1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PLASTIC ARCHITECTURE Plactice are high-performance materials with very different properties and can be found in the world around us in many different forms and applications. One of the areas where plastics are used is architecture, Building with plastics is an exper- mental and highly interesting spacialict area of architecture. In thie chapter we will examine some of the most important developments in the history of plastics inarchitecture. Plastics are a comparatively recent material, despite the fact that the natural precursor of today's modern material ~ natural rubber, harvested from the gum has been known for ever 500 years, Today plastics are generally artificially produced, The motivation behind the development of the modern material dates back to the period of early industrialisation and the need for an artiicially pro- ducible alternative to the highly sought-after but expensive natural raw material, we Intensive research activities soon sprang up to find a cost-effective and artifi- lal material capable of replacing the natural product that could be synthetically manufactured in large quantities, The German name for plastics, “Kunststotf", meaning literally “artificial material, became more widely known with the publi- cation of a journal of the same name in 1911, Beside the synthetic manufacture of materials, one of the most important motivations for the development of plastics Was to be able to optimise special material properties. A significant number of the plastics used today in construction had already been developed by the end of the 1940s. These include, far example, polyvinyl chloride (PVO), polymethacrylate (PMMA), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (FE), polyurethane (PUR) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Beside these basictypes, there are numerous different modifications with special formulas designed by manufacturers to serve specific purposes. Plastics, and in particular fibre-re- inforced plastics, make it fundamentally possible to fashion a material for a par- ticular application. For this reason the improvement or rather optimisation of material properties focuses less on the creation of new materials than on the further development of existing materials as well as their combination in the form of composite materials. The foundation for high-performance composite materials was laid in the 1940s with the development of polyester resin in combination with the industrial- scale production of glass fibres. This concept fora composite materialwas quickly adopted fora variety of uses, for example forthe construction of aeroplanes, boats and vehicles, and the new material rapidly established itself in many different industrial feds.3 INTRODUCTION 1 overorane isteaue afte urna "Kunaratete™puotshedon 1 daeunry 191. 12 Gevdesie doe mags of BAP alomants, RBuckmineter Fler, 1064.12 Moblshatal sabi, |.Sehern. =A Coulen.¥ Magnare 158. he plastic cels mac cfGRF were cenceiesas regular nts andoptinised ortansporanon The specific properties of fibre-reinforced plastics, in particular their light weight, good weather resistance and cellent forming characteristics in con: junction with comparatively high strangth, make them of particular interast for architactural applications, The firet projects for buildings made of plastic were developed as far back as the 1940s, The buildings were conceived as a serially praducible eystem of prefabricated elements in order to compensate for the lack of conventional building materials after the end of the Second World War. These projects, however, never made it into production, After the war various plastics manufacturers attempted to find naw markets in the realm of architecture. Pion ing architects and engineers began to expert: mentwith the new material. The first use of glass fibre-reinforced plastics(GRP) in building constructions was in 1954 for military radar domes. The geodesic domes. devised by Richard Buckminster Fuller were an ideal application for the light, translucent and electromagnetically permeable GRP material in contrast to thermoplastic polyester resin are easy to produce without the need for complex machinery and are therefore ideally suited for the manufacture of prototypes, The first residen- tial building made of plastic was builtin 1966 in France. In collaboration with the French chemical company Camus et Cie., the architects fonel Schein and René- , construction elements made of fiore-reinforcedTHE DEVELOPMENT OF PLASTIC ARCHITECTURE, André Coulon together with the engineer Yes Magnant developed a series of dwelling units and a building out of the new material. Known as the “snail shell house” because ofits geometry, it was constructed out ofa combination of flat and uniaxially curved GRP sandwich panels with GRP stiffening rite. The organically formed sanitary cells ofthe snail shell house and the mobile hatelcabin developed In the same year gave an indication of the design potential of the new material ‘An important step was made with the development of building elements ‘as sandwich constructions in which fibre-reinforced plastic was combined with PUR insulation materials. The use of this te material is sandwiched botwaen two thin GRP layers, made it possible to create lightweight and simultaneously rigid sandwich elements which were ideally suited for self-supporting building skins. The “Monsanto House of the Future" (architects: Richard Hamilton and Marvin Goody, engineer: Albert Dietz, USA, 1957) made use of this principle. It was the first plastic house to be fully developed for mass pro= duction. Although it was destined for industrial production, only the prototype was realised. Nevertheless, the building was effective in demonstrating the struc- tural, architectonic and thermal performance of the plastic constructions and, above all, because of its futuristic formal language, the design possibilities of the now material. As a result, interest in plastic houses grew rapidly around the world. Engineers land architects researched the material and numerous projacts followed that ‘exploited its benefits. The 1960s in particular were characterised by a variety of architecturalexperiments aimed at finding form appropriate to the material, The use of new materials also brought forth a new formal language. In many houses made of plastic, rounded forms and curved building elements are to be found nology, in which an insulating core in variously pronaunced forms. In addition to a general predilection for rounded forms in the 1980s, the use of curvad building elements can alsa be attributed to the desire to lend the comparatively flexible material greater stiffness by curv- ing, folding or creasing the thin material of the building skin to stabilise its form, ‘The ability to prafabricate elements and the low level of maintenance raquired for buildings made of plastic, also played a decisive role, One of the high points in plastic architecture was the IKA (International Plastic Housing Exhibition) in Lidenschaid, Germany, which from 1971 onwards featured a saries of prototypes for family dwellings and holiday homes, including the “Futuro” (architect: Matti Suuronen, engineer: Yxjo Ronkka), “Rondo” (architects: Casoni& Casoni, eng heer: Rané Walther}, “fg 2000" architect: Wolfgang Feierbach, engineer: Gerhard Dietrich, Carsten Langtie) and “Bulle Six Coques” (six-shell bubble house, archi- tect: Jean Banjamin Maneval, engineer: Yves Magnant) ‘The technical requirements of mass production were often the point of dapar ture for planning deliberations, although the prototypes themselves were typically made laboriously by hand. The intantion of the designerswas to use existing manu- facturing methods for the cost-effective production of plastic houses of a high technical standard. In 1973, the Darmstadt Institute for Building with Plastics (IB) published a comprehensive report that documented 232 international concepts and realised projects. The majority of the projects never made it beyond the proto- type; only 88% of the examples shown were built more than once, mostly in email 11INTRODUCTION ‘quantities. One exception was the so-called “Polyvlla” a rectangular hybrid con- struction made of lightweight concrete and plastic with a traditional form, which ‘was built over 500 times within a period of ten years, nthe concluding chapter, the report predicted a future for the industrial mase production of plastic houses but, recognised that the resulting standardication would be problematic for marketing them as private nouses. ‘The plastic houses that were realised proved that plastics were fundamentally ‘suitable for use in architecture and that in terms of structural stability, thermal performance and durability, they could be used in place of conventional materiale. ‘Theiruco was restricted primarily to single-storey buildings. Beside the production of entire buildings that were delivered as prefabricated products equipped with integrated fittings, further applications included individual components made of plastic, for example sandwich panel fagade elements, prefabricated sanitary calls and roofing elements. The experimental test structures from this period addressed many key considerations and together made a significant contribution to the future of plastic architecture, ‘The structural potential and technical performance of fibre-reinforced plastics: as of particular use for wide-span roof structures. 4 series of engineers do ‘oped outstanding concepts for high-performance structures. One example is the “Les échanges” Pavilion by the Swiss engineer Heinz Hossdort presented at the Expo 1964 in Lausanne, a pre-streesed construction consisting of a grid of multi- ple umbrelia-like elements made of 3mm thick GRF sections. The modular shel, ‘constructions by the French engineer Stéphane du Chateau are a further example of wide-span GRP structures, The segmented dome shel of the market hall roof in. Argenteuil, made of 80 prefabricated 6 mm thick GRP shell elements on an undar lying lightweight steel construction, spanned a diameter of 3m. ‘The pioneering buildings of the 1950s to 1970s did not, however, lead to the widespread adoption of housing made of plastic. By 1973, not a single one of the purely plastic houses had been mass-produced, The great expectations that the designers and industry had placed in the new material remained unfulfilled and the envisaged demand failed to materialise. The reasons for this are manifold: for ‘example, the ollcrisisin the 1970s led toa considerable rise inthe price of plastics, However, the interruption in the development of plastic architecture cannot solely be attributed to the oll isis. Although the forms were appropriate to the material, their unconventional {ooks and living concepts were not embraced by the public. Very few clients were willing to realise the dream of their own home in the form of an industrially mass-produced plastic house, particularly as they were not much ‘cheaper than a conventional house. The low lavel af demand in turn inhibited their mass production, which would have led to a reduction in costs and greater eco- omic competitiveness compared with conventional prefabricated houses. further problem that ultimately led to the premature cessation of develop- mont activities was the difficuty of obtaining building contral approval: several prototypes exhibited physical defacts (mould etc.) and poor fire safety charac teristics, Nevertheless, a series of different plastic buildings, such as the “Futuro” ‘or the “fg 2000" have become milestones in the history of modern architecture. After this period, plastics were still used in a variety of ways for individual com-THE DEVELOPMENT OF PLASTIC ARCHITECTURE 13 14 The-Monaaro House ortne Future’ R Hamiten, Goody & Diet, 187 waste tet plasichouse tabs conesvedfermaceproducton. 15 Intemational Plastic Housingexhoten[KALodnecn, “Sermany, 171 Lef Futura" (M. Suuronen.Y-Renka foreground Bul SixCoquee” LB. Manav ‘eaagnar) nigrt-Rendo” (Caases2Catons Rane) ponents but only rarely and in special circumstances were entire buildings reat- ised in plastic, in recent years, plastics have begun to experience a renaissance in the field of architacture and construction In addition to building elements and components for technical and constructional installations, for example piping and inculation, plastics are incroasingly being used ashigh-performance materials for supporting structures and building skins. 4 distinctions drawn here between loadbearingand non-loadbearing building elements, Non-loadbearing applications are, for exam- plo, interior fittings and facade cladding in particular. Where sufficient quantities, ture extremely complex, geometric preci sion elements using highly automated techniques. The use of plastics for building skins depends on the thermaland physical characteristics required. For laadbear- ing structures, fiore-reinforced plastics are still the most commonly used option. Application areas include supporting structures for buildings as wellas industrial are required, itis possible to manutact architacture and engineering structures. Special building elements with complex geometries are another area where plastics are appropriate. While the manufacture of moulds for such materials usu- ally requires a high degree of manual skilled latour at a corresponding cost, plas- tics make it possible to produce highly differentiated building elements in large {Quantities at exacting tolerances. Thisis particularly relevant for madular systems. Tho low solf-weight of the materials a particular advantage in terms of transpor tation. The comparatively high investment required for fabrication is compensated for by the ability te produce large quantities. In addition, plastics have long played fan important rola in construction maintenanca, mast notably carbon fibre-rein- forced plastics for the repair and strengthening of concrete structures. Surprisingly, plastics are al too often regarded as a lower-quality substitute -sare high-tech products. An ade- quate appreciation of plastics is, however, essential in order to best exploit their tec ‘material when, in fact, the reverse is true: plast divarse, excellant propartias and for the amergence of innovative plastica ture, Of vitalimportance too is the search for forms of construction that are appro- priate to the material. n this respect there ie still much room for development.INTRODUCTIONMATERIAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS Plactice are a group of materiale with a broad spactrum of properties that makes them predestined for numerous different applications. Plastics can be generally divided into four categories of plastics: elastomers and thermosets, which have fa cross-linked molecular etructures, and thermoplastics that have an uneross- linked structure. Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) result from @ combination of thermoplastic and elastomeric components and exhibit characteristics of both ‘groups. Depending on the degree of cross-linking, plastics can differ in terms of strength, stiffness and resistance to heat and chemicals. The performance char- acteristics of individual plastics are generally very specific, Nevertheless, there are several material properties that can be used to characterise plastice in gan- eral, This chapter provides an overview of these properties where they are rele- vant tothe field of architecture FORMING CHARACTERISTICS AND THE MANUFACTURE OF BUILDING ELEMENTS {An excellent property of many plastics is the ability to shape them freely, which makes plastics ideally svitable for building elements with complex geometric forms, The production of individually shaped special forms, as is often the case in architecture, can be comparatively costly. Prototypes made of thermosetting fiore-reinforced plastice with dimencions of up to several metres can be man: ually manufactured, but this is comparatively labour-intensive and correspond- ingly expensive. A number of thermoplastic materials can be shaped with the help of rapid prototyping techniques without the need for the complex manufacture of moulds, In this case, the basis for the manufacture of a three-dimensional build- ing element is a digital model, CNC fabrication methods include, for example, 3D printing or miling. These methods are generally only suitable for elements of a limited siza, Elastomers and thermoplastics are also suitable for the manufacture of geo: metrically complex building elements and can be produced industrially in large quantities. The particular advantage of prefabricating elements for the build- ing sector is that constructions can be produced and assembled regardless of weather conditions. In the case of plastics, the creation of the material and the moulding of the element are typically one and the same process. The fabrication process makes it possible to manufacture materials that can be adapted to their expected loads, for example through the localised application and embedding of reinforcement fibres in a resin matrix. Properties such asstrength orstiffmess can therefore be optimised as required, 1524 BASICS OF PLASTICS THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS ACCORDING TO THEIR DEGREE OF CROSS-LINKING Plastios are generally differentiated according to their degree of cross-linking, This Classification ig helpful in that fundamental material properties such ae etrength, heat distortion temperature, workabilityand thermoplastic formability are directly related to the degree of cross-tinking of the polymers \With regard to the kind and degree of cross-linking, there are four groups: ther- mosets (also known as duromers), elastomers, thermoplastics and thermoplas- tic elastomers. The boundaries between them are indistinct and in some cases it is not always clear to which group a plastic belongs. Materials with a semi-crys- talline structure are unctoss-linked and belong to the thermoplastics. Plastics with amorphous structures can be found in all groups and can be both uncross- linked (thermoplastics) ae well exhibit different degrees of cross-linking (thermo- sets, elastomers). THERMOPLASTICS Thermoplastics are uncross-linked and consist of polymer ‘chains that can be linear or branched. They ate neat-deformable because the poly mer chains do not form atomic bonds between each other but are linked only by ‘secondary valence forces. The process of heat deformation is repeatable, Thermo- plastics can be amorphous or semi-crystaltine, In the case of amorphous thermo- plastics the linear or branched molecule chains are randomly oriented and tan- led. Because of their brittle nature they are particularly prone to stress cracking. Their appearance can be opaque or transparent, Amorphous thermoplastics can be dissolved with an appropriate colvent, Examples of amorphous thermoplastice include PMMA, polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Semi-crystalline thermoplastics, by contrast, exhibit at least in parts a regu- lar thrae-dimensianal structure to the molecule chains, The higher dansity of the crystalline state compared with the amarphous condition means that heat input ‘causes the volume to expand. Semi-cryetalline thermoplastics are harder and more resistant to salvents than amorphous structures. Polyethylene (PE), polypro- pylone (PP) and polyamide (PA) are examples of semi-crystalline thermoplastics. ELASTOMERS Elastomers exhibit a three-dimensional amorphous structure with slight cross-linking that cannot be loosened through heat without the material decomposing, For this reason they cannot be heat-deformed, melted or welded. ‘The tangled structure of the polymer chains is the reason for its exceptional elas- ticity and the fact that once the stress has been removed it returns to its original condition. EPDM and the large family of rubber materials are examples of elasto- meric plastics.30 PLASTICS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE 441 Meuse ofplasuce Germany, 2007. 42 The appicetinsatplasicsincontructoninGermany, 2007.43 Acronyms fer plasticenocorsngt DI EN 80 1043-1 oascpolymars) andDIN 80 1628 (rubbers ana ices, Aeon Chemeatnane denne Shemainore is ‘Tevfonanie oie reve Fatettene haha re Teefrakber Few Fayette on draty xs ‘evfonanieehirerinetene Feu Favatnlene neni ara ia ‘eononanie stron erat reno Bavatntene medion done x Batam rade FEURAN __Palatiylenerahghreleular wee in arene robe rue Fotetinkene avalon deat me Getuone svete Few Paetntere erylon de om Frrratecentns atdene mee reer me ‘ntronrane abbenecerene re or aasinfermaanide beeen lt) mm ® Epanrrein rere row ie Franaltormalenyae renin im in Fatimiae ire iratuorenya i Faamentnyocrae w ether arthane rer ie Forest imaheenate ee Ehren aetna ow Patrratvimethactide im Batre row Poonymetiaen pobrcralresin ie ‘Score abber Fatprenfene ro aeieretalpsimer ie Popham ve Uletarineternaaehde rai fs Pavirne we ‘axlarine pho formalsenye rem ne Paanwratoaretane we ‘alrineovaformaldaher im Boaretnane ee ‘ite btadone abber ne Fatrenn cea im Twain ne Faarannbarel Pe Petar ne Patnenvcnende mae Patrons aw Serene srciee mee Bataerieteratone me rere Btadene Paw Bataeriontie ® rome panama pabeatr 6 Botruene We ‘Tharmonietiseetorer rar Bonen ue raatormaaenyse Pc Patrons we remoratearobester Fe BotatereELASTOMERS 446 EPOM seatngpromies. 45 Test gpecimen for aeerminingtne nranese ope ‘Shore slaseicmon ulte in a value between O and 100, with {2.0.1 mm bal tip ie used. Each scale res higher valuas indicating a harder material, The specific Shore scale used is indi cated ina suftix, ETHYLENE PROPYLENE DIENE RUBBER (EPDM) Of all the elastomers, EPDM is most widely used in the field of construction. The basis polymer EPM (ethylene propylene rubber) has excellent aging stability, weather and chemical resistance. Through the introduction of a diane, the polymer chains can be cross-linked with ‘sulphur bridges to form ethylene propylene diene rubber (EPDM). EPDM is per manently elastic and has good mechanical properties even after extensive use. Due to its excellent UV andazone stability tis ideally suited for long-term use outdoors. The material has a troad working temperature range from ~30°0 to +140°C, tie resistant against organic solutions euch as alcohol as well aa inorganic solutions such assalts,alkalileachesand acids. EPDM exhitits etrong swelling properties in oils and fuels, which can have a detrimental effect on the longevity of some EPDM products. Tiade names Nordel (DuPont), Buna (Lanxess), Dutral (Polimeri), Keltan (DSM), Vistaion (Exxon Mobil Chemical) ‘Manufacture Calendering for roofing membranes: extrusion for pipes, profiles and tubing Working joining Gluing; EPDM-roofing membranes can be joined at their edges of uncrose-linked PE, using hot-airwolding Applications Bridge supports; waterproofing, for example membranes for flat roofs; sealing strips in windows and facades; joint expansion strips for joints betivean concrete building elements42 PLASTICS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE 4425 Termepiastc tam casting trroughtne sation foaming age, alow-denany negra lan foamig created. 428 Castng inthis precersose process, the moltenmateialispoureainc an ‘open mould psiymarieesttrcugn tne input ofenstgy. 27 Foaming femingagertieadgeaze ‘he rmanechat causes i bublaaro fm, This process ie commonly used for the manufacture of PMMA GS, which as a ‘semi-finished material is less prone to stress cracking than extruded materials land is therefore more suitable for reshaping and post-processing, Panel thick- nesses of between 2-250 mm can be poured, but the polymerisation process of thick panels and large items can sometimes take several weeks. FOAMING Foams are materials with a low bulk density and a continuous callu- 427 lar structure, Foams may be classified according to their structure as open-cel closed-cell and mixed-cell foams, Bubbles of airform in the mass caused by foam- ing agents added to the mixture which vaporise under heat or by gases that recult from the polymerisation process. The process is divided into stages: prefoaming, interim storage and final foaming. In the final stage the prefoamed material is passed into a mould and shaped into its end form. Common methods include inja ton moulding or in-mould skinning for items made of integral skin foam or extru- sion for semi-finished products, Although theoretically all thermoplastics can be sed for foaming, polystyrene and polyurethane are most commonly used, Foams differ from the compact form of the source material primarily in terms. of density and a correspondingly much reduced thermal transmittance. For this reason they are ideally suited for use as an insulation material. The stiffness of rigid foams can be even higher than the original material in its compact form. The combustibility of the original material remains unchanged. ‘Thermoplastic foam castings a variant of injection maulding in which the addi 45 tion ofa foaming agent such as CO, or nitrogen causes the production of so-called 4422 integral skin foam with a lower density. The expansion of the foam is limited by the dimensions of the mould, which in turn is responsible for the smooth surface of the end product. The structure of the end product has a porous foam core and a ‘emooth cell-free surface. DIRECT DIGITAL MANUFACTURING The terms Direct Digital Manufacturing(ODM) ‘or generative fabrication are used generically for processes such as Rapid Proto- typing (RP), Rapid Tooling (RT) and Rapid Manufacturing (RM), all of which make it possible to generate physical items from digital computer data. DDM techniquesTHERMOPLASTICS 44:2 ieratahin foam nso perouscorarteamoath, celles surace are primarily additive fabrication processes in which the three-dimensional body is created through the layer by layer application of a material. An exception is, CNC milling (CNC =Computeriged Numerical Control) in which a finished iter is cut or milled from a massive block of material based on data from a digital model, Because the mould used in conventional processes is replaced ty a digital mod the production process is more flexible in terms of form, quantity and lead time, DOM techniques make it possible to realise prototypes and small quantitios which could pravicusty only be produced using moulds specially developed forthe respa: tive item, The cost-effectiveness ofthe process depends on the quantity produced land should be weighed up against the costs of conventional production procasces ‘such as injection moulding, With DDM techniques, forms can be designed that do ot need to take de-moulding (mould removal) into account. The ability to directly test and assess the physical prototype allows one to avoid construction errors in the final production. The dimensions of the items that can be produced are still uite limited, but in come cases elements measuring several metres have been produced. Depending on the production method used, the strength of the result~ ing items is generally lower than those produced using conventional thermopias- tic processes, Rapid prototyping techniques make it possible to realise physical three-dimen- sional prototypes with complex geometries and cavities, The various techniques are divided into laser-based and non-laser-based approaches. Depending on the mathod used, different plastics can be used in liquid or solid form, for example ABS, polyamide, polycarbonate or photopolymers as wellas elastic plastics, paper, wax, ceramics or metal. The combination of different matariale ig also possible. ‘Some of the most widespread processes are: ‘Stereolithography (STL) Layer for layer solidification of a liquid photopolymer Using laser beam, Suitable materiale are thermosetting resins, ‘Solla Ground Curing(S32) Layerfor layer solidification af a photopalymer using UV light. Suitable materials are thermosetting resins. ‘Selective Laser Sintering, Laser Sintering (S18, LS) Layer for layer looalised sinter- ing of asource material in powder form. Suitable materials are thermoplastic plas- tics, wax and metal. 4352 PLASTICS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE it possible to manufacture building elements that are highly transparent. Woven staple-fibre glass textile represents an especially soft and absorbent variant, another type is the spacer fabric, The latter consists of two textile finishing layers of E-glase with a silane coating, which are bound together and held apart by ver- tical spacer fibres. Once impregnated with polyester resin or epoxy resin, the tex- tile automatically assumes its design thickness, This makes it very easy to fabri- cate sandwiched laminates. Spacer fabrics are most commonly used for manual laminating methods. The waviness of a textile generally has a negative effect on its orthotropic stiffness. n particular in the direction of the warpa certain degree of structural extension is unavoidable. MANUAL TECHINIQUES Hand lay-up lamination is a comparatively straighttor- ward process and is suitable for the fabrication of small. quantities of freeform prototypes and sheet-Like building elements. Various materials can be used for the formwork. Simple forme can be made of sheet metal or timber formwork, Rigid polyurethane foam with a density of 400kg/m? is easier to use for making free- form or biaxially curved concave forms, Forms that are applied from outside the building element and describe its outer surface are known as negative or female moulds. Forms that describe the inner surface of the element are known as posi tiveor male moulds.An important cfiteria for the choice of material for the mould is resistance againet the solvent used in the resin. suitably durable material should be chosen for moulds or forms that are to be used repeatedly, Large moulds are made of several individual parts that are assembled and glued together. The sur face of the mould defines the surface quality of the reculting formed element. The ‘surface notfacing the mould is always rough and may need additional finishing it needs to be of acertain quality. A constraint for the development of moulds is the fact that not all geometric forms can be removed from the form. For thie reason, forms that are undercut or significantly twisted should be avoided. The process of lamination begins with a thin (0.8-0.8 mm) non-reinforced “gelcoat”. This stops the structure of the fibres from showingthrough and serves asa weather protection layer. Itcanalso be used to lend ita certain colour. The matrix material and fibre matting are then applied wet on wet in alternate layers, A certain degree of skills required to create evenly dense layers of material with as few trapped air bubbles as possible. Hand lay-up lamination is a rather laborious but low-cost method. The manu- facture of high-performance building elements using manual lamination is diff- cultas its hard to precisely contral the material properties, The fibre proportion is ‘generally less than 45% by volume. Tha quality of the laminate can be improved by applying different pressure techniques. With a vacuum formingtechnique, the still wet laminate is covered with a porous adhesion-preventing film and an absorbent textila, After covering with a vacuum bag and sealing tha edges, a vacuum is cre~ ated. All excess rosin and trapped air bubbles are sucked cut and the laminate then hardens under normalatmospheric pressure, This results in very dense lami- nates with a high fibre content, Using this technique itis also possible to impreg- nate dry lay-up laminates with resin afterwards. This so-called resin infusion83 THERMOSETS64 ‘guerin oyoaroomre eo) Product Motroionscid Manutirver Byer Sheer non Boyeraroeeurcpacem ater Eorein (@ETa syretticrn) ‘nn 36m 0 FINISHED AND SEMI-FINISHED PRODUCTS Makrolon solid polycarbonate sheets are suitable for indoor or outdoor use where thermal stability and chock resistance are of paramount importance and where sheets need to be thermoformable, Compared with PMMA, polycarbonate sheets are not quite as transparent. Makrolon solid sheets are available with UV-pro- tective, scratch-resistant and chemically resistant surfaces as well as functional ‘coatings. Makroton Hygard is. a multilayer laminated transparent sheet that offers protection against forced entry and ballistic impact. With additional fire safety modifications, certain products in the range are classified as building mate- rial class B1 (DIN 4102). Available in thicknesses between 0.75~16mm, the stand- ‘ard sheet dimensions are 2050 1260mm as wall as 3050x2060 mm, Larger and custom dimensions can be produced on demand. Properties and design possibilitios (product-dependent)} — Possible variants: transparent colourless, transparent coloured and white translucent — 88% light transmission fora thickness of 3mm (Makrolon GP clear 093) — Arange of surface finisnes from polished to textured — impact-resistant, shatterproof and bulletproof (depending on materia thick- ness and layer structure) — Reformabie atcold and hot temperatures — Service temperature range: ~100°O to +120°C — Building material class 82 (DIN 4102}; Makroton GP is also available as B1 for indoor use The Varia series of products are manufactured as solid sheets from transparent sa Ecoresin. Ecoresin isa thermoplastic resin with a 40% recycled material content, that serves.as a matrix for embedding different kinds of materials within the panel, The system of different intermediary layers, along with colours and surface tex tures, offer numerous different design possibilities. Varia products can also bes» made according to client's individual wishes. Properties and design possibilities: — Avariety of possible different intermediate layers and colouring — Surface finishes of the front and rear can bedifferent — High chemical etabitty — UV-statilised — Suitable for use in wet rooms (showers, bathrooms) when edges are sealed — Bonding using two-component adhesive (as with Plexiglas) — Can be thermoformed at a temperature of abaut 110-120°C. — Can be cold-formed up to a certain minimum radius — Can be machined (working properties much like MOF) — Panol thicknesses 1.5,$,5,6, 10, 12, 19 and 25mm — Dimensions 1219% 2438 mm, 12183048 mm, special dimensions. 1824x3048 mm — Fire safety classification: Euro class 8, s1,d074 FINISHED AND SEMI-FINISHED PRODUCTS {2 VarieLneiea igpeneighuding board itn iegral ou structure made a poiypreplene ply sthyleneorgalyeyrane. £22 &0-Texproductvariants’2-Tex Standard tte wi) £0-Tex 50 #1 (ellen peiyeetrnannoven fabric atnmelamineresincasting O-Te PKR meets ron \woverth€0% polypropylene and 0% natural res. 29 Paraben: a mentich Rec enalicene Panelmace of raorea paseo (GRP) Pradact Sooboelament= Ne transeenteandicn paveis The translucent light element Scobaelement ie made of glass fibre-reinforced polyester resin and is available in two different cross-sectional forms as a sand- Wich element with covering layers and connecting webs. The durability of the ele- ments in outdoor and indoor use is similar to the Scobalight products, The sand: wich construction lends them a greater stiffness and is economical in its use of ‘materials, With a span length of 2500 2000 mm, the elements can sustain a per missible surface (oad of up to 180kg/m? depending on the element thickness. Special ingerts need to be inserted during production for drilled holes. Properties and design possiblities: — Standard colour: natural but can also be manufactured in other colours — Anti-graffiticoating — Maximum dimensions 8000% 2400.mm, — Thicknesses 20,30 and SOmm (Type M= waveform webs), 25 and 40mm (Type P= vertical webs) — Building material class B1 (DIN 4102)also availableSANDWICH PANELS 75 ‘5:54 Fromalvew of4GRP Seabethermpane. 525 Sectonerrcugh an Scobatnerm panel ranure-ntea ter oRP, PUR, PS PvE Prsuce Saenion panel wth fomove ‘The translucent Scobatherm inculation element represents a variant of the ‘element that is filed with aerogel. Panels with a thickness of 80mm can attain a s2 Usvalue of 0441 W/mK ‘Sandwich panels with a rigid PUR foam core and GRP facing layers are ideally 525 ‘suitable for lightweight construction due to their high stability and low weight, Depending on their respective thickness, they can also have an insulating func- tion. The sandwich elements can be manufactured to sarve specific purposes, for ‘example, the facing layers can be made of different thermosetting matrix resins oralternatively of thin metal sheeting. Properties and design possibilities — Core layer made af PS-, PU- or PVC foam with diffarent degraes of firmness — Facing layerof GRP or metal — Integration of inserts is possible for fixings or mountings — Good dimensional acouracy = Suitable for use outdoors = Maximum dimensions 3200% 16000mm96 CASE STUDIES CHANEL MOBILE ART PAVILION ecationHongvong. nia; Tow, Japon “aontacturs Za79 Naga aronnscts| ew ort UeA ‘Swectualendngerng ARUP Matera BRP tas) ETFE uy) [kPerentsautactrar Stage One CrsatNe Compiaten 2008 Services ict ‘The mobile pavilion for the fashion company Chanel serves as an exhibition space for artworks inspired by Chanel that have been specially created for the pavilion, It was conceived as a temporary building for use in different metropolitan cities throughout the world. The spatial concept is based on the shape of a torus whose plan has been dis- torted into a triangular shape, The entrance to the pavilion is via terrace that lies between the exibition space and a ticket office, The exhibition area of the 700 m= pavilion is arranged around a 65m* central courtyard that serves as a rest area {and can be used for special events. Skylights made of ETFE cushions in the outer ring and over the inner courtyard provide natural llumination during the day. The main construction of the 6m high pavilion consists of a steel skeleton frame- work. The curved steel ribs made of -sections, whose radial arrangement follows almost exactly the complex geometry of the building, serve simultaneously as the ‘supporting construction for the sections of the plastic facade, The GRP elements have. lip around theiredges and are bolted tothe supportingconstruction through factory-glved and screwed steal anchor plates at the seams. The seams between the plastic panets rhythmically delineate the surface of the building's shell. The building geometry was developed with the help of digital design and madek- ling tools, This made it possible to effect a continuous digital process from the design to the production of the individual elements. Because of the changing cur vature of the building volume, an individual mould had to be built for each of the ‘400 GRP elaments, The GRP elements ware then manufactured in a hand lay-up process and lacquered, The 12mm thick elements are a sandwich construction with different core layers and two polyester resin facing layers. The required fire behaviour properties of the GRP elements were ascertained using test procedures. The surface of the interior is formed by an elastic textile membrane. ‘The dimensions of each of the individual building sagments are no wider than 2.25m for transport reasons. The project is a spectacular demonstration of the uncompromising conversion of a complex design into built reality and showcases impressively the shaping possibilities of plastics.PLASTICS AS BUILDING ENVELOPE nel Mate Ar Pevicnin CencalPark, NewYork. 2 Detaltofine facade, 2 Erecting faces 4 organeatonofoulding cons o712 CASE STUDIES FARBEN DES KONSUMS. zcanon Sern Semmany sig Bar Kner Beat Bx, Sears Bar Mateos! Reyced ermoptene moterat Hartmut nat ompisven 2003 tempor) “Die Farben des Konsume" (The Colours of Consumption) ie a light installation project made of recycled plastic packaging materials that has been staged at soveral different locations, Originally created as part of an exhibition entitled “Kunst, Kunetstoff, Kunetstoffrecycling” (Art, Plastice, Recycling) by the German Association for Plastics Recycling (DR), the wall of coloured light was installed along a 144m stretch of a tunnel and future underground station of the US line beneath the Potsdamer Platz in Berlin ‘The exhibition also featured the work of variousartists and companies that pro- duce high-quality designs, for example furniture, out of recycled plastic material. The intention is that visitors grasp a better understanding of the raw materials cycle through the aesthetic quality of the objects and that this will heighten con- ‘sumer awareness of plastic packaging and recycling, ‘The name of the project refers to the proportional distribution of colours in the packaging material of everyday consumer goods. For example, the white colour is derived from the plastic bottles used for mineral water. Once the plastic pack aging had been sorted by colour, they were then ground down to granulate. The plastic elements were created through hot-pressing, Initially, individual items of furniture and small runs were produced in this way. Tha plastic panels used in the installation “Die Farben des Konsums" were handmade by the artists and illumi nated from behind,PLASTICS AS BUILDING ENVELOPE130 CASE STUDIES O-TOWER Leoation dostmonen, netacands dronnacture wocaronnect, Lars Spurs Mate ise nore riforoedepony retin Svacturalendneevng Bangers Gronnann ompisven 2004 ingancure ‘The 12m high tower sculpture ie part of an interactive art project. Created together with the artist .S.Serafijn, the concept involved the local residents, who were asked to answer regular questionnaires. Their responses were then analysed by computer to determine the general emotional state of the community, The cur rently predominant emotion is represented by a colour that is then used to ilu nate the tower in the evening, ‘The translucent tower consists of 19 individual pieces manufactured out of lass fibre-reinforced epoxy resin. The complex geometry of the tower can be reduced through the repetition of individual elements to seven basic forms. The stability of the self-supporting GRP structure is ensured through the doubl curved geometry ofthe skin, rsinforcing its in the upper section and restraints in. the columne. The four columns take the form of tubes with flanges at their bases, which are used to bolt the tower to the concrete foundation, ‘The individual elements were made manually in a hand lay-up process. This method made it possible to vary the thickness of the material as required. For the moulds, Styrofoam blocks were cut to shape with the halp of a CNC milling machine and coated with a latex separating layer. The partial repetition of some of the elements made it possible to re-use the individual moulds. Despite being more expensive than polyester resin, epoxy resin was chosen for the laminate for its superiordimensional stability during the hardening process. This made it poss bie to produce GRP elements of different thicknesses. & further reason forchoos- ing epoxy resin was ite greater strength. The material thickness in the upper shel like sections is 4.8mm. The glass fibre context varies according to the load that has to be sustained. Wind loads proved to be the critical load case in the struc turaldesign of the elements. Additional layers of fibre have been incorporated for added strength alongthe returned edges of the elements.as well as in the columns {and the base flanges. The segments are both banded and botted to one another along their returned edges, With a total surface area of 198.5, the tower weighs approximately 3000kg. The tower was prefabricated in two halves before being transported to the site on the back ofa large lorry. LEDs installed in small niches illuminate the tower at night in different colours,PLASTICS AS BUILDING STRUCTURE152 CASE STUDIES FUTURO ‘Mateuat GRP, PUR povyeatbonate Suwcturalenaneovng M6 Ronee ompisven 1059 Futuro, a house with just one roam, is one of the few plastic houses to have been ‘serialy-produced and ig regarded as a milestone in the history of plastic archi- tecture, The story of the Futuro house began with a client's desire for a ski char let that could be heated quickly and was easy to erect in diffioult-to-reach terrain, The bullding needed to beable to be assembled or dismantled within two days and traneportable with a helicopter to the desired location, The concept of the Futuro ‘asa modular plastic house is largely a praduct of these requirements. ‘The form of the rotational ellipsoid witha circular plan can be attributed prima- rily to geometric considerations and production engineering requirements. Futuro consists of eight upper and eight lower individual segments, all of which are iden- tical to enable them to be produced economically. With a diameter of 7.80m, the house provides a net area of S0m*. The house is borne by a slender circular steel ring which is supported by four steel outriggers. The prototype was builtin 1988 by Polykem Ltd. in Finland, The Futuro was exhibited alongside numerous other plas tic houses at the first plastic housing exhibition in Ludenscheid, Germany, in 1971, ‘The plastic envelope of the building is able to sustain and dissipate loads as a result ofits shell structure and flexural bending. It consists of GRP sandwich ele- ments, which reduce the weightof the structure and provide it with adequate ther- mal insulation. The overall weight of the plastic building 's 2500kg without con- tents or 4000kg with contents, The rigid PUR foam core has grooves on its outer ‘surface to allow condensation runoff. The individual segments are bolted together through stabilising ribs at the edges of the elements. The house is accessed through a trap door that folds out of the wall and when closed fits flush with the exterior of the building, In practice, the Futuro served numerous different functions. & series of inte rior furnishings and furniture for different uses was epecially developed and mar- ‘ated. The standard furnishings included sanitary cell, kitchen unit, si radially arranged reclining seats, a double or two single beds and an oven grill Manufac: turing licences were sold to 25 countries around the world. Although precise fig- ures are not available, an estimated 80 Futuras are thought to hava been built. The Futuro rapidly advanced to become an iconic building of the avant-garde tut like many othar plastic houses found few admirers among the general public and did not sell as well as envisagad, nct least because of its comparatively high price. It represents an experimental attempt to part with conventional notions of housing ‘and develop a new form appropriate to a new materialPLASTICS AS BUILDING STRUCTURE AND ENVELOPE 153 2 eter ithaca arargsdrscining sets. + 8 emeled or atprefndicarea modes jonand oar plan.