ANAPHY LAB

Monthlys

MICROSCOPE
- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek: first microscope
- Single lens or simple microscope
- Robert Hooke: discovered the cells
- Compound microscope: made of a set of lenses

Parts of a microscope

- Ocular: eyepiece, magnifies the image (usually 10x)

- Binocular microscopes: 2 eyepiece, has adjustment feature in one of
the oculars
- Body tube: holds ocular in place
- Revolving nosepiece
- Rotate nosepiece by holding outside of the disk
- Objective: lens
- 4x [Scanning objective]: initial location
- 10x [low-power objective]: initial location, objs. that don't need
greater magnification
- 40x [high-dry objective]: objs. requiring greater magnification
- Doesn't require the use of oil
- 100x [high-oil objective]: for extremely small specimens
- Must be immersed in oil
- Total magnification
Objective x ocular
- Microscope slide rests on stage
- Mechanical stage: if stage has an adjustable bracket

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 - Lamp: below stage, high intensity, another light source
- Condenser: concentrates light
- Diaphragm: adjusts light intensity
- Disk diaphragm: rotating disk with different holes sizes
- Iris diaphragm: like a human iris, dilates and constricts
- Arm
- Base
- Pivot: connects arm to the base
- Course focus: great distance
- Fine focus: little distance

- Electron microscope: uses a beam of electrons (than light) to form image

of a tiny specimen
- Transmission electron microscope: sends an electron through the
specimen (like how the light beam works)
- Scanning electron microscope: reflect an electron beam off the specimen,
the shadows produced create a 3D effect
- Resolution: ability to distinguish detail
- Transmission electron micrograph (TEM):detailed aspects of cell
structure (from book)

Using the microscope (important ideas)

- Start new observation at low power objective

- Never adjust the coarse focus when using the high power objective
- When removing the slide: use low power objective

Preparing the specimen

- Wet-mount: wet specimen covered with coverslip
- Stains: to make specimen more visible
- Methylene blue stain
- Place one edge of coverslip on the slide next to the specimen then drop,
- allow it to drop slowly

Chapter 1: THE HUMAN ORGANISM

Anatomy
- Means to dissect or cut apart parts of the body
- 2 basic approaches to study anatomy

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 - Systemic: by systems
- Regional: by area
- 2 General ways to examine internal structures
- Surface anatomy: external features
- Anatomical imaging: x-rays, ultrasound, MRI
Physiology
- Deals with processes or functions of living things
- Major goal of studying physiology
- To understand and predict the body's responses to stimuli
- To understand how the body maintains internal conditions

Structural and functional organization

1. Chemical
- How atoms interact & combine into molecules
2. Cell
- Basic structural & functional units
- Molecules combine to form organelles
3. Tissue
- Group of similar cells
- Characteristics of the cells surrounding materials determine the
functions of the tissue
4. Organ
- Composed of 2 or more tissues that perform one or more common
functions
5. Organ system
- Group of organs with a common function
6. Organism
- Any living thing considered as a whole

Characteristics of life

1. Organization
- Specific relationship of the many individual parts of an organism (Cells
→ tissues…)
2. Metabolism
- Sum of all chemical & physical changes sustaining an organism
- Ability to use energy to perform vital functions
3. Responsiveness
- Ability to sense changes and respond to these changes to help
maintain its life

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 - Respond to internal and external changes
4. Growth
- Increase in size of all parts of an organism
5. Development
- Changes in form & size
- Changes an organism undergoes through time
- Differentiation: change in cell structure from general to specific

6. Reproduction
- Formation of new cells or new organisms
- Tissue repair

Homeostasis
- Maintenance of constant internal environment despite fluctuations in external
or internal environment
- variables: measure of body properties that may change in value
- Ex: body temp, glucose cell count
- Homeostatic mechanisms: maintain body temp near an average normal
value or set point
- Governed by nervous & endocrine
- Ex: shivering & sweating

(Di raw important)

1. Negative feedback
2. Positive feedback

Terminology & body planes

- Body positions
- Anatomical position
- Standing upright, face forward, limbs to the side, palms facing
forward
- Supine: when lying face upward
- Prone: lying face downward

Term Definition

Right Towards the body's right

Left Towards the body's left

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Inferior lower/below

Superior Higher/above

Anterior/ Front
Ventral

Posterior/ Back
dorsal

Proximal Closer to point of attachment

Distal Farther from point of

attachment

Lateral Away from midline

Medial Toward midline

Superficial Toward surface

Deep Away from surface

*if the part is from a point of origin (ex: shoulder is proximal to elbow ) use distal
and proximal

- Body parts & regions

- Central region: head, neck, trunk
- Trunk: thorax, abdomen, pelvis
- Upper limb: arm, forearm, wrist, hand
- Lower limb: thigh, leg, ankle, foot

- Abdomen:

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 Division Organs

Right hypochondriac right portion of the liver, gallbladder,,

and parts of the small intestine

Epigastric majority of the stomach, part of the

liver, part of the pancreas, part of the
duodenum, part of the spleen

Left hypochondriac part of the spleen, the left kidney, part

of the stomach, pancreas, and parts of
the colon

Right lumbar gallbladder, the left kidney, part of the

liver, and the ascending colon

Umbilical duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.

It also contains the transverse colon
and the bottom portions of both the left
and right kidney

Left lumbar descending colon, the left kidney, and

part of the spleen

Right iliac appendix, cecum, and the right iliac

fossa

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Hypogastric bladder, part of the sigmoid colon, the
anus, and many organs of the
reproductive system, such as the uterus
and ovaries in females and the prostate
in males

Left iliac descending colon, the sigmoid colon,

and the right illiac fossa

- Body planes
- Sagittal: vertical plane that separates body left & right parts
- Median plane: sagittal that passes through the midline of the body
- Frontal or coronal: vertical plane dividing the body front and back
(anterior & posterior)
- Transverse: horizontal plane dividing the body superior and inferior

- Longitudinal section: cut along the length of the organ

- Transverse section or cross section: cuts completely through
- Oblique section: diagonally cut across long axis

Body cavities
1. Thoracic cavity
- Mediastinum: divides thoracic cavity into right & left parts
- Houses heart, thymus, trachea esophagus

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 - Between 2 lungs
- Pericardial cavity: surrounds the heart
- Visceral pericardium: covers heart
- Pericardial cavity
- Parietal pericardium: forms outer layer of the sac around the
heart
- Pleural cavity: surrounds the lungs
- Visceral pleural:
- Pleural cavity: contains pleural fluid
- Parietal pleural: lines inner surface of thoracic wall, lateral
surface of mediastinum, and superior surface of diaphragm

2. Abdominopelvic cavity
a. Abdominal cavity
- Contains the stomach, intestines, liver spleen, pancreas &
kidney
b. Pelvic cavity
- Contains urinary bladder, parts of large intestine, internal
reproductive organs

- Peritoneal cavity
- Visceral peritoneum
- Peritoneal cavity: peritoneal fluid
- Parietal peritoneum: lines the walls of inferior surface of diaphragm

Serous membrane
- Line the trunk cavities & cover organs
- Visceral serous membrane: covers organ
- Parietal serous membrane: outer part
- From inner to outer: visceral → cavity → parietal
- Pericarditis: inflammation of pericardium
- Peritonitis: inflammation of the peritoneum
- Appendicitis: a form of peritonitis, when the appendix is inflamed
due to a bacterial infection
- Mesenteries: 2 layers of peritoneum fused together
- Anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves
and blood vessels to reach the organs
- Retroperitoneal organs: kidneys, adrenal glands, portion of pancreas,
parts of intestines, urinary bladder
- Covered by parietal peritoneum

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Chapter 3: CELL STRUCTURE & THEIR FUNCTIONS

Part Location Description

Cell - Composed of double bilayer of

membrane or phospholipids
plasma -Transport & communication inside and
membrane outside the cell

Cytoplasm -includes organelles and liquids inside the

cell

Nucleus Center of the cell -double-walled

-contains genetic code:DNA located in
chromatin

Nucleolus In the nucleus -tiny nucleus

-synthesis for RNA

Endoplasmic Cytoplasm -single membrane

reticulum -attached to cell membrane and to nuclear
membrane

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Smooth Cytoplasm W/o ribosomes, makes lipids
Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Rough ER Cytoplasm With ribosomes, transports proteins

Ribosomes Cytoplasm Site for protein synthesis

(Factory)

Golgi Cytoplasm -Stack of flattened cells

apparatus -found close to Smooth ER
(Lbc) -receives and processes materials from ER
-packs material into vesicles

Mitochondria Cytoplasm -site for ATP synthesis

(Power plant) -cristae: folds in inner membrane
-matrix: space between inner membrane;
the part of the mitochondria enclosed
within the inner mitochondrial membrane
-contains its own DNA

Lysosomes Cytoplasm -hydrolytic enzymes

(Garbage -digestive enzymes that digest foreign
collector) particles

Peroxisomes Cytoplasm -protection against hydrogen peroxide

-waste removal

Glyoxysomes Cytoplasm -oxysomes that catalyzes the conversion

of H2O2 to H2O and O2
-found in plant cells only
-contain enzymes that catalyze
glyoxylate cycle
(Converts some lipids to carbohydrate
with glyoxylic acid)

Cytoskeleton -includes: microtubules, microfilaments,

or intermediate filaments
microtrabecul
ar lattice

Vacuoles -within cytoplasm

-enclosed by single membrane that serves
as secretory, excretory, or storage
-more common in plant cells
-isolate waste substances that ate toxic to
the plant

Microtubules -tiny, hollow beams that form

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 cytoskeleton
-forms mitotic spindle
-maintains cell shape
-forms parts of flagella, cilia, centrioles

Centrosome -cell fluid near the nucleus

or -contains centrioles
microtubule
organizing
center

Centrioles -cylinders formed by parallel microtubules

Microvilli -Tiny, fingerlike projections

-increase membrane's surface area

Cilia Short, hairlike organelles that propel

material along cell surface

Flagella Single long, hairlike, sperm cells to propel

Vesicles -Membranous bubbles

-may be formed by golgi apparatus or by
pinching inward of cell to engulf external
membrane

Chloroplast -found in green plants and algae

-grana: membranous bodies stacked
within chloroplasts that contains the
photosynthetic apparatus
-contains DNA

Functions of the cell

1. Cell metabolism & energy use

- Metabolism: Chemical reactions
- Energy released is used for cell activity
2. Synthesis of molecules
- Structural & functional characteristics of cells are determined by the
types of molecules they produce
3. Communication
- Chemical and electrical signals for communication
4. Reproduction & inheritance
- Transmit genetic info to the next generation

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Cell membrane
- Outermost component
- Extracellular: substance outside the cell
- Na+, Ca2+, Cl-
- Intracellular: substance inside the cell
- Enzymes, glycogen, potassium
- Acts as a selective barrier: determines what moves in and out,
communication between cells
- 2 types of molecules: phospholipids and proteins
- Fluid-mosaic model: studies of arrangement of molecules
- Phospholipids form a double layer of molecules
- Polar, phosphate-containing ends: hydrophilic, face the
extracellular & intracellular fluids
- Nonpolar, fatty acid: hydrophobic, face away
- Fluid quality: phospholipids are able to move
- Cholesterol: adds strength and stability by limiting the amount of movement
- Channels: movement of substances through the cell membrane
- Receptor molecules: enables cell recognition and coordination
- Maintains fluid balance (from discussion)
- Albumin
- Higher concentration of albumin, higher oncotic pressure (pull
factor)

Movement through the cell membrane

- Selective permeability: some substances are allowed to enter, some are
not
- High concentration intracellularly: glycogen and potassium
- High concentration extracellularly: Na+, Ca2+, Cl-
- Passive: doesnt require energy
- Active: requires ATP

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1. Diffusion
- Solution: solute and solvent
- Diffusion: Solutes usually move from area of high to low
concentration of the same solute
- Results from natural, constant random motion of all solutes in a
solution
- Concentration gradient: difference in concentration of a solute in a
solvent between two points divided by the distance between the two
points
- Steeper when concentration difference is large (distance is
small)
- Down (with) the concentration gradient: high → low
- Moves up ( against ) concentration gradient: low → high
- Doesnt occur by diffusion, requires energy
- Channels:
- Water soluble substances (like ions) pass through cell
membrane through channels
- While lipid soluble molecules can easily pass through
- Leak channels: constantly allows ions to pass through
- Gated channels: limit the movement of ions by opening and
closing
2. Osmosis

- Diffusion of water from high water concentration to low water

concentration
- occurs when the cell membrane is less permeable, selectively
permeable, or not to solutes and a concentration gradient for water
exists
- Osmotic pressure: force required to prevent the movement of water

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 across a selectively permeable membrane
- Measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis across a
selectively permeable membrane
- Hydrostatic pressure: (push factor) the pressure exerted by a fluid
at equilibrium at a given point
- In the experiment: net movement of water stops when osmotic
pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure
- The greater the concentration of a solution the greater its osmotic
pressure and the greater the tendency for water to move into the
solution

a. Hypotonic solution
- Low concentration of solute and high concentration water
- Osmotic pressure: less than the cell
- Water moves INTO the cell
- The cell swells
- Lysis: swells enough to rupture
b. Isotonic
- Concentration of solutes and water are the same on both sides
of the cell membrane
c. Hypertonic
- Solution has a higher concentration of solutes and lower
concentration of water
- Water moves OUT of the cell
- The cell shrinks or crenation

3. Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms

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 - Move large water-soluble molecules or electrically charged ions across
cell membrane
- Molecule binds w carrier molecule → carrier molecule changes shape →
releases molecule inside cell membrane → goes back to original shape
- Exhibit specificity: only specific molecules are transported by carriers
- FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- High to low concentration
- Doesnt require ATP
- ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Low to high concentration
- Requires ATP
- *cystic fibrosis: genetic disorder affects active transport of Cl-
into cells
- Some cases it can exchange one substance for another
- SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Active transport of one substance, establishing a concentration
gradient
- The diffusion of the substance provides energy to transport a
second substance
- Cotransport: diffusing substance moves in the same direction
- Countertransport: opposite direction
4. Endocytosis and exocytosis

- Vesicles: membrane-bound sacs

- Endocytosis
- Uptake of material
- Invaginates (folds in)
- Exhibits specificity
- Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Contains specific receptor
molecules that bind to specific substances
- Phagocytosis: solid particles are ingested (Ex: white blood
cells)
- Pinocytosis: cell drinking, smaller vesicles are formed, contains

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 liquid
- Exocytosis
- Secretory vesicles: accumulate material for release
- Move to the cell membrane where the vesicle fuses with
the cell membrane and material is released

Organelles
1. Nucleus

-At the center

-Nuclear envelope: consist of outer and inner membranes
which come together to form nuclear pores where material can
pass into or out
- Contain 23 pairs of chromosomes
- Chromatin: chromosomes that are loosely coiled
- Nucleoli/nucleolus: no surrounding membrane
- Subunits of ribosomes are formed here
2. Ribosomes

- Where proteins are produced

- Free ribosomes: not attached to any organelle
3. Endoplasmic reticulum
- Sacs and tubules
- From outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm

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 - Rough ER: W Ribosomes
- Smooth ER: w/o ribosomes
- Site for lipid synthesis and detoxification for chemicals
within cell
4. Golgi apparatus
- Stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs
- Collects, modifies, packs, and distributes protein and lipids
5. Secretory vesicles
- Small, membrane-bound sac that transports or stores materials
- Fuses with cell membrane and contents are released to the
exterior of the cell
- Some are released upon signal
6. Lysosomes and peroxisomes
- Membrane-bound vesicles
- Intracellular digestive systems
- Lysosomes: break down materials in the endocytic vesicle
- Peroxisomes: break down fatty acids, amino acids, hydrogen
peroxide
7. Mitochondria
- Cristae: folds in the inner membrane
- Mitochondrial matrix
- Mitochondrial DNA
- Site of ATP production
- Aerobic respiration
- Cells with large energy requirement have more mitochondria
8. Cytoskeleton

- Internal framework
- Support and hold the organelles, allows the cell to change its
shape
- Microtubules: hollow structure
- Support cytoplasm
- Assist in cell division & forming of essential components
(cilia and flagella)

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 -Microfilaments: small fibris
- Support cytoplasm, cell shape, cell movement
- Intermediate filaments: fibrils formed from protein
- Smaller than microtubules, bigger than microfilaments
- Provide mechanical support
- Ex: keratin
9. Centrioles
- Centrosome: close to nucleus where microtubule formation
occurs
- Contains 2 centrioles normally oriented perpendicular to
each other
- Composed of microtubules organized into 9 triplets
each triplet consist of 3 parallel microtubules
10. Cilia, flagella, microvilli
- Cilia: cylindrical, composed of microtubules, numerous on
surface cells that line the respiratory tract
- Flagella: longer than cilia, only one per cell
- Microvilli: specialized extensions that are supported by
microfilaments, do not actively move, increase the surface area
of the cells
- Abundant in areas which absorption is an important
function

Whole-cell activity
- Cell's characteristics are determined by the types of protein it produces →
protein determine the genetic info
1. Gene expression

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a. Transcription: DNA to RNA

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b. Translation: RNA to protein
- Stop codons: UAA, UGA, UAG

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2. Cell cycle (from the video)
a. Interphase: majority of the time is spent during interphase
i. G1 (gap 1): cell growth
ii. S (synthesis): duplicates DNA
iii. G2 (gap 2): organelles duplicate

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b. Mitosis ( forms 2 haploid daughter cells)
i. Prophase
- Nucleolus disappears
- Duplicated chromosomes appear
- Mitotic spindle forms (made out of microtubules)
ii. Metaphase: aligned at the Middle
- Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres through the
kinetochores

iii. Anaphase: Away to the poles

- Centromeres split & sister chromatids separate and move
towards opposite poles
iv. Telophase: Two different cells

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 - Nuclear envelope & nucleolus form at each pole
- Chromosomes decongest
- Spindle fibers disappear
c. Cytokinesis
d. Checkpoints
i. G1 checkpoint: if DNA is damaged
ii. S checkpoint: if DNA replication occurs properly
iii. G2 checkpoint: checks if complete sets of DNA
iv. Metaphase checkpoint: checks if chromosomes are aligned

3. Differentiation
- Sperm cell and oocyte unite to form a single cell → single cell divides
by mitosis to form 2 cells → divide to form 4 …
- Differentiation: specialized structures and functions
- Some portions of DNA are active and some are inactive
- Results from selective activation and inactivation of segments of
DNA
- Ex: DNA responsible for structure and function of bone cells are
diff from muscle cell
4. Apoptosis
- Programmed cell death
- In a developing fetus it removes extra tissues
- Regulated by specific genes
- Chromatin within nucleus condenses and fragments → nucleus
fragments → cells death

Cellular aspects of aging

1. Cellular clock: After a certain time or number of cell divisions the cell
dies
2. Death genes: "death genes" causes cells to die
3. DNA damage: through time, DNA is damaged
4. Free radicals: susceptible to direct damage resulting in mutations
- Atoms or molecules with unpaired electron
5. Mitochondrial damage: mitochondrial DNA more sensitive to free
radical damage than nuclear DNA
- Result in loss in protein
- Loss of mitochondrial function → loss of energy critical to cell
function

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Chapter 4: TISSUES

Tissue and histology

- Tissue: a group of specialized cells and the extracellular substances

surrounding them
- 4 types
a. Epithelial: covering
b. connective: support
c. Nervous: control
d. Muscle: movement
- Histology: study of tissues
- The structure of each tissue type is related to its function and the structure
of the tissues in an organ is related to the organ's function

Epithelial tissue

- Epithelium: covers and protects surfaces outside and inside the body
- Characteristics

1. Mostly composed of cells

- little extracellular matrix between cells
2. Covers body surfaces
- covers surfaces ans forms glands
3. Distinct cell surfaces:
- Free (apical) surface: cells are exposed and not attached to
other epithelial cells
- Often lines lumen of ducts, vessels, and cavities
- Basal surface: at the base of cells, attached to basement
membrane
- Basement membrane: a specialized type of extracellular
material secreted by epithelial & connective tissue
- helps attach epithelial to underlying tissues
- Supports and guides cell migration during tissue repair
- Porous: allows substances to move to and from
4. Cell and matrix
- Bind adjacent epithelial cells together and to extracellular matrix
of basement membrane

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 5. Nonvascular
- Blood vessels in underlying connective tissues do not penetrate
the basement membrane to reach epithelium
- Gases and nutrients reach epithelium by diffusing from blood
vessels

6. Capable of regeneration
- Replace damaged cells
- Undifferentiated cells (stem cells) continuously divide and
produce new cells

- Functions
1. Protecting underlying structures
- Ex: skin & oral cavity
2. Acting as a barrier
- Prevents substances from moving through it
3. Permitting passage of substances
- Allow substances to move through it
- Ex: CO2 and O2 exchange in lungs permitted by epithelium
4. Secreting substances
- Ex: sweat & sweat glands, enzyme-secreting portion of pancreas
5. Absorbing substances
- Carrier proteins regulate absorption of materials
- Ex: intestines

- Classification
- Based on number of layers:

1. Simple epithelium: single layer, each cell extending from basement

membrane to free surface

2. Stratified epithelium: more than 1 layer, only basal layer attaches

the deepest layer to basement membrane

3. pseudostratified columnar epithelium: special type of simple

epithelium, consists of 1 layer of cells with all cells attached to
basement membrane
- Appears to be more than 1 layer bcus some cells are tall and
extend to free surface, while some are short and doesn't extend
to free surface

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 - Based on shape:
1. Squamous: flat or scalelike
- Mostly sa lungs
- Because it's flat its main function is to filter (diffusion &
osmosis)
2. Cuboidal: cube-shaped
3. Columnar: like a column, taller than wider

- Honeycomb shape (allows cells to be closely packed), 6 sides

- Shapes allow it to undergo persistalsis

Category Structure Function Location

Simple squamous -Single layer of Prevents abrasion Lining of

thin, flat cells. between organs in blood
-Substances easily cavities (protection vessels,
pass through against friction), lymphatic
diffusion, filtration, vessels,
secretion alveoli,
kidney
tubules,
serous
membrane
cavities

Simple cuboidal -Single layer of Allows substances Kidney

cubelike cells (solvents like tubules,
-have cilia that water) to pass glands and
move mucus through ducts,
-microvilli increase choroid
surface area for Carry out active plexus of
secretion and transport, brain, lining
absorption facilitated diffusion, of terminal

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 or secretion & bronchioles
absorption in lungs,
surface of
ovaries

Simple columnar -single layer of tall, Small intestines* bronchioles,

thin cells produce and secrete uterus,
-large size to mucus and uterine
perform complex digestive enzymes, lining,
functions movement of stomach,
particles out of intestines,
bronchioles, gallbladder,
movement of bile ducts,
oocytes through ventricles of
uterine tubes brain

Pseudostratified -single layer -Secretes mucus Trachea

columnar -nuclei are at -cilia in airways and
different levels move mucus and bronchus,
-appear stratified accumulated debris nasal cavity,
toward throat to be sinuses,
swallowed auditory
tubes,
pharynx

Stratified squamous Several cuboidal

layers in basal layer
and progressively -protection against -Skin,
flattened toward abrasion cornea,
surface -mechanical barrier mouth,
preventing esophagus,
microorganisms to anus,
enter vagina,
-water can readily inferior
move across urethra
Nonkeratinized Moist, surface retain
a nucleus and
cytoplasm

Keratinized Cytoplasm is
replaced by keratin
and the cells are
dead

Stratified cuboidal More than 1 layer Absorption, Sweat

cuboidal epithelial secretion, glands ducts
cells, rare protection

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Stratified columnar More than 1 layer Some ab sorption, Mammary
but only surface secretion, gland ducts,
cells are columnar. protection larynx,
Deeper layers are portion of
are irregular or male
cuboidal. Rare urethra

Transitional Not stretched: -Lines cavities that Bladder,

epithelium Stratified that can expand greatly, ureters,
Not stretched
appear cuboidal -fluctuations in superior
Stretched: volume of liquid in urethrs
squamous an organ or tube,
protects against
Stretched
caustic effects of
urine

- Structural and functional relationship

- Number & shape of cells in a specific type of epithelium reflect function
the epithelium performs
- Shape & number can change if subjected to long term irritation

- Simple epithelium: found in organs that move materials

- Ex: diffusion of gases in lungs, filtration of fluid in kidneys,
secretion from glands, nutrient absorption of intestines
- Stratified epithelium : protective function , movement of materials are
hindered by its many layers
- Stratified squamous: where abrasion can occur
- Flat & thin cells: diffusion
- Cuboidal/ columnar: secretion and absorption

- Free surfaces
- Free surface not in contact with other cells and faces away
underlying tissues
- Can be smooth or lined with microvilli or cilia
- Smooth: reduces friction (ex: endothelium: lining of
blood vessels which reduces friction as blood flows)
- Microvilli (surface area) and cilia (propel materials)

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 - Cell connections
- Structures that hold cell to one another or to basement
membrane. These structures
1. Mechanically bind cells together
2. Help form permeability barrier
3. Provide mechanisms for intercellular communication
- Desmosomes: mechanical links that bind cells together
- Hemidesmosomes: modified desmosomes, anchor cells to
basement membrane
- Tight junctions: bind adjacent cells together and form
permeability barriers, prevent passage of materials because
they completely surround the cell (ex: lining of intestines)
- Adhesion belt: below tight junction, act as weak glue
- Gap junctions: small channels that allow molecules and ions to
pass from one epithelial cell to an adjacent one
- Most epithelial cells are connected by gap junctions

- Glands
- secretory organs
- Composed primarily of epithelium
- Exocrine: glands with ducts
- Duct: gland maintains open contact with epithelium
- Composed of many cells and are called multicellular glands
- Classified according to structure of their ducts and
secretory regions
1. Structure of ducts
a. Simple glands: single, nonbranched duct
(branched if multiple secretory regions that
branch off duct)
b. Compound glands: multiple, branched
ducts
2. Secretory region
a. Tubular: tubules, can be straight or coiled
b. Acinar or alveolar: saclike
c. Tubuloacinar/ tubuloalveolar
3. How products leave cell
a. Merocrine: release by exocytosis, used by
water producing sweat glands
b. Apocrine: pinched-off fragments of gland
cell (milk producing: mix of apocrine &
merocrine)
c. Holocrine: shedding of entire cell, cell

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 ruptures and dies (used by sebaceous
glands)
- Goblet cells: secrete mucus
- Endocrine: no ducts, have extensive blood vessels
- Hormones: secreted into bloodstream

Connective tissue

- Connective tissue: consists of cells separated from each other by abundant

extracellular matrix

- Function
1. Enclosing & separating other tissues
- Form capsules around organs
- Form layers that separate tissue and organ (separate muscles,
arteries, veins, nerves)
2. Connecting tissues to one another
- Tendons attach muscles to bone
- Ligaments hold bones together
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
- Bones provide rigid support
- Joints allow the body to move

4. Storing compounds
- Adipose tissue store high-energy
- Bones store calcium & phosphate
5. Cushioning and insulating
- Adipose serve as a cushion and protects tissues around it
- Adipose insulates layer beneath skin
6. Transporting
- Blood transports gases,nutrients, hormones
7. Protecting

- Cells of connective tissue

- Blast: create matrix
- Osteoblasts: form bone
- Fibroblasts: form fibrous connective tissue
- Chondroblasts: form cartilage
- Cytes: maintain
- Osteocytes: maintain bone
- Fibrocytes: maints connective tissue

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 - Chondrocytes: maintain cartilage
- Clasts: Break
- Osteoclasts: break down

- Macrophages: part of immune system, large white blood cells

that ingest foreign substances
- Mast cells: non motile cells that release chemicals like
histamine

- Extracellular matrix
- Structure is responsible for functional characteristics of
connective tissues
- Bones to bear weight, tendons to stretch, skin to
withstand abrasion
- 3 components
1. Protein fibers
- Collagen: microscopic ropes, flexible but resist
stretching
- Reticular fibers: fine, short collagen fibers,
branch from supporting network
- Elastic fibers: ability to return to original shape
2. Ground substance
- Consist of non fibrous protein
- Proteoglycans: large protein consist of protein
core attached to many long polysaccharides, trap
large quantities of water
3. Fluid

- Classification
1. Connective tissue proper
a. Loose:
- few protein fibers that form a lacy network, numerous
spaces filled with ground substance and fluid
- Widely distributed, attaches the skin to underlying tissues
and provides nourishment

Types of loose connective tissue:

- Areolar
- Collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers
- Fibroblasts: most common cell, responsible for
producing matrix

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 - Adipose
- Consist of adipocytes or fat cells which contain
large amount of lipids for energy storage
- Composed of large cells and small amount of
extracellular matrix which consist of loosely
arranged collagen & reticular fiber
- Thermal insulator tissue
- Reticular
- Framework of lymphatic
b. Dense
- Has relatively large number of protein fibers (produced by
fibroblasts) that fill extracellular space

Subcategories:
- Collagenous: made up of collagen fibers ( tendons,
ligaments, dermis), forms capsules around organs
- Dense regular: collagen fibers oriented in the
same direction (in tendons and ligaments)
- Dense irregular: oriented in many different
directions (dermis & organ capsules)
- Elastic: abundant elastic fibers which allow the tissue to
stretch and recoil (vocal cords, elastic ligaments, walls of
arteries)
- Regular elastic: vocal cords & ligaments
- Irregular elastic: walls of arteries
- Marfan syndrome: inability to maintain and form
elastic fibers (rupture of aorta wall that is covered
with connective tissues can cause death)

2. Supporting connective tissue

a. Cartilage
- Composed chondrocytes or cartilage cells: located in
spaces called lacunae
- Collagen gives it flexibility and strength
- resilient because proteoglycans of the matrix trap water
which makes cartilage rigid
- Provides support
- Cartilage heals slowly because blood vessels do not
penetrate it

3 types:

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 - Hyaline cartilage: withstand compression
- most abundant, covers end of bones
- Respiratory tract, nasal cartilage, costal cartilage
- Fibrocartilage: able to resist pulling or tearing forces
- more collagen than hyaline which can be seen in
the matrix
- Disks between vertebrae, knee and
temporomandibular joint
- Elastic: contains elastic fibers other than collagen and
proteoglycans
- Appear as coiled fibers
- Able to recoil to its original shape when bent
- External ear, epiglottis, auditory tube

b. Bone
- Hard connective tissue
- Osteocyte: bone cells (located within lacunae)

2 types:
- Spongy: resembles a sponge because there are spaces
between trabeculae
- Compact: solid, no space
3. Fluid connective tissue
a. Blood
- Liquid matrix
- Formed elements: blood cells and platelets
b. Hemopoietic tissue
- Red marrow
- Yellow marrow

Muscle tissue
- Main function to contract or shorten
- Results from contractile protein
- Muscle fibers: muscle cells (fibers bcus they resemble tiny threads)

Types
- Skeletal: attaches to the skeleton and allows the body to move
- Voluntary
- Skeletal muscle cells: long and cylindrical with several nuclei per
cell
- Striated: banded because of arrangement of contractile proteins
- Cardiac: muscle of the heart To help pump blood

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 -Involuntary
-Cardiac muscles cells: cylindrical but shorter than skeletal
muscles, one nucleus per cell
- Branched and connected to one another by intercalated disks:
contain gap junctions important in coordinating contractions
- Smooth: forms walls of hollow organs, skin & eyes
- Involuntary
- Smooth muscle cells: Tapered at each end, Single nucleus, not
striated

Nervous tissue
- Form brain, spinal cord, nerves
- Responsible for coordinating and controlling body activities
- Action potentials: electrical signals
- Neuron: nerve cell, For conducting action potentials
- Cell body: contains nucleus
- Dendrites and axons: cell processes
- Dendrites: receive stimuli
- Axon: where action potentials originate from
- Glia: support cells; nourish, protect and insulate neurons

Tissue membrane
- Covers a structure or lines a cavity
- Mucous membrane: lines cavities that open to outside of body
- Structure: Consist of epithelial cells, their basement membrane, loose
connective tissue
- Some contain smooth muscles
- Function: protection, absorption and secretion
- Serous membrane:line cavities that do not open to exterior of body
( pericardial, peritoneal, Pleural)
- 3 components: simple squamous epithelium, basement membrane,
loose connective tissue
- Serous fluid: lubricates
- Function: protects internal organs from friction, act as selective
permeable barrier to prevent fluid from accumulating within cavities
-
- Synovial membrane: line cavities of freely movable joints
- Structure: Connective tissue, continuous with dense connective tissue
or separated from the capsule
- Synovial fluid: reduces friction

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Tissue damage and inflammation
Tissue repair
Effects of aging

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