Yannis D.

Nakas

Tracing the Development of

Mediterranean Medieval Warships
from the 11th to 15thƁ"DMSTQX

»In any pre-industrial society, from the Upper Paleolithic to often a fragile and complicated addition, thus many galleys
the 19thƁBDMSTQX@AN@SNQK@SDQ@RGHOV@RSGDK@QFDRS@MC VDQDNESDMQNVDCAXSGNKDR@MCN@QONQSRHMSGDRHLOKDRSONR-
most complex machine produced« 1 (MCDDCUDQXEDVGTL@M RHAKDV@X  MNSGDQHLONQS@MS@RODBSHRSGDQNVHMFONRHSHNM 
BQD@SHNMRVNTKCQHU@KSGDBNLOKDWHSXRNOGHRSHB@SHNMSDBGMN- 3NC@XSGDRKHCHMFRD@SHRSGDMNQLATSSG@S@OOD@QRSNG@UD
logy or even mere size of ships. And the more complex type ADDM TMJMNVM HM SGD O@RS @MC SGD RHLOKD RD@SDC ONRHSHNM
NERGHORDDMSGQNTFGNTSSGD@FDRV@RSGDN@QDCRGHOADSSDQ V@ROQNA@AKXOQDEDQQDC  RS@MCHMFONRHSHNMRSHKKTRDC@QNTMC
JMNVM@RSGDF@KKDX 3GDRDKNMFRKHL@MCE@RSUDRRDKRBNL- SGDVNQKCV@RLNQDBNLLNMHMAN@SR@MCRL@KKDQRGHORATS
AHMHMFSGDRGHOATHKCHMFSDBGMNKNFXVHSGSGDLDBG@MHBRNEN@Q MNSHMF@KKDXR  BNLAHM@SHNMNESGDSVNLDSGNCRV@R@RVD
ONVDQ@MCSGD@QSNER@HKHMFVDQDAXE@QSGDLNRS@CU@MBDC RG@KKRDDSGDRHS@MCRS@MCRSQNJDVGHBGB@LDHMSNTRDCTQHMF
technological achievements of antiquity and the Middle Ages SGDODQHNCVGHBGVDVHKKCHRBTRR
and have survived in various forms until today.
3GDHQHLONQS@MBDGNVDUDQDWO@MCRHM@LNQDBNLOKDW
sphere than contemporary advanced technology: galleys, 11th-12thŪBDMSTQX
VGNRD BNMRSQTBSHNM L@MMHMF @MC L@HMSDM@MBD QDPTHQDR
K@QFD @LNTMSR NE L@MONVDQ @MC LNMDX VDQD SGD A@RHB 6DVHKKADFHMSGDDW@LHM@SHNMNENTQRNTQBDREQNLSGDVQHS-
RXLANKRNEM@U@KONVDQ@MCM@SHNM@KOQHCD 3GDDWHRSDMBDNE ten evidence. Byzantine sources, after the rich information
F@KKDX×DDSRNQDUDMRHMFKDF@KKDXRV@R@A@RHBE@BSNQENQSGD RTOOKHDC AX SGD thƁ BDMSTQX M@U@K V@QE@QD L@MT@KR KHJD
practical and theoretical consolidation of state authority and +DNƁ 5(iR Naumachica 4 ADBNLD PTHSD S@BHS @ESDQ  GHR-
ONVDQ 1DKHFHNTR@MCONKHSHB@KRXLANKHRLV@RRS@SDCSGQNTFG SNQHB@KSDWSRNBB@RHNM@KKXQDEDQSNF@KKDXRKHRSHMFMTLADQR@MC
U@QHNTRRXLANKR@KV@XROQDRDMSTONMSGDRDUDRRDKR (MRGNQS CNBTLDMSHMF@U@QHDSXNEM@LDRdiereis, triereis, dromades
F@KKDXRVDQD@UHS@KDKDLDMSNE@KKRD@BTKSTQDRNESGDO@RS 2. nees, dromones, myopari 5ATSNEEDQHMFMN@BST@KHMENQL@-
!DENQDVDADFHMNTQINTQMDXHMSNSGDLDCHDU@K,DCHSDQ- SHNMNMSGDENQLNESGDRDRGHORSGD@TSGNQRTRHMFVG@SDUDQ
Q@MD@MRNLDA@RHBN@QLDBG@MHBBNMRHCDQ@SHNMR@ANTSF@KKDX M@LD OQDEDQ@AKX @MSHPTD L@SBGDC SGDHQ OQNRD  1DEDQDMBDR
BNMRSQTBSHNMRGNTKCADTMCDQKHMDC 3. SNF@KKDXRG@UHMFSGQDDV@KDRCTQHMFSGDthƁBDMSTQX@QDMNS
&@KKDXRVDQD@ANUD@KKN@QDCUDRRDKR 3GDHQVGNKDRSQTBSTQD easy to interpret and give little evidence on the galleys them-
V@RNQF@MHYDC@QNTMCSGDHQN@QRXRSDL@MCN@QBQDVSGDHQ selves 6. The gradual demise of the term dromon is also evi-
NSGDQ@SSQHATSDRD F R@HKRNMKXL@QFHM@KKXHM×TDMBHMFSGDHQ CDMSATSHSHRTMJMNVMVGDSGDQSGHRL@QJR@MX@BST@KBG@MFD
CDRHFM 3GDL@HMNAIDBSHUDNEDUDQXF@KKDXCDRHFMV@RSNHM- HMRGHOBNMRSQTBSHNMNQITRSSGD@TSGNQRiSQDMCSN@CNOSLNQD
BQD@RDSGDRGHOiRRODDC@MCL@MNDTUQ@AHKHSXDHSGDQAXÖSSHMF BK@RRHBHRSHBSDQLR 3GDVNQCANSGHM&QDDJ@MC+@SHMRNTQBDR
LNQDN@QRLDMNM@RL@KKDQ@MCKHFGSDQUDRRDKNQAXHLOQNUHMF DUDMST@KKXADBNLDRNARNKDSD@MCAXSGDthƁBDMSTQXCDMNSDR
SGDHQQNVHMFONRHSHNM 3GDL@HMSDM@MBDNE@OQNODQFD@QHMFNE even merchant ships 7.
SGDN@QRSGDQ@SHNADSVDDMSGDNTSAN@QCKDMFSGNE@MN@Q@MC Latin sources give a similar plurality of names for galleys:
SGDHMAN@QCKDMFSGHCD@KKX@MCNESGDKNVDRS@MFKDVHSG SGD /HR@M ×DDS @SS@BJHMF SGD !@KD@QHBR HM  BNLOQHRDC
SGDV@SDQVDQDDRRDMSH@KED@STQDR !NSGBNTKCAD@BGHDUDCAX »Gatti, drumones, garabi @MC RVHES galee, barce, currabii,
@CCHMF@MNTSQHFFDQ@EQ@LDSG@SGNKCRSGDSGNKDR@V@XEQNL lintres and large sagene« 8. We must note here that the term
SGDFTMV@KDSNNOSHLHYDKDUDQ@FD .TSQHFFDQRGNVDUDQVDQD galea is used more and more instead of dromon or chelan-

3GHRO@ODQHRK@QFDKXA@RDCNMSGDRSTCXBNMBDQMHMFLDCHDU@K,DCHSDQQ@MD@M 2 Morisson, Introduction 7.

galleys the author undertook as his M.A. thesis at the University of Southamp-  2G@V,DBG@MHBR m!NMCHNKH!TQKDS9XRADQF.@QE
SNM-@J@R&@KKDXR 3GD@TSGNQVNTKCKHJDSNV@QLKXSG@MJSGD.M@RRHR/TAKHB  +DN5(-@TL@BGHB@ m/QXNQ)DEEQDXR#QNLNM
!DMDÖS%NTMC@SHNMVGNRDFDMDQNTRRBGNK@QRGHO@KKNVDCGHLSNBNLOKDSDSGHR  /QXNQ&@KD@
BNTQRDRTBBDRRETKKX@RVDKK@RGHRRTODQUHRNQR@MCKDBSTQDQR,Q)NM C@LR@MC  MM@"NLM¯MD KDWH@CD5(  m3GDNCNQD/QNCQNLNR1GNC@MSGD(( 
Ms Lucy Blue for their support, help and encouragement.  m/QXNQ)DEEQDXR#QNLNM
1 Muckelroy, Archaeology 3.  /QXNQ)DEEQDXR#QNLNM
 +HADQ,@HNKHBGHMTR m/QXNQ&@KD@E

Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas 185

 @MCQNVDCAXSVNÖKDRNEN@QRHML@JDRLTBGLNQD
sense 11 %HM@KKX@M Q@ARNTQBDQDONQSRN@QRNM@,TRKHL
shawani galley 12.
The iconography of this period, on the other hand, is
LTBG QHBGDQ  %NQ SGD ÖQRS SHLD VD G@UD @ U@QHDSX NE F@K-
KDXHL@FDRRNLDSGHMFTMJMNVMENQD@QKHDQODQHNCR .MDNE
SGD LNRS E@LNTR HR SGD RD@ A@SSKD HM SGD thƁ BDMSTQX BNOX
NE /RDTCN.OOH@MiR Cynegetica RGNVHMF SVN RHLOKD BQDR-
BDMSRG@ODC LNMNQDLD F@KKDXR VHSG @ O@UDR@CD NE QNTMC
RGHDKCR ƂI 1 13  3GD @MSHPTD RG@OD NE SGD GTKKR VHSG SGD
GDKHWCDBNQ@SHNMR@RVDKK@RSGDV@QQHNQRiDPTHOLDMSRSQNMFKX
indicate that this is a copy of a much earlier image and does
Fig. 1 /RDTCN.OOH@M5DMHBD!HAKHNSDB@-@YHNM@KD,@QBH@M@,@QB FQ 9 
ENK QthƁBDMSTQX m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R not portray contemporary galleys.
.MDNESGDADRSHBNMNFQ@OGHB@KRNTQBDRHRSGD2JXKHSYDRiR
manuscript, today in Madrid 14. It is a copy of the historical
diumSGHROQNA@AKXHMCHB@SHMF@OQNLHMDMBDNESGHRSXODNE text 3YNOPSIS(ISTORIţNVGHBGV@RBQD@SDCHMSGDSGHQCPT@QSDQ
ship. Information concerning the actual form of the galleys is of the 12thƁBDMSTQXHM2HBHKX@MCHSRSGNQNTFGRSTCXAXU@QHNTR
LD@FQD@MCCDA@S@AKDSGDBGQNMHBKDQNESGD"QTR@CDR6HKKH@L scholars revealed that it duplicated a Byzantine prototype,
NE3XQD@FDMDQ@KKXQDKH@AKDRNTQBDLDMSHNMR@SQHQDLDVHSG L@CDOQNA@AKXADSVDDM@MCHM"NMRS@MSHMNOKD 
N@QRLDMNODQ@SHMFN@QRRNLDSGHMFVGHBGHRLNRS This richly illuminated manuscript contains numerous images
OQNA@AKX@LHRS@JD 9@RVDKK@R@MNSGDQ@MNMXLNTRO@RR@FD NEF@KKDXRCQ@VMHMU@QHNTRRSXKDR@BBNQCHMFSNSGDCHEEDQDMS
BNMBDQMHMF@F@KKDXVHSGSVNKDUDKRNEN@QRONRRHAKXCHUHCDC @QSHRSR +D@UHMF@RHCDRNLDNUDQRHLOKHÖDC@MCRSXKHYDCHL@FDR
AX@CDBJD@BGKDUDKADHMFNODQ@SDCRHLTKS@MDNTRKXHMNO- VDVHKKDW@LHMDSGDHL@FDRVGHBGRDDLSNADLNQD@BBTQ@SD
posite directions  6HKKH@LiR QDONQS NE @ ×DDS NE  KNMF @MCOQDBHRDRG@QHMFL@MXBNLLNM@SSQHATSDRƂI &@KKDXR
AN@SR ‰BNLLNMKX JMNVM @R galee} DPTHOODC VHSG ROTQR @QDKNV@MCRKDMCDQNBB@RHNM@KKXO@HMSDCAK@BJOQNA@AKX@M

  /QXNQ&@KD@MNSD (SHRHMSDQDRSHMFSG@SSGDD@QKXthƁBDMSTQX%QDMBG  /QXNQ&@KD@E

SQ@MRK@SNQNESGDNQHFHM@KSDWSBNQQDBSDCSGDLHRS@JDAX@KSDQHMF6HKKH@LiR  5DMHBD!HAKHNSDB@-@YHNM@KD,@QBH@M@,@QB FQ 9 ENK Q/QXNQ)DEEQDXR
N@QRVHSGSVNN@QRLDMODQN@QSNN@QRLDM #QNLNMÖF 
 (SHMDQ@QHTLODQDFQHMNQTL m/QXNQ&@KD@E  ,@CQHC!HAKHNSDB@-@SHNM@K5HSQ "HQ@B$RSNO@·@M2JXKKHSYDR m3R@L@JC@
 6HKKH@LNE3XQD"GQNMHBNM  UNK  2JXKHSYDR m!@ATHM(KKTLHM@SHNMR m/QXNQ)DEEQDXR#QNLNM

Fig. 2 Ioannes Skylitzes, 3YNOPSIS(ISTORIţN,@CQHC!HAKHNSDB@-@SHNM@K

5HSQ Ɓrd quarter of the 12thƁBDMSTQX m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R

186 Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas

HMCHB@SHNM NE OHSBGHMF @MC VHSG TOBTQUHMF QNTMCDC DMCR 
QNTMC SGD LHCCKD NE SGDHQ GDHFGS @ V@KD HR UHRHAKD VGHBG
BNMSHMTDRHMSN@KNMFSGHMROTQ@ANUDSGDV@SDQ@SSGDANV 
3GHRCDUHBDsperon or calcarHMK@SDQ(S@KH@MRNTQBDRV@RNMD
NESGDA@RHB@SSQHATSDRNE@KKLDCHDU@K,DCHSDQQ@MD@MF@KKDXR
@MCRTQUHUDCTMSHKSGDÖM@KCHR@OOD@Q@MBDNESGDRDUDRRDKR 15.
SSGDRSDQMSGDFTMV@KD@MCOQNA@AKXSGDL@HMV@KDBTQUD
TOV@QCR ENQLHMF SGD SVN RHCD ‰VHMFR} @MNSGDQ BNLLNM
@SSQHATSDNE@KLNRSDUDQX,DCHSDQQ@MD@MRGHOTMSHKOQNA-
@AKXSGDvardonesNED@QKHDQ!XY@MSHMDRNTQBDR 16. The curved
DMCR NE SGD RSDLONRS @R VDKK @R SGD ‰VHMFR} @QD TRT@KKX
O@HMSDCHMAQHFGSQDCNQXDKKNV .@QR@QD@KRNNESDMO@HMSDC
QDCOQNA@AKXRNLDJHMCNEOQNSDBSHUDOQHLDQRNLDSGHMF@KRN
very common in later galleys.
,NRSNESGDF@KKDXR@QDAHQDLDRVHSGSVNRTODQHLONRDC
ÖKDRNEN@QRSGDANSSNLNMDNODQ@SDCSGQNTFGN@QONQSR@MC
SGDSNONMDEQNLSGNKDRNMSGDFTMV@KD 3GDN@QRLDMNESGD
SNOÖKD@QDTRT@KKXUHRHAKDQNVHMFHM@RHSSHMFONRHSHNMRNLD-
times facing the stern and sometimes the stem of the ship.
(SHRTMBKD@QVGDSGDQSGDANSSNLÖKDHRGNTRDCTMCDQMD@SG@
CDBJNQNMADMBGDROK@BDC@S@KNVDQKDUDK@MCHM@MNODM
GTKK 3GDMTLADQNEN@QRLDMHR@KRNFQD@SKX@AAQDUH@SDCCTD Fig. 3 MM@KRNE"@EE@QNL@MTRBQHOS/@QHR!HAKHNSG¯PTDM@SHNM@KDCD%Q@MBD
to the size of the miniatures. /@Q RTOOK K@S  m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R

%DVRTODQRSQTBSTQDR@QDCQ@VMNMSGDRGHOR 2NLDRGHOR
B@QQX@RHMFKDL@RSVHSG@SQH@MFTK@QK@SDDMR@HK@MCHMNMDB@RD
@RGHOHRDPTHOODCVHSGVG@S@OOD@QRSNAD@VNNCDMÖFGSHMF
OK@SENQLxylokastro 3GHRHRSGDNMKXQDOQDRDMS@SHNMNERTBG
@BNMRSQTBSHNMNESDMQDEDQQDCHM+DN5(iRNaumachica 17NM@
LDCHDU@KF@KKDX 'NVDUDQSGDLNRS@BBTQ@SDHL@FDRG@UDMN
RTODQRSQTBSTQD@S@KK@O@QSEQNLNMDRGHOLNRSOQNA@AKXSGD
×@FRGHONESGD×DDSVGHBGAD@QR@MDK@ANQ@SDQDCO@Q@ODS
VHSGFNKCDMCNSR@B@MNOXVHSGFHKCDCM@HKR@MC@RHLHK@Q
aftercastle.
The galleys in the Skylitzes’s manuscript take part in all
JHMCRNERD@UDMSTQDRRD@A@SSKDRHMBKTCHMFSGDNMKXJMNVM
HL@FDNESGDTRDNE&QDDJÖQDQ@HCRSQ@UDKRSQ@MRONQS@SHNM
NE HLONQS@MS ODQRNMR HM AQHDE @KK SGD SGHMFR @ F@KKDX ×DDS
VNTKCMNQL@KKXCN Fig. 4 De Rebus Siculis Carmen!DQM!TQFDQAHAKHNSGDJBNC ENK QD@QKX
13thƁBDMSTQX m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R
.SGDQ!XY@MSHMDL@MTRBQHOSRNESGDthƁBDMSTQXOQDRDQUD
SVNLNQDF@KKDXQDOQDRDMS@SHNMR 3GDXBNLDEQNLSGD5@SH-
B@M+HAQ@QX 18 and from the Monastery of St. Panteleimon at
Mount Athos 19@MCANSGRDDLSNOQDRDMSRL@KKLNMNQDLD RNBH@SDCVHSGRTBGRGHOR 3GDX@QDQ@SGDQRHLOKHÖDCHL@FDR
F@KKDXRgaleeNQQNVHMFAN@SRATSSGDK@BJNE@MXBNLO@Q@- ATSBKD@QKXCDOHBSF@KKDXRRHLHK@QSNSGD2JXKHSYDRiRL@MTRBQHOS
SHUDL@SDQH@KL@JDRHSCHEÖBTKSSN@RBDQS@HMSG@S @MCC@SDEQNLSNƂI 3GDD@QKHDQDW@LOKDR
3GD 2JXKHSYDRiR L@MTRBQHOS NEEDQR SGD ÖQRS C@S@AKD QDO- LNRSOQNA@AKXCQ@VMAXSGDR@LDG@MCRGNVAHQDLDRVHSG
QDRDMS@SHNMR NE @ SXOD NE AHQDLD F@KKDX VGHBG CNLHM@SDR SVNQNVRNEN@QONQSRVGDQD@RSGDK@SDQNMDRRGNVNMDÖKD
our sources throughout the 12th to the 13thƁBDMSTQX 2HLHK@Q NEN@QONQSR@MC@RSDLB@RSKD 3VNF@KKDXR@KRNB@QQXK@QFD
F@KKDXR @OOD@Q @F@HM HM SGD MM@KR NE "@EE@QN @ BGQNMHBKD ×@FR@SANSGDMCR 2SDLRB@QQXSGDBNLLNMROTQ@MCRSDQMR
L@MTRBQHOSVGDQDLHMH@STQDRNEF@KKDXRHKKTRSQ@SDDMSQHDR@R- SGDBNLLNMRHCDVHMFR

15 Alertz, Architecture 154. 19 Athos, Panteleemon monastery, cod. 6, fol. 138r: Pelekanidis, Treasures
 /QXNQ)DEEQDXR#QNLNM ÖF 
 /QXNQ)DEEQDXR#QNLNME  /@QHR!HAKHNSG¯PTDM@SHNM@KDCD%Q@MBD/@Q RTOOK K@S  m MM@KH&DMNUDRH
 5@SHB@M"HSX!HAKHNSDB@ ONRSNKHB@5@SHB@M@5@S FQ ENK U/HKSY"NR DC !DKFQ@MN m+@MCRSQ¼L2GHO
tume 169.

Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas 187

 @ VHCSG NE L @BBNQCHMF SN SGD MTLADQ NE N@QRLDM SGDX
housed, using an interscalmiumSGDCHRS@MBDADSVDDMQNV-
HMFADMBGDRNERNLDSGHMFKDRRSG@MNMDLDSDQ  L@INQV@KD
@LNMFNSGDQOQNA@AKXKHFGSDQNMDRQ@M@KNMFSGDRHCDRNE
SGD RGHO DWSDMCHMF SNV@QCR SGD ANV SN ENQL @ KNMF ROTQ
TRDC@R@AN@QCHMFOK@SENQL@MC@CDBNQ@SHUDDKDLDMSATS
also to provide leverage for the long lateen yard and for its
RS@MCHMF QHFFHMF  1@LLHMF QDRTKSHMF EQNL SGD EQ@LDÖQRS
BNMRSQTBSHNM NE LDCHDU@K ,DCHSDQQ@MD@M RGHOR V@R NTS NE
the question and galleys could only occasionally push and
B@ORHYD NOONMDMSR @R SGDNQDSHB@KKX RTFFDRSDC AX +DN 5( 24 
Fig. 5 "@SGDCQ@KNE/DR@QNLNR@HB m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R 3GD N@Q@FD RXRSDL BNLOQHRDC SVN RTODQHLONRDC ÖKDR NE
N@QR NODQ@SDC AX  QNVDQR NM  ADMBGDR  -N
NTSQHFFDQ V@R @OO@QDMSKX TRDC SN E@BHKHS@SD QNVHMF  2GHOR
2GNQSKX@ESDQSGD MM@KRNE"@EE@QN@QNTMC@MNSGDQ VDQD LNRS OQNA@AKX VHSGNTS CDBJR @O@QS EQNL @ M@QQNV
illuminated manuscript sheds light on the construction of F@MFV@XHMSGDLHCCKD@MCRL@KKCDBJR@SSGDDMCR .@QRLDM
Mediterranean galleys. It is the narrative epic De Rebus Siculis @MCBQDVVDQDOQNSDBSDCAX@KHFGSQ@HKNMSGDRHCDRVGDQD
CarmenBQD@SDCHM/@KDQLNVGDQD@RDQHDRNEDWBDKKDMSF@KKDX RGHDKCR NQ NSGDQ OQNSDBSHUD L@SDQH@KR KHJD KD@SGDQ V@R GTMF
HL@FDR@OOD@QRƂI 21 3GDXENKKNVSGDR@LDBNMÖFTQ@SHNM CTQHMFA@SSKDR 'D@UHDQBNMRSQTBSHNMRVDQDMNSBNLLNM@MC
@R SGD F@KKDXR @KQD@CX OQDRDMSDC ATS SGDX @QD LTBG LNQD VDQDDQDBSDC@SSGDDMCRNESGDRGHOSNOQNSDBSSGDRSDDQRL@M
CDS@HKDC@MCADSSDQDWDBTSDC 3GDRGHOR@QDAHQDLDRVHSGSGD @MCSGDL@QHMDR  A@RHBED@STQDNESGDRGHO@RNE@KLNRS@KK
KNMFROTQ@SSGDANV@MCSGDVHMFR@SSGDRSDQM 2NLD@QD BNMSDLONQ@QXQNTMCRGHORV@RSGDCNTAKDRHCDVHMF@SSGD
DPTHOODCVHSG@M@ESDQB@RSKDNQ@SDMSSGDcravatos of older RSDQM  3GDRD VDQD SGD BNMSHMT@SHNM NE SGD V@KDR @MC FTM-
Byzantine texts 22SGDX@KRNG@UD@RHLOKDQ@HKNMSGDRHCDR V@KDRVGHBGBTQUDC@ANUDSGDRSDQMLTBGKHJDSGDCDBNQ@SHUD
NBB@RHNM@KKXBNUDQDCAX@KLNMCRG@ODCRGHDKCRSNOQNSDBSSGD aphlastaNE@MBHDMS&Q@DBN1NL@MRGHOR 3GDXRDDLSNG@UD
N@QRLDM 2HLHK@QRGHDKCR@QDGTMF@SSGDANV@MCRSDQMAD@Q- ADDMRDS@S@CHRS@MBDEQNLSGDRGHOiRBDMSQDENQLHMFVHSG
HMFKHJDSGDA@MMDQR@MCODMMNMRNMSGDRGHORSGDBN@SNE SGDGDKONE@SQ@MRNLAD@L@RL@KKRPT@QDCDBJ@SSGDRSDQM
arms of the galley’s master. They carry triangular lateen sails VGDQD SGD RSDDQRL@MiR SDMS V@R DQDBSDC  O@QS EQNL SGDHQ
NMDD@BG 3GDSNOÖKDNESGDQNVDQRHRTRT@KKXUHRHAKD@MCHM CDBNQ@SHUD ETMBSHNM SGD RHCDVHMFR BNTKC @KRN AD TRDC @R
NMDB@RDSGDGD@CRNESGDKNVDQÖKDLHFGSADCDOHBSDCSNN RTOONQSRENQSGDL@RSR@MCR@HKRVGDMSGDRDVDQDKNVDQDC 
Three more galley images appear in the monumental art A single mast carrying one large lateen sail seems to have
of mosaics in Italy in the second half of the 12thƁ BDMSTQX  ADDMSGDMNQL@KSGNTFG@RDBNMCRL@KKDQL@RSHR@SSDRSDCHM
3GDÖQRSSVN@OOD@QSNADRL@KKLNMNQDLDF@KKDXRgalee or earlier and later sources. Steering equipment comprised the
sagitteKHFGSF@KKDXRNQUDRRDKRNESGDK@FNNM@S2S ,@QJiR QDFTK@QCNTAKDK@QFDN@QR@SSGDRSDQMOQNA@AKXGNTRDCVHSGHM
!@RHKHB@ HM 5DMHBD  .@QR @QD NODQ@SDC EQNL SGNKDR NM SGD SGDRHCDVHMFR %K@FR@MCODMMNMRRGHDKCR@MCQHFFHMFBTS-
FTMV@KD@MCSGDRGHORRDDLSNG@UDSGDRHCDVHMFRNMSGD SDQRVDQDO@QSNESGDRGHOiRA@RHBDPTHOLDMS
RSDQM 3GDRDBNMCLNR@HBHR@TMHPTD@KSGNTFGHMBNMBKTRHUDKX In general, if our approach is correct, the galleys of this
OTAKHRGDCQDOQDRDMS@SHNMNE@F@KKDXEQNLSGDB@SGDCQ@KNE ODQHNC LTRS G@UD ADDM RHLOKD BGD@O @MC KHFGS RGHOR  3GD
/DR@QN C@SDC @QNTMC  ƂI 23. This is another ONRRHAKDK@BJNE@ETKKCDBJ@MCSGDOK@BHMFNEN@QRLDMHMSGD
AHQDLDF@KKDXNESGDSXODRDDMHMBNMSDLONQ@QXRNTQBDRHSHR RGHOiR GNKC OQDUDMSDC SGDL EQNL ADHMF TRDC @R LDQBG@MS
GNVDUDQDPTHOODCVHSG@MDK@ANQ@SDRSDLVHSGVG@SRDDLR F@KKDXR -NNTSQHFFDQRDDLRSNG@UDADDMTRDCDHSGDQSGTR
SN AD @M @MBHDMSRSXKD Q@L @MC @ BTQUDC stolos decorative preventing the use of longer oars and the addition of extra
ED@STQD 3GDGDHFGSNESGHRODBTKH@QQ@LVGHBGHR@ANUDSGD N@QRLDM 3GDRDCHR@CU@MS@FDRVHKKKD@CSNSDBGMNKNFHB@KOQN-
KNVDQKDUDKNEN@QRHMCHB@SDRSG@SSGHRSNNV@R@ROTQ@MCMNS FQDRRHMSGDENKKNVHMFƁBDMSTQHDR
an ancient survival.
,NRSKX SG@MJR SN SGD HBNMNFQ@OGHB@K L@SDQH@K @U@HK@AKD
HSHRED@RHAKDSNOQNONRD@QDBNMRSQTBSHNMNESGDF@KKDXRTRDC 13th-15thŪBDMSTQX
around the Mediterranean during the 12thƁ BDMSTQX ƂI 
Descendants of the Byzantine dromonsSGDRDVDQDKNV@MC Historical sources of the period continue to offer little infor-
RKDMCDQ RGHOR NE KHFGS BNMRSQTBSHNM LNRS OQNA@AKX MNS ETKKX L@SHNM@ANTSF@KKDXBNMRSQTBSHNM  UDQXHMSDQDRSHMFRNTQBD
CDBJDC  3GDX VNTKC MNS DWBDDC @ KDMFSG NE L @MC @QDSGD"@S@K@MBGQNMHBKDRNESGDRDBNMCG@KENESGDthƁBDM-

 !DQM!TQFDQAHAKHNSGDJBNC ENK Q/QXNQ&@KD@  1HBBH@QCH/DR@QN
 /QXNQ)DEEQDXR#QNLNM  U@M#NNQMHMBJ1@L m/QXNQ)DEEQDXR#QNLNM

188 Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas

Fig. 6 Hypothetical reconstruction of
a 12thBDMSTQX,DCHSDQQ@MD@MF@KKDX m
#Q@VHMF8 # -@J@R

STQXVGHBGCNBTLDMSVG@S@OOD@QRSNADÖQRSG@MCHMENQ- Ci MINT@KRNBNLLHRRHNMDCSGDATHKCHMFNEF@KKDXR@MCtaride

mation on contemporary galleys 25 3GDBGQNMHBKDRNE1@LNM in the shipyards of Naples and Bari 28. These contracts are
,TMS@MDQ@MC!DQM@S#DRBKNSB LNRSKXENBTRNMA@SSKD DWSQDLDKXCDS@HKDC@MC@RVDRG@KKRDDNEEDQSGDÖQRS@BST@K
S@BSHBRATS@KRNLDMSHNMSGDNBB@RHNM@K@CCHSHNMNE@SGHQC description of a medieval galley.
QNVDQterçolNM@AHQDLDF@KKDXHMNQCDQSN@RRHRSSGDNSGDQ The need to standardize and at the same time thoroughly
QNVDQRVGDMMDDCDC@MC@KRN@R@M@HCSNÖFGSHMFRTBG@R S@WSGDLDQBG@MSF@KKDXRVGHBGG@C@OOD@QDC@R@MDVSXOD
ENQ TRD AX @ BQNRRANVL@M HM A@SSKD  MNSGDQ RNTQBD HR SGD NE RGHO @QNTMC  KD@C SGD 5DMDSH@M @MC SGD &DMNDRD
Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis super Terræ Sanctæ recu- @TSGNQHSHDRSNHRRTDSGDÖQRSQDFTK@SHNMRBNMBDQMHMFSGDRHYDNE
patione et conservatione@"QTR@CDQiRL@MT@KAXSGD5DMD- these ships 29. Although not as detailed as the older contracts,
SH@M,@QHMN2@MTSN3NQRDKKN 2@MTSNQDONQSRSGD SGDXCNBTLDMSVHSGOQDBHRHNMSGDA@RHBCHLDMRHNMRNEF@KKDXR
@CCHSHNMNE@SGHQCN@QRL@MHMAHQDLDF@KKDXRRNLDSHLD@ESDQ @RSGDRDVDQDCHBS@SDCAXSGDRGHOATHKCDQR
@RVDKK@RDWODQHLDMSRVHSGENTQ@MCÖUDN@QRLDMAX (MHBNMNFQ@OGXSVNEQDRBNDREQNL"@S@K@MBGTQBGDRC@SDC
SGD5DMDSH@MRHM 26. @QNTMC  CDOHBS F@KKDXR  3GDRD @QD LNMNQDLDR NQ AH-
!TSHSHRSGD@QBGHU@KRNTQBDRSG@SENQSGDÖQRSSHLDNEEDQCH- QDLDRDPTHOODCVHSGROTQR@MCRHCDVHMFR@SSGDRSDQMLTBG
QDBSHMENQL@SHNM@ANTSF@KKDXR (M%QDCDQHBJ((@MC KHJD SGD RGHOR VGHBG @OOD@Q HM D@QKHDQ RNTQBDR  3GD AHFFDRS
HM+NTHR(7BNMSQ@BSDCSGDATHKCHMFNEU@QHNTRSQ@MRONQS group of galley images of the century comes also from Spain,
RGHORHM&DMN@@LNMFRSVGHBGRDUDQ@Ktaride, horse-transport HM SGD L@FMHÖBDMSKX HKKTLHM@SDC Cantigas de Santa Maria
F@KKDXRENQSGDHQENQSGBNLHMF"QTR@CDR 27. The contracts for B  L@MTRBQHOS ƂI 31. Amongst other ships many
SGD BNMRSQTBSHNM NE SGDRD RGHOR RTQUHUD SGDX @QD GNVDUDQ F@KKDXR@QDOHBSTQDC 3GDXENKKNVSGDJMNVMBNMÖFTQ@SHNMNE
PTHSDAQHDE@MCCNBTLDMSEDVCDS@HKR  QNTMC"G@QKDR OQDUHNTRF@KKDXRVHSGONHMSDCROTQR@MCLTBGBTQUDCRSDQMR

 %NDQRSDQ+@TQDR Q@FNM  )@K QBG°NKNFHD-@U@KD m-@J@R&@KKDXRS@A 

 2@MTSN+HADQRDBQDSNQTL m+@MD3QHQDLDRE  ,NSS"@S@K@M-@UXÖF  m"@R@MNU@R3HL¹MOKR 
 /QXNQ"QTR@CD m/QXNQ&@KD@E m%NTQPTHM$RSHL@SD  %KNQDMBD!HAKHNSDB@-@YHNM@KD"DMSQ@KDBNC ! 1 ENK &TDQQDQN+NUHKKN
 /QXNQ&@KKDXR m%NTQPTHM$RSHL@SD "¨MSHF@ROKR B@MS 77757"5

Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas 189

 the 12thƁBDMSTQXF@KKDXRVHSGSGD@CCHSHNMNE@M@ESDQB@RSKD@MC
SDMS@RSDLB@RSKD@MCSVNKNMFRVNNORSNE@BHKHS@SDRSDDQHMF
at the stern in addition to the regular side rudders.
In the Levant, a group of images is found in the illumina-
SHNMNEL@MTRBQHOSREQNLSGD"QTR@CDQJHMFCNLRNE/@KDRSHMD
2XQH@@MC"XOQTR #@SHMFSNSGDK@RSCDB@CDRNESGDthƁBDM-
STQXSGDXRGNVRHLOKDLNMNQDLDF@KKDXRVHSGROTQR@MCRHCD
VHMFRATSVHSGNTS@MXLNQDCDS@HKRƂI 34.
 MNSDVNQSGX CDOHBSHNM NE @ F@KKDX RTQUHUDR NM SGD HR-
K@MC NE -@WNR  (S HR QNTFGKX O@HMSDC ADKNV SGD EQDRBNDR NE
@BGTQBGNEB ƂI 35 (SRDDLRSNAD@LNMNQDLD
F@KKDXDPTHOODCVHSG@BNUDQDCRSDQMB@RSKD@MC×@FR 6G@S
HRTMHPTDHRSGDQDOQDRDMS@SHNMNESGDQ@HRHMFNESGDL@RSAX
SGDBQDV 6DJMNVSG@SL@RSR@MCR@HKRVDQD@KV@XRKNVDQDC
@MCRSNQDCCTQHMFA@SSKDRATSSGHRHRSGDÖQRSRTQUHUHMFQDO-
resentation of this operation.
(M NQCDQ SN ADSSDQ TMCDQRS@MC SGD CDUDKNOLDMS NE SGD
,DCHSDQQ@MD@MF@KKDXVDVHKKMNVSTQMNTQ@SSDMSHNMSNSGD
ÖQRSRTQUHUHMFF@KKDXBNMRSQTBSHNMBNMSQ@BSR
3GDÖQRSF@KKDXBNMSQ@BSRVDG@UD@QDSGDNMDRRHFMDCHM
SGD K@SDQ "QTR@CDR  (M  %QDCDQHBJ (( @MC HM 
Fig. 7 Cantigas de Santa Maria %KNQDMBD!HAKHNSDB@-@YHNM@KD"DMSQ@KDBNC 
! Ɓ1 ENK B  m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R Louis IX agreed the construction of various ships in Genoa
ENQ SGDHQ ENQSGBNLHMF B@LO@HFMR EQNL VGHBG SGD BNMSQ@BS
for taride horse-carrying ships survives 36. The tarida, a term
VHSG CDBNQ@SDC ‰VHMFR} @MC DK@ANQ@SD O@Q@ODSR  3GDX @QD CDQHUDCEQNL Q@AHBJMNVM@RD@QKX@RSGDthƁBDMSTQX@R
AHQDLDR VHSG NMD ÖKD NE N@QR NODQ@SDC SGQNTFG N@QONQSR chelandium, thelandra EQNL SGD !XY@MSHMD chelandion NQ
@MCSGDNSGDQSGQNTFGSGNKDR 2@HKRLNRSOQNA@AKXK@SDDMR usceriusVDQDRGHORL@HMKXTRDCAXSGD"QTR@CDQRiDWODCH-
also appear. SHNM@QXBNQOR@MCEDKKNTSNETRDVHSGSGDDMCNESGD"QTR@CDR
3GD M@TSHB@K HBNMNFQ@OGX HM 2O@HM BNMSHMTDR VHSG SGD in the 13thƁBDMSTQX 3GDRGNQSBNMSQ@BSRFHUDKHSSKDHMENQL@SHNM
FQNTO NE O@HMSDC QNNE AD@LR NE SGD K@SD thƁ BDMSTQX OQD- @ANTSSGDENQLNESGDRGHORSGDXVDQDCDBJDCF@KKDXRL
served today in Barcelona 32. Most of them portray small KNMFATKJHDQSG@MNSGDQF@KKDXRHMNQCDQSNGNTRD@MTLADQ
@MC BQTCDKX CQ@VM F@KKDXR ATS NMD NE SGDL OHBSTQDR VHSG NE GNQRDR @R VDKK @R RNKCHDQR @MC DPTHOODC VHSG @ CNTAKD
FQD@S CDS@HK SVN AHQDLD F@KKDXR @SS@BJHMF @ LDQBG@MSL@M V@SDQSHFGSCNNQ@SSGDRSDQMSNE@BHKHS@SDK@MCHMFNMAD@BGDR
ƂI 3GDRHLHK@QHSHDRNESGDRDF@KKDXRVHSGSGDSXOD@KQD@CX LTBGKHJD@LNCDQMK@MCHMFUDRRDKƂI
documented in the 12thƁBDMSTQX@QDDUHCDMS  MHMSDQDRSHMF !XE@QSGDLNRSCDS@HKDCBNMSQ@BSR@QDGNVDUDQSGDNMDR
DKDLDMSHRSGDTRDNEQHFFHMFBTSSDQR@MCBQNRRANVR@F@HMRS NEVGHBGCNBTLDMSHMODC@MSHBCDS@HKSGDBNM
the ship attacked. RSQTBSHNMNEQDFTK@QF@KKDXRENQSGD×DDSNE"G@QKDRCi MINTHM
(M5DMHBDNMKXNMDCDOHBSHNMNE@F@KKDXRTQUHUDRHM@L@M- the shipyards of Naples and Bari 37. The galleys are supposed
TRBQHOSNEB ƂI 33 3G@SSNNRG@QDRSGD@SSQHATSDRNE to copy a certain galea rubea QDC F@KKDX EQNL /QNUDMBD 

 ,NSS"@S@K@M-@UX 3GDO@HMSHMFHRTMENQSTM@SDKXOTAKHRGDCHM@RL@KKHL@FD  %NKC@(KKTLHM@SHNMÖFR  

NEONNQPT@KHSX %TQSGDQCDS@HKRNESGDF@KKDXRVHKKLNRSOQNA@AKXADUHRHAKDHM@  /@O@MHJNK@NT!@JHQSYH5XY@MSHN
ADSSDQOTAKHB@SHNM  /QXNQ"QTR@CD m/QXNQ&@KD@E
 1NL@MDKKH&@KD@  /QXNQ"QTR@CD m/QXNQ&@KKDXR m%NTQPTHM$RSHL@SD

Fig. 8 !@QBDKNM@,TRDNCDK QSDCD"@S@-

KTMX@O@HMSDCQNNEAD@LEQNL@BGTQBG@S
3DQTDKB  m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R

 Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas

 3G@MJR SN SGDRD DWSQDLDKX CDS@HKDC CNBTLDMSR VD G@UD @
unique insight not only into the actual form and structure of
@F@KKDXNESGDSHLDATS@KRNHMSNSGDBNMSDLONQ@QXSDQLHMNK
NFX@MCVNQKCNESGDKNB@KRGHOX@QCR
(M RGNQS SGD F@KKDX V@R @ L KNMF  L VHCD @MC
L GHFG @S LHCRGHOR CDBJDC RGHO DPTHOODC VHSG @ KNMF
ROTQ@RSDQMB@RSKD@MCSVNL@RSRB@QQXHMFK@QFDK@SDDMR@HKR
ƂI 3GDF@KKDXG@C@BQDVNELDMNEVGHBG
Fig. 9 F@KKDXEQNL@5DMDSH@ML@MTRBQHOS5DMHBD2S@SD QBGHUD2@MSN2SD-
E@MNA B  m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R VDQD N@QRLDM @ MTLADQ BNQQDRONMCHMF ODQEDBSKX VHSG SGD
 N@QRLDM QDONQSDC ENQ th century Byzantine ousiakoi
dromonesNMDousia@QLXTMHSG@CLDM %NQSGDÖQRS
SHLDSGDBNMRSQTBSHNMCDS@HKR@MCLD@RTQDLDMSR@KKNVTRSN
QDBNMRSQTBSSGDN@Q@FDRXRSDLNESGDRGHOVHSG@BBTQ@BX  KK
N@QRLDMVDQD@QQ@MFDCNMSGDBNMSHMTNTRCDBJHMSNO@HQRNM
@MFKDCADMBGDR 3GDXNODQ@SDCNMDN@QNERHLHK@QKDMFSG
D@BGSGQNTFG@MNTSQHFFDQBNMRSQTBSDCNUDQSGDCDBJVGHBG
BQD@SDC@RPT@QDQNVHMFOK@SENQLJMNVMEQNLK@SDQ(S@KH@M
sources as telaro 3GHRDM@AKDC@KKN@QRLDMSNTRDKNMFDQN@QR
a HM@RTHS@AKD@MFKDVHSGSGDV@SDQ@MCSNODQENQL@VHCDQ@MC
LNQD DEÖBHDMS RHS@MCRS@MC RSQNJD SGD interscalmium V@R
B  L 38 3GHRLDSGNCJMNVMK@SDQ@Ralla sensileQNVHMF
required a full deck for the oarsmen to step on and an out-
QHFFDQVGHBGSGDF@KKDXRNECDÖMHSDKXG@C 2SDDQHMFV@R
RSHKK@BGHDUDCVHSGRHCDQTCCDQR@SSGDRSDQM@MCNBB@RHNM@KKX
KNMFRBNNOR 3GDQDHRMNLDMSHNMNESGDRHCDVHMFROQNA@AKX
ADB@TRDSGDTOODQV@KDRVGHBGG@COQDUHNTRKXENQLDCSGD
RHCDVHMFRG@CCHR@OOD@QDCSNL@JDQNNLENQSGDNTSQHFFDQ
(MFDMDQ@KSGD MFDUHMF@KKDXRNEVDQDRKDMCDQRGHOR
L@CDENQRODDC@MCL@MNDTUQ@AHKHSX 3G@MJRSNSGDNTSQHFFDQ
SGDXBNTKCGNTRD@RTEÖBHDMSN@QBQDVSG@SQNVDCVHSGSGD
b VHCDQRHS@MCRS@MCRSQNJDVGHBGDM@AKDCSGDF@KKDXRSNQD@BG
@FQD@SRODDCHMA@SSKD (MBNMSQ@RSSND@QKHDQF@KKDXRSGDXG@C
@ OQNSDBSDC GNKC VGHBG BNTKC GNTRD OQNUHRHNMR @MC DPTHO-
LDMS ATS @KRN RNLD LDQBG@MCHRD  3GHR QDOQDRDMSR @ BKD@Q
technological leap compared to the older, much simpler and
BGD@ODQATSRKNVDQ@MCKDRRRD@VNQSGXF@KKDXR
(SHRCHEÖBTKSSN@RBDQS@HMVGDM@MCVGDQDSGDMDVSXODNE
F@KKDXV@RHMSQNCTBDC 6QHSSDMRNTQBDRLDMSHNMMNBG@MFD
c
and it seems that the alla sensileQNVHMFRXRSDLÖQRSCNBT-
Fig. 10 &@KKDXREQNLL@MTRBQHOSRNESGD"QTR@CDQJHMFCNLRB 
a2@HMS/DSDQRATQF-@SHNM@K+HAQ@QXNE1TRRH@BNC EQ ENK U (5 ENK Q m
bƁ!NTKNFMDRTQ,DQ!HAKHNSG¯PTDLTMHBHO@KDBNC ENK U mB%KNQDMBD
!HAKHNSDB@,DCHBD@+@TQDMYH@M@+@TQ /KTS +7( ENK U m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 #   !NMCHNKH!TQKDS9XRADQF.@Q
-@J@R

Fig. 11 Naxos, Panagia of Aries

BGTQBGEQDRBNB  m(KKTRSQ@SHNM
8 # -@J@R

Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas 191

Fig. 12 1DBNMRSQTBSHNMNE@th century taridaF@KKDX m#Q@VHMF
8 # -@J@R

Fig. 13 1DBNMRSQTBSHNMNE@th century galley, according to the

 MFDUHMBNMSQ@BSR m#Q@VHMF8 # -@J@R

192 Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas

Fig. 14 &Q@EÖSNNE@F@KKDXEQNLSGDGTKKNESGD!NBB@K@L@F@KKDX5DMHBD
B  m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R

LDMSDCHMSGD MFDUHMF@KKDXRV@RHMSQNCTBDCFQ@CT@KKX  
ONRRHAKDNTSQHFFDQaposticium in Latin or postizzaHM5DMDSH@M
is documented in the archives of Genoa in 1248 39VGDQD@R
the decked tarideF@KKDXRNESGDR@LDODQHNCVDQD@KLNRSBDQ-
S@HMKXQNVDCSGHRV@X 'NVDUDQBNMSDLONQ@QX@MCDUDMK@SDQ Fig. 15 /QHU@SDBNKKDBSHNM(S@KX@KS@QOHDBDO@FKHNSNVHSGSGDKHEDNE2S 4QRTK@AX
iconographical sources give no clue for the existence of any /@NKN5DMDYH@MNB  m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R

NTSQHFFDQ  ,NQDNUDQ BNMSDLONQ@QX "@S@K@M HBNMNFQ@OGHB@K

@MCVQHSSDMRNTQBDRHMCHB@SDSG@SSGDMDVSXODNEF@KKDXV@R
not adopted in every part of the Mediterranean at the same ONRRHAHKHSHDRENQSQ@CDSGQNTFGNTSSGD,DCHSDQQ@MD@M@MCV@R
SHLD
(SHRHMSDQDRSHMFSG@SSGD"@S@K@MBGQNMHBKDRLDMSHNMSGD SNADBNLDDWSQDLDKXHLONQS@MS 46
!DHMF@AKDSNR@EDKXSQ@MR-
NBB@RHNM@K@CCHSHNMNE@SGHQCN@QRL@MterçolATSNMKXNM ONQS@RL@KK@KADHSOQDBHNTR@LNTMSNEB@QFNROHBDRRHKJFNKC
RNLDNESGDADMBGDRLNRSOQNA@AKXSGDBDMSQ@KNMDR. This DSB
 47SG@MJRSNSGDHQK@QFDQNVHMF@MCÖFGSHMFBQDVR@MC
V@R OQNA@AKX CTD SN SGD K@BJ NE @ RPT@QD NTSQHFFDQ VGHBG DWOKNHSHMFANSGVHMC@MCN@QONVDQSGDXVNTKCBNMSQHATSD
@KKNVDCSGD@CCHSHNMNE@SGHQCN@QRL@MNMD@BGADMBGVHSG HLLDMRDKXSNSGDDBNMNLHBFQNVSGNESGDL@QHSHLDQDOTAKHBR

LHMNQLNCHÖB@SHNMR
"DQS@HMSDBGMNKNFHB@KHLOQNUDLDMSR@KRNGDKODCSGDDLDQ-
6G@SDUDQSGDB@RDV@RSGDMDVSXODNEF@KKDXRNNMOQD- FDMBDNESGDLDQBG@MSF@KKDXR@QNTMC
3GDRDVDQDSGD
U@HKDC@SKD@RSHMSGD5DMDSH@M@MC&DMNDRD×DDSR
(M magnetic compass, the portolans and the hour-glass, all intro-
SGD&DMNDRD!DMDCDSSN9@BB@QH@HRQDONQSDCSNG@UD@CCDC duced in the 13thƁBDMSTQX
 MNSGDQHLONQS@MSHLOQNUDLDMS
@SGHQCN@QRL@MNM@AHQDLD 41 and soon all regular galleys
VDQD SN ADBNLD @BST@K SQHQDLDR @R LDMSHNMDC AX ,@QHMN
Sanuto Torcello a little later 42
3GDÖQRSHL@FDNERTBG@F@K- @MCK@SDQHMF@KKDXRAX 48.
KDXHRSGDFQ@EÖSNB@QUDCNMSGDGTKKNESGDF@KKDXVGHBGV@R
CHRBNUDQDC @S SGD RTALDQFDC HRKDS NE !NBB@K@L@ HM 5DMHBD
ÖQRSPT@QSDQNESGDthƁBDMSTQXƂI 43. The Boccalama
F@KKDXV@RTRDC@R@LD@MRSNQDBK@HLK@MC@SSGDHRKDSVGHBG
GNTRDC@LNM@RSDQXSNC@X@KKKNRS@MCTMENQSTM@SDKXNMKX
HSRANSSNLO@QSRTQUHUDR
(MSanta KathalinaSGDÖQRS Mediterranean 49
3GDMDDCENQRD@VNQSGXATS@KRNBGD@O@MC
CDÖMHSDSQHQDLDF@KKDXVHSGN@QRKDES&DMN@NM@UNX@FD
to Aigues Mortes 44.
,D@MVGHKDSGD5DMDSH@MR@MC&DMNDRDRS@QSDCDWOKNHSHMF
&@KKDXRVDQDOQ@BSHB@KKXBNOHDCEQNL
their galleys as merchant ships. It seems that in the 13thƁBDM-
STQXN@QDCRGHORVDQDENQSGDÖQRSSHLDDPTHOODCVHSG@OQN-
SDBSDCGNKC@AKDSNB@QQXRL@KKPT@MSHSHDRNESQ@CDFNNCR
3GD CHEEDQDMBDADSVDDMSGDHQRGHO@MCSGDQDRS 52.
ÖQRSSQ@CDLHRRHNMRVHSGF@KKDXRVDQDNQF@MHYDCHM%K@MCDQR@R
D@QKX@R 45ATSSGDMDDCENQ@K@QFDQRSTQCHDQUDRRDKV@R
DUHCDMS
3GTRHMSGD5DMDSH@M#DLDSQHN-@C@K@OOD@QR
V@RSGDHMSQNCTBSHNMNESGDRSDQMOHMSKD@MCFTCFDNMQTCCDQ
VGHBGFQ@CT@KKXQDOK@BDCSGDRHCDQTCCDQRÖQRSHMQNTMCRGHOR
3GDRS@MC@QCHY@SHNMNESXODR@MCRHYDRNERGHORADB@LD@
MNQLRNNM@ESDQ@KKF@KKDXRKHFGS@MCFQD@SNMDRVDQD
ATHKS@MCNVMDCAXSGDRS@SD@SKD@RSHM5DMHBDSGDXVDQD
SGDMKD@RDCSNU@QHNTRDMSQDOQDMDTQRVGNNQF@MHYDCSGDC@M-
FDQNTRATSDWSQDLDKXOQNÖS@AKDSQHORHMRHCD@MCNTSRHCDSGD
D@RXSNBNMRSQTBSF@KKDXRV@RADBNLHMFDRRDMSH@KENQSGDL@Q-
HSHLDONVDQRNESGDSHLD@MC@M‰HMCTRSQH@K}OQNCTBSHNMNE
F@KKDXRV@RDRS@AKHRGDC
RTBBDRRETKNQHFHM@KR@MCSGDQDV@RKHSSKDRO@BDENQBG@MFDR@MC
improvements 51. Galley commanders soon could not tell the
Iconographical sources of the 14thƁBDMSTQXBKD@QKXHMCHB@SD
a change in the appearance of galleys: a series of manuscript
illuminations of the early 14thƁ BDMSTQX ONQSQ@XR F@KKDXR VHSG
SNG@UDHMUDMSDCSGDFQD@SF@KKDXgalea grossaVGHBGK@QFDQ SGDBNLLNMROTQR@MCRSDQMB@RSKDRATSB@QQXHMF@RHMFKDÖKD
SG@MSGDQDFTK@Q‰SGHM}F@KKDXRgalee sottiliNEEDQDCADSSDQ NE N@QR @MC VHSGNTS SGD RHCDVHMFR @S SGD RSDQM ƂI 53.

39 Byrne, Shipping 78. 47 Unger, Ship 176.

 %NDQRSDQ+@TQDR Q@FNME  ,NSS1TCCDQ
41 Bondioli, Arsenal 11.  +@MD5DMHBDE
 2@MTCN+HADQRDBQDSNQTL(( HU   +@MD5DMHBDE
 #i FNRSHMN,DC@R!NBB@K@L@  "GHFFH@SN"NMSDMTSH
44 Unger, Ship 176. 52 Alertz, Architecture 148.
 $ORSDHM&DMN@  9NQYH!HAKHNSDB@OK +7(5 m,@QSHM2GHORÖF  m/«BGS KDW@MCDQ,@MT-
46 Bondioli, Arsenal. RBQHOSRÖF A

Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas 193

 Fig. 16 Galleys from early 14thƁBDMSTQX
manuscripts: a,@QHSN2@MTSN+HADQ
2DBQDSNQTLÖCDKHTL"QTBHR.WENQC
!NCKDH@M+HAQ@QXBNC 3@MMDQENK 
UQ mb/@TKHMTR5DMDSTR"GQNMN-
KNFH@,@FM@5DMHBD!HAKHNSDB@-@YHN-
a M@KD,@QBH@M@,@QB K@S 9 ENK 
U mB&DNEEQNHCD5HKKDG@QCNTHM+@
"NMPT±SDCD"NMRS@MSHMNOKD.WENQC
!NCKDH@M+HAQ@QXBNC +@TC ,HRB 
ENK  m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # -@J@R

c Fig. 17 2@M,@QBN5DMHBD

LNR@HBO@MDKAX/@NKN5DMD-
YH@MN m(KKTRSQ@-
SHNM8 # -@J@R

-NNTSQHFFDQHRUHRHAKDOQNA@AKXNVHMFSNSGDRL@KKRHYD@MC SGDODQHNCAD@QHMFCNTAKDROTQRRSDQMB@RSKDR@MC@MNTS-

simplicity of the miniatures. A rather precise representation of QHFFDQRTOONQSDCAXBTQUDCRS@MBGHNMR .@QRLDM@QDOHBSTQDC
VG@SHRADKHDUDCSNAD@5DMDSH@MF@KKDXV@RCQ@VMAX/@NKN QNVHMFSGDRGHORENQSGDÖQRSSHLDHM@RHS@MCRS@MCSXODNE
5DMDYH@MNNM@M@KS@QO@MDK@QNTMCƂI 54. Although RSQNJD 3GDXRDDLSNADQNVHMFGNVDUDQHMO@HQRRNLDSGHMF
MNN@QR@QDUHRHAKD@MCSGDRGHOHRR@HKHMFVHSG@RHMFKDK@SDDM VGHBG BNTKC AD @MNSGDQ HMCHB@SHNM SG@S SGD SQHQDLD F@KKDXR
the protruding outrigger, the spur and the stern-castle indicate VDQDMNS@CNOSDCAXDUDQXNMDHMSGD,DCHSDQQ@MD@MADENQD
SG@S SGHR HR CDÖMHSDKX @ F@KKDX   LNR@HB O@MDK HM 2S  ,@QJiR   MNSGDQ HMSDQDRSHMF DKDLDMS HR SGD E@BS SG@S F@KKDX
!@RHKHB@HM5DMHBDHR@KRN@SSQHATSDCSNSGDR@LD@QSHRS BQDVR @QD CDKHADQ@SDKX CHRSHMFTHRGDC @R 6DRSDQMDQR AX SGDHQ
 55 3GDRSDQMRNESVNF@KKDXR@QDONQSQ@XDCLNRSOQNA@AKX @OOD@Q@MBD  3GHR HR LNRS OQNA@AKX @ UHRT@K CNBTLDMS@SHNM
SQHQDLDRQNVDCalla sensileVHSGSGDHQSDMSR@MC×@FRƂI NESGDBNLLNMG@AHSNEKD@RHMFF@KKDXR@MCSGDHQBQDVREQNL
In the Levant our iconographical information comes from 5DMHBD@MC&DMN@NQNESGDOQ@BSHBDNEOQDEDQQHMFSGDgas-
manuscripts. The Bulgarian manuscript containing the Manas- mouloiSGDBGHKCQDMNELHWDCL@QQH@FDRADSVDDM.QSGNCNW
RDR"GQNMHBKDHMBKTCDRRNLDTMENQSTM@SDKXA@CKXOQD- @MC"@SGNKHBR@RSGDADRSF@KKDXBQDVR
served images of galleys 56. Another important source is the
L@MTRBQHOSNESGD1NL@MBDNE KDW@MCDQSGD&QD@SMNVHM
5DMHBD ƂI 57  3GHR K@UHRGKX HKKTLHM@SDC ANNJ CNM@SDC  /@KKTBBGHMH/HSSTQ@ÖF 
 "NMBHM@ QRDM@KD
SNSGDXNTMF$LODQNQNE3QDAHYNMC KDWHNR(((@QNTMC  #TIňDU,@M@RRDR
preserves many images of galleys. These are typical galleys of  3Q@GNTKH@ KDW@MCDQ m-@J@R&@KKDX

Fig. 18 3GD1NL@MBDNE KDW@MCDQSGD&QD@S5DMHBD'DKKDMHB(MRSHSTSDENQ!XY-

@MSHMD@MC/NRS!XY@MSHMD2STCHDRBNC FQ ENK UB  m(KKTRSQ@SHNM
8 Ɓ# -@J@R

194 Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas

 The second half of the 14thƁBDMSTQXHR@Q@SGDQC@QJODQHNC
BNMBDQMHMFF@KKDXR
2NTQBDR@QDRB@QBD@MCSGHRBNTKCAD@QD-
×DBSHNMNESGDLHCBDMSTQXBQHRHR
'D@UHKX@E×HBSDCAXSGD!K@BJ
#D@SGOK@FTDNE@MCDWG@TRSDCAXSGD"GHNFFH@6@Q
5DMHBD@MC&DMN@B@LDSN@RS@MCRSHKKSNV@QCR
SGDDMCNESGDƁBDMSTQX
3GDPT@KHSXNESGDHQ×DDSR@MCBQDVR
ADB@LDQDL@QJ@AKXKNVNVHMFSNSGDK@BJNEL@MONVDQ@MC
RDQHNTR ÖM@MBH@K @MC ONKHSHB@K OQNAKDLR 58
 %KDDSR GNVDUDQ
VDQDRSHKKQ@HRDC@MC@OO@QDMSKXHLOQNUDLDMSBNMSHMTDC
3GD
adoption of the stern rudder in galleys occurred during this
ODQHNC @R VDKK @R SGD TRD NE B@MMNMR VGNRD OQDRDMBD NM
5DMDSH@MF@KKDXRHRCNBTLDMSDC@RD@QKX@R 59.
!X5DMHBDV@RSNDLDQFDEQNLSGDBQHRHR@MCSNRS@QS
Fig. 19 /@K@YYN/TAKHBN2HDM@EQDRBNAX2OHMDKKN QDSHMNB

m(KKTRSQ@SHNM
QDBNMRNKHC@SHMF GDQ L@QHSHLD ONVDQ
 3GHR HR QD×DBSDC HM @
8
#
-@J@R

MDV HMSDQDRS HM F@KKDX BNMRSQTBSHNM
 (BNMNFQ@OGX ADBNLDR
QHBGDQ@MCLNQDBNGDQDMS
 EQDRBNNE@RD@A@SSKDAX2OHMDKKN
QDSHMN HM SGD /@K@YYN /TAKHBN NE 2HDM@ B
 ƂI 1GNCDRHMSGDANNJNE9NQYH3QNLADSS@C@,NCNMDHM
ONQSQ@XRSGDMDVRSDDQHMFLDSGNCNESGDOHMSKD@MCFTCFDNM
QTCCDQRSQ@MFDKXDMNTFGNMAHQDLDF@KKDXR. Another inter-
%NQSGDÖQRSSHLDSGDLDSGNCR
DRSHMFHBNMNFQ@OGHB@KRNTQBDHRSGDAQNMYDCNNQRNE5@SHB@M
AX %HK@QDSD B
 ONQSQ@XHMF SGD 5DMDSH@M F@KKDX VGHBG
 KKL@MTRBQHOSR
SQ@MRONQSDCSGD!XY@MSHMDDLODQNQ)NGM/@K@HNKNFNRSNSGD
1445 and the Ragioni antique spettanti all’arte del mare et
fabriche de vasselliHM 62
NE ATHKCHMF @MC ÖSSHMF F@KKDXR @QD OQNODQKX @KSGNTFG MNS
@KV@XRBNLOQDGDMRHUDKXENQTRCNBTLDMSDC
CDRBQHADRHLHK@QSXODRNEF@KKDXRVGDQDSGDRS@MC@QCHR@SHNMNE
"NTMBHKNE%DQQ@Q@%KNQDMBDHMƂI 61.
But the most important fact in the study of medieval gal-
%QNLMNVNM
KDXRENQSGHRODQHNCHRSGD@OOD@Q@MBDNESGDÖQRSRGHOATHKCHMF
SQD@SHRDR
 (M×TDMBDC AX SGD TOBNLHMF 1DM@HRR@MBD BDQS@HM
@TSGNQRA@RHB@KKX5DMDSH@MROQNCTBDCSGDÖQRSL@MT@KRBNM-
BDQMHMF RGHOATHKCHMF RS@QSHMF VHSG SGD ANNJ NE ,HBG@DK NE
BNMRSQTBSHNMHRDUHCDMS@RVDKK@RSGDRHLHK@QHSHDRVHSGOQDUHNTR
RNTQBDRRTBG@RSGD MFDUHM@QBGHUDRF@KKDXR
the form of galleys is thoroughly documented and, although
certain secrets of the art of galley construction remain some-
VG@SNARBTQDSNTRVDG@UDDMNTFGDUHCDMBDSNQDBNMRSQTBS
VHSG@BBTQ@BXSGDENQLNE1DM@HRR@MBD@MCK@SDQF@KKDXR

 +@MD5DMHBD m+NMF,HBG@DKNE1GNCDR  2B@MCTQQ@1DOTAKHBRÖF 

 !NMM@QCNS+NMFMNM5NX@FD .MDNESGDD@QKHDRSQDOQDRDMS@SHNMRNEB@M-  +NMF,HBG@DKÖFR 
MNMRNMF@KKDXRB@MADENTMCHM@M(S@KH@ML@MTRBQHOSNERDD,@QSHM2GHOR  !NMCHNKH/DMYN(M×TRRN m!NMCHNKH1DBNQCR
ÖF 

Fig. 20 5@SHB@M2S /DSDQiRA@RHKHB@

AQNMYDCNNQRAX MSNMHN UDQKHMNJMNVM
@R%HK@QDSD m(KKTRSQ@SHNM8 # 
-@J@R

Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas 195

!HAKHNFQ@OGX "@R@MNU@R3HL¹M "@R@MNU@R$KSHL¹MRDFTMK@HBNMNFQ@Ö@LDCHDU@K
B@S@K@M@  QBG@DNM@TSHB@

2NTQBDR "GHFFH@SN"NMSDMTSH "GHFFH@SN"NMSDMTSHCDKKD@QBGHSDSSTQDM@U@KH

@MSHBGD  SDMDN5DMDSN
MM@"NLM¯MD KDWH@CD MM@"NLM¯MD KDWH@CDUNKR $C AX! Ɓ+DHA
"HQ@B $RSNO@·@M 2JXKKHSYDR 2  "HQ@B $RSNO@·@M 2JXKKHSYDR ,@SQHSDMRHR 
/@QHR
(Ɓ1DOQNCTBBHNMDRXLHMH@STQ@R!@QBDKNM@,@CQHC
-@TL@BGHB@ -@TL@BGHB@ O@QSHL @CGTB HMDCHS@  $C  AX  #@HM /@QHR
 "NMBHM@ QRDM@KD $  "NMBHM@ +i QRDM@KD CDKK@ 1DOTAAKHB@ CH 5DMDYH@
,HK@MN
(SHMDQ@QHTL ODQDFQHMNQTL #@R (SHMDQ@QHTL ODQDFQHMNQTL  $HMD YDHSFD-
M¼RRHRBGDDMFKHRBGD"GQNMHJYTLCQHSSDM*QDTYYTFHMTQROQÂMFKHBGDQ #i FNRSHMN,DC@R!NBB@K@L@, #i FNRSHMN2 ,DC@R2@M,@QBN
&DRS@KS $C AX' $ ,@XDQ 2BGQHESDMCDQ,&'2STSSF@QS HM!NBB@K@L@ #TDM@UHRTKKiHRNK@BGDMNMBi°  QBGDNKNFH@UHU@

+HADQ,@HNKHBGHMTR+HADQ,@HNKHBGHMTRCDFDRSHR/HR@MNQTLHKKTRSQHATR $C 
AX" "@KHRRD %NMSHODQK@RSNQH@Ci(S@KH@1NL@ U@M#NNQMHMBJ1@L% ' U@M#NNQMHMBJ)Q #HC3DMSG"DMSTQX#QNLNMR
G@UD@6@SDQKHMD1@L MNSGDQ+NNJ@S+DN3@BSHB@7(7 ,@QHMDQiR
2@MTSN+HADQRDBQDSNQTL2@MTSN,@QHMNB@KKDC3NQRDKKN +HADQ2DBQDSNQTL Mirror 79, 1993, 387-392.
%HCDKHTL "QTBHR RTODQ 3DQQ­ 2@MBS­ QDBTO@SHNMD DS BNMRDQU@SHNMD 
&DRS@#DHODQ%Q@MBNR +HADQ((B@O (5'@MNUH@D #TIňDU,@M@RRDR( #TIňDU+DR,HMH@STQDRCDK@"GQNMHPTDCD,@M@RRDR 
,NMTLDMSRCDK@ODHMSTQD@MBHDMMDATKF@QD2NÖ@
3GDNCNQD/QNCQNLNR1GNC@MSGD3GDNCNQH/QNCQNLH#D1GNC@MSGDRDS
#NRHBKHR@LNQHATRKHAQH(7 $C AX, ,@QBNUHBG2STSF@QCH@D $ORSDHM&DMN@2  $ORSDHM&DMN@@MCSGD&DMNDRD"G@ODK
'HKK- " +NMCNM
6HKKH@L NE 3XQD "GQNMHBNM 6HKKDKLH 3XQDMRHR QBGHDOHRBNOH BGQNMHBNM
UNKR $C AX1 ! " 'TXFDMR "NQOTR"GQHRSH@MNQTL "NMSHMT@SHN %NDQRSDQ+@TQDR Q@FNM% %NDQRSDQ+@TQDR3GD6@QRGHORNESGD*HMFNE
,DCH@DU@KHR@3TQMGNKSH Q@FNM@MCSGDHQ%HFGSHMF3@BSHBRCTQHMFSGDth and 14th"DMSTQHDR
# (MSDQM@SHNM@K)NTQM@KNE-@TSHB@K QBG@DNKNFX

1DEDQDMBDR %NKC@(KKTLHM@SHNM) %NKC@"QTR@CDQ,@MTRBQHOS(KKTLHM@SHNM@S2@HMS)D@M

Ci BQD/QHMBDSNM-)
KDQSY QBGHSDBSTQD 4  KDQSY 3GD -@U@K QBGHSDBSTQD @MC .@Q 2XRSDL %NTQPTHM$RSHL@SD- , ' %NTQPTHM ,DCHDU@K2GHOATHKCHMF$RSHL@SD
of Medieval and Later Galleys. In: Gardiner, The Age of the Galley B  ,@QHMDQiR,HQQNQ
142-162.
&@QCHMDQ3GD FDNESGD&@KKDX1 &@QCHMDQDC 3GD FDNESGD&@KKDX 
!@ATHM (KKTLHM@SHNMR  !@ATHM (KKTLHM@SHNMR NE -@TSHB@K 2TAIDBS HM ,DCHSDQQ@MD@M.@QDC5DRRDKRRHMBD/QD"K@RRHB@K3HLDR+NMCNM
2JXKHSYDR,@SQHSDMRHR@/QDKHLHM@QX1DONQS &QDBN Q@AHB@
 &TDQQDQN+NUHKKN"¨MSHF@R) &TDQQDQN+NUHKKN+@R"¨MSHF@R $RSTCHN@Q
PTDNK¹FHBNCDRTR,HMH@STQDR,@CQHC
MM@KH&DMNUDRH+ 3 !DKFQ@MNDC  MM@KH&DMNUDRHCH"@EE@QNDCDiRTNH
BNMSHMT@SNQHC@K,7"(7@K,""7"(((1NL@ )@K QBG°NKNFHD-@U@KD )@K QBG°NKNFHD-@U@KD/@QHR

!NMCHNKH QRDM@K, !NMCHNKH3GD QRDM@KNE5DMHBD@MCSGD QSNE!THKC- +@MCRSQ¼L2GHO! +@MCRSQ¼L3GD2GHO+NMCNM
HMF2GHOR (M" !DKSQ@LDDC !N@SR2GHOR@MC2GHOX@QCR /QNBDDCHMFR
+@MD3QHQDLDR% " +@MD%QNL!HQDLDRSN3QHQDLDR@S5DMHBD ,@QHMDQiR
of the Ninth International Symposium in Boat and Ship Archaeology,
,HQQNQ
5DMHBD.WENQC
 5DMHBD% " +@MD5DMHBD  ,@QHSHLD1DOTAKHB!@KSHLNQD+NMCNM
 1DBNQCR ,  !NMCHNKH $@QKX 2GHOATHKCHMF 1DBNQCR @MC SGD !NNJ NE

,HBG@DKNE1GNCDR (M/ . +NMF# ,B&DD , 2S@GKDCR3GD
!NNJNE,HBG@DKNE1GNCDR  %HESDDMSG"DMSTQX,@QHSHLD,@MTRBQHOS  +NMF,HBG@DKNE1GNCDR/ . +NMF3GD6NQKCNE,HBG@DKNE1GNCDR 
2STCHDR"@LAQHCFD,  (M/ . +NMF# ,B&DD , 2S@GKDCR3GD!NNJNE,HBG@DKNE
1GNCDR  %HESDDMSG"DMSTQX,@QHSHLD,@MTRBQHOS 2STCHDR"@L-
!NMCHNKH/DMYN(M×TRRN, !NMCHNKH& /DMYN3DNCNQN/@WNMD-HBNK@
/@KNO@MN OQNSH CDKKD F@KDD RNSSHKH  +iHM×TRRN FQDBN MDKKD BNRSQTYHNMH AQHCFD, 
M@U@KDUDMDYH@MDCDKKDOQHL@LDS§CDK75RDBNKN  QBGDNKNFH@CDKKD ,@QSHM2GHOR+ 1 ,@QSHM3GD QS@MC QBG@DNKNFXNE5DMDSH@M2GHOR@MC
@BPTD !N@SR 2STCHDRHM-@TSHB@K QBG@DNKNFX+NMCNM
!NMCHNKH!TQKDS9XRADQF.@Q, !NMCHNKH1 !TQKDS 9XRADQF.@Q ,NQHRRNM(MSQNCTBSHNM) ,NQHRRNM(MSQNCTBSHNM (M&@QCHMDQ3GD FD
,DBG@MHBR@MC.@Q/NVDQHM,DCHDU@K@MC+@SDQ&@KKDXR (M&@QCHMDQ of the Galley 7-9.
3GD FDNESGD&@KKDX
,NSS"@S@K@M-@UX+ 5 ,NSS2GHORNESGDth"DMSTQX"@S@K@M-@UX 
!NMM@QCNS+NMFMNM5NX@FD% !NMM@QCNS +NMFMNMDCR+DR@HMS
(MSDQM@SHNM@K)NTQM@KNE-@TSHB@K QBG@DNKNFX
UNX@FD CD )GDQTR@KDL CT RDHFMDTQ Ci MFKTQD  2NBH°S° CDR @MBHDMR
SDWSDREQ@M®@HR/@QHR  1TCCDQ+ 5 ,NSS3GD#DUDKNOLDMSNESGD1TCCDQ  3DBGMNKNFHB@K
3@KD3DW@R
!XQMD2GHOOHMF$ ' !XQMD&DMNDRD2GHOOHMFHMSGD3VDKESG@MC3GHQ-
SDDMSG"DMSTQHDR ,NMNFQ@OGRNESGD,DCH@DU@K B@CDLXNE LDQHB@ ,TBJDKQNX QBG@DNKNFX* ,TBJDKQNX,@QHSHLD QBG@DNKNFX"@LAQHCFD
"@LAQHCFD,  

196 Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas

-@J@R&@KKDXR8 # -@J@R,DCHSDQQ@MD@M,DCHDU@K&@KKDXR 9TR@LLDME@RRTMF2TLL@QX
:, SGDRHR4MHU 2NTSG@LOSNM<

Galley: Y. D. Nakas, A 14th"DMSTQX&@KKDX%KDDSEQNLSGD!K@BJ2D@ 'KP#DTKUUFGT'PVYKEMNWPIOGFKVGTTCPGTOKVVGNCNVGT

3GD"@RDNE"NCDWHMSGD'DKKDMHB(MRSHSTSDNE5DMHBD (M- &ÂMRDMHM NKEJGT-TKGIUUEJKHHGXQODKU\WO,CJTJWPFGTV
DC !DSVDDM"NMSHMDMSR /QNBDDCHMFRNESGD3VDKESG2XLONRHTLNM &DQTCDQSD*QHDFRRBGHEEDRSDKKDMHMCDQ&DRBGHBGSDCDQ2DDE@GQS
!N@S@MC2GHO QBG@DNKNFX(RS@MATK(RS@MATK DHMDMADRNMCDQDMTMCRDGQVHBGSHFDM RODJSHMCDQ2BGHEE-
/«BGS KDW@MCDQ,@MTRBQHOSR. /«BGS) ) &  KDW@MCDQ(KKTLHM@SDC A@TSQ@CHSHNM CDQ LDCHSDQQ@MDM 6DKS C@Q  KR «T¦DQRS JNL-
,@MTRBQHOSRHMSGD!NCKDH@M+HAQ@QX.WENQC (S@KH@M2BGNNK.WENQC OKDWD SDBGMNKNFHRBGD $QQTMFDMRBG@ESDM IDCDQ UDQF@MFDMDM
 *TKSTQROHDKSDMRHDDHMDRHFMHÖJ@MSD1NKKDADHCDQ$MSVHBJKTMF
/@KKTBBGHMH/HSSTQ@1 /@KKTBBGHMH+@/HSSTQ@5DMDYH@M@CDK3QDBDMSN5D- CDR 2BGHEEA@TR RNVHD CDQ IDVDHKHFDM &DRBGHBGSD  TBG C@R
MDYH@1NL@ Mittelalter stellt in dieser Hinsicht keine Ausnahme dar.
(MJNMRSQTJSHUDQTMCSDBGMNKNFHRBGDQ'HMRHBGSDQKDASDCDQ
/@O@MHJNK@NT!@JHQSYH5XY@MSHN# /@O@MHJNK@NT!@JHQSYHDC *@SGHLDQHMH
YNHRSN5XY@MSHN :DWGHAHSHNMB@S@KNFTD<3GDRR@KNMHJH !@TUNM*QHDFRRBGHEEDMHL,HSSDKLDDQQ@TLRHFMHÖJ@MSD5DQ-
«MCDQTMFDMUNL AHRYTL )@GQGTMCDQS #@RHMCHUDQRDM
Pelekanidis, Treasures: S. M. Pelekanidis et al., The Treasures of Mount
TREÂGQTMFDMRDHSCDQQ¼LHRBGDM9DHSCNLHMHDQDMCD*QHDFR-
SGNR 3GD,NM@RSDQHDRNE(UDQNM2S /@MSDKDHLNM$ROGHFLDMNT
@MC"GHK@MC@QH SGDMR
RBGHEEdromonVTQCDRBGQHSSVDHRDCTQBGDHMDM@MCDQDMHM
L@MBGDQKDH'HMRHBGSENQSRBGQHSSKHBGDM2BGHEERSXOgaleaDQRDSYS 
/HKSY "NRSTLD $  /HKSY +D BNRSTLD NEÖBHDK CDR CHFMHS@HQDR AXY@MSHMR § #DQ!DHSQ@FL¼BGSDCHD$MSVHBJKTMFCDQLDCHSDQQ@MDM*QHDFR-
Ki°ONPTD /@K°NKNFTD  BS@ 4MHUDQRHS@SHR 4OR@KHDMRHR %HFTQ@ - 2  
schiffe im Spiegel der ikonographischen und schriftlichen
4OOR@K@
0TDKKDMRNVHDCDQDMGHRSNQHRBGD!DYÂFDC@QRSDKKDM
/QXNQ"QTR@CD) /QXNQ3GD"QTR@CDNE$LODQNQ%QDCDQHBJ(( ¥ADQRDSYTMF3G 2BGLHCSR
SGD (LOKHB@SHNMR NE SGD ,@QHSHLD $UHCDMBD  LDQHB@M -DOSTMD 
1992, 113-132.
5MGVEJKPIVJG&GXGNQROGPVQH/GFKVGTTCPGCP/GFKG
 &@KD@) /QXNQ%QNL#QNLNMSN&@KD@,DCHSDQQ@MD@M!HQDLD&@KKDXR XCN9CTUJKRUHTQOVJGVJVQVJ|%GPVWT[
# (M&@QCHMDQ3GD FDNESGD&@KKDX Throughout maritime history galleys formed a special and
 &@KKDXR) /QXNQ3GD&@KKDXRNE"G@QKDR(NE MINT*HMFNE2HBHKXB@  UDQXHLONQS@MSO@QSHMSGDRGHOATHKCHMFSQ@CHSHNMNESGD,DC-
 2STCHDRHM,DCHDU@K1DM@HRR@MBD'HRSNQX HSDQQ@MD@M VNQKC  !DHMF BNMRHCDQ@AKX BNLOKHB@SDC SDBGMN-
/QXNQ)DEEQDXR#QNLNM) ' /QXNQ$ , )DEEQDXR3GD FDNESGD#QN-
logical achievements of every past culture they played a sig-
LNM 3GD!XY@MSHMD-@UXB@ 3GD,DCHDU@K,DCHSDQQ@MD@M MHÖB@MSQNKDHMSGDCDUDKNOLDMSNERGHOATHKCHMF@RVDKK@R
+DHCDM!NRSNM SGD QDRODBSHUD GHRSNQX VGDQDAX SGD ,HCCKD FDR V@R MN
exception to that.
1HBBH@QCH/DR@QN5 1HBBH@QCH-DKCTNLNCH/DR@QNTMLNR@HBN CHOQN-
poste. Archeologia viva 67, 1998, 82-85. (MSDQLRNEBNMRSQTBSHNM@MCSDBGMNKNFXSGDATHKCHMFNE
V@QRGHORHMSGD,DCHSDQQ@MD@MDWODQHDMBDCRNLDRHFMHÖB@MS
1NL@MDKKH &@KD@ "  1NL@MDKKH DC  +@ &@KD@ 1HSQNU@S@  .QHFHMD CDKKD
changes from the 11th to 15thƁBDMSTQX 3GDV@QRGHOSG@SHM
"NRDCT5DMDYH@5DMDYH@
U@QHNTR ENQLR G@C CNLHM@SDC SGD RD@R RHMBD 1NL@M SHLDR
2B@MCTQQ@1DOTAKHBR$ 2B@MCTQQ@3GD,@QHSHLD1DOTAKHBR,DCHDU@K@MC dromonV@RFQ@CT@KKXQDOK@BDCAX@MNSGDQHMBDQS@HMV@XR
1DM@HRR@MBD2GHORHM(S@KX (M& % !@RRDC  'HRSNQXNE2D@E@QHMF LNQD@CU@MBDCSXODgalea 3GHRO@ODQVNTKCKHJDSNRGNV
!@RDCNM4MCDQV@SDQ QBG@DNKNFX+NMCNM
SGD CDUDKNOLDMS NE SGD ,DCHSDQQ@MD@M V@QRGHOR @R RDDM
2G@V,DBG@MHBR) 3 2G@V.@Q,DBG@MHBR@MC.@Q/NVDQHM MBHDMS SGQNTFGHBNMNFQ@OGHB@K@MCSDWST@KRNTQBDR@RVDKK@RSGDHQ
Galleys. In: Gardiner, The Age of the Galley 163-171. GHRSNQHB@KAD@QHMFR
3Q@GNTKH@ KDW@MCDQ -  2  3Q@GNTKH@ 3GD &QDDJ KDW@MCDQ 1NL@MBD 
5DMHBD'DKKDMHB(MRSHSTSD"NCDW&Q  SGDMR

3R@L@JC@ 2JXKHSYDR 5  3R@L@JC@ 3GD (KKTRSQ@SDC "GQNMHBKD NE (N@MMDR

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SDBGDCi(S@KH@%HQDMYD

Tracing the Development of Mediterranean Medieval Warships | Yannis D. Nakas 197