t

Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

PREFACE

In many places around the world, Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) has been considered a derivative
technique of the ultrasonic inspection method. Even in the ISO documenf ISO TR 25107 .(Non-
destructive testing - Guidelines for NDT training syllabuses), as recently as 2006 TOFD and phased
array ultrasonic testing were lumped under a simple heading of derived techniques, with the subject
matter to be addressed in Level 2 ultrasonic training. This is an unfortunate treatment of the topic, as
it fails to recognise the complexity of TOFD (and phased array UT). TOFD is indeed based on the
generation and detection of ultrasonic pulses; but so too is acoustic emission. And while the ISO 25107
document treats TOFD with a passing glance, it devotes a complete chapter to the training syllabus for
acoustic emissiory addressing it as a completely separate NDT method.

As the requirement for validation of TOFD capabilities were mounting in the 1980s and 1990s, it was
apparent to many that the principles of the technique were sufficiently different from manual
ultrasonic inspection as to require specialised training. By the turn of the 21$ century, the demands for
competent TOFD operators rationalised separate certification in several of the European NDT
certification schemes.In the UK by about 2005, both CSWP (Certification Scheme for Weld Inspection
Personnel) and PCN (Personnel Certification in NDT) set training guidelines and certification
examination requirements for TOFD. Soon thereafter, other countries began to publish standards that
provided for separate certification in TOFD. For example, the Institut de Soudure in France introduced
their certification programme (US 379.22) in about 2010. In 2011, the American National Standards
Institute (ANSD introduced their requirements in the ANSI document cP-105.
Resources in the literature that are dedicated to TOFD are primarily technical papers found on the
intemet or in the monthly NDT society technical journal publications. It is intended that this
handbook will provide technicians, students and instructors a single source publication for the
fundamentals involved in TOFD. The topics covered in this handbook generally follow the
requirements set out in the CSWP document for TOFD training requirements. It is not the intent to
make this book a comprehensive training manual on all aspects of ultrasonic testing. \zVhere
background fundamentals are deemed useful to explain pertinent aspects of TOFD, the basics will be
explained with adequate detail.
To enhance the usefulness of this text as a training manual, problem solving exercises have been
included. These assignments are typical of those questions and assignments that would be presented
in a classroom environment and similar to those that may be used in certification examinations.

l1
 Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

"Preparntion of this book- has benefitted greatly from the helpfttl reoiew and editing by *y
friends at Eclipse
Scientific Prodttcts. I nlso receioed helpful information from my discussions and correspondence uith seuerql
people uho are a part of the I'IDT conrmLLnity responsible for making TOFD a respected test tnethod. These
include: Steen I'leergaord {tnd lorgen Dnm (Force Technologies), Msrk I'lel and Inn Baker (Technology Design
Ltd,), Michael Moles (O1{DT), Steae Traaes (Lateral Wsae Limited), DotLg Moir (Focal Point NDE
Technologies Inc.) and Oleg Volf (Eclipse Scientific)."

iii
Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

TABTE OF CONTENTS

1..1. General Ultrasonic Theory ...........'......'.......1

1..2 Ultrasonic Testing In Relation To Other NDT Methods ................ ........................3
1.3 Physical Principles Of Ultrasound ............... ...................5

1.5 Boundary Interactions Of Ultrasonic Waves ...............10

1.6 Critical Angles........ ................13
1..7 Attenuation Of Ultrasound ............... ........15
1.8 Attenuation Due To Scattering .................16

1.10 Calculation Of Total Attenuation .............1,7

1.11 Ultrasonic Equipment ...........18

1.13 Monocrystalline And Polycrystalline Piezoelectric Materials................ .............20

1,.1,4 Ultrasonic Probes......... ..........23
1.15 Sound Fie1ds.......... .................25
1.15.1 The Near 2one............ ...................26
1..75.2 Beam Size ..................26
1.15.3 Focal Zone. ................27
1.15.4 Beam Spread And Half Angle. .........................28
1.16 Summary Of Basic Ultrasonic Principles... ...................29
Chapter (2): The Principles Of TOFD ........................31
2.1. A Brief History of TOFD..... .......................31
2.2 General Principles... ...............36
2.3 Diffraction As It Applies To TOFD ..........39
2.4 Data Visua1isation......... .........42
2.5 Advantages And Limitations Of TOFD.......... ..............44
2.5.1 Advantages ...............45
2.5.2 Limitations. ...............47
Chapter (3): Instrumentation Used In TOFD......... ........................49
3.1 Background Of The Electronics ................49
3.2 Pulsers and Receivers................. ........,.......50
3.2.1. Pulsers .......................51
3.2.2 Receivers ...................56

1V
Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction
Ultrasonic Time of Fli t Diffraction

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1,.1, General Ultrasonic Theory """""""""""""t

1..2 Ultrasonic Testing In Relation To Other NDT Methods """""""" """"""""""""3
1.3 Physical Principles Of Ultrasound """""""' """""""""'5

1.5 Boundary Interactions Of Ultrasonic Waves """""""'10

1.6 Critical Angles........ """""""" 13
Attenuation Of Ultrasound ........"""' """" 15
1.7
1.8 Attenuation Due To Scattering """"""""' 16

1.10 Calculation Of Total Attenuation """"""'17

1.11 Ultrasonic Equipment """""'18

1.13 Monocrystalline And Polycrystalline Piezoelectric Materia1s................ """"""'20

L.L4 Ultrasonic Probes......... """""23
1.15 Sound Fie1ds.......... """"""""'25
1.15.1 The Near 2one............ """""""""'26
1..15.2 Beam Size """""""""26
1.15.3 Focal Zone. """"""""27
1.15.4 Beam Spread And Half Angle' """"""""""""'28
1,.16 Summary Of Basic Ultrasonic Principles"' """""""""'29
Chapter (2): The Principles Of TOFD """"""""""""31
2.7 A Brief History of TOFD..'.. """""""""""'31
2.2 General Principles... """""""'36
2.3 Diffraction Asit Applies To TOFD """""39
2.4 Data Visualisation...'..... """"'42
2.5 Advantages And Limitations Of TOFD""""" """""""44
2.5.1' Advantages """""""'45
2.5.2 Limitations. """""""'47
Chapter (3): Instrumentation Used In TOFD""""' """"""""""""49
3.1 Background Of The Electronics """"""""49
3.2 Pulsers and Receivers.'.'............' """"""""50
3.2.1 Pulsers """""""""""'51
3.2.2 Receivers """""""""'56

iv
Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

8.2

71.2

VI
Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

11.2.1 Straightening..................
Lateral Wave (Back-Wall) .........779
11.2.2 Removal
Lateral Wave (Back-Wall) ..............779
Lateral Wave Equalisation.........
11.2.3 .....................180
Si,rrthetic Aperture Focussing Technique (SAFT)
17.2.4 ............181
Hysteresis Or Backlash Compensation................
11.2.5 ..............182
11.3 Other DSP ..-.....183

ilZ:',,"ff,',Tfi;'i.xl;;;;;;
1.1..4 DSP Il1ustrations............
::: : .
....i:... ......L84
:i::
Chapter (12): Codes, Standards, Procedures, Techniques, And Written Instructions.........................193
12.1 Documentation Hierarchy... .......193
12.2 Procedure Guidelines.. ........196
12.2.1 Scope........... .............1,96
72.2.2 Standards And References ............... ..............196
72.2.3 Definitions ..............196
72.2.4 Personnel... ..............196
72.2.5 Identification And Datum Points ..................796
72.2.6 Surface Preparation ....................796
1,2.2.7 Extent Of Inspection.................. ......................197
12.2.8 Equipment Specification ............197
12.2.9 Equipment Calibration. ..............197
12.2.10 Equipment Checks........ ..............197
12.2.11 Assessment Of Test Results - Acceptance Criteria ..........197
72.2.12 Reporting Of Test Results........ .......................192
12.2.13 Attachments................... ..............797
Chapter (L3): Industrial Applications Of TOFD ....tgg
13.1 Hear,y-Wall Pressure Vessel Construction................... ...................199
1,3.2 Weld Root Erosion....... ........200
13.3 Cladding Interface Inspection.. ...............200
13.4 Stress Corrosion Crackin9.................. .....201.
13.5 FatigueCracking..... .............201.
13.6 Shear Mode TOFD ...............203
13.7 HDPE Fusion Butt Welds ........................203

Appendix (A): Glossary Of Terms... ....221

Appendix (B): TOFD Depth Uncertainty Error Accumulation....... ...............222
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction. .....................224
Title, Status, Authorisation................ ......224
Foreword And Scope.. ..-.-....225
ReferencedDocuments .......22s
Personnel... .......225
Apparatus To Be Used ........22b

vl1
Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction

Tested.........
Product/Area To Be .............225
Test Conditions............. .......225
Detailed Instructions For Application Of Test............. ...................225
Recording And Classifying Results. .......226
Reporting The Results .........226

v1t1
Chapter (1): Introduction

CHAPTER (L): INTRODUCTION

Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) has been part of the non-destructive testing (NDT) collection of
techniques since the early 1970s. Although originally developed as a method to improve size
estimations of flaws, it also has advantages in the detection of flaws.

Over the years, TOFD has gradually gained acceptance in the NDT industry. As Iyith many new
options, it needed to "find its place". This was made more difficult by the wording of old codes and
the normal reluctance of any industry to adopt changes. Thanks to the work done by many supporters
of the technique, TOFD has become a viable option in many applications, including pressure vessel,
pipeline, aerospace and others. With TOFD, now included in several national and international codes
and standards, it has gained even wider acceptance, based solely on its impressive sizing results.

This handbook is intended to provide students with an understanding of the basic principles and
limitations associated with TOFD. In most cases, TOFD is used with a scanner (probe holder and
encoder) and as such, is a form of mechanised ultrasonic inspection. Therefore, some background on
mechanised ultrasonic inspections, data acquisition and computer imaging is also addressed. In
addition to the theoretical and mechanical aspects of TOFD, special coverage is given to
documentation used in the NDT industry. Written Instructions and Procedures are formal documents
typically written by personnel certified in NDT. Examples of these documents are provided.
Since TOFD is a specific application of ultrasonic testing (UT), some of the fundamentals of UT will be
covered first. Aspects of physical properties of sound, the behaviour and generation of ultrasonic
waves will be considered. As well, general applications and limitations of UT will be given brief
coverage.

1.1 GENERAL ULTRASONIC THEORY

Ultrasonics is merely a special extension of acoustics or the study of sound. Acoustics investigates
mechanical vibration and has been a subject of study for centuries; "sounding" has long been used to
determine how full or empty a cask of wine or beer is. As early as 7877, definitive writings on the
subject began in earnest. In that year Lord Rayleigh (after whom Rayleigh waves are named)
published his now famous two volume work, "The Theory of Sound".
Cilia, in the cochlea of the ear, are sensitive to air borne mechanical disturbances, having frequencies
from approximately 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Above 20 kHz the ear no longer perceives sound, although
mechanical vibration can have frequencies much higher than that. Above the range of hearing the
mechanical vibrations are termed ultrasonic.

Applications of ultrasonic waves are numerous. Apart from a navigation system, such as used by bats,
man has developed several uses for the phenomenon. The following table lists some of these
applications.
 Introduction

Table 1-1 Ultrasonic

Ar:nlication Frequencv Ranqe

w o depth finding

80Watts/litre) 40-50 kHz

o high power application 25-500 kHz
. knife-edge blade mixer
o mixing, dispersing &
a facilitates or speeds up chemical
reactions
o vortex shedding 500kHz-5MHz
w&
e sinS-around
o doppler effect
Machinins fine cuts in brittle materials 20-50kHz
. micro-massage(physiotherapy)
o lithotripsy-(shatteringagglomerations.

o locating and identifying conditions 2-7 MI{z

Weldine o assisting puddle flow 20-30kHz
. flaw detectiory thickness determination 1-15 MHz
. evaluation of materials' properties 0.5 - 100 MHz

The application of ultrasonics to industrial testing is usually attributed to Russian physicist S. Sokolov.
In 1929, he used a form of through-transmission to demonstrate a reduction in intensity, when a
defective area was compared to a sound area of a test specimen.

Industrial applications grew rapidly, in concert with advances made in instrumentation.

Ultrasonic testing is one of several methods used in industry today, as a non-destructive means. Non-
destructive testing (NDT) is any method of examining an item, without altering its chemical or
physical make-up, so as to render it unusable after the test.

By way of contrast, destructive testing requires that the article being tested be loaded to destruction
and sectioned, so as to verify or establish engineering design requirements.

The two test methods (destructive and non-destructive) are occasionally used in conjunction with each
other. Typically, a discontinuity located by NDT might be evaluated using destructive means to
determine the relationship of NDT response to size, location and type of discontinuity. This
information is then used to relate NDT results to the structural or service life of an article.
There can even be overlap with the various methods available. Magnetic particle and eddy current
testing are sometimes linked in technology where flux leakage methods are used. Acoustic emission is
basically a special application of ultrasonic testing.
 in nature include:
that are essentially non-destructive
Other test techniques
r Acoustic emission
r Strain gauging
. Phoro ltu'iit (or birefringent) coatings
. Moir6 analYsis
. Visual insPection
endoscoPY
r Optical Proiection or
o Vibration analysis
Helium leak testing
and-
r ^^mnlex Each method
has its own strengths
:i+i*+to"'o^'ia"'"d'size'q""""istateor
*",ff :#;l#"'lX;trHi:"ffi#;"ffi
and
*" of failure (in money
a complex system.
i, *"rr, rro"ty ruit r" ul""t *
manufacture or use in consider'
are also factors to
potentially life or timU; in ot|11ses a combination
might be possible or adequatei let
NDT method often made by engineers'
In some cases, only one Ji"rri r"rrnr. such iecisions are If
of NDT methods will
be needed ,o
"r,r,rr:',,t t"o* th" li*i;;;;;s of the various NDT methods'
the experien* *;;;
to this can
Hopetully they have test-meth;;;t be called for' Although
;^" t"rt l, ,d"qt;;;;al
they are unsure *; practical or economically
sound'
ttt" ""o'nJ""-t" r*"r"'
it miiht;;;"
increase

I.2ULTRASONICTESTINGINRELATIONToOTHERNDTMETHODS
of materiar are actually
quite
non-destructive inspection
of testing used for the
specific methods
jj#
j;;ITil:fllf :*;;]T:;1""*1ii:t
,,1*",oo,rn"y*ig,,ibeb-road,yT::flJ[?
areas-ot-"":1T it be considered
even then there can"be srev :,:::l::pj:;a
*u""' u'" in ultrasonic testing' can
;,;;''"#' '

ttic? or'if R'y;;ig:h ""d '""t"g'

to be consid"'"a 'ort'*-"
more common NDr methods usedin
a list or'or:.11'n" of the
the table lists some
**::"J:,I;,1uffiTffi[.l;;" ',
and some of their morJ -**or,
applrcations.raaitior,rtty,
industry today
limitations of each method'
 1): Introduction

Table
able 1-2 NDT
NDT Method Applications
. used on nonporous materials
. can be applied to welds, tubing,
brazing, castings, billets, forgings,
aluminium parts, turbine blades
and disks, gears
Magnetic o ferromagnetic materials
Particle . surface and slightly subsurface
flaws can be detected
o can be applied to welds, tubing,
bars, castings, billets, forgings,
extrusions, engine components,
shafts and gears
. metals, alloys and electro-
conductors
. sorting materials
. surface and slightly subsurface o low penetration (typically 5mm)
flar,vs can be detected
. used on tubing, wire, bearings,
rails, non-metal coatings, aircraft
components, turbine blades and
disks, automotive transmission
shafts
o metals, non-metals and
composites
. surface and slightly subsurface
flaws can be detected
o can be applied to welds, tubing,
joints, castings, billets, forgings,
shafts, strucfural components,
concrete, pressure vessels, aircraft
and engine components
r used to determine thickness and
mechanical properties
o monitoring service wear and
deterioration
Limitations
. need access to test surface
o defects must be surface breaking
o decontamination & pre-cleaning of test surface
may be needed
. vaPour hazard
o very tight and shallow defects difficult to find
. depth of flaw not indicated
o detection of flaws limited by field strength and
direction
. needs clean and relatively smooth surface
. some holding fixfures required for some
magnetising techniques
o test piece may need demagnetisation which
can be difficult for some shapes and
magnetisations
. depth of flaw not indicated
. requires customised probe
. although non-contacting it requires close
proximity of probe to part
. false indications due to uncontrolled
parametric variables
o usually contact is required, either direct, or
with an intervening medium (e.g., immersion
testing)
o special probes are required for applications
. sensitivity limited by frequenry used and some
materials cause significant scattering
r scattering by test material structure can cause
false indications
o not easily applied to very thin materials

4
 r (1): Introduction

Radiography o metals, non-metals, composites . access for placing test piece between source
Neutron and mixed materials and detectors
. used on pyrotechnics, resins, . size of neutron source housing is very large
plastics, organic material, (reactors) for reasonable source strengths
honeycomb sttuctures, . collimating, filtering or otherwise modifying
radioactive material, high density beam is difficult
materials, and materials . radiation hazards

W containing hydrogen .

o
.
cracks must be oriented parallel to beam for
detection
sensitivity decreases with
Radiography - o metals, non-metals, composites access to both sides of test piece needed
X-ray and mixed materials o voltage, focal spot size and exposure time
o used on all shapes and forms; critical
castings, welds, electronic e radiation hazards
% assemblies, aerospace, marine . cracks must be oriented parallel to beam for
and automotive components detection
sensitivity decreases with increasing thickness
o
Radiography - r usually used on dense or thick o radiation hazards
Gamma material . cracks must be oriented parallel to beam for
. used on all shapes and forms; detection
castings, welds, electronic . sensitivity decreases with increasing thickness
assemblies, aerospace/ marine . access to both sides of test piece needed
and automotive components r not as sensitive as X-rays
. used where thickness or access
limits X-rav qenerators

1.3 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF ULTRASOUND

Basic to ultrasonic testing is the propagation of energy via mechanical vibrations. We refer to the
periodic disturbance associated with this energy transfer as a wave. Perhaps the most common form
of the wave is the ripple over the surface of water. Although the water surface rises and falls as the
wave passes forward, the particles of water do not (on average) move forward with the wave. Particle
motion is limited to an up and down motion.
The main characteristics of the wave are its speed of propagation, its frequency, its wavelength and
amplitude. Speed of propagation is the distance traversed by a point on the wave in unit time. The
symbol used for speed of a sound wave is usually 'c' ot'v' .
Frequency of a wave is the number of complete disturbances or cycles in a unit time. Frequency is
expressed as hertz (abbr. Hz) and usually given the symbol f or V (pronounced nu). The ratio of a
wave's velocity to its frequency gives the wavelength of one cycle. The symbol for wavelength is l"
(lambda).
7:u / f (1 .1)
Chapter (1): Introduction

Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of a particle from its undisturbed mean value. It is
usually half the distance of the peak to peak value. Figure 1-1 graphically illustrates the main
characteristics of the wave.

1.,
.J_ Distance (x)

I
Figure 1-1 Components of the Wave

Time for one cycle is found from the inverse of frequency, i.e. l/f and is called the period. The
number of cycles of the disturbance that occurs in a unit length is given the term "wave number". It is
the reciprocal of wavelengtfu and k is its symbol.
k=1/l (1.2)

All waves can be expressed mathematically as some form of a sinusoid. The simplest equation of a
sinusoidal wave travelling from left to right (as referenced by Figure 1-1) can be given by

!: Astnk(x-vt) (1 3)

Where;
y: Vertical displacement of a particle
A: Maximum displacement it will achieve
k: Wave number for the wave
x: Distance travelled at time t
u: Velocity of the wave.

The wave equation is applicable to continuous waves. More common in ultrasonic testing applications
will be variations on the continuous waves. A disturbance of very short duration, such that a complete
cycle is not made, is called a pulse (see Figure 1-2).

A true pulse will have a velocity v similar to the sinusoidal wave but no true frequency or wavelength
is associated with it. An intermediary form of disturbance is more common to ultrasonic testing (see
Figure 1-3).
 Chapter (1): Introduction

., i.,
v Time (t) or
4

l. Particle displacement of a pulse

J
A wave group or wave packet

Figure 1-2 Components of the pulse shape Figure L-3 Typical ultrasonic wave packet or pulse

In the wave group a single frequency or

wavelength cannot truly be assigned. In fact a
range of frequencies and wavelengths exists
for a wave group. The smaller the group the 100%
-
more extended the range of frequencies. The
mathematical process whereby the amplitude
Amplitude
distribution from the various frequencies is
calculated is called a Fast Fourier Transform
(FFr).
Performing an FFT on a wave group obtains a
distribution of amplitude with respect to
frequency (See Figure 1-4). 0 Increasing Frequency (MHz)

Figure 1-4 Frequency content of a wave group

The extent of frequencies, greater than half the maximum amplitude, is an indication of the pulse
"bandwidth". More frequencies indicate a greater bandwidth.

1.4 WAVEFORMS
A wavefront is the locus of points having the same phase, a line or curve in two dimensions, or a
surface for a wave propagating in three dimensions. Particle motion defines the mode of the
waveform. When particles are made to move parallel to the direction of wave propagation the mode is
called compression mode or longitudinal mode. When particles are made to move perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation the mode is called transverse mode or shear mode. Only solids can
support shear mode particle motion.
Chapter (1): Introduction

A special case occurs at a boundary between two materials. At a boundary between a solid and a
liquid or gas, the conditions that allowed the transverse mode to be sustained in the solid are no
longer applicable. As a result the interface particle motion is neither compression nor transversal. The
wave mode is called a surface wave. Surface waves usually have larger amplitudes and longer
wavelengths than the body waves in the solid. They travel slower than the shear mode. The most
common surface waves are called Love waves and Rayleigh.

Simplified explanations of wave propagation are made for both longitudinal and transverse modes,
based on assumptions about the medium in which they are travelling. Generally it is assumed the
medium is elastic, linear, homogeneous and isotropic. Another assumption made, when analysing the
wave nature of ultrasound, is that the medium is infinite. In such a medium, we can consider wave
front propagation as either plane or spherical.
A plane wave is one where all points, on Piston Generator

the wave having the same phase, form a

plane surface in three-dimensional space.
Such a condition is rare in real life. An Formation of
approximation of a plane wave can be spherical r,r,avefront

seen directly in front of a piston-

generator. See Figure 1-5

Region of plane wavefront

Figure 1-5 Generation of a plane wavefront

When the points on a wave, having the same phase, form a spherical front in three-dimensional space,
the waveform is termed a spherical wave. As the size of the piston generator decreases the portion of
the wave front, that is planar, will be reduced.

For the purpose of demonstration the wave front is often reduced to a simple vector. The vector
represents the direction of a plane wave or most often the radius of a spherical wave front. This
simplification reduces treatment of complex interruptions of the wave, with the medium, to rays.

Having knowledge of acoustic velocities of a material can aid in providing information about the
mechanical strength of that material. Some values of materials velocities are indicated in Table 1-3.

8
Chapter (1): Introduction

Table 1-3 Acoustic of some materials

N/A means, not applicable in liquids and not available or not practical in solids.
Chapter (1): Introduction

1.5 BOUNDARY INTERACTIONS OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

One assumption made in describing plane and spherical waves was that the medium had to be infinite
(without end in all directions). The simplifying assumptions made for waves no longer apply, when a
wave meets the boundary of a material in which it has been travelling.

Details of the interaction of the ultrasonic wave with the boundary depend on three things:

1) Mode of the wave

2) Angle at which it approaches the boundary
3) Acoustic properties of the two media
At normal incidence, a plane wave will interact with the second medium by maintaining the mode
and frequenry of vibration. If the second medium has a different acoustic velocity, the energy
transferred to the second medium will set up a vibration with the same frequency, as it had in the first
medium, but it will have a different wavelength. This follows from the equation v=fl" . The equation is
altered tof :v17. In the second medium, the ratio u/Lmust be the same, in order to maintain the
same frequency.

In addition to transferring some of the energy to the second medium, a portion is reflected back into
the first medium. The amount of sound reflected and transmitted is a function of the characteristic
acoustic impedances of the media, on either side of the boundary. Characteristic acoustic impedance
of a material is the product of its density and longitudinal velocity.
As an example, water has a density of 1000 kg/m3 and an acoustic velocity of 7490 mls.

1000 x 1-490 = 1-.49 x L06kg / s /mz or 1,.49 MRayls (l,Rayl = 1, kg kg / s /mz)

Acoustic impedance is an important aspect in determining sound distribution at a boundary. Since
ultrasonic wave amplitude is directly proportional to acoustic pressure, the following will consider
pressure instead of acoustic intensity. Acoustic intensity is proportional to the acoustic impedance.
Ratios of reflected and transmitted sound pressure to the incident sound pressure are called the
reflection and transmission coefficients respectively. These are given the symbols R and D.
R = Pr/Pi. (1.4)

D = Pt/Pt (1.5)

Where;
Pr: Reflected pressure;
P, : Transmitted pressure
P;: Incident pressure

For the simple case of a plane wave, impinging on a smooth surface at right angles to the surface,
reflection and transmission coefficients are relatively simple, as no mode change occurs.

10
Chapter (1): Introduction

The reflection coefficient for this simple case is:

Z'- Z'
^ (1.6)
22+21
The transmission coefficient for this condition is:

n_ 22,
lt (1.7)
-
22+21
Where; -
Z,: Characteristic impedance for medium I
22: Characteristic impedance for medium 2

A common example would be a beam incident on steel from water.

Z steel : PsteelCsteelZwater = PwaterCwater

Density of steel is 7.8 x 1.0s kg /m3; Density of water is 1.0 x 1-03 kg /m3

Acoustic velocity in water rs L.49 x 103 m/s; Acoustic velocity in steel is 5.85 x 1O3m/s
Therefore if the beam impinges from water
Zwater - Zr : 1.0 x x 1'03
103 x 1,.49

ZsteeL: Zz = 7.8 x 103 x 5'85 x 103

Zr :l.49MRayls
Zz = 45.6MRayLs
45.6 - 1..49
R : -= : 0.937; or 93.7o/o is ref lected
45.6 + 1.49
2(4s.6\
D : .=*= = 1.937; or L93.70/o is transmitted
45.6- + 1..49
Pressure over 100% does not mean energy has been created. It implies that the sound intensity is
higher in steel than it was in water. Incident intensity is equal to the sum of the transmitted and
reflected intensities i.e.Jr = Jo -l Jn

When dealing with sound pressure the equation is:

Pi I Pp : P, (1.8)

Where;
P,: Incident pressure
P^: Reflected pressure
Pr: Transmitted pressure

An interesting phenomenon occurs when we impinge the beam, from a steel to water boundary.
Using the same notation we re-name Zl and Zras steel and water respectively. Therefore;

17
 Chapter (1): Introduction

1..49 - 45.6
R=-:-0.937
1,.49 + 45.6
2(r.49)
D =----*:0.063
7.49 + 45.6
The negative sign on the reflection coefficient indicates that a phase reversal has occurred. This occurs
when a wave moves from a medium of high acoustic impedance to a lower acoustic impedance value
(acoustically hard to acoustically soft material).

The concept is seen on the RF display

Water/Stee
of a scope, as in Figure 1-6. Here,
phase reversal is indicated by the
change in pulse shape, whereby the
first displacement of the pulse is
negative at water/steel and then
positive at steel/water.
If incidence of the plane wave is at
some angle, other than normal
incidence, our simple equation no
longer applies. Several options occur
again, depending on the media on
Figure 1-6 Phase reversal at steel to water interface
either side of the boundary and the
mode of the incident wave.
Wave interactions, at boundaries with solids, can cause mode conversions involving transverse mode
vibrations. As well, if incident angles are glancing or the medium is not thick with respect to the
wavelength, boundary layer or surface waves can be formed. Two types of surface waves are
generally of interest in ultrasonic testing, Love waves and Rayleigh waves. Love waves have particle
motion at right angles to the direction of propagation and in the plane of the surface. Rayleigh wave
particle motion is elliptical. Another type of surface wave is the Lamb wave, which exists in thin
plates. The velocity of propagation of Lamb waves depends on a relationship between wavelength
and plate thickness. Surface waves depend on an interaction of the wave with the boundary, so
direction of propagation is dictated by boundary shape.
The direction of propagatiory of longitudinal and transverse waves, is determined by the structure of
the material in which they are moving and can be calculated from Snell's Law. Snell's Law states
v, _v, (1 e)
sin 0t sin 0,

For our purpose, we can usually ignore gases as supporting ultrasonic waves. With a density of
typically 10-3 kg/ms, solving for the reflection coefficient for a longitudinal wave from steel, we find
essentially 100% is reflected. Boundaries with a gas or vacuum on one side are called free boundaries.
For practical applications of ultrasound, only liquids and solids are considered to support ultrasonic
mechanical waves. Figure 1-7 shows the mode conversions possible for the practical 2-boundary
conditions.

12
Chapter (1): Introduction

Vacuum i
I
Vacuum i
I

( free-bonndarvi (free-botind arlr)j

i !
!
i

Figure 1-7 Wave modes and boundary interactions

Figure 7-7 indicates modes possible for incident angles below the critical angle. The transverse or
shear modes, shown in Figure 1-7, are the so-called vertical shear modes, which contain particle
motion at right angles to the direction of propagation and in the plane, perpendicular to the direction
of propagation.

If particle displacement is
transverse and only parallel to the
reflecting boundary, it is called
horizontal shear or SH mode. With
an SH wave incident on a
boundary, no mode conversion to
longitudinal mode is generated
and only SH reflected and
refracted modes are possible (see Figure 1-8 Horizontal shear wave (SH) polarised in the plane of
Figure 1-8). the reflecting surface

1 .5 CRiTICAL ANG LES

Critical angles occur when a wave is refracted to 90'. When the refracted longitudinal wave in a solid
reaches this point, the incident angle is called the first critical angle. Similarly, the second critical angle
is the incident angle at which the shear vertical wave mode is refracted to 90'. This is illustrated in
Figure 1-9.

1.3
 ter (1): Introduction

- nt ..

First critical angle Second critical angle

Figure 1-9 Critical angles and Snell's Law

In Snell's law from equation (1.9), the critical angles are easily found, knowing the velocities in the two
media and setting the refracted angle (0r) to 90". Sin (90) is 1, making the equation:

vl v2--,sine'=i
v2
ri#;=- Where; 9r, in this case, is the critical angle.

Of particular interest to surface wave generation, is the second critical angle. The condition that
generates the Rayleigh wave is when the transverse wave moves along the solid to air interface.

In addition to angle changes and mode conversions at boundaries, transmission and refraction
coefficients change, as off-normal incidence occurs.

Solutions for the reflection and transmission coefficient become complex: technically and
mathematically. Mathematically complex implies that the solutions involve complex numbers which
include l, where i = l-1
Getting sound into a part is, however, only half
of the inspection operation. In an ultrasonic
inspectiory whether pulse-echo or through-
transmission techniques are used, sound must
again leave the part in order to be detected. A
second boundary effect must therefore be
considered. If we use the pulse-echo path of a
beam and trace it, forwards and backwards, we
can estimate the available pressure to be
detected. This is done by multiplying the
transmittance in one direction by the
Figure 1-10 Echo transmittance for the pulse-echo
transmittance in the other. This results in the
transverse mode at an aluminium-water Infslfags (t)
echo transmittance.

74
Chapter (1): Introduction

Krautkramer provided a very understandable representation of this with a quadrantal presentation of

the echo transmittance for the transverse mode at an aluminium-water interface. (See example in
Figure 1-10)

7.7 ATTENUATION OF ULTRASOUND

Attenuation can be defined as the decrease in intensity of awave as it propagates through a medium.
Factors contributing to attenuation are numerous but 3 main factors are: beam spreading, scattering
and absorption.

Beam spreading has its source in the nature of the material and from the source of the vibration. The
nature of the material in which an ultrasonic wave propagates affects the shape of the wavefront and
is based on the frequency of vibration. Just as the colour components of white light are bent to
different degrees in a prism, so too does a medium disperse ultrasonic waves. Figure 1-4 illustrates the
muiti-frequency aspect of a pulse. Moreover, beam divergence from the transmitter implies that
wavefronts are not planar for long. Plane waves are somewhat ideal and used to simplify explanations
of ultrasonic waves impinging on planar and curved surfaces.

Another problem, when considering plane waves, is no reduction of intensity is accounted for by
causes other than scatter and absorption. Since this is unrealistig we must consider spherical wave
fronts. Figure 1-11 is drar,vn to indicate a portion of a spherical wavefront at a distance r from a point
source O.

Figure 1-11 Formation of a spherical wavefront Figure 1-12 Formation of a cylindrical wavefront

Assuming the angles between the rays are equal, the surface indicated at distance r is a square area on
the sphere. The area of a sphere is found from (a = 4nr2) and thus is proportional to the square of the
radius. If we double our distance, the area on the sphere increases by four. Similarly in Figure -1,-11,, at
a distance (2r), the area of the square would be four times greater than it was at (r).
If our spherical wave front, which originated at (o), has intensity I, over the area of the first square, as
the wavefront progresses to a distance of (2r), the same total energy is passed through the square
drawn at that distance. Since the same amount of energy is spread over an area at (2r), that is four
times that area at (r), it follows the intensity (rate of radiant energy per unit area) at (2r), and the
intensity is one quarter what it was at (r). Therefore:

15
 Ir (r)' (1.10)
Ir, (2r)'
-=-
Meaning, the intensity of a spherical wave is proportional to the square of the distance.
But acoustic pressure is proportional to the square root of acoustic intensity. It follows that acoustic
pressure is therefore inversely proportional to distance for spherical waves;

more generallY, = (1 11)

*= ;rcr 'r i
If, instead of a point source, a line source was used as indicated in Figure 1-12,'the cvlindrical
wavefront would cause the area to increase linearly, with increasing distance'
For such a cylindrical wave, acoustic pressure would decrease inversely with the square root of
distance:

(1.12)
more seneralty, = ,,
+: #,or f
1.8 ATTENUATION DUE TO SCATTERING
When considering beam spreading, it was assumed the medium in which the ultrasonic wave was
propagating was infinite, homogeneous and isotropic. This is rarely the case. In-homogeneities will
cause reflections, refractions, mode conversions and partial transmission. Such interactions of
the
main beam are considered to be scattering.

Scattering might be single or multiple. Single scattering results from energy being deflected once
by
an obstacle in the path of the beam. Multiple scattering results from numerous obstacles causing
successive redirecting of beam energv. Results of multiple scattering can be one of three t-vpes
(see

Figure 1-13):
1) All energy scattered is returned to the main beam
2) Part of the energy scattered is returned and part lost
3) A11 of the energv scattered is lost to the main beam
1.23

rj{"L|l
Single scattering Multiple scattering

Figure 1-13 Single versus multiple scattering

15
Chapter (1): Introduction

Some sources of scattering include: surface geometries, grain boundaries, pores, slag or laminar
inclusions and surface roughness.

1.9 ABSORPTION
Energy losses that are a result of the conversion of energy from mechanical ultrasonic waves to other
forms of energy are numerous and together considered as attenuation due to absorption.
Absorption mechanisms include:
. Mechanical hysteresis (lag between appiied stress and resulting strain)
o Friction losses (relative motion between adjacent surfaces)
. Conduction of heat
. Micro eddy currents
r Atomic disturbances within the lattice structure
r Viscosity within liquids and gases
o Dislocations in solids

1.10 CALCULATION OF TOTAL ATTENUATION

For most industrial applications, separating the contributions of the various aspects of attenuation is
not usually necessary. Determination of the sum of all factors is adequate.

Attenuation of ultrasonic wave energy is exponential. Acoustic pressure at some point along the path
of a beam can be compared to an earlier point and the reduction in pressure given by
P : Po€-o' (1.13)

Where;
P: New pressure at r
Po: Original pressure at x = 0
e: Constant that is the base of the natural log whose value is = 2.77828
a: Attenuation coefficient
x: Distance between P6and P
a: Attenuation coefficient and has units in nepers per unit distance. A neper is simply the natural
logarithm of the ratio of two amplitudes:

Np : m(*\/ (1.14)
\.41
lNP :86B6dB
Nepers are rarely used in industrial ultrasonic testing; instead we use decibels (dB). The Bel is the base
unit and simply the log to the base 10 of a ratio of amplitudes. The dB (decibel) is ten times the 1og to
the base 10 of the ratio of two amplitudes.
r A":, r A"t
: : lOlosr.
B Io9,6
l*) - dB (4 ) ('1.15)

17
Chapter (1): Introduction

More often in ultrasound we use the voltage reading from a scope. The voltage of the probe is
proportional to the pressure of the field. \zVhen referring to measurements of field intensity amplitude,
it is usual to consider the ratio of the squares of Ar (measured amplitude) and Ao (reference amplitude).
This is because, in most applications, power is proportional to the square of amplitude. It is desirable
for the two decibel formulations to give the same result in such typical cases. Thus, the following
definition is used:

Nae = L o rog,o (fr) = zo r.e,, (fi) (1.16)

The equivalence of 10 togr, (*) ^"o20log.o (#) ,r one of the standard properties of logarithms.

The absolute values of many measurements are not as interesting as are their relative relationships to
a reference quantity. In UT, it is mostly the pressure amplitudes which are compared P:/Pr or also
electrical signal voltage Vz/Vr

Since a is in Np per unit length, usually Np/cm the common dB equivalent uses dB/mm;

lNp/cm = 0.B7dB /mm

Scatter and absorption tendto increase with increasing frequency. As a result, attenuation is a
frequency dependent quantity. Several methods of determining attenuation are described in the
literature. Contact methods and delay-line methods are difficult to set up due to problems controlling
bond quality.
If amplitudes are in "/o of full screen height (FSH) and thickness in mm the follor'r'ing equation
provides the attenuation coefficient for the probe frequencY used:
20log(A1- A2) (1.17)
q:

Where;
A;"/oFSH signal l through samPle 1
A2:"/"FSH signal 2 through samPle 2
d: Thickness difference between samples 1 and 2

E.g., A plastic sample 15mm thick was used to establish a signal80% FSH. When replaced by a sample
of the same plastic 25mm thick, the signal height dropped to 30% FSH.
20 log(80 - 30)
a = -------YiO ----:- = 3.4d8 /mm

1.11 ULTRASOI\JiC EQUIPMENT

Generally, we can consider 2 aspects of ultrasonic equipment: the probes and the equipment (drivers
and display apparatus) that are used to operate the probes. There are other components associated
with UT inspections (couplant, calibration blocks, scanners, etc.) but the generation and reception of
signals is facilitated by providing a voltage to a probe and then being abie to receive a voltage from a
probe.

18
 Chapter (1): Introduction

By far, the most common methods of transducing (converting) energy to ultrasonic vibrations are via
electro-mechanical methods. Electro-mechanical methods of ultrasound generation include:
o piezoelectric
. magnetostrictive
. electro-magnetic
o capacitive
Piezoelectric methods are the most efficient and are the only ones we will consider in our coverage of
the topic.

1,.12 PIEZOELECTRICITY
An electrical potential difference across the opposite faces of certain non-conducting crystals, as a
result of applied mechanical stress, is called the piezoelectric effect. The electric polarisation produced
is proportional to the applied stress and the direction of polarisation changes if the stress changes
from compression to tension. The reverse piezoelectric effect is the opposite phenomenon. If the
opposite faces of a piezoelectric crystal are subjected to a potential difference, the crystal will change
its shape. Rochelle salt, qtafiz and tourmaline are the most common naturally occurring piezoelectric
crystals used in ultrasonic transducers.

If field the crystal will change shape, at a

a piezoelectric crystal is subjected to an alternating electric
rate equal to the field frequency, as a result of the reverse piezoelectric effect. If the applied frequency
of the electric field is the same as the natural elastic frequency of the crystal, the direct piezoelectric
effect will augment the applied electric field. This is the basis for crystal resonance and is applied in
items using crystal oscillators such as the quartz clock.

Theoretically any crystal lacking a centre of symmetry is piezoelectric. Efficiency of the crystal in
either the direct or in-direct piezoelectric effect or both will dictate how useful it is for practical
applications. Although polycrystalline ceramics and organic materials are now common, single crystal
elements were used first.

Quartz crystals have been noted to exhibit the

direct and indirect piezoelectric effects since the
effect was discovered in 1880 by the Curie
brothers. The quartz crystal forms a hexagonal y1

shape as shown in Figure 1-74, but is considered

part of the trigonal class of crystals.

Figure L-L4 Crystal axes of quartz

79
 Chapter (1): Introduction

If lines are drawn to the corners of the crystal, three axes can be considered. These are termed the X
axes. Slicing a plate out of the crystal such that an X axis is perpendicular to the plate we form what is
termed an X-cut crystal. Y-axes are considered to be perpendicular to the X-axes, so 3 Y-axes also exist.
Slicing a plate with a Y axis perpendicular to the surface of the plate forms a Y-cut crystal (see Figure
1-15). Placing an electric field across these plates will result in deforming them (see Figure 1-16).

X cut crystal Y cut crystal

Figure 1-15 Quafiz crystal orientations for X and Y cuts

r----------l
r-j-------------il

X-cut deformation Y-cut deformation

Figure 1,-'1,6 Quartz crystal deformations for X and Y cuts

X-cut quartz crystals operate in what is termed dilation mode, i.e. the thickness mode changes. Y-cut
quartz crystals operate in the shear mode. Since other piezo materials are not always cut from single
crystals, the terms X and Y cut are not reallv suitable in all cases. Therefore dilational and shear modes
are terms applied to other piezo materials as well.

Close examination, of the hexagon in Figure 1-14, will show that, in cutting an X-cut crystal, two Y-
axes are intersected at an angle. As a result, interfering modes of vibration will exist even though we
have prepared the element to vibrate in the dilational mode. Shear and radial vibrations reduce the
efficiency at which the crystal will transmit in the intended dilational mode.

1.13 MONOCRYSTALLINE AND POLYCRYSTALLI\E PIEZOELECTRIC

\,IATERIALS
Single crystal piezoelectric materials that have been used for ultrasonic testing include quartz,
tourmaline, Rochelle salt, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate and
lithium sulphate. As convenient as natural crystals are and even with the convenience of growing
crystals from a melt in the lab, limits exist for single crystal materials. Single crystals are difficult to

20
Chapter (1): Introduction

obtain in large dimensions. With the exception of quartz, single crystal elements generally have low
Curie points and in very high frequenry applications the cutting of thin sections is difficult.
Some of the problems associated with single crystal piezoelectric materials have been overcome using
ceramic and organic materials. Table 1-4 shows some of the properties of ceramics and organic
materials. Ceramics quickly replaced single crystal elements for testing applications after the mid 20th
century. They are multi-crystalline and made by grinding together various powders which are then
formed and heated similarly to the way pottery is made. Ceramics can be made in virtually any shape
and size. In addition to their convenience in forming and being relatively inexpensive, some acoustic
properties are exceptionally good. Most have d constants, 100 times that of quafiz. In spite of the g
constant being about half the value of that of quartz, ceramics have an over-all total sensitivity much
greater than quartz.

To operate as a transducer material, ceramics must be poled. Piezoelectric ceramics are initially
electrostrictive; meaning simply, they deform under an applied voltage.
For many of the ceramics, the amount of deformation for an applied electric field is small. However
for those ceramics found useful for transducers, deformations can be very large. Those substances that
exhibit very large deformations are termed ferroelectric, similar to ferromagnetic materials' reaction to
applied magnetic fields. Like ferromagnetic materials, ferroelectrics are considered to be composed of
domains. Ferroelectric domains are composed of large numbers of molecules that have a net
polarisation vector or charge. If no external voltage is applied the domains are randomly oriented.
Applying a voltage to such a ferroelectric plate causes the domains to align. Since the domains are
elongated, the macroscopic effect is to increase the plate dimension in the plane of the applied field.
Similarly, if the polarity of the applied field is reversed the plate expands again. This is illustrated in
Figure 7-77.

r+-j----7 \*t IYtl fi ETI/

l'i'oi tI
)
-
|

++++++++
No applied charge Charge applied Reverse charge applied

Figure 1-17 Un-poled ferroelectric materials

This electrostrictive activity would result in two expansions for every cycle of applied voltage. This
would cause the ceramic to act like a fuII wave rectifier, producing twice the fundamental applied
frequency.

To change the ferroelectric mode to the piezoelectric mode of sound generation is relatively simple.
Heating the ceramic ferroelectric material above its Curie temperature will free the domains so they
can be moved under the influence of a large DC bias voltage. This ensures that all the domains are
aligned. If the bias is maintained, as the temperature is dropped, alignment is frozen and the poles of
charge in the domains are not easily rotated. The material is then said to be poled. When an external

21
alternating voltage is now applied, the domains can no longer reverse themselves but merely align to
greater and lesser degrees as the voltage oscillates. The effect is illustrated in Figure 1-18.
++++++++

,iti t t t ttttt t t \tr\,2 \ \

', \z
l){il r tt,tl t / 12, xtr
\ '1

{';i.l i,l
+flt't try' / tf' tr
/'r f t t z r/ \ / /
Poledceramic ++++++++
charge
No applied Peak positive cycle Peak negative cycle

Figure 1-18 Poled ferroelectric material

Table 7-4, illustrates the comparative efficiencies of some of the materials traditionally used in the
manufacture of ultrasonic transducers. The table normalises the transmitting and receiving
capabilities relative to the original piezo material, quartz. The Loop gain column is the overall
efficiency determined by simply multiplying the transmitting and receiving efficiencies together. Of
the tabulated materials, lithium sulphate is least useful in that it dissolves in water.

The polycrystalline material PZT (Lead-Zirconate-Titanate) is perhaps the most popular material for
industrial ultrasonic testing and is now comparatively inexpensive and has a relatively high loop gain,
when used in pulse-echo mode.
Table 1-4 Piezoelectric transducer materials (2)

Material Transmitter Efficiencv Receiver Efficiency Loop Gain

Ouartz 7 1 1

LiNbO: 2.8 0.54 1.51

6.9
PZT.4 65 0.235 75.4
PZT.5A 70 0.21 74.6
CdS 2.3
ZnO J.J 7.42 4.7
PVDF 6.9 1.35 9.3
I 8.4
Lead Metaniobate 32

Table 1-5 summarises properties of some common piezoelectric materials. Coupling coefficient is
defined as the ratio of the mechanical energy accumulated in response to an electrical input or vice
versa. Strain constant indicates how much the material displaces for an applied voltage. The stress
constant indicates how much voltage is generated for a given displacement (strain). The frequency
constanf is the product of the resonance frequency and the linear dimension governing the resonance.
Although not the same as for magnetic materials, the Curie point for piezo materials is similar. As
temperature increases, a point is reached where piezoelectric activity is lost. For the single crystal

22
Chapter (1): Introduction

materials, the property refurns upon cooling below the Curie point, but ceramic materials do not
recover so easily and must be re-poled.
Table 1-5 Piezo material

1-3 piezo composites have become the material of choice for many high performance ultrasound
transducers, since it was invented by R.E. Newnham and L.E. Cross in the late 7970's@. A variety of
piezo composite materials can be made by combining piezo ceramic elements with a passive polymer,
such as epoxy or active polymer. Piezo-composites are classified according to their connectivity (such
as 2-2, 1-3, 0-3 etc.). Connectivity is defined as the number of dimensions through which the material
is continuous. It is conventional for the first digit to refer to the piezoelectrically active phase.

Today, most piezo composites on the market are with the 1-3 and 2-2 corrrectivity used in ultrasound
transducers, actuators and sensors. 1-3 piezo composites advantages over standard bulk piezo
ceramics are in general:
o Lower acoustic impedance, 7-3 piezo composites are available with acoustic impedance
between 8MRayl and 26MRayl
. Higher coupling coefficient of typically 0.63 to 0.70, compared with 0.54 of bulk material
. Higher bandwidth

1.1.4 ULTRASONICPROBES
The ultrasonic probe is essentially the poled piezo material with an electrode sputtered on either side
and a co-axial cable soldered to each electrode. The piezo element is then placed in a housing and a
backing material poured into the housing to secure its position and afford a place to make the
electrical connector. The backing is an epoxy that may contain metal powder to increase the damping
effect on the element. This prevents the element from excessive ringing when hit by the alternating
voltage. Adjusting the degree of damping material is a means of regulating the probe bandwidth.
Figure 1-19 illustrates the basic steps in building the probe.

ZJ
Chapter (1): Introduction

metallized faces

l-#'/-
\
piezo element

wear face
-

Figure 1-19 Construction of an ultrasonic probe

Depending on the application that the Probe is intended

for, the front face will be fitted with a wear face or
protective seal. For contact testing, this is a hard surface
made of boron-silicate to protect the piezo element. For
immersion testing the face is coated with a thin layer of
epoxy to prevent water ingress.Once the probe is made
and fitted with a suitable co-axial connector it can be
connected to the ultrasonic instrument via a co-axial
cable. The schematic of the instrument is seen in Figure
1-20. This illustrates the two ways in which a probe can be
connected; in pulse-echo, where the probe acts as both
transmitter and receiver or in transmit-receive mode. In
transmit-receive mode the probe may be separated into 2 pulse€choCon*ections Trin{$itR..oieoc6ild..!ioil.

separate probes or a transmitter and receiver element are Figure 1-20 Pulse-Echo (PE) versus
wired separately in a common housing. Transmit-Receive (TR) connections

24
Chapter (1): Introduction

In NDT applications the pulser is nearly always functioning in the pulse mode, as opposed to
continuous wave. The pulse that is emitted from the probe forms a sound field characterised by its
pressure distribution.

1.15 SOUND FIELDS

Figure 1-21 shows the amplitude profile of a beam from a 10mm diameter, 5 MHz flat probe-placed
over a block of steel.

The pressure map in colour (Figure 1.-21. (a)) provides a 2D view of the sound field as it might appear
from a sequence of steps as the beam propagates into the steel in compression mode. The crosshairs
are placed at the maximum pressure locatiory i.e. 22mm into the block and along the centre of the
beam (which corresponds to the 20mm position on the vertical scale). This corresponds to the end of
the near zone. Crosshairs are at the near zone (a) with pressure profiles along the centre of the beam
axis (b) and perpendicular to the centre of the beam axis (c).

Figure 1-21 Sound field of a5 MHz 10mm diameter probe on steel

25
 Chapter (1): Introduction

The near zone is the region in an ultrasonic beam which is subject to variations of intensity due to
diffraction effects. It extends from the source of radiation to a point just short of the far field. This
region is also called the Fresnel zone. Beyond the near zone, along the centre axis of the beam's main
lobe is the far field. In this regior; of an ultrasonic beam, the intensity of the sound field is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the transmitter. This region is sometimes referred to as
the far zone or the Fraunhofer-zone.

Calculations of the peak and boundary conditions of beams play an important role in ultrasonic
testing in general, but they are especially important in planning the phased array beam. Equations for
the determination of the most common parameters are found in most basic ultrasonic testing guides.
We summarise the calculations for the main parameters here. These include:
. Near Zone
o Focal Zone
o Beam Diameter
o Beam Spread and Half Angle

1.15.1 THE NEAR ZONE

The distance from the face of the transducer to the last maximum sound field pressure point is known
as the near field distance (N or Yo*point) and is the natural focus of the transducer. The far field is the
area beyond N where the sound field pressure gradually drops to zero.
The near field distance is a function of the transducer frequency, element diameter, and the sound
velocity in the test material as shown by the equation:

N :D+ (1.18) oR N--4t

pz
(1.1e)

Where;
N: Near field distance
D: Element diameter
f Frequency
u: Material sound velocity
2: Wavelength (7 : v /f)

This equation provides a good "approximation" of the theoretical near field.

For the probe modelled in Figure 1-21 with diameter 10mm, frequency 5 MHz and steel sound
velocity 6 x 106 mm/s, the near zone (N) can be calculated as 20.8mm using the equation: (D2 fl /av.
The semi-analytical model in the plot of Figure 7-27 (c) indicates the peak occurring at22mrn.

1.15.2 BEAI\4 S]ZE

In pulse-echo UT a transducer's sensitivity is influenced by the beam diameter at the point of interest.
There is a greater amount of energy reflected by a flaw for a smaller beam diameter, than for a larger
beam diameter.

26
Chapter (1): Introduction

It can be demonstrated that, for an unfocussed probe, the diameter of the 6dB (half amplitude)
pressure boundary is about 25% of the probe diameter. In TOFD there is rarely an occasion to focus
the beam. However, beam focussing has been used in TOFD to improve the signal resolution for
precise flaw sizing. When the beam is focussed it means the maximum pressure at the end of the near
field is made to occur at a shorter distance (focussing cannot occur at a point greater *ian the near
field). \zVhen the beam is focussed the spot size is reduced by the focussing factor and the equation for
the spot size is written as:
Ds-uae = 0.256BDSr (1.20)

Where;
DB-saei Beam Diameter (at the 6dB drop boundary)
F: Focal Length
v: Material Sound Velocity
/: Frequency
D: Element Diameter
Sp: Normalised Focal Length (ratio of the shortened focal distance over the natural focal distance or
near zone)

This equation suggests that the beam size at the natural focal length (i.e. the near zone) is
approximately 25% of the diameter of the probe and is reduced in size as a result of focussing (S" <1),
and the beam size is proportional to the degree of focussing inside the near field distance. E.g., when a
beam is focussed at half the near zone length, Sp will be 0.5 and therefore, the spot size will be half of
what it was at the near zone.

1.15.3 FOCAL ZONE

Most detection in ultrasonic NDT is done near or just beyond the near field. There is a range of
distance forwards and backwards of the near zone that is also of interest. This range is termed as the
working field or focal zone.
The focal zone is defined by the points lying -tdll fri.at"t illA,

on the central axis of the sound beam at

distances where the maximum pressure
drops to half (-6dB in pulse-echo) on both
PCINT CF \,IAXI1.IUI"I FFIO:"I
sides of the Yo+ point. The working field or A ts: AI P: AIi IA|IGI:I=CII(i
, i .]i
'

;RCt/
focal zone, the beginning and end of the POIfJT OF [./AXlt"rt.[,] ECHa
A POINT--ARGET,i'r:,

focal zone and the Probe diameter are

shown in Figure 7-22. The figure indicates 2,,-
j = 3elirt.tit.tq li itrt' Fli-.ri Zlnr
the distance along the sound path where Fz =
l. = '(lr-"llZille
lnrl . ,t :lte l, t rl l, ,ttr
these drops are located. j
= ilr-,ttteri Dirmeir:r

Figure 1-22 Working field of the probe{+)

27
 Chapter (1): Introduction

The equation that indicates the length of the focal zone is:

^I 2 't
Fz=NSp'[r*o.J (1.21)

The 1 * 0.5 term provides the basis for the rule of thumb that the working field is one third of the focal
distance behind the focal point and two thirds beyond it.

Where;
F2:Focal zone
N: Near field
Sp: Normalised focal length
For a probe with diameter 10mm, frequenry 5 MHz and steel sound velocity 6 x 1,06 mm/s, the near
zone (N) can be calculated as 20.8mm. Since the normalised focal length (Sp), for an unfocussed probe,
is equal to 1, the calculated focal zone (Fr) in the above equation estimates a working length of 27llrrrr..

Using the one-third/two-thirds rule, the start of the focal zone can be obtained by dividing the focal
zone ( F)by 3, then subtracting from the focal point. In our example, the focal zone is 27rrtlrr- so one
third is 9mm. 9mm from the near zone or 20.8mm is 11.8 mm). Since the start of the focal zone extends
for the length of the focal zone (i.e. 11.8mm), the end of the focal zone is 71,.8+27 = 38.8 mm.

1..15.4 BEAM SPREAD AND HALF ANGLE

All transducers have beam spread. In
Maiml:m*,-**11. *
other words, all ultrasonic beams
diverge. Figure 1-23 gives the view of
a sound beam for a flat transducer. In
the near field, the beam has a
complex shape that narrows. In the
far field, the beam diverges.
AE$litude Vnriations
in the:rle*r Field

Figure 1-23 Principles of beam spread(s)

For flat circular transducers, the -6dB pulse-echo beam divergence angle is given by the equation:

0.51v
sin(Y) = , (1.22)

Where;
y:Half angle spread between the peak and -5dB drop point
0.51: Constant used for the -6dB drop for a circular probe (for the -20d8 envelope the constant is
changed to 0.87)
u: Material sound velocitv
/: Frequency
D: Element diameter

28
 Chapter (1): Introduction

The beam angle of divergence is measured from the peak (on-axis) to angle at which the pressure has
dropped to a defined level. When there is no refraction of the beam the beam spread would be twice
the angle of divergence.

It can be seen, from this equatiory that beam spread from a transducer can be reduced by selecting a
transducer with a higher frequency or a larger element diameter or both.

For rectangular elements there are two angles of divergence. Figure 1-24 illustrates a rectdngular
element with length dimensions L1 and L2 having angles of divergence l1andf2. The larger
dimension has a smaller divergence and the smaller dimension has a greater divergence.

_T_- \
t2

Figure L-24 Rectangular element divergence angles

0.44lv 0.44v
sin (71) = (1.23) OR sin(yr): 0.24)
fLl fn
Where;
y: Half angle spread to the -6dB point
0.44: Constant used for the pulse-echo -6dB envelope for the rectangular element
v: Material Sound Velocitv
/: Frequency
LL cmd L2: Element lengths

7,1,6 SUMMARY OF BASIC ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES

The foregoing introduction has been a general overview of the principles and equations associated
with ultrasonic testing in general. These principles will be drawn upon in the theory relating to TOFD.
There are other aspects of pulse-echo manual UT that are common to TOFD, such as instrument
checks, nominal refracted angle determination and reporting. These will be addressed specifically for
TOFD applications. However, there are also aspects of manual UT that have no bearing on TOFD
applications. These details are more appropriately covered in courses designed specifically for manual
pulse-echo UT.

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