAAAA
s,eam AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA BBB BB oooccc AAAAAAAAAAAAA
Liquids and Solvents
Acetone AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
Alcohols BBBB AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
Oowtherm AAAABBBBBB AAAAAAAAA AAASX AAABBXX AAAAAAAAA
Elhers BBOD AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
Freon xxxx AA AAA AAAAA' AA AAA AA AAA
Glycols AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
Halogenatedhydrocarbons BBBD BBBB xxxx CCOE AAAA
Hydrocarbons BBBB BBBB BBBB cccc AAAA
Mercury AAAAAAAAAAAAA ccccccccccccccccc xxxxxxx xxxxxxx CCCDODDDODDEEEX
Molten al~ali metals AAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA xxxxx AAA AA AAAAAAAAAAAAA
Mollen sal1s
Halides AAA AAAAAAA x x AA AAA
Nitrates AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA xx xx AA AAA AAA
Suuares AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA xxxx xxxx AAAAAAAAAAAA
Water
Boiler feed AAA AAA CCC AAA AAA
Brackish xxx BBC xxx ABO AAA
Cooling tower AAA AAA CCC AAA AAA
Fresh xxx AAA xxx ABO AAA
Sea xxx cco xxx CCC AAA

Tem~ture(°C): 0 200 400 6()() -200 0 200 400 600 80() -200 0 200 -200 0 200 -200 0 200 400 600
tlr11l1trlf11I .1111111111 .,1,11'11.I «111,I r!tlr 11111, itf1 l 1 11 f I I I ( I II I I I'

KEY
A excellent or no limitations; B modest !imitations; C special materials available at higher cost to minimize
problems; 0 limited in this regard; E severely limited in this regard; X unacceptable
 TABLE 4-28 (Continued)

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BB888BBB8BBBB88 AABCC AAAAAAAO CCAA8CCC AAAA AAAAAAAAAA A/.AAAAAA;.L
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA CCC CC AAAAAAAAAAO cccccccccco AAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAA8SCEAA/..
B888XXXXXXXX)(XXXX AA CCC AAAAAAAO CCAACCCO AAAA AAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA/.
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AAAA CCC EE AAAAAAO CCCCCCO AAA A A
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AAAA AAA CC AAAAAAO AAACCCO AAA A A
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AAAAAAA80EXX ODO OOOEE OOOEE AA AACCCCCCCC AAAAAOOOOO

xxxx AMAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA

88888888 AO CO A AAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAA
88888888888 xx AAAO CCCO AA AAAAAAAAAA A80XXXXXXX

AAA AACC AAAAAO AACCCO AAA A A

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255
256 SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT

defining a likely construction material and one on which an adequate predesign cost
estimate can be based.
Table 4-28 includes materials discussed above: carbon steel (cs), alloy steel (as),
conventional plastics (cp ), fiberglass-reinforced plastic (frp). fluorocarbon plastics
(fp), aluminum and its alloys (Al), copper and its alloys (Cu), stainless steel (ss),
nickel-based alloys (Ni), and titanium (Ti) plus ceramics, graphite, and some
common linings. The abbreviations in parentheses are used to designate these
generic materials generally and in the cost charts of Chapter Five. Detailed physical
information and thermal data on individual metals, alloys, plastics and ceramics are
found in· Perry Tables 23-5, 23-10, and 23-21.

REFERENCES
l Babcock and Wilcox, Steam, Babcock and Wilcox, New York (1978).
l Beddow, J.K., "Dry Separation Tcchniques,"Chem. Eng .. 6, pp. 70-84, (Aug.
10, 1981). Also available as Chem. Eng. Reprint No. 059.
3 Bergmann, L., "Baghouse Filter Fabrics." Chem. Eng., pp. 177-178 (Oct. 19,
1981).
4 Brown. R., "Design of Air-Cooled Exchangers." Chem. Eng., pp. 108-11 I
(March 27, 1978).
5 Brown, T. R., "Designing Batch Pressure Filters," Chem. Eng., pp. 58-63 (July
26, 1982).
6 Buonicore, A.J., "Air Pollution Control," Chem. Eng., pp. 81-101 (June 30,
1980).
7 Buse, F., "Using Centrifugal Pumps as Hydraulic Turbines," Chem. Eng.,
pp. I 13-117 (Jan. 26, 1981).
8 DeVore, A., G. Yago, and G. Picozzi, "Specifying and Selecting Heat
Exchangers," Chem. Eng., pp. 113-148 (Oct. 6, 1980).
9 Doll, T.R., "Making the Proper Choice of Adjustable-Speed Drives," Chem.
Eng.. pp. 46-60 (Aug. 9, 1982).
JO Eckert, J.S., Chem. Eng., p. 70 (Apr. 14, 1975).
11 Emmett, R.C., and C.E. Silverblatt, "When to Use Continuous Filtration,"
Chem. Eng. Prog., 70, pp. J8-42 (December 1974).
12 . Finn, D.P., "Select Equipment Drives to Cut Operating Energy Costs," Chem.
Eng .. pp. 121-124 {March 24, I 980).
13 Fitch, B., "Choosing a Separation Technique," Chem. Eng. Prog., 10, pp.
33-38 (December J 974).
14 Flood, J.E., H.F. Porter, and F.W., Rennie, "Filtration Practice Today,"
Chem. Eng., pp. 163-181 (June 20, 1966).
15 Foust, A.S., L.A. Wenzel, C.W. Clump, L. Mais, and L.B. Anderson,
Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd edition, Wiley, New York (1980).
16 Frank, 0., "Shortcuts for Distillation Design," Chem. Eng., pp. 111-128
(March 14, 1977). Also available as Chem. Eng. Reprint, No. 276.
17 Ganapathy, V., Chem. Eng .. pp. 112-119 (March 27, 1978).
18 Gates, LE., T.L. Henley, J.G. Fenic, D.S. Dickey, R.W. Hicks, J.R. Morton,