Chapter

10 : Radioactivity

1. The nuclide notation of an atom :

X – Symbol of the element
A


Z X A – Nucleon number
Z – Proton number
(atomic number)
2. Examples :
Symbol of oxygen atom
(i) 16
8 O p + n = 16
P = 8

n = 16 – 8 = 8

Symbol of silver atom
(ii) 108
47 Ag p + n = 108
P = 47

n = 108 – 47 = 61

Symbol of uranium atom
(iii) 238
92 U p + n = 238
P = 92

n = 238 – 92 = 146
p = proton ; n = neutron
~ 1 ~



~ 2 ~

 Isotopes & Radioisotopes
1. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons.
2. Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical
properties but different in physical properties (such as
densities, boiling points and melting points.
3. Some isotopes are not stable; it is called radioisotopes;
because it emits radioactive rays such as α , β and γ .
4. Some useful radioisotopes are man made.
5. Examples of isotopes and radioisotopes :

Name of Symbols Number of Number of Number of

isotopes protons neutrons nucleon

Hydrogen 1
H
1
1 0 1
Deuterium 2 1 1 2
H
1
Tritium 3 1 2 3
H
1
Carbon-12 12 6 6 12
C
6
Carbon-13 13 6 7 13
C
6
Carbon-14 14 6 8 14
C
6
Natrium-23 23 11 12 23
Na
11
Natrium-24 24 11 13 24
Na
11
Iodine-127 127 53 74 127
I
53
Iodine-131 131 53 78 131
I
53
~ 3 ~

 Nucleus and Atomic Model

1. Atomic Model of Rutherford (1909).


Atom


nucleon


nucleus



2. When a gold foil is bombarded by alpha particles, it is
found that a lot of space (99%) in an atom is empty space.












3. If nucleus is the size of a football then the atom is about
the size of the planet earth.

~ 4 ~

4. Recent atomic model :








5. Sub-atomic particles :

Relative Unit
Particles Mass mass Charge
Proton (p) 1.67 x 10-27 kg 1 +1
Neutron (n) 1.67 x 10-27 kg 1 0
Electron (e) 9.1 x 10-31 kg 1/1836 -1

6. Charge of one electron = 1.6 × 10-19 C (Coulomb).

~ 5 ~


Radioactivity

1. Radioactivity is a process of disintegration (breaking up)
of an unstable nucleus (of an atom) in order to become a
stable nucleus by the emission of radioactive rays
spontaneously and randomly.

2. Radioactive decay is the breaking up of unstable nuclei

into more stable nuclei with the emission of radioactive
rays.

3. There are three kinds of radioactive emission :

(a) Alpha particles (α-particles)
(b) Beta particles (β-particles)
(c) Gamma rays (γ rays)

α-particles : Nucleus helium, He2+ , positively charged,

+
+ travel up to 10 % speed of light.

β-particles : Electron, e-1 , negatively charged,
• travel up to 99 % speed of light.

γ-rays : Electromagnetic wave, neutral in charge.
travel with (100 %) the speed of light.

~ 6 ~

 Radioactive Decay
1. Half life ( ) is the time taken for half ( 50% ) of the

radioactive material to disintegrate/decay into stable

atoms.

2. Radioactive decay curve :

~ 7 ~



Radioactive materials

1. Radioactive material is a material that consists of
atoms that is not stable. It is undergoing the process of
radioactive emissions in order to become stable atoms.
2. There are two groups of radioactive materials :
(A) Heavy elements (natural source) : e.g.
1. Uranium 3. Polonium
2. Radium 4. Thorium
(B) Radioactive isotopes (man made/natural) : e.g.
1. Hydrogen-3 5. Iron-59
2. Carbon-14 6. Cobalt-60
3. Natrium-24 7. Iodine-131
4. Phosphorus-32 8. Lead-209
3. More examples of radioactive materials :

Materials Half life Type of emissions
Uranium-238 4.5 x 109 years Alfa, gamma
Radium-226 1622 years Alfa
Polonium-212 138.4 days Alfa, gamma
Iodine-131 8 days Beta
Natrium-24 15 hours Beta
Carbon-14 5570 years Beta

~ 8 ~

 3 Types of Radioactive Decay

Alpha decay : One alpha particle is emitted.

General equation :

Example :

Note that :

Beta decay : One neutron change to one proton and one
electron. The electron is emitted.

General equation :

Example :

( )

Gamma decay : No change in value of A and Z.

General equation :

Example :
~ 9 ~

 R a d i o a c t i v e D e c a y
A few Examples of R
1.
Thorium Radium Nuclear
2. Reaction
Radium Radon

3. α particle :
Polonium Lead
4.
β particle :
Radium Actinium

5.
Tin Antimony

6.
Iodine Xenon

7.
Bismuth Polonium

8.
Sodium Magnesium

9.
Cobalt Cobalt Gamma ray
~ 10 ~

 Radioactive Detectors
( ü - use in daily life )

Detectors of radioactive emissions : (!- use in science lab.)

Name of Radiation
Detector Detected OBSERVATION
*Electroscope α - particles ! Gold leaf collapses

Photographic β – particles Darkening of the

photographic film in the
Badge ü γ - rays
badge (use in factory)
! Sparks are seen and
* Spark α - particles heard between the wire
Counter gauze and the thin wire
below it
α – particles ! Tracks with specific
* Cloud
β - particles characteristics are formed
Chamber in the cloud chamber
γ - rays
Geiger–Muller α - particles ! The rate-meter shows
Tube ü β - particles counts per min / second
(* G-M Tube ) γ - rays (use in factory & daily life)

* Radioactive radiations are detected when the radiation ionise

the air atoms/molecules. Electrons are knocked out of the air
molecules. The atoms or molecules become positive ions.

~ 11 ~

 Spark Counter
1. The spark counter consists of a wire gauze and a thin wire
below it.
2. A high voltage is applied between the gauze and the wire.
The voltage is adjusted until it is just below the value required
to produce sparks.
3. When a radioactive source is brought near to the wire gauze,
the radiation ionises the air below it. The motion of the ions
towards the gauze and the wire causes sparks to be produced.
The sparks can be seen and heard.
4. Spark counter is suitable for the detection of alpha particles.
5. Beta particles and gamma rays cannot be detected by spark
counter. They produce too few ions in the air and therefore
no sparks can be seen.

Radioactive source

2 - 3 cm
Wire gauze

2 mm Spark

Wooden base Thin wire High voltage

~ 12 ~

 CLOUD CHAMBER
Felt strip Transparent perspex
(soaked in alcohol)

Holder

Radioactive
source
Light

Dry ice Metal plate

(solid CO 2)
(black in colour)

Sponge

(push dry ice

towards the

metal plate)
Wooden base

(to adjust the position of the chamber)
Dry ices produce cold condition. Alcohol vapour is supersaturated. Radioactive rays
ionised the air molecules. Droplets of liquid alcohol form on the ions to form misty
tracks (cloud).

Track of Track of Track of

alpha particles beta particles gamma ray

~ 13 ~

 Geiger Muller Tube
¯ The G-M tube is a very sensitive and useful detector of
radiation. It can detect alpha, beta or gamma
radiations.
¯ The radioactive emission enters the tube through the
mica window and ionises the argon gas.
¯ The electrons and positive ions are attracted towards
the anode and the cathode respectively.
¯ When the electrons are collected by the anode, a
pulse of current is produced.
¯ The pulses of current are counted by the rate-meter.
¯ The rate-meter gives the readings in counts per
second or counts per minute.


Aluminium (Cathode)
Radioactive Thin wire (Anode)
source

High voltage


Thin mica Argon gas

Amplifier &
Rate-meter
~ 14 ~

 Characteristics of Radioactive
Emission


α-particles β-particles γ-rays
Helium Fast moving Electromagnetic
Nature nucleus electrons waves
4 0 0
Symbol 2 He −1 e 0 γ
Charge + 2 -1 Neutral
Up to 10% Up to 99 % Speed of light
Speed speed of light speed of light ( 3 x 108 )
Ionising
Strong (105) Medium (102) Very weak (1)
Power
Low, Average, High ,
Penetrating Stopped by a Stopped by a Stopped by a
Power sheet of paper few millimeters few centimeters
of aluminum of lead block.
Several Several Several
Range in Air
centimeters meters hundred meters
Large deflection
Effect of ( in the opposite
Small No
Magnetic
deflection direction of the deflection
field
α-particles )
Small deflection Large deflection
Effect of No
( towards the ( towards the
Electric field deflection
negative plate ) positive plate )
Tracks in
Straight and Thin and Very fine, short
Cloud
thick lines curvy lines curvy lines
Chamber

~ 15 ~

 Penetrating Power of Radioactive Radiations

Paper Aluminium Lead

α

+
+


β β
•

γ γ
γ


( A4 size ) ( 5 mm thick ) ( 5 cm thick )

Deflection of Radiations in an Electric Field

+



+ α+2
+


β-1
•
γ 0




-

Deflection of Radiations in a Magnetic Field

× × × × × × × × ×

+ α

× × × × × ×
+
γ

× × × × × ×
β


•



× × × × × × × ×
* Use Fleming’s Left-hand Rule to determine the direction of deflection.

~ 16 ~

 Use of Radioisotopes

1. Cancer Treatment
Although gamma rays can kill living cells, they are used to kill
cancer cells. This is called "Radiotherapy". It works because
cancer cells can't repair themselves when damaged by gamma
rays, as healthy cells can.

2. Radioactive Tracers
Radioisotopes can be used to check for blockage in a kidney. To
do this, a small amount of Iodine-123 is injected into the
patient. After 5 minutes, Geiger counters (G-M tubes) are placed
over the kidneys to detect radiation.

3. Checking Welds
If a gamma source is placed on one side of the welded metal, and
a photographic film on the other side, weak points or air
bubbles will show up on the film, like an X-ray.

4. Radioactive Dating
Animals and plants have a known proportion of Carbon-14 in
their tissues. When they die they stop taking Carbon in, then the
amount of Carbon-14 goes down at a known rate (Carbon-14 has
a half-life of 5700 years). The age of the ancient organic
materials can be found by measuring the amount of Carbon-14
that is left in the tissues.

5. Thickness Control
In paper mills, the thickness of the paper can be controlled by
measuring how much beta radiation passes through the paper to
a Geiger counter. The counter controls the pressure of the
rollers to give the correct thickness. With paper, or plastic, or
aluminium foil, β-rays are used, because α will not go through
the paper. We choose a source with a long half-life so that it does
not need to be replaced often. ( Geiger counter = G-M counter )

~ 17 ~

6. Smoke Detectors
Smoke alarms contain a weak source made of Americium-241.
Alpha particles are emitted from here, which ionise the air, so
that the air conducts electricity and a small current flows. If
smoke enters the alarm, this absorbs the α particles, the current
reduces, and the alarm sounds. Am-241 has a half-life of 460
years.

7. Sterilising
Even after it has been packaged, gamma rays from Cobalt-60
can be used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food. This
process prolongs the shelf-life of the food, but sometimes changes
the taste. Gamma rays are also used to sterilise hospital
equipment, especially plastic syringes that would be damaged if
heated.

8. Detect Leaking Pipe

Radioisotope, natrium-24 is used in industry to detect leaking
pipes. To do this, a small amount of Na-24 is injected into the
pipe. It is then detected with a G-M counter above the ground.
The G-M counter will record a high count-rate of radiation at the
position of pipe leakage under the ground.

~ 18 ~

 Energy in a Nuclear Reaction

1. Atomic mass unit (u) :
a. It is a unit used for atomic and sub-atomic particles.
b. Carbon-12 has been chosen as the reference atom.
c. One carbon-12 atom is exactly = 12.000000 u.
d. One atomic mass unit, 1 u = 1.66 × 10-27 kg.

Atom / Number of
Atomic Mass unit
particles nucleon
Neutron 1 1.008665 u
Proton 1 1.007276 u
Electron 0 0.000549 u
Hydrogen-1 1 1.007825 u
Helium 4 4.002603 u
Radium 226 226.025406 u
Uranium-235 235 235.043925 u
2. According to Einstein, the relationship between
mass and energy is given by the equation :
E = m c2 c = Speed of light
3. In nuclear reactions, It always involve a mass defect
(mass loss). The amount of energy released is much
greater than that occur in chemical reactions.

Nuclear Reaction Chemical Reaction
New elements are formed New molecules are formed
Lot of energy released due Small energy change occur
to mass defect due to bonding
Mass defect / loss No change in total mass

~ 19 ~

4. Examples of nuclear reactions are radioactive decay,
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
5. The energy released during nuclear reaction can be
easily calculated. For example : When a Radium
atom undergoes alpha decay to become a Radon
atom. The energy released due to mass defect is :



Given that Mass of (Ra-226) = 226.025406 u
Mass of (Rn-222) = 222.017574 u
Mass of ( He-4 ) = 4.002603 u

Mass defect, m
m = 226.025406 – ( 222.017574 + 4.002603 )
= 226.025406 – 226.020177
= 0.005229 u
= ( 0.005229 x 1.66 x 10-27 )
= 8.68 x 10-30 kg

2
Energy released E = mc
-30 8 2
(by One Radium = (8.68 x 10 ) (3 x 10 )
-13
atom during the = 7.81 x 10 J (Joule)
nuclear reaction)



~ 20 ~

 NUCLEAR FISSION
1. Nuclear fission is a process where a heavy nucleus is
split apart into two smaller nuclei.
2. For example : when nucleus uranium-235 is struck by a
neutron, it will be split into two nuclei; Barium-141 and
Krypton-92 plus three neutrons.

3. The neutrons strike three nearby uranium nuclei and

split them into two parts. This process will be repeated
until all uranium nuclei are split. It is a chain reaction.
(Chain reaction is a series of similar reactions that occur
once it has been initiated).
U
Ba

Neutron
U U

Kr
U
~ 21 ~

4. The mass defect, m of the nuclear reaction is :

Given that : Mass of (U-235 ) = 235.043925 u

Mass of (Ba-141) = 140.914406 u
Mass of ( Kr-92 ) = 91.926153 u
Mass of ( n-1 ) = 1.008665 u

mi (initial) = 235.043925 + 1.008665
= 236.052590 u

mf (final) = 140.914406 + 91.926153 + 3(1.008665)

= 225.866554 u

Mass defect, m = mi - mf
= 236.052590 – 225.866554
= 0.186036 u
= (0.186036 x 1.66 x 10-27 )
= 3.09 x 10-28 kg

Energy, E = mc2 = (3.09 x 10-28 ) ( 3 x 108 )2

= 2.78 x 10-11 J

5. Energy given out by 1 gram of uranium is :

E =

= 7.13 x 1010 J
~ 22 ~

 Nuclear Reactor
1. Heat energy produced by the reactor is used to boil
water. Steam is used to rotate the turbines of a
dynamo in order to produce electricity.

Control Rods (Boron)

Concrete Steam out

shield

Hot gas

Graphite
core Water in

Fuel Rods

(Uranium)
Pump

2. The graphite core act as a moderator to slow down

neutrons produced by the fission reaction.
3. When boron control rods are lowered into the reactor
core, it absorb neutrons. This will reduce the rate of the
fission reaction.

~ 23 ~

 Nuclear Fusion

1. Nuclear fusion is a process where two smaller nuclei
combine together to form a larger nucleus.
2. The temperature require for nuclear fusion to occur is
about 10,000,000 K. This temperature can be attained
naturally at the core of the Sun.
3. The Sun is converting 600,000,000 tons of hydrogen
into helium every second. A star like the Sun can burn
its hydrogen for about 10 billion years.
4. Example 1 : When a hydrogen-2 nucleus moving at
high speed collide with a hydrogen-3 nucleus, a helium-
4 nucleus is produced.

+ +

( 2.014102 3.016049 4.002603 1.008665 ) / u

Mass defect, m = (2.014102 + 3.016049) – (4.002603 + 1.008665)
= 5.030151 – 5.011268
= 0.018883 u
= 3.13 x 10-29 kg

5. Energy released, E = mc2
= (3.13 x 10-29)(9 x 1016)
= 2.82 x 10-12 J
~ 24 ~

The negative effects of radioactive substances
1. Radioactive emissions are extremely dangerous to living
organisms. They will cause ionization to the molecules of the
cells, damage of the tissue, genetic damage of cells and death
of living cells.
2. High doses of radiation can cause radiation burns. At low
doses of radiation, the damaged tissues can repair itself
rapidly.
3. Sources of background radiation :

4. The level of background radiation is very low and is not

harmful to human beings and animals.
5. There are 2 types of biological effects of radiation :
(a) Somatic effect : fatigue, nausea, hair loss, radiation
burns, cataracts, leukemia, organ failure and death.
(b) Genetic effect : birth defects, chromosome disorder,
congenital defects, cancer.
~ 25 ~