Introduction

The energy consumed by the buildings sector accounts for more than 30% of the total energy
worldwide [1], and has exceeded the industrial and transportation sectors in developed countries [2].
In developed countries, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) accounts for almost half of
the total energy use in commercial buildings. The growing demand for better thermal comfort in the
built environment leads to the wide spread of HVAC installation, which causes the steady increase in
building energy use [3].

Variable air volume (VAV) system is an air system that varies its supply air volume flow rate to
satisfy different space heating/cooling loads, to maintain predetermined space air temperature and
humidity for thermal comfort, and to conserve fan power during part-load operations [8]. A VAV
system satisfies the occupants’ indoor air quality (IAQ) requirement by supplying a minimum amount
of outdoor air based on national regulations and standards [9]. There are two types of VAV systems:
packaged VAV using direct-expansion cooling coils, and central VAV using chilled-water cooling coils.
Many VAV systems supply air with a constant temperature and recirculate portion of the return air
[10]. VAV system usually relies on reheat at zone terminal units to meet zone comfort requirements
at part-load conditions. VAV system is the most typical HVAC system in office buildings.

Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) system is a refrigerant system, generally comprised of an

outdoor unit serving multiple indoor units connected by a refrigerant piping network. There are two
common VRF types: the heat pump type and the heat recovery type. The heat pump type VRF system
supplies only cooling or only heating at a time, while the heat recovery type VRF system can supply
cooling and heating simultaneously. Depending on cooling source for the outdoor condensers, VRF
systems can be categorized into air-cooled and water-cooled. VRF system varies the refrigerant flow
using variable speed compressors in the outdoor unit and the electronic expansion valves (EEVs)
located in each indoor unit. Advanced VRF systems can modulate the evaporating temperatures to
meet the cooling load of indoor units [12]. Its ability to control the refrigerant mass flow rate according
to the cooling and/or heating load enables the integration of as many as 60 indoor units with varied
capacities with one single outdoor unit with one or multiple compressors. This unlocks the possibility
of zone level individual comfort control, simultaneous heating and cooling in different zones, and heat
recovery from one zone to another [13][14]. Because of the extraordinary performance in individual
and flexible zone level control, VRF systems are great fit for applications requiring individualized
comfort conditioning. As a result, VRF systems have gained much attention and are becoming more
widely used with sales booming worldwide [15][16].
About Variable Air Volume (VAV)

Variable air volume (VAV) were developed to be more energy efficient and to meet the varying
heating and cooling needs of different building zones. A zone can be a single room or cluster of rooms
with the same heat gain and heat loss characteristics.

Variable Air Volume (VAV), systems work by varying the airflow in a building at a constant
temperature, which is the opposite workings of a CAV system that varies the temperature at a
constant airflow. For larger commercial buildings, whether it be a five-story office building or a
shopping mall, this is a pronounced advantage as it allows better temperature control. With buildings
of these sizes, individual control is a necessity and accomplished via a main VAV/air box, zones,
ductwork, and dampers. How this works is that the supply air temperature remains constant, and the
airflow rate fluctuates to accommodate the loss-and-gain heating patterns of each connected zone.

A few of the top advantages of VAVs for you are better temperature control per zone, lower
energy utilized with system fans, better humidity control overall, and less fan noise.

VAV systems can save as much as 30 percent in energy costs as compared to conventional
dual duct systems. In addition, they are economical to install and to operate. Duct sizes and central
air handling units are smaller and the design and installation is generally much simpler.

The main duct for a typical VAV system provides cooling only (at approximately 55°F). This is
called primary air. Room thermostats control the amount of primary air delivered to each zone
through modulating dampers for each zone. These dampers vary the volume of air to each zone
according to the cooling needs.

Early VAV systems varied the fan cfm output according to the total need of the zones. The fan
was sized for the maximum probable load. As the air volume for the zones varied, the static pressure
(SP) in the main duct tended to vary. An SP sensor in the main duct controlled the fan output to
maintain a constant supply duct static pressure. The fan output was varied either by fan inlet vanes or
by a damper at the fan outlet. These systems were variable volume-constant temperature (VV-CT)

Early VAV systems were cooling only, so a separate source of heat was needed for the outer
rooms. This was usually supplied by perimeter heating in the rooms.

These early VAV systems were low-cost to install. However, depending upon the position of the zone
dampers, the zones were subject to delivering too much cold supply air, which sometimes created
drafts and air noise. These systems were very difficult to balance.
How a VAV system works?

What distinguishes a variable air volume system from other types of air delivery systems is the use of
a variable air volume box in the ductwork. The most basic VAV box consists of an enclosure with a
small air valve (damper) that regulates the air flow in response to the room's thermostat.

In a VAV system, an air handling unit (AHU) cools or heats air to accommodate the zone with
the most extreme requirements, supplying the air through ducts to various zones. At the individual
zone or space, the amount of air to be provided is regulated by air valves within a VAV box or terminal.
As the load decreases in a particular zone, the VAV air valve throttles the airflow matching the space
requirements. Also, when there is a sudden increase in load, the temperature sensor located in the
zone will detect a rise in temperature and request the VAV box to open the air valve and increase the
amount of cool air flow. When a VAV box air valve closes, the static pressure in the adjacent runout
and trunk duct will increase, resulting in increased airflow through the adjacent ductwork. This change
in airflow will affect the space temperature in the new area supplied by that ductwork because a
higher volume of air (usually cooled) is now flowing into the area. The space thermostat in this area
will eventually sense this change in temperature, and re-position its air valve for reduced flow. This
reduced flow will cause a further increase in static pressure in adjacent ductwork and increase flow
even further to other air terminals. This effect continues unabated and will eventually cause unbalance
in the entire air distribution ductwork. It is apparent that space thermostats alone can never stabilize
a space temperature. Therefore, an additional static pressure control is added in the system, which
maintains the duct static pressure within a set range. A static pressure sensor senses the increase in
duct static pressure and provides signal to fan controller to reduce the speed. A reduction in fan speed
will reduce the airflow
VAV Systems – Benefits

Here are a few of the advantages of VAV systems:

1. Efficiency – VAV systems are low on energy consumption. During lean periods, the air handling
unit fan can run at a slower speed (through the use of a variable speed drive) and the amount
heating and cooling mediums running through the coil can be reduced (through 2-way
modulating valves or solenoid control valves). A VAV system allows the air handling unit,
chillers, and boilers to run a part load majority of time.

2. Individual Temperature Control – VAV system provides optimum control of temperature

especially in the areas with wide load variations. Since each VAV box is linked to a thermostat,
the ability to control temperature in a space is independent of other spaces. Rooms with
similar loading patterns are often placed on the same VAV box, and through the use of a VAV
system, areas with very different loading patterns can be placed on the same air handling unit.

3. Humidity Control – Humidity refers to moisture content in the air. It must be controlled in
conjunction with air temperature to provide a comfortable environment. VAV systems do an
excellent job of controlling building humidity since the air handler delivers constant-
temperature, low dew-point air at all load conditions.

4. Cost – Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems are sized for a diversified "block" load (peak
instantaneous demand) rather than a sum of zone "peak" loads. As a result, the equipment
sizes (air handling units/refrigeration plant/ducts etc.) are lowered thus reducing the first
initial cost.

5. Flexibility –A VAV system is capable of serving multiple zones with varying load demands; this
allows a single air-handling unit to handle varying loads in an economical way.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Each zone requires a terminal unit. This may cause spacing problems in smaller zones.
2. Terminal units must be in an easily accessible location for its particular zone, which may
complicate the system design.
3. Terminal units will require a power source to operate, resulting in extra electrical wiring.
4. Terminal units will require periodic maintenance in addition to usual attention paid to the
central unit.
 5. VAV systems may require a secondary mechanical system to meet peak demands. Also, a
secondary system may be necessary to provide heating to zones when the majority of the
building requires cooling, or vice versa.
6. Circulation may become a problem when zone needs are met using minimal air flow.

DESIGN CHALLENGES
1. Inadequate ventilation - Providing proper ventilation with a simple VAV system presents
a challenge. ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality,"
mandates minimum outdoor air requirements of 20 CFM/person for ventilation. Since
with VAV systems, the amount of air delivered varies with load, restricting the air flow can
lead to inadequate outside air flow. The result is stuffiness and discomfort.
2. Poor Air Distribution - As a VAV system reaches its design set-point, the volume of air
delivered to a room is decreased. This affects the air distribution. A standard diffuser may
work well for constant volume applications, but not so well at part load air velocities.
When airflow is reduced, the distribution pattern is changed and can cause stratification
or drafts to occur.
3. Control problems - (1) How to sense small changes in static pressure, (2) How to balance
return air systems with variations in supply air, and (3) How to maintain a constant flow
of outside air with variations in supply and return airflows.
4. Space Requirements - The installation of a VAV box requires considerable space, both in
the vertical and horizontal directions. As a rule of thumb, the linear duct length before a
VAV box should be three times the diameter of the inlet. This length is required for the
air profile in the duct to even out before entering the box. In the vertical direction, the
VAV box can require up to 18", which can be a problem if above ceiling heights are
relatively small.
5. VAV Box Location - Since VAV boxes must be located in the branch ductwork, they are
often placed above the ceiling. In situations where an acoustical ceiling is used, there is
easy access to the box. However, in situations where a plaster ceiling is present, an
access panel must be provided to allow access to the box.

GENERAL APPLICATIONS
Variable air volume systems are very effective in medium to large scale buildings that
contain many smaller HVAC zones such as office buildings, schools, apartment buildings, or
 hospitals. These applications require a mechanical system capable of handling large air
volumes while paying attention to the specific needs of each separated area.
Inappropriate Uses for a VAV System
Not acceptable for some critical areas such as hospitals because, at low load conditions, less
air is discharged from supply outlets. This may not meet strict ventilation, humidity control and
pressure regulation requirements to prevent infiltration of outside air in a clean environment.
Laboratories/Hospitals and Clean room applications - Traditional VAV systems would not be a
good choice to use in a situation where pressurizing spaces is critical. For instance, a hospital hallway
serving isolation rooms must be positively pressured so that contagious germs do not seep out of the
isolation room. Since a traditional VAV system cannot assure a constant volume of delivered air, it
works poorly in positively pressured situations.
VAV systems may not be as desirable for smaller scale structures or structures that require uniform
heating or cooling in a large area, because the added control mechanisms would add to expenses
while not adding any desired benefits. Structures such as single-family homes or warehouses may find
an alternative HVAC system to be much more economical.

TYPES OF VAV SYSTEMS

There are many different types of VAV units:
1. Single Duct - A single duct VAV (or cooling only VAV) is one of the most basic air terminal unit
consisting of a damper, actuator, flow sensor and selected controls. It is simply an enclosure
with single inlet and single outlet with an air valve in between.
Common Applications - It is used only in spaces where the variation in load is relatively small.
It is most often used in an interior zone of the building for cooling only. Generally, these boxes
should be used only where minimum ventilation is not a concern and, therefore, can be set at
zero.
2. Dual Duct – A dual duct VAV consists of two primary air inlet connections, two primary air
dampers, inlet velocity sensors, and a zone controller mounted on the side of the box. The
dual duct VAV terminal is supplied with both hot and cold air. When the space is calling for
full cooling, the cold deck damper opens to its max design CFM while the hot deck damper
goes closed. The opposite happens when the space is calling for full heating. What makes this
box so unique is that when the space temperature is satisfied the two dampers will mix its hot
and cold air to produce the constant design flow without over heating or cooling the space.
 Common Applications – Exterior zones in buildings where overhead heating and cooling is
desired but use of auxiliary heat coil is not feasible.

3. Reheat – A reheat VAV box is very similar to a single duct VAV box. The only difference here is
that the electric heat strips or a hot water coil is added to the VAV box for heating. With a
decrease in cooling load, the room thermostat resets the regulator to the minimum volume
setting. With a further decrease in load, the thermostat opens the reheat valve/coil.
Common Applications – Exterior zones (adjacent to outside walls) where convective and
radiated heat losses create an intermittent need for moderate heating as the terminal usually
reheats at the minimum setting. Interior zones where ventilation requirements preclude full
shut-off of the terminal or minimum airflow require some added heat.

4. Fan Powered - Fan powered VAV terminal includes a fan in an enclosure. These units were
originally designed and introduced for their ability to save energy. They take advantage of
typical VAV savings at the air handler and the chiller during the cooling periods, but the real
savings kick in when heating is required. Fan powered terminals induce warm plenum air from
the ceiling and blend it with the primary air during the heating sequence when the VAV damper
throttles to the minimum set-point. This recaptures all the heat created in the zone and
plenum by lights, occupants, solar loading and machinery or equipment such as computers,
coffee machines, copiers etc. The fan powered unit returns this heat as free heating rather
than wasting it back at the air handler. If additional heating is required, then supplemental
heat is added to the sequence, but the unit still saves energy by warming blending air at 75°F
rather than reheating primary cooled air at 55°F. The addition of a fan to a VAV box also
improves air movement at times when a space is near its design temperature and supply air
volumes are low. The addition of a fan, however, demands additional energy because the fan
motor requires electric input for power.
Common Applications
1. Exterior zones where heating and cooling loads may vary considerably and occupancy
variations allow the central system to be shut-down or set-back during unoccupied
hours.
2. Situations where central system economy is desired as central fans can be reduced in size
because they only need to provide sufficient static to deliver air to the terminal.

There are two different types of fan powered boxes; 1) parallel and 2) series.
 5. Series Fan - A second type of fan-powered mixing box has the air terminal fan located in series
with the primary air damper. Like the parallel unit, the series fan-powered mixing box uses
the ceiling cavity as a return duct to bring zone return air back to the air terminal, and operates
in a pressure independent manner. Series units sometimes called constant volume units
because the fan runs constantly. The basic concept is that when the space is calling for full
cooling, the primary damper opens to its design flow and the fan gets all of its airflow from
the main air handler.

IMPROVEMENTS IN VAV SYSTEMS

Early VAV systems were not highly regarded by HVAC technicians. They were considered
almost impossible to balance and to keep in balance. Today, pressure independent VAV systems are
widely regarded as the best HVAC system design available. This change is largely a result of
improvements in the terminal unit.

Many VAV systems and terminal units have been developed to provide for the particular needs of
a building. The following are the commonly used types:

a) Cooling-only unit.
b) Reheat unit to provide heating as well as cooling.
c) Fan-powered reheat unit to provide return airflow through the coil.
d) Induction unit using the induction principle rather than a fan to draw return air from the
ceiling space.
e) Bypass unit to prevent over-cooling by controlling the amount of cold air that enters the
space.
f) Dual duct system with a hot deck and a cold deck at the air handling unit. The terminal unit
selects air from the hot deck or from the cold deck according to the space needs.
g) Changeover-bypass system to provide either heating or cooling with a single supply duct. A
bypass damper maintains a constant static pressure in the primary air supply duct.
About Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF)

Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF), is a more recent HVAC technology than VAV and uses
refrigerant as its medium to heat and cool. Operating very similarly to a ductless mini-split system, a
VRF varies the refrigerant flow via variable motor speeds to provide buildings the ability to control
individual zones. By operating at differing motor speeds, this allows these units to operate at their
needed rates rather than overutilizing energy, which results in higher energy costs. Whether it be a
separate office or conference room, or an independent store, a VRF system allows each area or zone
unique temperature control without affecting the rest of the building. A VRF system utilizes both
indoor and outdoor components, with each outdoor unit (or the outdoor unit if only one is required)
serving multiple indoor units.

A few of the top advantages for VRFs for you are consistent temperature control per zone,
high energy efficiency, installation flexibility as it pertains to smaller spaces, delivery of simultaneous
heating and cooling within the building, and fewer breakdowns.

VRF TECHNOLOGY

In a VRF system, multiple indoor fan coil units may be connected to one outdoor unit. The
outdoor unit has one or more compressors that are inverter driven, so their speed can be varied by
changing the frequency of the power supply to the compressor. As the compressor speed changes, so
does the amount of refrigerant deliver by the compressor.
Each indoor fan coil unit has its own metering device that is controlled by the indoor unit itself,
or by the outdoor unit. As each indoor unit sends a demand to the outdoor unit, the outdoor unit
delivers the amount of refrigerant needed to meet the individual requirements of each indoor unit.
These features make the VRF system ideally suited for all applications that have part load
requirements based on usage or building orientation, as well as applications that require zoning.

ADVANTAGES OF A VRF SYSTEM

1. Control Means Comfort - The key to providing comfort is to supply heating or cooling when
and where it is required without swings in room temperature. In conventional systems, the
compressor is either on or off, so even spaces that have individual controls experience
fluctuations in room temperature as the compressor stops and then starts again to maintain
the thermostat setting.
 2. Design Flexibility - the flexibility provided by the diversity of the product offering. Multiple
types and sizes of fan coils are available to fit any application. When selecting a VRF system,
keep in mind that not all systems have the same piping capabilities. Systems that offer
expanded piping capabilities will maximize the application flexibility provided by the VRF
technology.
3. Cost Effective Installation - the installation of a VRF system can be a cost-effective alternative
to traditional systems that require ductwork or large pipe sizes, and pumps and boilers in the
case of chilled water systems.
4. Energy Savings - All VRF systems provide energy savings by varying compressor speed and
matching the output of the system as closely as possible to the load. In addition, VRF systems
do not experience the same energy losses as systems that move conditioned air through
ductwork.

COMPARISON OF VRF SYSTEMS

The VRF systems available on the market today differ according to the number and type of
compressor.
The 3 types of units that will be compared here are:
1. Single Variable Speed Compressor - In this system with a single, large-capacity scroll
compressor, the same compressor starts and runs when there is demand and no redundancy
is available if the compressor fails.
2. Variable Speed Compressor Plus Fixed- Speed Compressor - In this two-compressor system,
the inverter-driven compressor always starts and ramps up until it reaches its maximum
capacity at which time the fixed-speed compressor starts and the inverter- driven compressor
ramps down. This system provides back-up capability.

3. Multiple Variable Speed Compressors - Outdoor units with multiple inverter-driven twin
rotary scroll compressors, as shown in Fig. 5, offer the most complete set of advantages
achievable with a VRF system.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A. Space Layout
The design of a VRF system begins with understanding the space layout. The orientation of
the building and the seasons during which peak loads occur must be considered. The type of
load (heating or cooling) and the distribution of loads into zones will depend on the intended
 use of the space. In turn, these factors will determine whether a heat pump system or heat
recovery system will be the most efficient choice.

B. Type of System — Heat Recovery or Heat Pump?

Heat pump and heat recovery systems both provide heating and cooling. A heat pump system
provides either heating or cooling as required. A heat recovery system is ideal when
simultaneous heating and cooling is required. The greatest efficiency will be realized when the
heating and cooling loads are equal, by maximizing the amount of energy that can be
transferred from one zone to another using the refrigerant.
To determine the best design choice, an efficiency analysis and cost comparison of
the two options should be completed. In addition, the consequence of a greater amount of
refrigerant circulating through the larger system should be considered, since the amount of
refrigerant in the system has implications when it comes to meeting the requirements of
ASHRAE 15.

C. Size of Units
The size of the units selected must be considered for impact on the design of the system;
smaller units will provide flexibility of zoning and require less piping and less refrigerant per
system.

D. Piping Configuration
Flexibility of the piping options available should be considered. A system that provides more
options for combining Y-shape joints and headers could minimize the amount of piping and
refrigerant used, thus reducing the total cost of the job.
REFERENCE

https://www.achrnews.com/articles/98592-variable-air-volume-systems