Write briefly about “ long span” structure

 Long-span buildings create unobstructed, column spaces greater than 30 metres (100
feet) for a variety of functions.
 The use of long span beams results in benefits, including flexible, column free internal
spaces, reduced foundation costs, and reduced steel erection times.
 These include activities where visibility is important for large audiences (auditoriums
and covered stadiums), where flexibility is important (exhibition halls and certain types
of manufacturing facility), and where large movable objects are housed (aircraft
hangars).
 Many long span solutions are also well adapted to facilitate the integration of services

without increasing the overall floor depth.

 The design of long span steel and composite beams is generally carried out in
accordance with the IS.
 In the late 20th century, durable upper limits of span have been established for these
types: the largest covered stadium has a span of 204 metres (670 feet), the largest
exhibition hall has a span of 216 metres (710 feet), and the largest commercial fixed
length of 69.4 metres (228 feet), requiring a75–80-metre- (250–266-foot-)span hanger.
 In these buildings the structural system needed to achieve these spans is a major
concern.

TYPES OF LONG SPAN BEAMS :

1.PARALLEL BEAM APPROACH

ffective for spans up to around 14 m. Floor grids comprise two layers of fully continuous
beams running in orthogonal directions. Services running in either direction can be
integrated within these two layers, so that services passing in any direction can be
accommodated within the structural floor depth. A further benefit is that, being fully
continuous, the depth of the beams themselves is reduced without incurring full strength
connections .

2.COMPOSITE BEAMS WITH WEB OPENINGS

Web openings are typically formed in beams to allow services to pass through the beam.
This enables the structural and service zones to occupy the same space, thereby reducing
the effective overall depth of floor construction for a given spanning capability. Openings
may also be formed for aesthetic reasons, for instance with cambered beams used to
support a with web openings have been shown to be a cost effective solution for spans in

the range 10 to 16 m.
A particular type of composite beam with web openings is the so- a specific way and
therefore.The alternative way of forming the web openings is simply to cut them into the
plate.The most appropriate solution to adopt depends on the size, shape and regularity of
the openings, or more commercial drivers such as the method used by a with web openings
present no disadvantages in terms of erection and familiarity.

3. TAPERED GIRDERS

Tapered girders can be a cost effective solution in the span range 10 m to 20 m. They are
another solution that allows services to be accommodated within the structural floor zone.
The depth of the girder increases towards mid-span, where applied moments are greatest,
and thereby facilitating hanging services under the shallower regions near the beam
supports. It is also possible to form web openings in tapered girders in regions of low shear,
towards mid-span. These provide more options for service integration .

4.STUB GIRDERS
Stub girders are a Vierendeel form of truss, a rather exotic hybrid that can be thought of as
lying somewhere between a solid web I-section and a truss. The number of
elements/surfaces associated with a stub girder may increase the cost of fire protection
compared with simpler solutions. A big advantage of this option is that spans in excess of 20
m can be economically achieved. Services and/or secondary beams can pass through the
gaps between the beam stubs, reducing overall construction depth. The figure on the right
shows a composite stub girder supporting a secondary beam, which is in turn supporting a
composite slab.

5.HAUNCHED COMPOSITE BEAMS

Haunches may be added at the ends of a composite beam to provide moment continuity.
The stiffness and strength of the connections mean that the rest of the span can be
shallower (the bending moment diagram is 'lifted' and the effective stiffness of the beam
substantially increased), and services passed under it. In buildings where the services are
likely to need frequent replacement (for example in hospitals ), hanging the services under
the beams rather than passing them through holes in the webs, or through a truss, can be
advantageous. Spans in excess of 20 m can readily be achieved.

6.COMPOSITE TRUSSES

Composite trusses, which use the concrete slab as the upper chord in the final state, can
achieve spans in excess of 20 m. This means they have been used when very long spanning
capability was needed. The main disadvantages are that during the construction phase the
truss may be rather flexible (laterally), and that in the final state the costs of fire protection
can be high given the large number of surfaces to protect. Clearly one of the prices to pay
for the spanning ability is that fabrication cost is higher than for a plain beam. Services can
be passed through the gaps between the truss members to reduce overall floor depth.

TYPES OF LONG SPAN TRUSSES :

1. PRATT TRUSS

Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 m in span. In a
conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for gravity loads. This type of truss is
used where gravity loads are predominant (see below left). An alternative Pratt truss is shown
(below right) where the diagonal members are in tension for uplift loads. This type of truss is
used where uplift loads are predominant, which may be the case in open buildings such as
aircraft hangers.

2.WARREN TRUSS

In Warren truss, the diagonal members are placed alternatively to create a shape of ‘W.’
They have equal compression and tension and hence, require less number of members
compared to Pratt truss. They can be used for buildings or constructions that have around 20
to 100-meter of the span.

3.FINK TRUSS

Most commonly used for a roof, fink truss has shorter members and chords. The arrangement
for compression and tension depends on the construction used for. This type is useful in
places with shorter span. Also, due to short size, these trusses are very economical to use.

4.HOWE TRUSS
Howe truss is a combination of wood and steel. The use of steel provides extra support and
reliability to the construction. Also, they have a wide span which can cover around 6 to 30
meters. Due to its versatility, this type is used in the construction of bridges.

5. NORTH-LIGHT TRUSS

One of the oldest and resistant trusses is the North the proper ventilation it provides, and the
spread has 20 to 30 to its durability and versatility, North-Light Truss is used in large spaces
and allows maximum light to reach the space.

6.PORTAL FRAMES

Portal frames are generally low-rise structures, comprising columns and horizontal or pitched
rafters, connected by Resistance to lateral and vertical actions is provided by the rigidity of
the connections and the bending stiffness of the members, which is increased by a suitable
haunch or deepening of the rafter sections. This form of frame structure is stable in its plane
and provides a clear span that is unobstructed by bracing. Portal frames are very common,
in fact 50% of constructional steel used in the UK is in portal frame construct very efficient for
enclosing large volumes, therefore they are often used for applications as well as for
agricultural purposes.
APPLICATIONS
 Gatton railway bridge, Australia – Pratt truss design
 Powerhouse roof, Boise – Fink truss design
 Church roof, America – Scissor truss design
 Industrial shed, England – North light truss design
 Convention centre – warren girder
 Howrah bridge, West Bengal – Cantilever bridge
 International airport china – Long span truss + portal frames