REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Fertilizers

Fertilizers are substances containing the chemical elements that improve

growth and productivity of plants. It is derived from a plant or animal residue or by-

product or natural material deposit which has been processed in such a way that its

content of plant nutrients has not been materially changed except by purification and

concentration (Meister, 2002). Sinnadurai, (1992), defines fertilizers as inorganic or

organic plant food in solid or liquid forms that can be applied to soil in order to improve

the quality and/or quantity of crops produced. They enhance soil fertility thus the ability

of the soil to provide plant nutrients and resources that support growth, by increasing

plant nutrients during the cycle. Crooke, (1972), pointed out that fertilizers have the

ability to reduce the cost of production since they can raise yield with marginal increase

in total cost per hectare.

Although fertilizers provide nutrients to crops, they can contain elements, such

as heavy metals, that are potentially harmful for the environment. They can be a major

source of non-point pollution in soil and water. Eutrophication, NO3 contamination of

ground water, and the accumulation of heavy metals in soil and their release to waters,

together with their potential bioaccumulation in the food chain, are among the main

problems mentioned by (Shokeri, 2008).

Due to increasing concern regarding environmental problems related to

fertilizers, previous agricultural production research aimed at optimizing fertilizer

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recommendations to maximized yields, or identifying cropping patterns that will

maximize output and profit (Rola, 2004).

2.2 Kinds and nutrient composition of fertilizer

There are two broad groups of fertilizers: (1) inorganic fertilizers and (2)

organic fertilizers. And the nutrients in fertilizers can be grouped into two categories.

These are the macro- and micronutrients. These nutrients promote plant growth (Bary,

Cogger, & Sullivan, 2004).

2.2.1 Macronutrients

Nitrogen (N) promotes rapid growth, increase leaf size and encourages shoots

growth. It is a component of chlorophyll, and gives plant their greenness. If there is too

little nitrogen, plants become stunted and pale. If plants are overdosed with nitrogen,

they will grow too fast and become soft and sappy - an invitation to pests. Phosphorus

(P) or phosphate encourages seed germination and early growth, stimulates blooming,

enhances bud set, aids in seed formation and hastens maturity. Only small quantities

are needed. A deficiency in phosphate shows as stunted growth. Potassium (K) or

potash is associated with the size and quality of fruit and flowers. It toughens up plants

and protects them from pests and diseases and its deficiency shows as small flowers

and fruits and yellowing or browning of the leaves. Magnesium (Mg) is another

greening agent and an activator of many plant enzyme required in growth processes. A

deficiency shows as chlorosis, which is yellowing of the leaves starting between the

veins. It is easily remedied by adding organic matter to the soil. Calcium (Ca) is a

structural nutrient, it is an essential part in cell walls and membranes and helps to

manufacture protein. Sulphur (S) is necessary for protein synthesis and also helps to

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form chlorophyll. Lack of sulphur is unusual where the soil is rich in organic matter

(Jokella, Magdoff, Bartlett, Bosworth, & Ross, 2004).

2.2.2 Micronutrients

Micronutrients are mostly needed in minute quantities. Manganese (Mn) helps

make chlorophyll and protein and acts as an activator for enzymes in plant growth

process. A deficiency in Mn shows as stunting and yellowing of new leaves. Iron (Fe)

serves as an activator for biological processes, such as respiration, photosynthesis, and

symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Only the tiniest quantities of iron are needed. Iron

deficiencies are most likely happen on chalky soils. Symptoms of lack of iron are pale

leaves with brown edges and margins. Zinc (Zn) controls the synthesis of indole acetic

acid, an important plant growth regulator. Copper (Cu) aids in the activation of

numerous plant enzymes and plays a role in the development of plant pigments that

influence color. Boron (B) is an important element for growing plant tissues. A lack of

boron could cause ‘corkiness’ in fruit and vegetables. Molybdenum (Mb) is required by

plants for the utilization of nitrogen. Oxygen, carbon and hydrogen are taken up from

sunlight, air and water (Jokella, Magdoff, Bartlett, Bosworth, & Ross, 2004).

2.2.3 Inorganic fertilizer: Definition, advantages and disadvantages

Inorganic fertilizers are fertilizers made artificially by chemical reactions. It is

a fertilizer material which does not have carbon as the essential component of its basic

chemical structure (Meister, 2002). They are specifically designed to feed a plant a

certain amount of specific nutrients. Listed in Table 2.1 are common inorganic

fertilizers. These fertilizers are extensively consumed by most of the farmers because it

is widely available in the market.

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Table 2.1 Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) content of common chemical
fertilizers*

Product Nitrogen % Phosphate % Potash %

Ammonium nitrate
34 0 0

Ammonium sulphate 21 0 0
Urea 48 0 0
Ammoniated super-phosphate 3-6 48-53 0
Di-ammonium phosphate 11 48 0
Mono-ammonium phosphate 11 48 0
Super-phosphate 0 18-50 0
Triple super phosphate 0 46 0
Potassium chloride 0 0 60
Potassium nitrate 13 0 44
Potassium sulphate 0 0 50
Potassium-magnesium sulphate 0 0 22
*Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2008

Due to the widespread introduction of chemical fertilizers in the mid-1990s,

crop production has increased drastically (Maguire & Alley, 2009). According to

(Stewart, Dibb, Johnston, & Smyth, 2005), excessive amounts of inorganic fertilizers

are applied to vegetables in order to achieve a higher yield. However, imbalanced

fertilization resulted in decline in the efficiency of fertilizer use overtime (Desai &

Gandhi, 1989). The use of inorganic fertilizer was found to increase yield only for a few

years but on long-term basis, it has not been effective (Ojeniyi, 2000).

In addition to its negative effects in crop yield, chemical fertilizers generate

several deleterious effects to the environment and human health. Synthetic N, P and K

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fertilizer is rapidly lost by either evaporation or by leaching in drainage water and it

causes environmental pollution (Aisha, Rizk, Shaheen, & Abdel-Mouty, 2007).

Jeyathilake, Reddy, Srihari, & Reddy, (2006) also added that inorganic fertilizers often

leads to soil acidification, soil physical degradation, deficiency of macronutrients and

decline in soil organic matter content.

2.2.4 Organic fertilizer: Definition, advantages and disadvantages, sources and

production

Organic fertilizer is a material that contains carbon and one or more elements

beside hydrogen and oxygen that are required for plant growth (Meister, 2002). Alimi,

Olubode-Awosola, & Idowu, (2006) define organic fertilizers as soil amendments that

are mainly from natural organic sources or manufactured using organic materials.

Compared to mineral fertilizers, the composition of organic fertilizers are usually more

complex and variable.

There are several researches and studies that highlighted the beneficial effects

of organic waste application for crop production. These effects can be due to the intrinsic

properties of the organic amendments (direct effect) or as a consequence of the

beneficial effect of the organic amendments on the physical, chemical and biological

properties of the soil (Stewart, Dibb, Johnston, & Smyth, 2005; Tejada, Garcia,

Gonzalez, & Hernandez, 2009). In the study of Hernandez, Chocano, Moreno, & Garcia,

(2014), it was stated that organic waste do several things to benefit the soil that synthetic

fertilizer cannot do. They add organic matter which improves the way water interacts

with the soil. And organic waste also inoculate the soil with vast numerous of beneficial

microbes that promote the biological activity of the soil.

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Crooke, (1972) also added that organic fertilizers can improve the soil by

lowering bulk density and they can reduce soil erosion and improve soil fertility. These

fertilizers also care for the “living soil”, which entails maintaining microbiological life

in the soil in balance with the whole ecosystem without altering soil pH.

Despite of its numerous benefits, utilizing organic fertilizers has also the

following drawbacks such as bulkiness, offensive odor, slow acting, difficulty to

transport and doubtful efficacy (Alimi, Olubode-Awosola, & Idowu, 2006). And

potentially toxic heavy metals also limit the use of organic fertilizer. The nutrient

composition of organic fertilizers is highly inconstant. Also, long – term or heavy usage

to agricultural soils may result in salt, nutrient and heavy metal accumulation and may

adversely affect plant growth, soil organisms, water quality and animal and human

health (Chen, 2006).

On the other hand, the utilization of organic waste in agriculture depends on

several factors, including the characteristics of the waste such as its organic matter,

nutrient and heavy metal content, its energy value, the odor generated by the waste, its

benefits to agriculture, its availability and the transportation cost and regulatory

considerations (Hernandez, Chocano, Moreno, & Garcia, 2014).

2.2.5 Potential sources of organic fertilizers

Most organic fertilizers are made from diverse raw materials which can be

classified into two main categories like (1) agro-industrial and (2) those derived from

civil establishments. More precisely, Sharma, Canditelli, Cornacchia, & Fortuna, (1996)

classified the waste into the following main groups: (1) animal waste; (2) crop residues;

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(3) fruit and vegetable waste; (4) aquatic biomass and biofertilizers; (5) fish and marine

wastes; (6) industrial wastes; (7) human habitation waste, etc.

Naturally occurred organic fertilizers are manure, slurry, worm castings, peat,

seaweed, sewage and guano. Among the sources of organic matter, farm manure has

been of major importance over the past years. Farm animals void most of the nitrogen,

phosphorus and potassium that is present in the food they eat and this constitutes an

enormous fertility resource (Table 2.2). Organic manures can serve as alternative to

mineral fertilizers (Naeem, Iqbal, & Bakhsh, 2006), for improving soil structure (Dauda,

Ajayi, & Ndor, 2008) and microbial biomass (Suresh, Sneh, Krishn, & Mool, 2004).

Table 2.2 Nutrient composition of selected manure*

Manure Source N (%) P (%) K (%)

Chicken 3.8 1.9 1.8
Duck 2.2 1.1 1.2
Pig 2.8 1.4 1.2
Cattle 2.8 1.4 1.2
Carabao 0.3 0.1 -
Goat 0.6 0.1 0.2
Horse 2.3 0.8 1.3
Rabbit 1.7 1.3 1.1
Guano 0.6 0.4-6.6 -
*Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2008

Manufactured organic fertilizers include compost, blood meal, bone meal,

seaweed extract and etc. Bone meal is quite rich in phosphate to promote root growth.

Blood, fish and bone for instance, is a balanced all round fertilizer. Blood meal unlike

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dried manure is very high in nitrogen. Fish meal contains nitrogen and phosphate. Dried

manures have all trace elements but are quite low on NPK. Seaweed extract is also quite

excellent and it is a slow releaser of nutrients. It contains cytokinins and hormones that

promote photosynthesis and protein synthesis. Ash from wood is high in potassium and

some phosphate which depends on the type of wood (Bary, Cogger, & Sullivan, 2004;

Jokella, Magdoff, Bartlett, Bosworth, & Ross, 2004). Average nutrient concentrations

of various organic materials are listed in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 NPK content of selected organic materials*

Material %Nitrogen %Phosphate %Potash

Bone meal 1-6 11-30 0
Blood meal 12 1-2 0-1
Composts 1-3 1-2 1-2
Feather meal 12 0 0
Glass clippings 1-2 0-0.5 1-2
Kelp 1-1.5 0.5-1 5-10
Leaves 1 0-0.5 0-0.5
Sawdust 0-1 0-0.5 0-1
Sewage sludge 2-6 1-4 0-1
Seaweed extract 1 2 5
Straw/corn stalks 0-0.5 0-0.5 1
Wood ashes 0 1-2 3-7
*Koenig & Johnson, 2011

Vermi compost is among the sources of organic manures. It has readily available

plant nutrients, growth enhancing substances and number of beneficial microorganisms

like N2 fixing, P solubilizing and cellulose decomposing organisms (Preetha, Sushama,

& Marykutty, 2005). The previous study of Preetha et al., (2005) showed that waste

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could be converted into nutrient-rich compost in a short period of ~48 days by

vermicomposting with Eisenia foetida.

On the other hand, compost is the end product of the composting process.

Organic materials are decomposed in composting plants under controlled conditions to

produce the end product which is used as fertilizer. It is produced ecologically and

economically and plays a major role in the soil enrichment process, mainly through

chemical, physical and biological activities (Sharma, Canditelli, Cornacchia, & Fortuna,

1996).

2.2.6 Production of organic fertilizer: Composting process

As defined by Sharma et al., (1996), compost is a stabilized and sanitized product

obtained from the composting of organic substances derived from urban and agro-

industrial biodegradable solid waste, free from heavy metals, glass pieces, and plastic

and sometimes cellulose materials with pH value around 8 and subjected to partial

microbial fermentation. Composting is generally referred to as the biological oxidative

decomposition of organic constituents in wastes of almost any nature under controlled

condition. It requires special conditions, particularly of temperature, moisture, aeration,

pH and C/N ratio, related to optimum biological activity in the various stages of the

process. The main products of aerobic composting are carbon dioxide, water, mineral

ions and stabilized organic matter, often called humus. Composting organic residues is

an environment friendly alternative of producing fertilizer.

Composting process can be done by different phases as discussed by Sharma et

al., (1996). The initial phase is, during which readily degradable components are

decomposed. Thermophilic phase is during which cellulose and similar materials are
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degraded by a high bio-oxidative activity of micro-organisms. Lastly, the maturation

and stabilization phase.

The conventional composting method is the so-called passive method.

Surprisingly, even today, a large percentage of agricultural farms practice this method.

This method simply involves the storage of putrescible organic material, left

undisturbed for a few months. Other composting method like using bio-reactors are in

use on a wide scale. Stabilization of substrate (feedstock) using composting through

reactors involves combination of different techniques for material handling and forced

air ventilation in the matrix. Many variety of bio-reactors are available but rotating

cylinder bioreactors, DANO, are widely used according to Sharma et al., (1996).

Alternative process of composting include vermicomposting, mushroom-bed

and regeneration of energy (methane, heat, etc.). But it is to be noted that the end

products obtained from the last two mentioned processes are not stable biologically, and

as such, their use needs further treatment. On the other hand, the main problem of

vermicomposting is the production cost. The cost of earthworm cast varies from P 12.00

per kilo at the wholesale level whereas the retail price goes up to P 15 per kilo

(Pilipinas.Com).

Additional composting process and technologies discussed in literatures are

static pile, open windrow, enclose channel and in-vessel. Static pile and open windrow

are less expensive process but it will take 6-18 months to produce the compost.

However, the enclosed channel and in-vessel, the finished product can be made in 3-6

months but it require high operating and capital cost.

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For in – vessel composting, the compost is confined in a building, container or

vessel. This is so that air, moisture and temperature can be closely monitored and

controlled. Temperature is closely monitored and compost must reach a certain

temperature dependent on the process, before being applied to land. This is to kill any

weed seeds that may be in the compost to prevent the germination of them onto land,

and also to kill harmful pathogens within the compost (FGS Organics Ltd. 2015)

2.3 Utilization of fertilizer: Demand

Over the past decades, fertilizer consumption has been increasing and

punctuated by some sharp declines due to external shocks. Demands were met by

imports and domestic productions (Briones, 2014). Figure 2.1 presents estimates of

fertilizer consumption (Bureau of Agricultural Statistics).

Figure 2.1 Annual consumption of fertilizer in ‘000 tons, 1990-2012

The main type of fertilizer consumed has usually been nitrogen-based, until

recently, next in importance are phosphate-based fertilizers. Data from Fertilizer and

Pesticide Authority (FPA) provide a breakdown in fertilizer consumption by type

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(Figure 2.2). This data set only considers the major types, namely 0-0-60 (potassium

sulfate), 14-14-14 (complete NPK), 16-20-0 (ammonium phosphate), 18-46-0

(diammonium phosphate), 21-0-0 (ammonium sulfate) and 46-0-0 (urea). The

largest shares in consumption are urea and ammonium sulfate and next in rank is

complete NPK fertilizer.

Figure 2.2 Utilization of fertilizer by major type, 1980-2012

The domestic production of fertilizer is sourced from five manufacturing

company (Table 2.3). The largest is PHILPHOS located in the Visayas island group

and the next largest capacity belongs to Soiltech in the Northern island of Luzon

(FPA).

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Table 2.4 Capacity and products of fertilizer manufacturers in the Philippines (2012)*

Company Capacity (tons/year) Products

AFC 45,000 Single superphosphate
30,000 Ammonium sulfate
80,000 Complete NPK
75,000 Ammonium phosphate
Farmfix Fertilizer 50,000 Fertilizer blends
Inchem 22,000 Potassium sulfate
PHILPHOS 1.17 million NP fertilizer, NPK
fertilizer,
Ammonium sulfate
Soil Agricultural Products 1 million NPK fertilizers:
14-14-14, 16-20-0, 6-9-15
*Briones, 2014 data from FPA & company website

Moreover, the exact or appropriate amount of organic fertilizer production and

utilization was not established since farmers often prepare their own organic fertilizers.

Some of the largest manufacturers of organic fertilizer include Victorias Milling

Company, Sagana 100 Philippines, Galactic resources Development, Sun Chemicals

and Datingbayan (FAO).

2.4 Integrated use of organic and inorganic fertilizers for nutrient management

Because inorganic fertilizer used in intensive agriculture is not sustainable and

utilization of organic fertilizer alone is not enough in maintaining high yield,

technological options are needed according to Rola, (2004). Hence, farmers often

apply organic and inorganic fertilizer in combined (Law-Ogbomo, Remison, & Jombo,

2011). Integrated nutrient management or the combined use of organic and inorganic

fertilizer has been proven to be a sound soil fertility management strategy (Lombion

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et al., 1999) and found to be promising in maintaining stability in crop production in

certain soils (Rola, 2004). Several researchers have demonstrated the beneficial effect

of combined use of chemical and organic fertilizers to mitigate the deficiency of many

secondary and micronutrients in fields that continuously received only N, P, and K

fertilizers for a few years, without any micronutrient or organic fertilizer.

Hernandez, Chocano, Moreno, & Garcia, (2014) also added that the combined

use of compost and inorganic fertilizer, however produced higher yields and better

fruit quality than soils that underwent the respective inorganic treatment when used

alone. The conjunctive use of compost and inorganic fertilizer made it possible to

reduce inorganic fertilization by about 40% while obtaining similar fruit quality and

amounts in addition to improving soil characteristics. Thus, Cuevas, (1989)

recommended a combined use of one-half organic and one-half inorganic fertilizer.

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