Chapter 1

The Chemistry of Oil

Introduction
Crude oil is the raw material from which products such as motor and aviation
gasoline, kerosene, diesel, gas oil and fuel oil are refined. Most of the chemicals
produced are also derived from crude oil.

Crude oil is essentially decomposed vegetation and animal life compressed under
great pressure over millions of years. It comprises hydrogen and carbon molecules
plus other components that range from sulphur to water. The generic name for any
petroleum (crude and its by-products) is hydrocarbons.

The Hydrocarbon Chain

In its simplest form a hydrocarbon molecule comprises a single carbon atom to which
is bonded four hydrogen atoms; this is methane and exists as a gas. Crude oil is made
up of groups of hydrocarbon molecules joined together to form chains. The length of
the chain, as well as the manner in which they are joined, determines the physical
characteristics of the petroleum.

Building up from the methane molecule, one or more of the hydrogen bonds can be
used to join with another carbon molecule:

H C H This is methane and can be represented as CH4

All variations of petroleum hydrocarbons are derived from this basic molecule.

If another carbon molecule is joined to methane then one of the hydrogen molecules
is lost from each and replaced by a carbon molecule:

H H

H C C H This is ethane and can be stated as C2H6

H H

The process can be repeated for an endless number of hydrocarbon molecules, but as
the number of carbon molecules in the ‘chain’ increases so does the nature of the
substance. Those hydrocarbons with less than 5 carbon atoms are gases at normal
ambient temperature and pressures. Those with between 6 and about 19 generally
exist as liquids and those with 20 or more carbon atoms are usually solids.

1
The following table indicates the molecular structure of a number of substances:

Substance Formula Physical Property

Methane CH4 Gas
Ethane C2H6 Gas
Propane C3H8 Gas
Butane C4H10 Gas
Pentane C5H12 Gas/Liquid

Crude oil and other petroleum substances will be made up of different length
hydrocarbon chains.

If the hydrocarbon chain is not in a straight line (i.e. a straight chain) then the physical
properties will change. For example consider Butane and Isobutane . Both share the
same chemical formula (C4H10) but the former is a straight chain and the latter a
branched chain:

H H H H

H C C C C H = Butane

H H H H

H H H

H C C C H = Isobutane

H H

H C H

Butane is a gas belonging to the paraffin family and is a straight chain. Isobutane is
known as a branched chain (isomer) and is found in the heavier components of crude
oil and has a higher octane rating (a measure of flammability).

Aromatics
These are ring-type arrangements of hydrocarbons and tend to be more reactive due to
their being hydrogen deficient. Benzene ( C6H6 ) is an aromatic and is a known
carcinogen.

2
The Refining Process

Introduction
Crude oil needs to be refined into useable products as the more valuable lighter
components, or fractions, are mixed with longer hydrocarbon chains as well as non-
hydrocarbon components such as sulphur, nitrogen, salt, carbon dioxide, water and
trace metals.

There are five basic ways of refining but all begin with the distillation process
(sometimes known as fractionating ). Once distillation has been carried out further
processing is done to alter the size and structure of the hydrocarbon molecules
(‘cracking’). It is not necessary to have a detailed knowledge of refining processes
but the initial distillation stage is of interest and will be briefly discussed.

The distillation process relies on the fact that different components of crude oil have
differing boiling points and so can be separated into separate hydrocarbon groups by
heating. These different groups are known as ‘fractions’. The process may be carried
out at atmospheric pressure or under vacuum conditions.

Some pre-treatment is necessary to remove salts, solids and sulphur etc. This is
carried out to avoid corrosion and blocking the refinery systems. It is usually carried
out with hot water or chemicals.

Atmospheric distillation
Once the crude oil has been pre-treated it passes through a heater (300 to 375 degrees
Celsius) from where it is fed into the distillation tower. At these high temperatures the
shorter hydrocarbon chains turn immediately into vapour. As the vapour moves
through the tower cooling takes place and the various vapours condense at different
temperatures and hence different levels in the tower. A number of trays collect the
condensate. Gases are drawn off from the top of the tower as they will not condense
first. Lower down products such as gasoline, kerosene and diesel are collected. The
bottom of the tower will contain the denser components such as fuel oil and bitumen.

Gases

Gasoline

Decreasing Kerosene
Heat
Diesel
Distillation Tower

Crude Oil
Lube Oil

Fuel Oil
De-salter heater
Bitumen

Vacuum distillation is essentially the same but allows distillation at lower

temperatures.

3
The Hazards of Petroleum
Petroleum by its nature and in certain circumstances has two main hazards:

1. Flammability
2. Toxicity

In discussing flammability two aspects have to be considered; vapour pressure and

volatility

Vapour Pressure
When a substance burns it is the vapour being given off that burns and not the
substance itself. Vapour is given off through the process of evaporation and the rate of
evaporation is termed volatility which in turn will be dependent upon vapour pressure.
Put any liquid into a container and it will evaporate, some liquids will evaporate faster
than others. Water will evaporate slowly whereas gasoline will evaporate rapidly.
Petroleum products are composed of various components of the hydrocarbon family
and some of these components will be more volatile than others. Some will actually
exist as gases and may have evaporated off before the oil reaches the ship. Within a
cargo tank the chemical make up of the oil will be different from the chemical make
up of the vapour in the ullage space above the cargo. There will be more of the lighter
components as these tend to evaporate first.

Evaporation
All substances are made up of molecules and at any temperature above absolute zero
(-273oC) they are constantly in motion. The rate of movement is directly related to the
temperature of the substance. The higher the temperature the greater the motion.

The molecules are bound together by inter-molecular attraction but as the temperature
increases some of these molecules will break free of their bonds and leave the liquid
surface in the form of vapour molecules. This is evaporation (changing from liquid to
a vapour). At the same time some of the vapour molecules will return to the liquid.
This is condensation (changing from a vapour to a liquid). This process will continue
until there are an equal number of molecules leaving the liquid as there are re-
entering. The pressure at this point is termed the saturated vapour pressure (S.V.P)

The S.V.P. does not mean that the space available for evaporation is 100 percent full
of vapour, it simply means that no more vapour can be produced at that temperature.

If the temperature is then increased further more molecular movement will occur.
More evaporation will occur and exceed the rate of condensation until such time as
the two are in equilibrium and saturation has been achieved again.

Therefore the higher the temperature of the substance the more vapour is given off
and the higher the S.V.P. will be.

If the S.V.P. of a liquid at a given temperature reaches atmospheric pressure

(approximately 1 bar or 14.7 pounds per square inch) then the liquid will boil. For
example water boils at 100oC at atmospheric pressure. This means the S.V.P. of water

4
is 1 bar when its temperature is 100oC. Essentially the liquid is trying to change state
from a liquid to a gas.

Evaporation takes place from the surface of the liquid whereas boiling occurs within
the body of the liquid.

The Evaporation Process

- 273 o C

No molecular Evaporation Evaporation & Saturation:

movement with increasing condensation evaporation
temperature occurs = condensation

True Vapour Pressure (T.V.P.)

The highest vapour pressure possible is the True Vapour Pressure. This is the
saturated vapour pressure when the gas to liquid ratio is effectively zero. It is the
highest vapour pressure possible at a given temperature and is a good indication of a
liquids ability to give off gas. However, it is difficult to measure without a detailed
knowledge of the molecular make up of the liquid in question. This is beyond the
scope of ships’ staff. From a practical view point ship operators require a means of
being able to give a reasonable indication as to whether a petroleum is likely to give
off vapour and as a means of comparing the vapour releasing properties of one
product compared to another. This is the Reid Vapour Pressure.

Reid Vapour Pressure (R.V.P.)

When wishing to do comparison it is necessary first to establish standard testing
conditions. Mr. Reid simply took a container, put a pressure gauge on it and heated up
the oil under test in the container to a standard temperature of 100oF (37.8oC). A
vapour to liquid ratio was specified in order to allow plenty of room for evaporation
to take place. Once the test temperature was reached the container was agitated to
bring about equilibrium conditions rapidly and the pressure on the gauge read to give
the R.V.P.

The test is still used today and the results usually included on load port
documentation.

5
 Reid Vapour Pressure Test Equipment

Thermometer Standard Test Conditions:

Pressure Gauge „ 4:1 Vapour to liquid ratio

„ 100oF (37.8oC)

Container „ Container agitated to

create equilibrium

Heat

It is useful for comparing the volatility of different products in a general kind of way,
i.e. the closer the R.V.P. is to atmospheric pressure (1 bar) the more gassy the cargo
will be. It is of little value in estimating the likely gas evolution in specific
circumstances due to variations from the standard test condition.

Other Factors Affecting Gas Evolution

For any given liquid the amount of evaporation will be dependent not only upon the
vapour pressure and temperature but also the following:

ƒ Surface area of the liquid. A small test tube of oil will give off less vapour than a
cargo tank containing the same oil because the surface area is less. It should be
noted that it is the surface area that is a determining factor and not the volume
since evaporation takes place from the surface and not the body of the liquid.
ƒ Vapour to liquid ratio. With a volatile liquid in a small container saturation will
occur quickly. In a cargo tank with a large ullage space (the space above the
liquid) saturation will take longer to occur. One of the reasons for this extended
time is that hydrocarbon vapour is generally denser than air and so will tend to
layer on the surface of the liquid. This layer may be saturated but any further
vapour will have to filter through the layer and move upwards into the remaining
space. This takes time.
ƒ Turbulence. If the liquid is agitated, for example by ship movement, then energy
will be imparted on the hydrocarbon molecules. There may be enough energy to
cause molecules on the surface of the liquid to break free and escape into the
vapour space.

6
Density of Hydrocarbon Vapour
If the density of air is considered to be 1.0 then it can be seen from the table shows
that most hydrocarbons are denser than air:
Substance Formula Density (Air = 1.0)
Methane CH4 0.50
Ethane C2 1.00
Propane C3 1.50
Butane C4 2.00
Pentane C5 2.50
For convenience only the number of carbon molecules have been shown.

The fact that hydrocarbon vapours are denser than air presents concern onboard ship
as they will tend to linger at the bottom of tanks, pumprooms etc. thus causing
problems in removing the vapour.

Flammability
Liquids cannot burn unless vapour is produced and so flammability is a function of
the ability to give off vapour. This is known as volatility but the measure of a liquids
flammability is its flashpoint.

Both are functions of temperature - the higher the temperature the more vapour is
given off. Flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off enough
vapour to form a flammable mixture in air when an external ignition source is applied

If a liquid is at a temperature below its flashpoint then there will not be enough
vapour to create a flammable atmosphere.

Flashpoint Test
There are two types of flashpoint test; the closed cup (c.c.) and the open cup (o.c.).
The test involves heating the liquid in a container and at regular intervals introducing
a flame to the surface of the liquid. The temperature at which the vapour first briefly
ignites (‘flashes’) is noted. This is the flashpoint temperature.

Flashpoint Test (Closed Cup)

Flame Source Lid

Liquid Level

Thermometer

Heat

The open cup test is similar except that there is no lid on the test apparatus. Slightly
different results will be obtained.

7
The flashpoint is important as it is the temperature at which a product becomes
flammable.

Combustion
In order for a fire to occur three things must be present at the same time:

ƒ Fuel – from cargo vapour

ƒ Oxygen – from air
ƒ Source of Ignition – generates heat
The above are commonly represented by the fire triangle.

Fuel Air (oxygen)

Fire

Heat

Even if all three factors are present the fuel / air mixture must be in the correct
proportions and there must be sufficient heat energy to create ignition.

Consider an empty cargo tank full of air into which is introduced hydrocarbon vapour.
Initially if an ignition source was applied nothing would happen because there is not
enough fuel in relation to the volume of air in the tank. If more vapour is introduced
eventually ignition could be achieved but the fire created would not be very efficient.
The point at which ignition first occurs is the Lower Flammable Limit (L.F.L.) and
occurs at about 1 percent by volume of hydrocarbon gas in air.

At about 4 to 5 percent by volume hydrocarbons the fire will be at its most efficient
and at about 10 to 11 percent by volume (for typical petroleums) the fire will be
extinguished because there will be too much hydrocarbon gas by volume in the air.
This point is known as the Upper Flammable Limit (U.F.L.).

FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM

10% U.F.L

Hydro- TOO RICH

Carbon
Gas Flammable
(%) INERT Flammable Range
Zone

1% L.F.L
TOO LEAN
0% 11% 21%
Oxygen

8
The region between the Lower and Upper Flammable Limits is known as the
Flammable Range. In air the flammable range is between about 1 and 10 percent by
volume hydrocarbon gas. If the oxygen content is reduced then the flammable range
decreases until at about 11 percent oxygen by volume there will be insufficient air to
sustain combustion. Any space with less than this oxygen content is described as
having an inert atmosphere.
If the atmosphere in the space is above the U.F.L the atmosphere is described as
being too rich and if it is below the L.F.L. then it is termed too lean.

The diagram shown is for most petroleums. Other substances, such as certain
chemicals, may have different flammable ranges. For example methanol has a range
of 6 to 36 percent.

It should be appreciated that the diagram is derived from laboratory tests where even
mixing of the gas / air mixture is achieved. In practice the atmosphere within a cargo
tank may have regions within the flammable zone and some outside of it.

It is the aim of safe tanker operations to maintain the atmosphere outside of the
flammable range at all times where possible.

Classification of Oil
The main source of reference for tanker safety is the International Safety Guide for
Oil Tankers and Terminals. This and other authoritative sources classify petroleums’
into two groups:

ƒ Volatile
ƒ Non – Volatile

Petroleums are classified into one of the two groups in relation to their flashpoint.
Those with a flashpoint below 60oC are volatile, those with a flashpoint of 60oC or
above are non-volatile.

The choice of 60oC is fairly arbitrary and has probably been chosen as it is above
ambient temperatures found any where in the world.

Certain operational procedures are relaxed concerning the carriage and handling of
non-volatile cargoes. It is therefore essential that these products do not become
contaminated with volatile substances.

It is important to remember that quoted flashpoints are for the liquid. If the liquid is
sprayed (for example spraying out from a small hole in a pipe) then the flashpoint
falls due to the specific surface area involved.

Fire Point
This is the temperature at which a substance will give off enough vapour to ignite and
stay alight when exposed to an external source of ignition. The fire point is typically
about 10oC above the flashpoint of the liquid.

9
Auto Ignition Temperature
Molecules breaking away from the surface of a liquid as a vapour have a certain
amount of energy which is proportional to the heat applied to the liquid. The greater
the heat applied the greater the rate of evaporation and hence the greater the energy
contained within vapour molecules. If a flammable liquid is heated sufficiently high
the energy contained will be high enough to ignite the vapour without an external
source of ignition being applied. This is the auto ignition temperature (A.I.T)

There is no direct connection between flashpoint and auto ignition temperature as the
following table shows:

Substance Typical Flashpoint Typical A.I.T

Gasoline - 46 oC +280 to 490 oC
Crude Oil - 15 oC +260 oC
Diesel + 71 oC +220 oC
Cooking Oil + 230 oC +270 oC

Note the closeness of the flashpoint and A.I.T for cooking oil. This is why fat fires in
the galley are quite common.

Toxicity
The other hazard associated with petroleum is the toxicity of the substance. The word
‘toxic’ means poison, it is therefore essential that cargo vapours do not enter the body.
There are three main routes of entry into the body:

ƒ By ingestion – swallowing
ƒ By inhalation – breathing the vapour
ƒ Intra Dermal – through the skin

Of the three, inhalation is the main problem. A crew-member is unlikely to swallow

the cargo. Coming into skin contact with oil is not generally a problem in the short
term. There is a possibility of suffering minor skin disorders such as dermatitis if the
skin is not cleaned thoroughly of oil traces. There is some concern about the long term
effects of prolonged working with fuel oil causing skin cancers.

Some poisons will act in the short term, these are acute poisons (i.e. cyanide,
hydrogen sulphide). Others act over a long time frame (lead, mercury, benzene) and
are termed chronic poisons.Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and
exposure can have acute and chronic effects. The table below shows the effects on the
average person to exposure to petroleum:
Concentration % L.F.L Effects
0.1% vol.(1000 ppm) 10% Irritation of eyes within 1 hour
0.2% vol.(2000 ppm) 20% Irritation of eyes, nose and throat, dizziness
and unsteadiness within ½ hour
0.7% vol.(7000 ppm) 70% Drunken symptoms within 15 minutes
1.0%vol.(10000 ppm) 100% Rapid onset of drunken symptoms, may
lead to unconsciousness and death if
exposure continues
2.0%vol.(20000 ppm) 200% Paralysis and death occur very rapidly

10
It can be seen that a relatively small concentration of petroleum vapour can have
serious consequences if inhaled

Exposure Limits
There are sets of standards established for concentrations of airborne substances based
on what it is thought humans can tolerate safely with no ill effects for an 8 hour
working day, every day. These are known as Time Weighted Averages.

There are a number of terms in use that deal with aspects of exposure:
ƒ Occupational Exposure Limit (O.E.L.). There are two types; long term ( 8 hour
T.W.A.) and short term. The latter being a 15 minute one off exposure at a higher
level.

O.E.L’s are set at such a level that, based on current scientific knowledge, that they
will not damage a worker through inhalation day after day.

ƒ Maximum Exposure Limit / Personal Exposure Limit ( M.E.L./ P.E.L). These are
given for substances that cause the most harm to health and for which ‘safe’ levels
of exposure cannot be ascertained or are unachievable

In the U.K. the standards and limits are set by the Health and Safety Executive and are
published annually. The limits are usually stated in terms of parts per million (ppm)
and it should be remembered that they are guidelines only, are subject to change, and
so cannot be taken as a definitive line between safe and unsafe levels.

The O.E.L. of petroleum is currently 300 ppm.

Toxicity of specific Components of Petroleum

Crude oil and petroleum mixtures are a combination of different components that, in
totality, give that substance its characteristics. For example crude oil is a mixture of
long and short chain hydrocarbons, sulphur compounds, hydrogen sulphide etc.

Certain refined products, for example motor gasoline will not generally contain
sulphur compounds but will contain benzene and additives such as methyl tert.Butyl
ether (m.t.b.e) which is used to enhance performance.

Heavy fuel oils will contain sulphur ( 3.5% by weight maximum ).

Cargo tanks that have contained inert gas and been subsequently gas freed may
contain traces of the products of combustion since inert gas is derived from the
exhaust of boilers that burn a fuel in air mixture. There may be carbon dioxide,
sulphur dioxide / trioxide and nitrogen oxides.

11
Gas Freeing

Introduction
Irrespective of whether a vessel is operating in an inerted condition or without, it may
be necessary to gas free the cargo tanks for entry purposes to carry out repairs or for
inspection purposes. The procedures followed will depend upon the equipment
available and the design of the ship.

One of the simplest and effective methods of gas freeing is to fill the tank concerned
with ballast water and then empty it whilst ventilating with air, but this may not be
practicable. A more efficient method is to use ventilation fans of some description.

If the ship is equipped for inert gas operations then the IG plant can be used by
opening the air intake and directing the gas through the IG lines to the tanks.
Alternatively portable air or water driven fans placed over an appropriate deck
opening.

Some ships are equipped with fixed fans that direct air through the cargo lines. It is
essential that cargo lines are completely drained of liquids prior to using for
ventilation purposes.

Most hydrocarbon gases are denser than air and therefore will collect at the bottom of
the tank. Whichever ventilation process is used there must be a rapid throughput of
air, a good velocity of the input air must be achieved and an adequate exhaust path
achieved.

The input air may go in at the top of the tank via the IG inlet or bottom of the tank via
the cargo lines, depending upon the arrangements on the ship. The exhaust
arrangements may be directly out of the top of the tank via a vent pipe, or a purge
pipe extending to the bottom of the tank.

Displacement & Dilution

There are essentially two means of gas freeing a tank; by mixing the tank atmosphere
with the incoming air (dilution) or by displacing the tank atmosphere slowly with the
incoming air (displacement). The former relies on a high input velocity to create
mixing, the latter a slow input velocity to maintain the interface between the air and
tank atmosphere. This is illustrated in Fig.3.

12
 GAS FREEING ARRANGEMENTS

(1) Dilution (2) Displacement

Purge pipe

Interface

ƒ Dilution method relies on high inlet velocity to achieve mixing. A purge

pipe may be used
ƒ Displacement requires slow inlet velocity to maintain interface. A purge
pipe is essential
ƒ The inlet path and exhaust path should be as far apart as possible

Fig.3

The dilution method is convenient for gas freeing an individual tank, since a high
velocity can be maintained. A number of atmosphere changes are normally required.

If a number of tanks require gas freeing then the displacement method may be
preferred. With a number of tanks open the inlet velocity will be low. This is
necessary to maintain the interface between the two atmospheres. In theory only one
atmosphere change is required, practically two are required due to mixing at the
interface.
.
Monitoring Atmospheres
Whichever method of gas freeing is used the tank atmosphere must be monitored.
This is by means of portable instruments. There are three aspects of an ‘atmosphere’
that need to be measured:

1. Oxygen content
2. Hydrocarbon gas content
3. Toxic gases

There are many types of instrument available, the following are commonly used:
ƒ Combustible Gas Indicators for measuring the percentage of the Lower
Flammable Limit
ƒ Hydrocarbon meters for measuring hydrocarbon contents above the LFL
ƒ Oxygen analysers for checking the oxygen content of an atmosphere
ƒ Toxic gas detectors

13
Combustible Gas Indicators
Often known as ‘Explosimeters’. The instrument draws a sample of the atmosphere
over a catalytic filament or ceramic pellet (‘pellistor’) that is heated by an electrical
current. The hydrocarbon gas oxidises and raises the temperature of the filament, this
results in an electrical resistance change in the circuit that is proportional to the
hydrocarbon gas concentration.

The meter must be zeroed in

fresh air before exposure to a
hydrocarbon atmosphere

Products of combustion can

contaminate the filament.
Regular calibration must be
carried out.

If the hydrocarbon content being

measured is over-rich oxidation
does not occur. It is imperative
that the user watches the needle on the scale constantly as if the device becomes
poisoned full scale deflection of the needle will occur, it will then settle on the zero
mark. This could lead to a false assumption as to the condition of the atmosphere.

A combustible gas indicator can not be used in an inerted atmosphere since it relies on
an oxidisation process.

Hydrocarbon meters
With the introduction of inert gas as a safety measure on tankers a means of testing
the tank atmosphere that did not rely on an oxidising process is required. Essentially a
cooling process is used for the measuring filament. Hydrocarbon gas conducts heat
more efficiently than air and as the sample is drawn across the filament it becomes
cooler than a reference filament. This changes the resistance.

A hydrocarbon meter (often termed a ‘Gascope’) can be used in an inerted

atmosphere and typically measures the percentage volume of hydrocarbon gas, with a
broad and narrow scale choice being given.
Oxygen Analysers
Various methods are used to measure oxygen content. One of the most common types
of instrument use paramagnetic sensors. Oxygen is an almost unique gas in that it
possesses magnetic properties. A measuring cell containing two minute spheres of
oxygen is suspended in a non-uniform magnetic field and is deflected. The gas sample
is passed through the
cell and further
deflection takes place
proportional to the
oxygen content of the
sample. An electrical
feedback coil opposes
the deflection. This
equalising current is a

14
measure of the magnetic force imposed by the oxygen content of the sample and can
be measured.

Toxic Gas Detectors

There is no single instrument that can test an atmosphere and detect all toxic gases
present. The user must decide which gases to test for. On crude oil tankers it will be
necessary to test for hydrogen sulphide, on product tankers benzene may be present.
Chemical tankers will require testing for traces of the particular chemical previously
carried in the specific tank being tested.

Most toxic gas

detectors consist of an
aspiration unit (bellows
type) into which is
inserted a detector tube.
The tubes are made of
glass and contain
chemically treated crystals that only react to a particular substance. Instructions
contained with the tubes state how many aspirations of the unit are required. The
tubes have a shelf life, normally 24 months and can only be used once.

Calibration and Testing of Instruments

It is essential that all instruments used for measuring an atmosphere give accurate
measurements. They must be checked before use in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.

Most instruments require zeroing immediately prior to use. This is achieved by

balancing an electrical circuit to align the scale needle to the zero mark. However
oxygen analysers are designed to measure oxygen in air, normally 21%. To zero these
instruments they must be calibrated with oxygen free gas such as pure nitrogen. The
nitrogen for calibration is supplied in pressurised cans. Calibration need not be done
prior to every use of the instrument but at regular intervals (say weekly).

Oxygen analysers also require spanning to check needle deflection to 21% oxygen.
Use fresh air.

Most instruments contain filters that require checking. If the filters become blocked
the gas cannot pass to the measuring cell readily.

Order of Testing
When dealing with potentially dangerous spaces the biggest killer is lack of oxygen, it
therefore makes sense for this to be the first test carried out. Anything less than 21%
oxygen means the atmosphere is deficient and for tank entry purposes a reading of
between 20 and 21 percent is required. Another reason for checking the oxygen
content first is that combustible gas indicators will not work in an oxygen deficient
atmosphere.

Flammable gases should be tested for next. Less than 1% LFL is required for tank
entry purposes.

15
Lastly, toxic gases are tested for. The safe level for a specific substance can be
referenced in publications issued by competent authorities such as the Health and
Safety Executive.

Minaturisation has enabled multi-function instruments to be commonly used i.e. the

Draeger Multiwarn, illustrated below . The principle of operation of the various
functions is the same as outlined earlier. The Multiwarn can measure oxygen,
hydrocarbon content (percentage volume and percentage LEL and up to three other
gases (typically H2S, CO2 and CO)

Conclusion
Approximately 20 seafarers a year worldwide are killed by oxygen deficiency. It is
probably the most preventable cause of death on board ship. Correct entry procedures
and correct use of instruments ensures a safe outcome to entering enclosed spaces.

16
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1
This chapter summary may be useful for revision once the main body of the text has
been studied. It covers the main points.

The Hydrocarbon Chain

ƒ Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrogen and carbon molecules
ƒ The simplest hydrocarbon is methane
ƒ Hydrocarbon molecules join together to form chains
ƒ Those chains of less than five carbon molecules exist as gases
ƒ Those chains between five and twenty carbon molecules normally exist as liquids
ƒ Over twenty carbon molecules the substance will normally be a solid
ƒ Hydrocarbon molecules can form into chains of different shapes. This will give
substances with the same carbon count different characteristics.

The Hazards of Petroleum

Volatility
ƒ It is the vapour given off from a substance that burns, not the substance itself
ƒ Vapour is given off by the evaporation process
ƒ Condensation is the reverse process to evaporation
ƒ When evaporation equals condensation then saturation conditions exist
ƒ The pressure exerted when saturation occurs is the saturated vapour pressure
(SVP)
ƒ If the SVP equals atmospheric pressure (approximately 1 bar) then the liquid will
boil
ƒ Evaporation takes place from the liquid surface, boiling occurs from within the
liquid
ƒ Volatile substances evaporate rapidly, non-volatile substances slowly
ƒ Evaporation is affected by:

(i) Temperature
(ii) Surface Area
(iii) Liquid to vapour ratio
(iv) Turbulence

ƒ True vapour pressure (TVP) is the highest pressure possible but is difficult to
calculate
ƒ Reid Vapour pressure (RVP) is a useful test for comparing the volatility of
different products but does not give an indication of the likely vapour generation
within a cargo tank
ƒ Hydrocarbon vapour is generally denser than air

Flammability
ƒ Flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which a substance gives off enough vapour
to briefly ignite when an external source of ignition is applied
ƒ Flashpoint is a measure of a substances flammability
ƒ Flashpoint dictates when a liquid is becoming flammable
ƒ Tanker cargoes are classified as volatile or non-volatile according to their
flashpoint
ƒ If the flashpoint is below 60oC then the substance is volatile

17
ƒ If the flashpoint is 60oC or above it is non-volatile
ƒ The auto ignition temperature (A.I.T.) is the temperature at which a substance will
ignite without the application of an external ignition source
ƒ There is no direct correlation between flashpoint and auto ignition temperature

Combustion
ƒ Three things are required for a fire to occur; fuel, oxygen and heat
ƒ The combination of these must be in the correct proportion to create a fire:

(i) Oxygen: 11 to 21% by volume

(ii) Fuel (petroleum gas): 1 – 10% by volume
(iii) Sufficient heat energy

ƒ The Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) is the lowest concentration of hydrocarbon

gas in air to support combustion
ƒ The Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) is the highest concentration of hydrocarbon
gas in air to support combustion
ƒ The region between the LFL and UFL is known as the Flammable Range
ƒ The region within which combustion can take place is known as the Flammable
Zone
ƒ The region above the UFL is termed Too Rich
ƒ The region below the LFL is termed Too Lean
ƒ The region below 11% oxygen by volume is termed Inert
ƒ Substances other than petroleum may have different flammable ranges

Toxicity
ƒ Toxic means poisonous
ƒ There are three main routes of entry for toxic substances into the body:

(i) ingestion
(ii) inhalation
(iii) through the skin

ƒ Inhalation of cargo vapour is the main problem

ƒ Poisons either act in the short term (acute) or long term (chronic)
ƒ Petroleum may contain hydrogen sulphide (acute) or benzene (chronic)
ƒ Occupational Exposure Limits are given for substances to ensure a safe working
environment

Gas Freeing
ƒ Gas freeing is required to create safe tank atmospheres for cleaning or entry
purposes
ƒ Gas freeing can be carried out using portable fans, or directing fresh air through
the inert gas plant or cargo pipelines
ƒ Tanks can use the dilution or displacement method of gas freeing cargo tanks
ƒ The dilution method relies on a high air input velocity to create mixing
ƒ The displacement method relies on a low air input velocity to maintain the
interface between the incoming air and the displaced tank atmosphere
ƒ To achieve efficient gas freeing there must be a rapid throughput of air. This
requires an inlet and an outlet path

18
ƒ Full length purge pipes are some times used, especially when using the
displacement method

Monitoring atmospheres
ƒ Tank atmospheres must be monitored for oxygen content, hydrocarbon levels and
the presence of toxic gases
ƒ Combustible gas indicators (‘Explosimeters’) are used to measure the
hydrocarbon content as a percentage of the lower flammable limit
ƒ Hydrocarbon meters measure hydrocarbon contents above the LFL
ƒ Combustible gas indicators cannot be used in oxygen deficient atmospheres
ƒ A common type of oxygen analyser relies on the magnetic property of oxygen to
cause deflection of the needle on the scale
ƒ Toxic gas detectors rely on an aspiration unit into which is placed a glass tube
containing reactive crystals
ƒ The crystals only react to the specific substance being tested for
ƒ All instruments need to be calibrated at frequent intervals
ƒ A tank atmosphere should be tested in the following order: oxygen content,
hydrocarbon level and finally for toxic gases

19
Chapter 2

Static Electricity
Introduction
In the 1950’s, 60’s and 70’s a number of explosions occurred in tankers due to static
electricity. One of the worst periods was over a two week period in December 1969
when three VLCC’s exploded following which inert gas was introduced as an
operating concept on tankers.

Static electricity is a naturally occurring phenomenon that can be controlled but is

difficult to eliminate entirely. This section will explain how it occurs and the
precautions to be taken to avoid static electricity igniting a flammable atmosphere.

Creating a Static Charge

The word static is short for electrostatic and is used to differentiate between this type
of electricity and that produced by a current flow as found in an electric light circuit.

Perversely the problem with static electricity is dependent upon a movement of

electrons.

All materials contain an equal number of positive and negative charges. Normally
these charges are evenly distributed throughout the material. An electrostatic charge
occurs whenever this even distribution of positive and negative charges takes place.

If two dissimilar materials, for example oil in a steel pipeline, are bought into contact
with each other there will be a transfer of electrons between the two. As long as there
is no movement between the materials a state of equilibrium will exist despite the
electron flow between the two.

The electrical charging process happens at the interface between the two materials. A
layer of charges attaches to the interface and another oppositely charged layer just
inside the interface. This is known as the ‘electric double layer’.

Electric Double Layer 1

20
When the materials are separated, for example if oil flows through a pipeline the
charges (positive and negative) at the interface are also separated but they want to re-
combine to their original pairing and in doing so a voltage is created.
If there is a convenient pathway an electrical current may result. The voltage
produced may be sufficiently large to create an incendive spark.

It may be that the positive charge is nearest the boundary depending on the materials
involved.

There are three criteria that must be fulfilled in order for a static spark to take place:

1. SEPARATION
2. ACCUMULATION
3. DISCHARGE

Separation
When the two materials are stationary and in contact with each other a potential
difference exists but it is very small. When the charges are physically separated the
voltage increases, the greater the separation the greater the voltage. The space around
the charges also becomes charged. This is known as an electrostatic field. Some
research has suggested that the electric field strength must exceed a value of about
30000 Volts (30 kV) for a spark to occur. Up to this value the surrounding air acts as
an insulator.

The analogy of oil passing through a pipeline has been used to describe the static
process but there are a number of other circumstances on a tanker that create a static
electricity hazard:

ƒ Settling of solid particles within a liquid

ƒ Breaking up of a liquid column in free fall
ƒ Bubbling of gas through a liquid
ƒ Tank cleaning jets disturbing oil residues
ƒ Steam in a pipe
ƒ Discharging CO2 through a pipe
ƒ Inert Gas
ƒ Running a man-made fibre rope through rubber gloves

The above list is not exhaustive.

Repeated joining and separation, such as when two materials are rubbing together,
increases voltages.

21
Accumulation
The electrical charges separate quite easily and want to recombine. If the charges
recombine very quickly there is no time for the voltages produced to accumulate. The
problem starts when the voltages build up in one of the materials and the charge takes
an appreciable time to decay.

The electrical conductivity of the material dictates the decay or relaxation time. A
conductive material will let the charge pass through it quickly and so accumulation is
low. Conversely a non-conductive material maintains the charge and so will take a
longer time to decay.

Remember that the voltage needs a path to discharge. If a refinery produced a product
that was completely free of impurities then no significant static charge would be
generated. This is because pure hydrocarbon molecules are so tightly bound and
balanced within them selves that charge separation is difficult. It is the trace
impurities found in commercial products’ which allows a charge to develop.

A substance that has a lot of impurities such as crude oil or fuel oil offers a very
effective pathway for any charge to dissipate. Those products that have only a few
impurities, for example jet fuel, have a poor pathway and so any charge is allowed to
build up. They have a high relaxation time.

Discharge
The next point to consider is whether a spark from an electrostatic discharge is high
enough to ignite a flammable atmosphere. There are two types of discharge
encountered:

ƒ Single Electrode (or Corona) discharge

ƒ Double Electrode

The single electrode discharge is rarely incendive in normal tanker operations. In

theory if the liquid has an electrical charge and the tank has a zero or opposite charge
then a spark could occur, but in practice the surface area of the liquid is large which
does not allow the charge to be focused and the heaviest charge density will be in the
centre of the liquid, away from the tank bulkheads.

The double electrode is more dangerous and is so called as it involves the discharge of
electrical energy between two conductors, which are close together. For example a
metal sounding rod approaching an electrically charged cargo surface.

The two types of discharge can be compared to sheet and forked lightning during a
thunderstorm. Although the voltages involved are extremely high it is the forked
lightning that is the more dangerous as the charge is focused at the point of discharge.
A review of tanker accidents attributed to electrostatic discharge show that in the
majority of cases a foreign object (sounding rod, tank cleaning machine etc.) was
present in the tanks where the explosion occurred.

22
Precautions Against Static Electricity

Liquid Flow
The faster the flow of a liquid through a pipe then the greater the separation. However
the separation process will not continue indefinitely as after a certain length of pipe
(30 to 50 metres) the increasing charge density is enough to drive them back to the
pipe wall as fast as they are being separated. Once this point has been reached in a
pipeline of constant cross section no further charging can take place.

For cargoes that are static accumulators such as clean products it is important to
restrict the flow during the early stages of loading to less than 1 metre per second (400
metres cubed per hour for a 400 mm diameter pipe). This is done for two reasons:

1. When a tank is first filled there is more likelihood of water being mixed with
oil. Oily water mixtures can generate a large static charge
2. Initial slow loading reduces turbulence in the tank thereby reducing separation
and also vapour generation. Any water will also settle out more quickly.

Additionally anti-static additive (ASA) may be put into the cargo. This was developed
initially for the airline industry and is often used in the product trade by refineries.
Anti-static additive provides metal ions for the cargo to give it good electrical
conductivity and reduces the relaxation time. ISGOTT does not allow any relaxation
of operational procedures if ASA is used.

Dipping, Ullaging and Sampling Tanks

Restrictions on dipping, ullaging and sampling are necessary as these are foreign
objects being introduced into a tank and so could act as one part of a double electrode
discharge.
The following explains a number of scenarios where there is a hazard:

1. Insulated metal sounding tape

ƒ The metal tape is being held

clear of the ullage port lip and
the person using the tape is
insulated from the deck by his
Sounding tape shoes and paint layers on the
deck.
ƒ The oil is electrically charged
Electrically charged oil and flows up the tape.
ƒ If the tape is now bought nearer
to the ullage port lip a spark
could occur, possibly igniting a
flammable atmosphere Fig.3

23
2. Grounded Ullage Tape ƒ The metal sounding tape is
earthed by contact with the
steel of the ullage port and is
lowered towards the charged oil
ƒ The centre of the oil will have
Metal sounding the greatest charge density
Tape whereas the tape, because it is
earthed ,will have a zero charge
ƒ As the end of the tape
approaches the oil surface the
potential difference may create
Electrically charged oil a spark

Fig.4

3. Free Floating Objects

Experiments carried out in shore tanks show that there is a real risk from metallic
objects freely floating on an oil surface. For example, a metal sampling can will
quickly pick up any electrical charge of the oil. If the object then floats across to the
side of the tank and a potential difference exists between the two a spark can occur.

4. Unbonded Flanges

Steam ƒ Steam hose flanges are not

Hose electrically bonded
ƒ Steam droplets become
Metal Flanges charged with an opposite
charge being left on the
flanges
Ladder Cargo Tank ƒ If the charged flange
contacts a metallic part of
Steam the tank (i.e. ladders) a
potential difference will
exist, creating a spark

N.B. Steaming is only allowed if there is no possibility of a

flammable atmosphere occurring – ISGOTT advice
Fig.5

It is imperative that any pipelines or hoses used on tankers have electrical

continuity. This is bonding and means connecting two objects by a cable or strap to
maintain electrical continuity. Tank cleaning hoses must be checked for electrical
continuity before use.

24
Bonding and Earthing
Grounding or earthing means electrically connecting equipment to the main body of
the ship structure to provide a path to ‘earth’ for electricity. In a ships case the 'earth'
is the sea. A steel ship floating in water is as well earthed as any metal structure on
land. Even a perfect paint surface on the hull will allow electricity to pass and it has
been found that a ships electrical resistance to ‘earth’ is a fraction of an ohm.

It is important that when a ship is connected to the shore by cargo arms or hoses that
these connections are bonded to prevent a static build up. However the bonding wire
allows any stray electrical current generated by the jetty cathodic protection system to
flow. If the hose connection is broken there is the possibility that a spark could occur.
This problem is resolved by fitting an insulating flange to the jetty side of the cargo
connection. The insulating flange is made of high electrical resistance material and
blocks the current flow, whilst the bonding wire dissipates the static charge.

Electrostatically Charged Mist

An electrostatically charged mist is created through the disturbance of a charged
substance into a mist. For example a tank cleaning machines water may disturb oil
puddles on the tank bottom thereby creating a fine mist in the tank atmosphere which
is electrically charged. If an insulated probe is then introduced into the tank sparking
can occur between the mist and the probe.

Conclusion
Chapter 7 of ISGOTT details the precautions to be taken in handling static
accumulator cargoes and specifically when sounding tanks. Certain operations such as
loading of cargo or tank cleaning may require the use of unearthed metallic equipment
to be restricted during and after the operation if the ship is not inerted. The time lapse
varies from 30 minutes to five hours and is deemed to be sufficient to allow charge
decay to drop to a safe charge level

If ships’ cargo tanks are inerted then ignition of a flammable atmosphere cannot
occur. Static electricity is still taking place but the air side of the fire triangle has been
removed.

An inerted atmosphere is best – when a tank is maintained in an inerted atmosphere

no anti-static precautions are necessary.

25
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2

Static Electricity
ƒ Large voltages can be produced by static electricity
ƒ Two dissimilar materials coming into contact with each other create static charges.
An electric double layer is created
ƒ Large static charges are created when the materials are then separated
ƒ Separation occurs with movement of the materials
ƒ Accumulation of the charge depends on the level of impurities. The more the
number of impurities the easier the charge decays or relaxes
ƒ Clean oil products have fewer impurities than dark oils and so are static
accumulates.
ƒ The charge decays with time
ƒ The accumulated charge must be discharged to create a spark
ƒ A double electrode discharge is more dangerous than a single electrode discharge
as the discharge is more focused

Precautions against Static Electricity

ƒ Reduce initial flow rates for static accumulator cargoes – less than 1 m/sec
ƒ Metal sounding tapes should be grounded to the ships structure before inserting
into tanks
ƒ Metal flanges on lengths of hose or pipelines should be bonded electrically by
means of a wire
ƒ Precautions against inserting metallic equipment into cargo tanks should be taken
for a period of time which varies from 30 minutes to five hours (see ISGOTT)
ƒ Electro-statically charged mists can be created by agitating oil in cargo tanks
ƒ Operating in inerted conditions avoids a static charge igniting a flammable
atmosphere

26
Chapter 3

Cargo Handling Systems

Introduction
In this chapter the design of oil tankers is looked at in more detail. A tankers cargo is
carried in separate tanks, sub-dividing the ship longitudinally and transversely; this
gives segregation to the cargo and strength to the ship structure. Ballasting
arrangements have changed in recent years, from older ships where ballast is put in
empty cargo tanks to modern double hull arrangements. Depending on the trade the
ship has been designed for there will be a pipe line system of varying complexity.
Similarly the pumping arrangements will vary and the different pump types will be
examined.

Other functions of the cargo handling system include control of the atmosphere in the
cargo tanks is controlled to prevent over and under pressurisation of the tanks. A new
development in this matter is the new Annex VI to Marpol that deals with air
pollution. Within the next few years oil tankers will have to use vapour recovery
systems when loading certain (yet to be decided) cargoes. An overview of this subject
will be given.

General Layout of an Oil Tanker

Tankers may have a single or double hull layout. The former are known as
‘conventional ‘ tankers and have their cargo tanks sub-divided longitudinally and
transversely into centre tanks and wing tanks. The capacity of a pair of wing tanks is
approximately equal to that of the corresponding centre tanks. This arrangement is
still around and will remain so for about the five years until they are phased out in
preference to double hull tankers. The latter is mandatory for ‘new’ tankers built after
1994 under the pollution legislation, MARPOL.

SINGLE HULL TANKER LAYOUT

Slop Tanks Wing Tanks

Pumproom

Centre Tanks
ƒ Slop tanks are used for collecting oil
residues during tank cleaning. They
may also be used for carrying cargo.
Midships Section
Fig.1

Double hull tankers also offer a degree of protection against collision and stranding
damage by protectively locating the cargo tanks.

27
 DOUBLE HULL TANKER

Cargo Tanks

Segregated Ballast Tanks

Fig.2

The degree of longitudinal sub-division of the cargo tanks will vary; earlier double
hull tankers will have none, newer and larger vessels will have one or two sub-
divisions. Most of the longitudinal strength members are located in the segregated
ballast tanks. This gives flush cargo tanks, which are easier to drain and clean.

Double hull tankers pose certain design and operational problems and will be
discussed more fully in chapter 7.

The number of cargo tanks will vary; crude oil tankers tend to have large tanks and so
correspondingly fewer of them. As crude is usually carried as a single grade the
pipeline system is fairly simple, two or three grades of crude may be carried and some
pipeline mixing will occur. This is acceptable. Product tankers will be smaller ships
but have relatively smaller tanks and more of them. This is necessary, as product
tankers must be able to carry a number of different grades, possibly five or six, at the
same time. The pipe line system is more complex as segregation between grades must
be maintained.

Chemical tankers are very sophisticated ships that carry a large number of different
chemicals that must be completely segregated from each other. Some tanks will be
separated by cofferdams and on more sophisticated ships each cargo tank will be
served by its own pump and pipeline. Chemical tankers will be looked at in some
detail in chapter 9.

Liquid gas carriers are specialist ships that maintain their cargoes in a liquid state by
either pressurisation or refrigeration or a combination of both. The cargo containment
will be discussed in chapter 10.

28
Pipeline Systems on Oil Tankers
There are three basic pipeline systems used on tankers: the direct line, ring main and
free flow. The actual layout on a particular ship will vary, depending on the ship
owner’s requirements and the type of cargo the ship will carry:

The function of the pipeline system is to direct the oil to and from the terminal and
within the cargo tanks. Valves located within the system control the flow of oil. The
interface between the ship and shore pipelines is termed the manifold and runs
athwartships, usually amidships. The actual connection is by means of flexible rubber
hoses or metal loading arms known as ‘Chiksans’. The number of hoses or arms
connected will affect the loading or discharge rate achieved but usually three or four
are available which matches the number of connections usually available on an oil
tanker.

THE SHIP TO SHORE CONNECTION - CHIKSANS

Apex Swivel

Counter weight

Ships Manifold Outboard swivel Riser

Shore
Line
Drop Lines Jetty

Chiksans offer a secure connection to the ships manifold. Modern systems use
hydraulic clamps rather than the conventional bolted flange. This allows fast de-
coupling in the event of an emergency. The Chiksans are designed specifically for
each berth and should allow for the range of movement vertically for the ships whilst
loading or discharging plus the range of tide experienced. They do not have a large
operating envelope in the fore and aft direction and so it is imperative that the ship is
maintained in position securely.

The alternative arrangement of connecting the ship to shore is by rubber hoses fitted
with flanged connections. It is important that such hoses are supported either by the
ships crane or shore crane to avoid ‘kinking’ and chaffing. Hoses should be marked
with the maximum pressure allowed and date of last pressure test.

The following paragraphs describe how the oil is directed to and from the cargo tanks.
It is important to know the correct terminology for the various sections of pipeline and
valves within the system

29
 SIMPLIFIED PIPELINE SYSTEM

Top Line Deck Master v/v

Pumproom Manifold
Riser Drop v/v

CargoTank Drop Line

Pump
Discharge v/v
Bottom Line

Bulkhead Master v/v

Cargo Pump Tank Suction v/v’s
Pump Suction v/v
= valve (v/v) Fig.4

Fig.4 shows a side elevation of a simple pipeline system. For the sake of clarity items
such as sea suction lines and overboard discharge valves have been omitted.

Considering Fig. 4 the following describes the oil flow for various operations carried
out.

Loading
Oil is stored at the terminal in cylindrical storage tanks or under ground caverns and
delivered to the ship via gravity or pumps through the shorelines, loading arm and
ships manifold to the top lines. From the top lines the cargo is directed through drop
lines into the bottom lines. The pumproom is isolated during loading by keeping the
deck master valve shut and also the pumproom bulkhead master valve. Some ships
however do load through the pumproom where pipeline sections by-pass the pumps.

From the bottom lines the cargo is directed to the required tank(s) via the tank suction
valves.

Discharging
Cargo flow is from the cargo tanks via the tank suction valves through the bottom
lines and pumproom bulkhead master valve, pump suction valve and into the cargo
pump. The pump suction and discharge valves must be open. The oil is discharged via
the pumproom riser to the top line and then ashore via the ships manifold. The
loading drop line valve must be kept shut during discharge.

30
Ballasting and De-ballasting
On older single hull tankers the cargo pumps and lines handle the majority of the
ship’s ballast (although some single hull tankers did have adequate segregated ballast
capacity). This has pollution implications as oil residues in the tanks and pipelines
may contaminate the water. Double hull tankers have separate systems for handling
cargo and ballast; this provides segregation and reduces the chance of pollution.

Seawater ballast is drawn to the pump(s) through sea – suction valves located in the
pumproom. Double valve segregation is provided to prevent leakage to the sea,
especially important if the ballast system is connected to the cargo system. The
operation of double hull tankers will be discussed in a later chapter.

Bottom Lines
The layout of the bottom lines will depend upon the trade the ship is to be operated in,
ship size and economic factors. There are three main variations of pipeline systems:

1. Direct Line. This is a popular design on modern crude tankers and less
sophisticated product tankers. It is so called since each of the bottom lines
(typically three) serves its own group of cargo tanks. This allows for, say, three
grades to be carried with total segregation. For vessels carrying a single grade the
bottom lines can be made common by opening the crossover valves between the
lines.

DIRECT LINE SYSTEM Key: = line valve

= crossover valve
1 2 3
= ballast tanks

Slop S

1 2 3 4 5 6
Slop
P

ƒ No.1 line serves tanks;1,3 and 5

ƒ No.2 line serves tanks;2 and 4
ƒ No.3 line serves tanks; 6 and the port and starboard slops

The lines can be made common by opening crossover valves between 1 & 2 and 2 & 3
lines.
Fig.5

31
2. Ring Main. (Fig.6) The ring main system is typically used on product tankers
where a high degree of segregation is required. This makes the system more
complex and hence more expensive. Great flexibility is achieved and usually any
of the ships cargo pumps can service any cargo tank. Crossover lines
interconnecting each side of the ‘loop’ and segregation valves on branch lines
achieve this.

Fig. 6

3. Free flow System. (Fig.7) This is a simple system that is found on some crude oil
tankers. Instead of relying on pipelines to direct the oil to the tanks a series of sluice
valves at adjoining tank bulkheads are fitted. Costs are therefore reduced. Cargo is
loaded via a simple ring main line. For discharging sluice valves located at adjoining
cargo tank bulkheads are opened. Oil flows from forward to aft and the cargo pump
suctions, located in the after most centre cargo tank, discharge the cargo via the deck
lines. As the cargo flows from one tank to the next mixing occurs, this system is
therefore only suitable for one or two grades of cargo such as crude oil. High
discharge rates are achievable and very little residues are left, this reduces the
stripping time at the end of discharge. Stripping is the term applied to the removal of
the small quantities of oil remaining after the main cargo pumps have discharged as
much of the cargo as possible. A separate stripping line is sometimes fitted.
As there is no segregated ballast capacity the vessel shown in Fig.7 must load dirty
ballast into some of the cargo tanks during or after discharge and arrive at the load
port with clean ballast, also in some of the cargo tanks. Normally, clean ballast will be
discharged from the centre tanks whilst concurrently loading cargo into the wing
tanks. On completion of loading the wing tanks the cargo is then loaded in the now
empty centre tanks. For discharging the procedure is reversed. Cargo is discharged
from the wing tanks first and then ballasted, following crude oil washing, with dirty
ballast.

32
 FREE FLOW SYSTEM Manifold

Deck Lines

Crossover v/v

Slop Tank

Pump:
No.1

No.2

No.3

No.4

Slop Tank

= Sluice valve n.b.certain line valves are not shown for clarity

Fig.7

Stripping Lines (Fig.8)

It used to be common practice for tankers to be fitted with separate stripping lines,
irrespective of the main pipeline system used. It is now common to use the main lines
for this purpose due to the advent of self-priming units fitted to main cargo pumps.
There will normally be a small diameter branch line in the tank called the stripping
suction that connects to the main cargo line. This will reduce the amount of gas drawn
into the lines whilst stripping and thereby ‘improve’ pump performance at low tank
levels
Fig.8 Suction Arrangements in Cargo Tanks

Main Cargo Line

Main tank Stripping suction &

suction & valve
valve

33
Cargo Pumping Systems

Introduction
A tanker must have the capability of discharging her cargo as well as handling ballast.
The type of pumps fitted will depend on the type of tanker. There is usually more than
one type of pump fitted in order to deal with the different stages of a pumping
operation i.e. bulk discharge where high pumping rates are required, and good suction
characteristics for removing the final residues (the ‘stripping’ process).

As tanker size has increased so has the requirement to increase pump size. A modern
day VLCC (very large crude carrier) is capable of pumping at 12000 m3 per hour.

A tanker officer must be familiar with the different characteristics of the pumps fitted
and this section aims to describe the main features of commonly found pump types.

Centrifugal Pumps
The majority of oil tankers are fitted with three or four centrifugal main cargo pumps.
They work by imparting energy to the liquid in the form of increased velocity.
Centrifugal force is imparted to the liquid by rotation of a single, or possibly double,
impeller rotating at about 1200 rpm. The velocity produced is converted to a
discharge pressure by slowing it down in a suitably shaped casing known as a volute.

The impeller blades are curved and operate to fine tolerances within the pump casing.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Discharge

Impeller eye

Rotation Plan view shown

Impeller blades

Volute casing

n.b. impeller blades have a

curved profile (not shown)
Inlet
Fig.8

34
The drive mechanism for the pump is via a drive shaft from the engine room into the
pump room. Pumps are usually steam driven from the ships boilers.

Advantages:
ƒ Capable of pumping large bulk quantities > 5000 m3/hour possible
ƒ Relatively compact size – allows for small pumprooms therefore larger cargo
carrying capacity

Disadvantages:
ƒ A major one – they are not good at handling gas/air/liquid mixtures. This can be
overcome to a certain extent by fitting a self-priming device.
ƒ Not good at creating pressures below atmospheric. This is not a problem when
discharging the bulk of the cargo as the head of oil in the tank exerts pressure on
the suction side. When the oil level is low in the tank (say, 1 to 2 metres at the
after end of the tank) the pump has to create its own vacuum. Centrifugal pumps
struggle to do this.

Centrifugal pumps are used as the main cargo pumps for bulk discharge. Other
pumps or systems that can create a good suction at low tank levels must supplement
them.

Positive Displacement Pumps

This type of pump which is also known as a reciprocating pump were the standard
main cargo pump for many years until the increase in ship size rendered them
redundant for this purpose. They are still used on oil tankers as stripping pumps.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT RECIPROCATING PUMP

Pistons
Oil Side Steam Side
Steam chamber

Linkage

Exhaust
Oil chamber Steam Chest

Suction Discharge Flap v/v’s

Fig.9

35
This pump is steam driven and consists of two pistons in separate chambers. Steam
forces the steam piston up. The linkage connecting the two pistons forces the oil
chamber piston to the left displacing the oil in the chamber out to the discharge pipe.
On the reverse stroke the oil piston moves to the left, creating a vacuum. This fills the
oil chamber with a volume of oil equal to the volume of the chamber. Flap valves
ensure the suction side is closed when the piston is on its discharge stroke and vice
versa.
The pump speed is slow, typically 30-35 double strokes per minute.

Advantages:
ƒ Simple construction, therefore easy maintenance
ƒ Very good suction characteristics

Disadvantages:
ƒ Not suitable for high flow rates. Hundreds rather than thousands of cubic metres
per hour. The pumping capacity is directly related to the size of the cylinders.
Huge dimensions would be required to achieve high rates.
ƒ Not good for pumping against high back pressures. May result in having to strip
internally to the slop tanks and using a centrifugal pump to discharge ashore from
there.

Positive displacement pumps are used as stripping pumps due to their good suction
characteristics at low volumes. Typically one or two will be fitted.

Submerged Pumps
Essentially these are centrifugal pumps, usually hydraulically driven, but have their
impeller located in the bottom of the tank. Typically they are found on chemical
tankers where total segregation is required. Each tank has its own pump,
load/discharge line and manifold connection.

SUBMERGED PUMP Load/disch. line

Drive unit
Line valve

Cargo Tank

Hydraulic
Power Pump
stack

Cofferdam Stripping
line

Motor
Fig.10

36
The hydraulic supply pipes into the tanks are contained in a cofferdam to avoid
contamination with the cargo in the event of leakage.

As the pumps are submerged in the cargo good stripping performance is achieved. An
additional small bore stripping line is provided to clear the pump stack of the last
remnants of cargo. Air or nitrogen is blown into the top of the stack and the cargo is
forced out through the small-bore line forward of the (closed) discharge valve.

Advantages:
ƒ Eliminates the need for a pumproom, so increased space available for cargo
ƒ If individual pumps and lines total segregation is achieved
ƒ Reduced piping in cargo tanks
ƒ Good stripping performance

Disadvantages:
ƒ Initial high installation costs
ƒ Bulk discharge rate may not be as high as with conventional centrifugal pumps

One obvious problem with submerged pumps is how to deal with a pump failure with
cargo still in the tank. This is addressed by supplying the ship with a portable pump
that can be lowered into the tank.

Eductors
Oil tankers are usually supplied with one or two eductors for stripping tanks during
discharge and also during tank cleaning.

An eductor is a pump that has no moving parts but relies on Bernoulli’s principle to
function. A suction is created by a constriction in part of the eductor. This increases
flow velocity and creates a low pressure (suction).

EDUCTOR
Low pressure Pipe constriction

Suction Discharge

Nozzle

Motive liquid
ƒ Eductors require a motive liquid(oil, water, steam, air)
ƒ The motive liquid and liquid being ‘pumped’ mix at the discharge
side
ƒ The nozzle and pipe constriction increases velocity creating a low
pressure on the suction side. Fig.11

37
Advantages:
ƒ No moving parts, hence reliable.
ƒ Simple construction.
ƒ Self – priming.

Disadvantages:
ƒ Requires a motive liquid to ‘drive’ it. During cargo discharge the two liquids
combine and so must be of the same grade.
ƒ Efficiency depends on driving pressure and low back pressure. Usually used for
internal stripping and not directly ashore.

Conclusion
A typical oil tanker will have a number of pump types; 3 to 4 centrifugal cargo pumps
for bulk discharge, 1 or 2 reciprocating pumps for stripping and 1 or 2 eductors, also
used for stripping.

Chemical tankers and gas carriers tend to have submerged pumps in each tank to
achieve total segregation.

A deck officer should become familiar with the capabilities and restrictions of
different pump types.

Practical Discharge Operations

Pumping Theory
A pump achieves suction by creating a pressure differential between the suction and
discharge side of the pump. Pressure is force per unit area i.e. kilograms per cm2. This
means the pressure of a 1 metre high column of fresh water (density 1000 kg/m2)
acting on an area of 1 m2 will be 1000 kilogram. If crude oil is considered (density
860 kg/m2) the pressure will be 860 kilograms / m2. As pressure varies with density is
easier to use units that do not rely on a variable such as density. The term ‘head’ is
used and is defined as the height of a column of liquid that would exert the desired
pressure at the base. A 10 metre column of crude oil will exert a pressure of 8600 kg
whereas a 10 metre column of salt water will exert a pressure of 1025 kg. Same head
but different pressure.

Atmospheric pressure will also be acting, as will inert gas pressure, and so the
pressure acting on the base of a column of oil will be the sum of the head of oil plus
atmospheric and inert gas pressure head. This is termed absolute pressure. If
atmospheric pressure is ignored then this is termed gauge pressure.

Pipeline Flow
Consider a ship lying alongside a terminal with the cargo-receiving tank ashore at a
height somewhat greater than sea level. The function of the pump is to deliver energy
to the liquid. The energy is used firstly in lifting the oil to the level of the shore tank
and secondly to overcome friction in the pipelines.

Assume the pump supplies a head of 100 metres and the shore tank is 15 metres above
the oil level in the ships tanks. This leaves 85 metres of head to overcome the friction
of oil in the pipelines.

38
Factors Affecting Pumping Performance
The following factors will affect the performance of a pump:

ƒ Type of flow - There are two distinct types, one where the oil flow is smooth and
orderly, such as occurs at moderate pumping speeds in straight lengths of constant
diameter pipe. This is known as streamline or laminar flow. The fastest flow is in
the middle of the pipe. Any friction loss is solely due to the friction between oil
molecules. The effect of pipe surface roughness or valve fittings is negligible.
This state seldom exists in practice.
ƒ Once a certain flow speed is reached the orderly pattern of flow becomes unstable
and starts to tumble and create eddy currents. This known as turbulent flow and
greater energy is consumed. With turbulent flow the roughness of the pipe is
significant and the effects of fittings greatly increase turbulence.

The change from laminar to turbulent flow is not instantaneous; there is a transition
phase.

ƒ Viscosity – this is the resistance of a liquid to flow and is due to molecular

attraction between molecules. If the viscosity of the liquid increases for the same
pump speed the output and pressure head fall off due to the greater internal
friction reducing the flow speed of the liquid. As viscosity varies with temperature
the only way to improve pumping performance is to heat the cargo.
ƒ Density – as density increases so does the power requirement to achieve a given
pressure head.

Practical Discharge Operations

All pumps must be used to their maximum advantage in order to minimise discharge
time. The number of pumps used depends on any restrictions imposed such as the
number and size of loading arms provided, the number and size of shore lines, number
and elevation of shore tanks. Any restrictions imposed by shore should be recorded
and a Letter of Protest issued.

If the ship is carrying a single grade and restrictions imposed are minimal then all
main cargo pumps should be used up to their maximum speed. The ship and
shorelines will have a maximum allowable working pressure imposed and this should
not be exceeded. The pressure can be measured on the discharge side of the pump and
at the ship’s manifold. Pressures should be recorded hourly in the port log book or
port performance record.

Once the ship’s pipeline system has been set up and emergency pump trips tested the
manifold valve(s) should be opened and pumping commenced slowly from one tank
only. With centrifugal pumps the tank valve and pump suction should be opened
before the pump is started. This allows the pump to be primed with cargo and will
avoid over-speeding at start up. The pump should then be started slowly with the
pump discharge valve shut. Slowly increase the pump speed and concurrently start to
open the pump discharge valve. The aim is to maintain a constant pressure during the
start up process. Once at a suitable speed it should be checked that oil is flowing from
the opened tank and being received ashore. The remaining tanks should be checked to
see there is no unexpected oil flow.

39
Once systems have been checked the remaining main cargo pumps can be bought on-
line. Bulk discharge should progress without too much adjustment of the pumps. It is
common practice to stagger the tank levels by partly closing in on tank valves. This is
done so that stripping operations are also staggered.

With a homogenous cargo the ship will naturally trim by the stern, which aids
stripping operations since the tank valves are located at the after end of each tank. As
the tank level approaches stripping levels (about 1-2 metres of cargo remaining at the
after end of the tank) the pump speed should be reduced to prevent air being sucked in
to the pump with the cargo. The discharge valve on the pump can also be partly
closed to create a back pressure. Only strip one tank at a time.

Unless the centrifugal main cargo pump is fitted with a self - stripping system at some
stage it will have to be closed down and the stripping pump or eductor used.

A positive displacement stripping pump should be operated at about 30 to 35 double

strokes per minute and it is vitally important that valves on the discharge side of the
pump are not shut whilst the pump is running. Severe damage will be caused to the
pump as the pressure created by the upward stroke of the piston will increase
infinitely. It is usual to strip from the tanks into the slop tanks and use a main cargo
pump to finally discharge ashore.

If eductors are used then a supply of driving oil must be available. This is usually
cargo from the slop tank. The suction side of the slop tank discharges, along with the
driving medium, back into the slop tank in a closed loop. The level in the slop tank
must be watched to avoid overflow. The slop tank can be partly discharged ashore at
intervals to prevent this.

Eductors can not be used to discharge the last cargo tank, as there will be no driving
oil remaining.

Prior to completion of stripping all cargo lines should be stripped out, and the slop
tank contents discharged ashore with a main cargo pump. Once the main pump cannot
discharge anymore from the slop tank the stripping pump should be used to discharge
the last quantity in the slop tank via the small bore discharge line (also known as the
Marpol line). This line is leads from the discharge side of the stripping pump to the
outboard side of the manifold, with the manifold valve shut it enables the last of the
cargo to be discharged without the use of the main cargo lines, which have been
previously stripped.

40
The Pumproom
At first glance a tankers pumproom appears to be a complex arrangement of pipes and
pumps. A deck officer serving on a tanker must become entirely familiar with the
pumproom. There is no easy way to do this, it is simply a matter of tracing the
different lines and valves and seeing what they do.

TYPICAL PUMPROOM (segregated ballast tanker)

Tank cleaning line
Marpol Line

Heater

Manifolds

Discharge
Crossovers.

Discharge
valves. To overboard
Eductor To slop tank
Cargo
Pumps
Stripping pump
Filters.
Suction
valves. From slop tank
Suction
crossovers.
Bilge suction
Sea Suc.

Sea suction

Bulkhead To / from ballast tanks

Master v/v’s
Segregated ballast pump
Emergency connection (cargo / ballast system)

N.B. for clarity some lines have not been shown, for example manifold crossovers,
marpol line valves to each manifold and the ballast line eductor.
Fig.12

In addition to the main cargo pumps, stripping pumps and eductors there will be a
tank-cleaning heater. This is a steam driven heater used for raising the temperature of
the water used for tank cleaning if required. Water is drawn from the sea suction with
a main cargo pump and diverted to the tank cleaning line and hence to the tank
cleaning machines either through the heater or bypassing it.

41
The emergency ballast connection shown is a spool piece and must not be connected
in normal operations. It is only fitted if there is a failure of the segregated ballast
pump or contamination of ballast water occurs, in which case a cargo pump must be
used for ballasting operations.

Extractor fans capable of 20 atmosphere changes per hour are fitted to remove cargo
vapours in the event of leakage (SOLAS requirement, Reg.59)

Ballasting Arrangements on Tankers

On oil tankers seawater is used for ballasting purposes. On single hull vessels the
ballast is put into certain cargo tanks once they have been discharged of their cargo.
On crude oil tankers the tanks will also have been crude oil washed. Ballast
introduced into these tanks is termed dirty ballast and will be contaminated to a
greater or lesser extent by any oil remaining following discharge of the cargo. Dirty
ballast could potentially cause pollution if discharged; which must inevitably occur
when the next cargo is loaded. In order to address this some of the vessels other cargo
tanks must be water washed during the ballast passage. This removes any oil residues
and so any seawater subsequently added will not be a pollution risk. This ballast is
termed clean ballast.

Once the clean ballast tanks have been cleaned ballast changing can take place; this
involves concurrently discharging the water part of the dirty ballast to sea and taking
on clean ballast into the designated tanks. The latter part of the dirty ballast is pumped
into the vessels slop tank in order to prevent sea pollution occurring.

Most large single hull tankers also have permanent ballast tanks. Typically permanent
ballast tanks are wing tanks located about mid-length and are filled during discharge
to relieve local stresses. Permanent ballast capacity is restricted and needs to be
supplemented by ballast carried in cargo tanks. Separate pumps and lines serve the
permanent ballast tanks. The fore peak and after peak are included within the term
permanent ballast. By definition permanent ballast is the same as segregated ballast.

On single hull tankers there is always a risk of pollution when handling the ballast.
Double hull tankers reduce this risk significantly. The double hull serves as the ships
ballast tanks and is termed segregated ballast. There is no direct connection between
the cargo and ballast systems and so pollution is avoided – except in the case of
leakage from a cargo tank into the double hull.

The quantity of ballast carried will vary between 30 and 40 percent of the vessels
summer deadweight, depending on the weather conditions anticipated. On double hull
tankers the ballast capacity is minimised (typically about 30 percent) in order to
maximise the cargo tank volume. If severe weather is anticipated then it may be
necessary to introduce ballast in a set of cargo tanks. If this is done the ballast so
introduced must be treated as dirty ballast and dealt with accordingly in order to avoid
pollution when it is discharged.

42
 BALLAST ARRANGEMENTS

Single Hull Tanker Double hull tanker

Cargo
tank
Cargo

Dirty ballast in some Clean ballast in some Cargo and ballast

Wing tanks centre tanks fully segregated

Segregated ballast tanks on single hull = ballast

Fig.13

Ballast Water Management

Tankers, as well as other ship types, require ballast when on the unladen voyage.
Within the ballast water will be a multitude of micro-organisms, which will also exist
within any sediment present in the ballast tanks.

These micro-organisms may not be particularly harmful in their host environments

but when transported across oceans and discharged in an alien environment may cause
havoc with the local ecology. Not all of the micro-organisms will survive, or be
harmful, but some may, and if they reproduce can overwhelm and even destroy the
local marine environment.

Examples of Invasive Species

Species Location Notes
Zebra Mussel Great Lakes Introduced during the 1980’s from
a fresh water source in Europe.
Causes hull fouling & clogging of
industrial pipelines. Estimated to
cause $US.20 m damage a year
Northern Pacific Seastar Tasmania The seastar has nearly wiped out a
variety of shellfish & is affecting
the Tasmanian fishing industry
Comb Jellyfish Black Sea Estimate $US250 million of
damage to the fisheries in the area
Dinoflagillates (toxic) Australia Responsible for ‘Red Tides’ &
outbreaks of paralytic shellfish
poisoning

(Table courtesy of Intertanko)

43
It has been estimated by IMO that shipping annually transports some 10 billion tonnes
of ballast water.

IMO has been directed by the United Nations to address this problem and come up
with means to minimise the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens.
Guidelines have been produced and are the forerunner to an International Convention
for the Control and Management of Ship’s Ballast Water & Sediment. The
convedntion has been adopted and will enter into force in 2008 for new ships and
phased in thereafter for existing ships (2008-2015).

The guidelines address the control and management of ballast and have been adopted
by shipping organisations such as Intertanko and OCIMF.

Various countries (Australia, Canada, USA etc.) have already introduced National
legislation requiring mid-ocean ballast exchanges.There are serious problems to be
overcome in order to ensure ballast water is ‘safe’ to be discharged. The methods to
be used are either by ballast exchange or ballast treatment. Both have their own
problems from an operational viewpoint and are itemised below.
Method Efficiency Description
Ballast Water 95% Presently the most practical method but concerns about
Exchange how this can be done safely in the open sea with regard to
seaworthiness & stresses on the ship structure. Two
methods:
• Sequential Exchange:
Ballast tanks purged of the original ballast and refilled
with mid-ocean ballast.
• Flow-through Exchange:
Tanks are flushed through with mid-ocean ballast that
displaces departure port ballast via air-pipes & access
hatches. Flushing with 3 tank volumes achieves about 95%
exchange.

Fresh Water Ballast 100% This idea has not been progressed but by taking fresh
water ballast it could be discharged ashore and used in the
load ports industrial and social infrastructure
Heat Treatment >98% Heated salt water from the ships main engine cooling
water system is re-routed to the ballast tanks, killing off
the organisms. Has proved successful in trials but concerns
about the corrosive aspects of using hot water
Filtration 82-95% Filters placed over sea suctions. Tests used different sized
mesh with some success but ballast loading rates
inevitably reduced. A secondary treatment such as ultra
violet or heat would probably be required to eliminate
bacteria and viruses.
One benefit is that less mud / sediment is taken on board.
Hydrocyclones 95-100% Centrifugal separators are used backed up worth secondary
UV treatment. Would cost about $US2.5 million per ship,
so may be unattractive to owners but have been proven in
offshore installations for a number of years.
Bio-degradable 75-97% Currently being developed in Germany. Approximately 50
chemicals litres per 1000 tonnes of ballast water would be required
Electro-chemical 95% Low electrical power is applied to the ballast water as it
control passes through porous graphite electrodes. Not seriously
tested at present

44
Conclusion
Whichever method of treatment is used it must be:
• Safe
• Cost effective
• Environmentally acceptable
• Workable

Currently the most practicable option is Ballast Water Exchange in mid-ocean with its
attendant problems regarding seaworthiness and stresses on the ship structure.

IMO & Future Legislation

Timeline:
ƒ 2004 Diplomatic Conference held that adopted the International
Convention for the Control & Management of Ship’s Ballast Water and
Sediment
ƒ All ships will have to carry a Ballast Water Record Book and carry out
ballast water management to a given standard
ƒ 2009 – Convention enters Into Force (subject to ratification)
ƒ 2009-2015 – Phase in for existing ships
ƒ Beyond 2015 – No more Ballast Water Exchange

More details can be obtained from: www.imo.org/home.asp and click on the ballast
water management link.

45
Summary of Chapter 3
The main points of the topics covered in chapter 3 are included as an aid to revision

General Layout of Tankers

• Single hull tankers are sub-divided longitudinally and transversely into centre
tanks and wing tanks for the carriage of cargo.
• Double hull tankers protectively locate the cargo tanks by surrounding them with
double bottoms and side tanks. Tankers built after 1994 must have this
arrangement under Marpol regulations (some exceptions).
• The number of cargo tanks varies depending upon ship type. Crude carriers have
relatively few; product and chemical tankers have more due to the extra
segregation requirements between grades and the size of parcels carried.

Pipeline Systems on Oil Tankers

• Flexible hoses or ‘Chiksan’ loading arms connected to the ships manifold
achieves the connection between ship and shore at the terminal.
• Manifolds run athwartship and from them drop lines are connected to the tankers
bottom lines that run forward and aft to direct oil to the tanks via a system of
branch lines and valves.
• For discharging the drop lines are bypassed and oil flows from the bottom lines to
the cargo pumps located in the pumproom. From there the oil is pumped via the
pumproom risers to the deck lines and manifolds to shore.
• There are three main pipe line systems in use; direct line, ring main and free flow.
• The direct line system is used on crude oil tankers and less sophisticated product
tankers. Each bottom line serves a certain group of tanks.
• The ring main system is more complex and is used on product tankers where a
high level of segregation is required. A ring of pipes runs up each side of the ship
and is cross connected forward. Branch lines connect each set of tanks. Master
valves ensure segregation.
• Free flow is used on crude carriers only. Cargo is loaded through a simple ring
main but for discharge sluice valves in the bulkheads between adjoining tanks are
opened. Oil flows from forward to aft. Pump suction valves located in the after
most centre tank direct the oil via the pumps and deck lines to shore.
• Due to the flow from tank to tank free flow can only be used for single grade
cargoes, or where commingling is allowed.

Cargo Pumping Systems

Centrifugal Pumps
• Used for bulk discharge. Typically three or four pumps are fitted.
• An impeller located in a specially shaped casing called a volute imparts velocity
on the cargo. The volute slows down the flow creating a pressure differential
between the suction and discharge side.
• Pumping rates of 4 – 5000 m3 per hour are achievable.
• Centrifugal pumps are not good at handling gas / air / liquid mixtures and so
alternative pumps are used for stripping.
• They are not good at creating pressures below atmospheric.

46
Positive Displacement Pumps
• Used as stripping pumps
• Pistons in separate oil and steam chambers are inter-connected. Steam pressure
forces the steam piston up and hence the oil-side piston is forced up, displacing
the oil in the chamber.
• Not capable of large volumes without disproportionate increase in cylinder size.
• Very good at creating suction and can handle gas / air / liquid mixtures
• Not good at pumping against high back pressure.

Submerged Pumps
• Used mainly on chemical and gas carriers. Some crude and product tankers also
fitted with them.
• Submerged pumps are of the centrifugal type with the impeller located within the
cargo tank. Usually each pump has its own load / discharge line and manifold.
Gives complete segregation.
• Small bore stripping line fitted to remove pump stack volume of cargo.
• Bulk rate not usually as high as conventional centrifugal pumps but outweighed
by low cargo residues remaining.
• High initial installation costs but warranted if full segregation between grades
required.

Eductors
• Used to strip cargo and tank washing residues.
• Simple construction due to no moving parts.
• Constriction in discharge pipe creates low pressure on suction side.
• Requires a motive liquid to ‘drive’ it.
• Motive liquid and stripped fluid mingle, so must be compatible.
• Simple construction.
• Self-priming.
• Efficiency depends on driving pressure and back pressure.

Factors Affecting Pumping Performance

• Type of pipe line flow: laminar or turbulent
• Valves, bends and differences in pipe diameter affect the type of flow.
• Laminar flow is smoother but does not exist above moderate flow rates.
• Viscosity is the resistance to flow of the liquid. Viscosity can be improved by
heating.
• Density increases the power requirement of the pump for a given pressure head.
Pumprooms
• Located at the after end of the cargo tanks and contains the cargo pumps, stripping
pumps, ballast pump and eductors.
• If submerged pumps are fitted then the pumproom is only used for the ballast
pump.
• On segregated ballast tankers an emergency spool piece connection is supplied to
connect the ballast lines to a cargo pump in the event of ballast pump failure or
ballast contamination.
• Due to the hazards of leakage in the pumproom extractor fans are fitted to provide
at least 20 atmosphere changes per hour.

47
Ballasting Arrangements
• Single hull tankers must put ballast in the cargo tanks. This creates a pollution
risk.
• Dirty ballast is that which is put into cargo tanks that are not sufficiently clean that
if the ballast were discharged to the sea pollution would occur.
• Clean ballast is put into cargo tanks that have been cleaned to a sufficiently high
standard that no pollution was occur if it was discharged to the sea.
• Crude oil tankers crude oil wash their tanks for carrying dirty ballast and
additionally water wash designated tanks for taking clean ballast.
• Permanent ballast is carried in specific wing tanks at about the mid-length of the
ship and is designed to relieve local stresses when discharging cargo.
• Permanent ballast, which also includes the forepeak and the after peak tanks, has
its own pumping and pipe line system.
• Segregated ballast is that which is put into tanks specially designed for this
purpose. There is no connection between the cargo and ballast systems.
• Double hull tankers have segregated ballast, which is carried in double bottoms
and side tanks.

48
Chapter 4

Venting Arrangements
Introduction
Oil or chemical tankers cargo tanks must be able to load and discharge cargo and
ballast without damage to the tank structure. When cargo is loaded the atmosphere
within the tank must be vented otherwise over pressurisation will occur. Similarly
when discharging cargo the cargo volume being discharged must be replaced by an
equivalent volume of atmosphere in order to prevent under pressurisation.

A tanker’s cargo tanks are relatively fragile and share similar shell thickness to
internal volume ratios as an egg. It does not take much pressure or vacuum to cause
structural damage with possibly catastrophic consequences.

In this chapter the various venting systems found on board will be described and the
regulations concerning them outlined. Additionally the concept of vapour recovery
will be discussed in advance of Marpol Annex VI, which deals with air pollution,
coming into force.

Allowable Tank Pressures

When a tanker is built the Classification Society rules dictate the maximum and
minimum pressure that a tankers cargo tanks must be able to withstand. Unless
otherwise stated figures shown are those adopted by Lloyd’s Register.

Prior to leaving the shipyard and going into service the cargo tanks will be tested to
0.245 bar (3.4 psi) which is the equivalent to a pressure head of 2.45 metres. The
cargo tank is filled with water and allowed to overflow through a pipe of this height
extending above the tank top. If no damage is found the tank is accepted. This is the
maximum pressure that the tank should ever be subject to and is a one off test.

A pressure not exceeding minus 0.07 bar ( - 1 psi) is allowed on the vacuum side.
This is not actually tested for but is assessed by calculation of the tanks structural
strength profile.

The design of a suitable venting system will depend upon a number of factors:
• Design loading rate for the tanks – the higher the liquid flow rate the faster the
vapour produced must be removed from the tank.
• Maximum vapour flow velocity. Typically 40 metres per second is used.
• Gas evolution – the volume occupied by the vapour may be greater than the
volume of the oil flowing into the tank. A factor of 1.25 is required by SOLAS
Reg.59 for vapour generation.
• Obstructions to flow such as flame screens, pipeline friction, bends and valves in
pipes etc. must be considered.

The main aim of the venting system is to keep a constant pressure in the tank i.e. what
goes in must come out and vice versa. This is not entirely practicable but it is essential
that the pressures are kept within design limits.

49
Venting Control
The venting arrangements must not only be able to deal with the large volumes
involved when loading, discharging, ballasting and de-ballasting but also with the
daily variations in tank atmosphere pressure due to climate changes and heating
during the day and cooling at night. This is known as diurnal variation in pressure.

The simplest way of venting excess pressure, or allowing air into a tank to prevent a
vacuum is to have an open ended pipe at the top of the tank. As gases are
compressible the diameter of the pipe can be of a lesser diameter than liquid flow
pipes.

There are safety implications with an open-ended pipe. They must be high enough to
keep vapour away from the deck area and far enough away from the accommodation
block to prevent gas penetrating the safety barrier. A flame arrestor needs to be fitted
at the top of the pipe to prevent sources of ignition igniting gases within the tank.

A more efficient method of ventilation control is to fit pressure / vacuum relief valves,
commonly known as P/V valves. There are devices fitted on top of a vent pipe and are
designed to deal with the diurnal variations of pressure in the tank only. They are not
able to cope with the large volumes encountered when loading / discharging; for this
some means of full flow control is required. This may be an open pipe with flame
arrestor or a high velocity vent valve.

P/V VALVE
Vent pipe flap for full flow
Valve Settings:
• Pressure 0.
Flame arrestor 14 bar (2.05
Lift handle psi)

• Vacuum
0.035 bar

Pressure disk

Vacuum disk
Flame arrestor

Vacuum flow
Pressure flow
Fig.1

A P/V valve consists of a weighted pressure disk (see Fig.1) and a weighted vacuum
disk. The weight of the disks is calculated so that they lift at a pre-set pressure.

If the tank pressure exceeds the lift pressure of the valve the weight is lifted allowing
pressure to be relieved to the outside atmosphere.

50
If the tank is subject to under pressurisation the vacuum created acts on the upper
surface of the vacuum disk, lifting it to allow air into the tank.

As cargo tanks are able to withstand pressure better than vacuum the relative weight
of the two disks is different. A flame screen is fitted on the vacuum side.

For full flow conditions a lid is located on top of the vent pipe. On passage it is
secured in the closed position; during loading or discharging it is unsecured and
allows flow in and out of the tank. A flame arrestor is fitted at the top of the pipe.

High Velocity Vent Valves

If an open pipe is used for venting then the rate at which the gas leaves the pipe (the
efflux velocity) is totally dependent upon the outflow velocity. If this is low then any
gas exiting may linger around the deck with attendant toxic and flammable hazards.

A high velocity vent valve (HVVV) overcomes this by maintaining a constant efflux
velocity irrespective of the gas velocity entering the vent pipe, which may vary
according to the loading rate of cargo or ballast.

A hydrocarbon mixture within the flammable range will have an open air flame speed
of 3 metres per second. If the flame is confined within a pipe the flame path is
constricted and speeds exceeding the speed of sound can be achieved. The resultant
pressure wave could be catastrophic. If the exit velocity of the gas can be maintained
above 3 m/sec then flame cannot travel back down the pipe. High velocity vent valves
ensure the exit velocity is at least 30 m/sec thereby giving a factor of safety of ten.

As any gas is ejected at a high velocity the gas is dispersed well above the deck level
and is unlikely to penetrate the safety barrier by entering the accommodation or
engine room.

The constant exit velocity is achieved by constructing a variable diameter opening at

the end of the vent pipe. If the gas flow is low the opening narrows and increases the
exit velocity. If the gas flow is high the opening is widened to allow full flow at a
velocity of at least 30 m/sec.

In recognition of the advantages of using high velocity vent valves a reduced height of
vent pipe is allowed compared to an open-ended pipe.

The gas coming from the tank may be hydrocarbon vapour, air or inert gas or a
mixture. As hydrocarbon vapour is denser than air it will tend to stay in a layer near
the surface of the cargo in the tank. Research has shown that it is not until the tank is
about 85 percent full that a flammable mixture exits from the tank; initially it will be
too lean and then too rich. However as hydrocarbon exits it will become diluted by the
outside air and at some stage will become flammable.

Fig.2 shows a typical HVVV. The pressure and vacuum valves are readily
identifiable. The ‘ball’ at the top of the unit is designed to straighten the out-going gas
stream. Some designs are prone to sticking and must be checked frequently, especially
prior to loading or discharge operations. Check lift devices are fitted to raise and
lower the pressure and vacuum valves to see that they lift properly.

51
HIGH VELOCITY VENT VALVE (Hankook Engineering Pte. Ltd)

Air drawn into

tank when
vacuum valve
Pressure lifts.
relief

Fig.2

Key:
1 Valve body 11 Flame screen
2 Ball 12 Guide ring
3 Pressure shaft 13 Vacuum lower cover
4 Pressure weight 14 Vacuum check lift
5 Pressure disc 15 Pressure body
6 Pressure seat 16 Drain fitting
7 Vacuum top cover 17 Cam
8 Vacuum disc 18 Lifting shaft
9 Vacuum body 19 Indicator
10 Vacuum seat 20 Pressure check lift

High velocity vent valves should never be tied back in the open position in a mis-
guided attempt to prevent over or under pressurisation. At low flow rates gas will
tumble out and linger around the deck. As a reduced vent pipe height has been
allowed for fitting HVVV the situation becomes more hazardous than with ordinary
open vent pipes.

52
From a commercial point of view correctly operating vent valves help to maintain
cargo quality. The higher value lighter components will not be constantly vented to
the deck. The vent valves will only operate at their design pressure and so maintain
the lighter ends within the tank ullage space.

Valves and valve seats need to be maintained regularly to prevent gas seepage if they
are not seating properly.

Most crude carriers and larger product tankers are required to operate with inert gas.
As cargo, or ballast into cargo tanks, is loaded the atmosphere within the tank must be
vented through the full flow valves or mast riser (a vent pipe extending to the top of
the foremast). During discharge inert gas is blown into the tanks to ensure a vacuum is
not created.

Regulations
SOLAS Chapter II-2, Regulation 59 covers venting arrangements. The regulation was
amended in 1998 to require the provision of a secondary means of full flow venting.
This was thought necessary following a number of incidents of over or under
pressurisation of cargo tanks.

Regulation 59 requires the venting arrangements to deal with two things:

1 The flow of the small volumes of vapour, air or inert gas mixtures
caused by thermal variations in a cargo tank in all cases through
pressure / vacuum valves; and:
2 The passage of large volumes of vapour, air or inert gas mixtures
during cargo loading and ballasting, or during discharge

The actual venting arrangements may be independent (individual cargo tank vents) or
combined, where either a group of tanks or all the tanks are linked by a common
venting main. The latter is common on crude oil tankers where the inert gas main is
also used as a common vent main.

If there is a combined or common arrangement there must be arrangements to isolate

individual tanks. This can take the form of isolation valves or blank spectacle pieces
that slot into the inert gas main as it enters the tank.

It is vitally important that where isolation valves are fitted that there is a sound
operational procedure controlling the setting of the valves. A number of incidents
have occurred where the status of isolation valves was not known correctly. Isolation
valves are not permitted to isolate the PV valve that allows for thermal changes in
cargo levels.

Venting systems must be fitted with ‘devices to prevent the passage of flame’
(DPFF’s)

It is important that liquid does not enter the venting system as pollution could occur
when venting next takes place due to spraying. Drainage arrangements should be
fitted and overflow control systems or high-level alarms are required.

53
By-pass arrangements are allowed, but not mandatory, for PV valves (thermal change
devices) if they are part of a combined or common main.

Regulation 59 also specifies minimum heights and distances of the venting

arrangements. These are shown in Fig.3.

TANK VENTING ARRANGEMENTS (SOLAS Reg.59)

I Flame arrestor
n 10m
t
a PV
k 5m 6m 6m 6m
e
s walk-
2m Tank
Tank lidLid 4m way

PV valve and full flow vent pipe Vent pipe

ƒ Distances shown are minimum distances

ƒ Full flow vent pipe height can be reduced to 2 metres if a HVVV is fitted
ƒ Vent pipes must be at least 4 metres from any walk way
ƒ PV valves must be at least 5 metres from any air intakes
ƒ Full flow vent pipes must be at least 10 metres from any intake
ƒ It is important that flame arrestors are accessible and are not blocked by debris

Fig.3

The decision to fit an independent or common venting system will depend upon the
ship type. Generally speaking crude oil carriers will have a common system that
utilises the ships inert gas main with a mast riser for venting and one or two PV
valves for dealing with diurnal thermal variations and full flow venting.

Product tankers cannot use a totally common system, mainly from commercial
considerations. Vapour migration between tanks can take place along the venting
main; cargo specification can be affected. These ships usually have independent
venting arrangements or groups of tanks are connected to a common vent main
serving that tank group only.

The SOLAS amendment requiring a secondary means of full flow relief can be
achieved in a number of ways:
ƒ On ships not fitted with inert gas then ullage ports on the tank lids can be opened
(flame screens put in place)
ƒ On ships fitted with a common inert gas main a mast riser combined with a
HVVV could be used

54
ƒ For ships with independent venting arrangements and inert gas the IG main can be
fitted with a vent riser or line HVVV
ƒ Alternatively pressure sensors and monitoring systems can be used for most ships

A tankers venting arrangements is a vital part of the ships cargo handling systems and
should be inspected and maintained thoroughly and regularly. The following case
history reiterates this.

Current and Future Developments

Although the HVVV controls pressure by venting off cargo vapours and inert gas
there are moves within industry to apply stricter control, on the basis that any
hydrocarbon vapour vented on passage is a cargo loss and hence there is an economic
implication to this. The HVVV cannot differentiate between hydrocarbon vapour and
inert gas, but they are two different gases and have differing characteristics.

Due to PV/HVVV having a history of sticking many ships manually release tank
pressure before the valve set pressure (about 1500 mmWG) has been reached.
Typically this will be done at about 1000 mmWG and shut off at about 300-400
mmWG. Research has shown that the amount of hydrocarbon gas released can be
largely reduced by maintaining a higher shut off point for the manual release (say
700-800 mmWG) as it has been shown that on initially venting it is mainly IG that is
vented. Release pressures will vary for different crudes but can be established by
plotting pressure drops against time. When the rate of pressure drop becomes constant
the manual release should be stopped. This will be discussed more fully in a later
chapter.

Valve manufacturers are developing automatic valves that will vent within acceptable
parameters below the valve safety systems. These are known as VOCON valves (see
www.pres-vac.com).

Case History
In 1993 an Australian flag tanker was loading petroleum products in Geelong. The
OOW opened a sighting port on No.4 port cargo tank and heard movement of liquid
in what should have been an empty tank. Further checks revealed the cargo level was
dropping in 3-centre cargo tank. Cargo operations were stopped and further
investigation found cargo was entering the trunk-way to No.4 double bottom.

The cause of the structural damage subsequently found was due to failure of the
pressure / vacuum relief arrangements on No.3 centre tank. The damage consisted of
splits in the bulkhead between 3 & 4 centres and the trunk-way to No.4 ballast tank.
The top of the bulkhead between Nos. 3 & 4 centre cargo tanks was set back some
750mm and the main deck above the tank was set up 116mm

An official investigation by the Australian Marine Incident Investigation Unit found

the cause of the accident was over pressurisation of No.3 centre tank as it was loaded.
The following points were made:

ƒ The cast iron body of the valve resulted in a build up of rust between the valve
body and the edge of the valve disk and also between the valve body and the top

55
 ‘cone’. This effectively rendered the valve useless and offered no protection to the
tank.
ƒ Due to short ballast voyages opportunities for maintenance were limited
ƒ The chief officer knew the valve was deficient but did not get it repaired or
arrange alternative means of loading such as in open conditions (tank sighting
ports open).
ƒ The third mate, when handing over the watch, indicated the valve was functioning
correctly, without establishing this was the case.

It is interesting to note the same ship suffered another over pressurisation incident 13
months later, this time due to loading at too high a rate.

56
Marine Vapour Emission Control Systems

Introduction
The original MARPOL Convention concerned itself with pollution of the sea by oil.
By a series of annexes to the Convention its scope has been extended to encompass
chemicals, packaged dangerous goods, sewage and garbage. The one remaining area
that has not been covered is air pollution generated by ships. This has been addressed
by a draft Annex 6 to MARPOL. It came into force on 19thMay 2005

Ships are not a major contributor to air pollution but on the basis that every little helps
Annex 6 will be adopted into State laws. Air pollution occurs on two fronts: by the
products of combustion from shipboard machinery and volatile organic compounds
(VOC’s) from oil cargoes.

The problem with engine emissions is they contain sulphur oxides and nitrous oxides
( Sox and Nox ). The regulations require new ships to have main engines that meet
certain minimum standards of emission control.

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOC’s) discharged into the air from crude oil, gasoline
blends and other volatile cargoes are believed to damage the ozone layer. Benzene
components also present a long-term health hazard.

Shipping is estimated to contribute only about 2 percent of non-methane VOC’s but

Annex 6 compliance will reduce this further.

The Problem
As a vessel loads a volatile cargo the incoming oil displaces the atmosphere within the
tank, whether air or inert gas. Presently this displaced atmosphere is vented off to the
atmosphere through vent pipes in order to avoid over pressurisation.

As loading progresses increasing levels of hydrocarbons will be emitted, mixed with

air or inert gas. This creates the air pollution.

Vapour Control
The purpose of Marine Vapour Emission Control Systems (MVECs) is to eliminate
the need for atmospheric venting by collecting the vapours produced and dealing with
them in an environmentally safe manner ashore. MVEC’s will only be employed at
the loading terminal as this is where the bulk of the problem occurs. The vessel will
operate in the closed condition with no open venting or gauging.

The first stage is to collect the vapours, this is achieved by installing extra piping on
the ship connecting the tanks to a dedicated vapour recovery manifold. Ships fitted
with inert gas may use the IG main for this purpose but with the additional vapour
recovery manifold. The vapour will exit through the vapour manifold to shore for
processing. This can be achieved directly by the positive pressure created by the
incoming cargo into the tanks or by a vacuum pump ashore.

The vapour manifold will have its own PV valve as added protection against over or
under pressurisation. The shore vapour line will have similar arrangements.

57
Once ashore the vapour passes through a number of safety devices to the actual
vapour emission control unit.

Dealing with VOC’s

There are a number of ways of processing the vapour in an environmentally safe way.
Earlier systems relied on a combustion process; later versions recover the vapour by
liquefying it. This has cost benefits, as the recovered oil can be re-sold to offset the
capital cost of the recovery plant.

With combustion systems adding air and/or natural gas can control the burn. The
emissions can be sampled to ensure compliance with local environmental laws.

There are a number of methods of vapour recovery used:

ƒ Charcol Adsorption. Recovered vapours are passed over carbon beds. The
hydrocarbons are adsorbed onto the carbon. Once full of vapour the carbon bed
chamber is subject to a vacuum. This allows the hydrocarbon , now a liquid, to be
freed from the beds and is sent to an adsorption tower where it is mixed with the
original product.
ƒ Refrigeration Systems. The recovered vapours come into contact with cooling
coils which condenses them.
ƒ Lean Oil Absorption. The recovered vapours are bought into contact with a
specially formulated oil that has the ability to absorb hydrocarbon vapour. The oil
is regenerated and the recovered hydrocarbons removed to storage.
ƒ Cool Liquid Absorption. A cross between a refrigeration and lean oil system.

Operational Hazards
There are a number of hazards associated with vapour recovery systems. Essentially
the ship and shore are connected by a vapour stream that may be flammable. Also
events happening on the ship can directly affect what is happening ashore and vice
versa.
The hazards can be summarised as follows:
ƒ Misconnection of vapour recovery lines. The recovery system is designed to
handle vapour not liquid. Severe problems could occur ashore or liquid in the
ships vapour lines could cause pollution through spraying out of vents. To
overcome this the vapour manifold on the ship is painted yellow with two red
bands and the word ‘vapour’ stencilled on it. Additionally a one inch (25 mm)
metal stud is welded at the 12 o’clock position on the flange face. If a cargo hose
is presented to the flange it cannot be connected. A vapour hose has a matching
hole on its flange face.
ƒ Over and Under Pressurisation. Tank pressures need to be closely monitored. The
pressure within a vessels ullage space can be directly affected by conditions
ashore. Full flow venting and PV devices must be in good working order and
maximum allowable loading rates not be exceeded. Pressure monitoring onboard
and ashore will be required. Essentially the shore controls tank pressures on the
ship by adjusting the cargo loading and vapour recovery rate.
ƒ Cargo Tank Overfill. The vessel must have an approved closed loading gauging
system in operation. The vessel will probably also require additional protection in
the form of spill or rupture valves. These are valves located on deck such that

58
 when actuated spill oil onto the tankers deck to relieve pressure. Alternatively
onboard and/or shore side monitoring systems may be used.
ƒ Static Electricity. Bonded hoses and insulating flanges will be required on cargo
and vapour hoses.
ƒ Fire and Explosion. Precautions against fire and explosion take the form of
passive and active devices. Passive devices consist of detonation arrestors that are
capable of absorbing explosive energy. Active devices are located at strategic
locations within the system. They can be divided into four groups:

1. Inerting devices – reduces the oxygen content to less than 8 percent

by volume.
2. Diluting devices – reduce the hydrocarbon content to well below
the lower flammable limit. Likely to be <30 per cent LFL.
3. Enriching devices – increase the hydrocarbon content to well above
the upper flammable limit. Likely to be >170 percent UFL.
4. Detonation arresting valves – these are quick acting valves that can
contain an explosion once it has occurred. Sensors detect the
advancing pressure wave from an explosion and activate the
valves.

MARINE VAPOUR EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM burner

Cargo manifold Shore line

Cargo
Storage
or
Dock safety components

Vapour manifold Blower Vapour

Recovery or
Disposal unit

cargo

ƒ Cargo loaded by gravity or pump

ƒ Rising liquid level pushes vapour ashore – assisted by vacuum blower
ƒ Dock safety components consist of passive and active devices
ƒ Vapour either reliquified or burnt under controlled conditions

Fig.4

Conclusion
MARPOL Annex VI will mandate vapour recovery systems for certain tankers. The
technical details are presently under consideration by IMO. It is certain that the vessel
will have to work closely with the terminal and a Vapour Recovery Operations
manual will be required.

59
Summary of Chapter 4
As a revision aid the main points of this chapter have been summarised:

Venting Control
• Cargo tanks must not be allowed to become over or under pressurised
• Displaced cargo tank atmospheres are vented via vent pipes, mast risers or vent
valves
• The venting system must deal with daily variations in tank pressures due to
localised heating and cooling and full flow venting when loading or discharging
• Pressure Vacuum valves deal with the small daily variations in pressure
• Vent pipes or high velocity vent valves deal with full flow conditions
• High velocity vent valves (HVVV’s) ensure an exit velocity of at least 30 metres
per second
• PV and HVVV operate by having weighted pressure and vacuum disks.
• Venting arrangements must incorporate devices to prevent the passage of flame
• SOLAS Reg.59 states the requirements for venting arrangements
• Reg.59 was amended in 1998 to require a secondary means of full flow relief
• Reg. 59 specifies minimum heights and distances from air intakes for venting
arrangements
• The venting system used may be independent for each tank or common where all,
or groups of tanks, are linked by a common venting line.

Marine Vapour Control Systems

• MARPOL Annex 6 aims to reduce emissions from ships engines and volatile
organic compounds from volatile cargoes when vented to atmosphere.
• When a volatile cargo is loaded the displaced tank atmosphere is vented to the
outside air.
• The vented atmosphere may be air, inert gas or hydrocarbon vapour.
• Vapour control systems return the vapour generated during loading back to the
terminal where they are processed.
• A separate vapour return manifold is fitted to the ship.
• The ships inert gas main may be used as a vapour main or a separate one may be
provided.
• The vapour manifold is painted yellow with two red bands for easy identification.
A one inch (25 mm) stud is placed at the 12 o’clock position to prevent
connection of a liquid cargo hose. The word ‘vapour’ is stencilled in black on the
manifold.
• As cargo is loaded vapour is displaced through the vapour main and manifold to
ashore. A vacuum pump ashore may help the process.
• The loading rate of the cargo dictates the recovery rate of the vapour generated
and is controlled from shore
• The vapour may be burnt under controlled conditions ashore or reliquefied
• There are a number of methods of reliquefying the cargo: charcol adsorption,
refrigeration, lean oil absorption or cool liquid absorption

Operational Hazards of Vapour Control Systems

• Misconnection of vapour lines – clearly identifiable vapour manifolds with stud
piece.

60
• Over and under pressurisation – ship and shore monitoring systems for tank
pressures. Loading rates & vapour recovery rates kept within limits.
• Cargo tank overfill – Approved closed gauging system plus additional protection
(spill or rupture valves or level monitoring systems).
• Static electricity – bonded hoses plus insulating flange on vapour and cargo hoses.
• Fire and explosion – passive and active devices used:
1. Inerting devices
2. Diluting devices
3. Enriching devices
4. Detonation arrestors
• Close communication between ship and shore required.
• Operations manual required for marine vapour emission control systems.

61
Chapter 5

Inert Gas Systems and Operations

Introduction
As previously discussed, three things need to be present for a fire to take place,
namely fuel, air (oxygen) and a source of ignition. Through good design and safe
operating practices sources of ignition can be controlled but not completely
eliminated. As fuel may be present in the form of cargo vapour and the cargo tanks
may contain air there is always the possibility of a fire. If the air in the tank can be
replaced with a gas with a low oxygen content that cannot support combustion then
this risk can be avoided. Gases that do not support combustion are known as inert.

Inert gas systems for tankers have been in existence since the 1920’s and were first
developed as a means of controlling corrosion in cargo tanks. The technology at the
time was not able to provide an efficient system and its use was not widespread.

In the 1950’s, 1960’s and 70’s a series of explosions occurred on tankers, usually
associated with tank cleaning or gas freeing operations. A defining period was
December 1969 when three VLCC’s exploded within a 17 day period. The ships were
the Mactra, Marpessa and Kong Hakkon IV. All three were tank cleaning at the time.
The oil companies and government agencies carried out a lot of research in order to
establish the cause of the explosions. It was quickly established that flammable
atmospheres were present, efforts were then made in finding the source of ignition.
By a process of elimination it was decided that the likely source of ignition was static
electricity. Water ‘slugs’ passing through electrically charged mists in the tank,
become charged and discharged a spark between the slug and the tank structure.

Having established the cause a solution was sought and the issue of inert gas was re-
visited. By replacing the air in a cargo tank with inert gas no explosion can take place,
irrespective of whether a source of ignition occurs, as the air side of the fire triangle
has been removed.

It is now a requirement under SOLAS for all oil tankers over 20000 deadweight to be
fitted with and use inert gas. The SOLAS definition of an inerted atmosphere is one
that contains less than 8 percent oxygen by volume in the tank and with positive
pressure maintained. The IG plant must be capable of producing inert gas with an
oxygen content of 5%. A flammable petroleum atmosphere can ignite down to an
oxygen content of 11%. The 8% level gives a safety margin.

FLAMMABLE RANGE DIAGRAM

Inert Rich UFL

HC % Flammable

Lean LFL
0% 8% 11% 21%
O2 %.
Fig.1
62
Inert Gas
Inert means dead or lifeless and there are a number of inert gases available:
ƒ Argon
ƒ Helium
ƒ Carbon dioxide
ƒ Nitrogen
Of these, argon and helium are very expensive and therefore are not commercially
viable. Nitrogen is quite expensive but may be justifiable in protecting high value
chemicals or gases.

For economical and safe tanker operations a plentiful supply of inert gas is required
due to the large tank volumes involved and it must be cheap enough that cost is not a
controlling factor.

The simplest and cheapest way of providing an inert gas is to burn oil in air and use
the products of combustion for inert gas. The SOLAS regulations do not specify the
source of the inert gas (IG). It could be nitrogen from cylinders or a nitrogen
generator or from the exhaust emissions from boilers. The latter is used on crude oil
tankers. The emissions are known as flue gases and have to be processed before
introducing to the cargo tanks as it contains some unwanted components. Once
processed flue gas is termed inert gas.

Flue Gas and Inert Gas Composition

Component Flue Gas Inert Gas
O2 2 – 4% 2 – 4%
CO2 12 – 14% 12 – 14%
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) & 0.2% 0.02%
Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)
Nitrogen (N2) 80% 80%
Solid particles 300 mg / m3 8 mg / m3
H2O 5% 0.1%
Heat 300oC Within 5oC of the sea
temp.

The components in bold in the above table need to be processed:

ƒ The sulphur components react with water. At any temperature SO2 plus H2O =
sulphurous acid (H2SO3). At high temperatures SO3 plus H2O = sulphuric acid
(H2SO4). Both of these are highly corrosive.
ƒ Solid particles of carbon may be red hot and ignite a flammable atmosphere. Dry
solids sent down pipelines may cause abrasive damage to pipelines and valves.
Also if solids mix with water slurry is created which can block the system.
ƒ Water passing over fan blades can create damage. Additionally water with heat
accelerates corrosion.
ƒ Flue gas has a temperature of about 300oC. If this were introduced into the cargo
tanks more cargo vapour would be released increasing tank pressures. Also the
auto ignition temperature of crude oil is about 230oC and vapour will ignite at
less.

The remaining components are inert or below a level that will support combustion.

63
The Flue Gas Inert Gas System
An inert gas plant must convert flue gas to inert gas. Fig.2 shows a basic flue gas
system.

Description of Components:
The main processing unit for turning flue gas into inert gas is the scrubbing tower
(‘scrubber’), see Fig.2. There are a variety of designs in use; the following describes a
common method found.

The flue gas is introduced to the base of the tower and bubbles through a water trap
that must have a continuous water supply. This commences the cooling process and
washes out larger solid particles and sulphur components. The solids and acids are
washed overboard and are rapidly diluted in the sea. The lower part of the tower is
lined with rubber to prevent the acids corroding the mild steel of the tower.

As the gas moves upwards it passes through a series of sprays, which results in further
cooling and washing. Further up the scrubbing tower are a series of baffle and
impingement plates. This causes a variation in speed and direction of the gas and
throws out any remaining sub-micron particles. The particles collect on the plates and
are washed off by an upper set of water sprays.

Finally, the clean, cool gas is passed through demister pads that remove the majority
of water droplets picked up during the washing process.

64
65
 SCRUBBING TOWER

Flue Gas in
Inert gas outlet

Demister pads
Pre-cooling Water sprays
Spray
Baffle &
impingement plates

Water Sprays

Water trap Drain

The flow of flue gas through the scrubber is by suction from the blowers. These are
turbine fans that distribute the inert gas towards the cargo tanks. SOLAS requires that
there are two blowers fitted and the combined capacity must be at least 125% of the
maximum pumping capacity of the ships cargo pumps. This is to avoid under
pressurisation of the cargo tanks in the event of cargo being discharged at a greater
rate than the inert gas can be supplied to replace the discharged cargo. In practice
many owners supply 2 x 125% capacity blowers, so that in the event one of the IG
blowers fail there is no reduction in cargo pumping capacity. Other owners fit 1 x
125% plus 1 x 62.5% blowers or 2 x 62.5% capacity, but this could result in reduced
pumping rates in the event of a blower failure.

From the blower the gas is directed to the gas regulating valve (GRV). This must be
located on the bulkhead forming the boundary between the non-hazardous and
hazardous zones. The GRV controls the flow of gas to the rest of the system and
cargo tanks. Pressure transmitters located between the deck isolation valve and the
cargo tanks allow the GRV to control flow. On some systems this is by use of the
recirculation line and valve. Excess IG pressure is passed back through the scrubber.
The GRV and recirculation line valves are interlocked. Alternatively venting to
atmosphere via a vent between the GRV and blowers may be used.

A fresh air intake is provided for use in gas freeing cargo tanks.

As the IG pipe work is deliberately piercing the safety barrier there must be a number
of safety systems within the system, otherwise the hazardous and non-hazardous areas
are connected allowing a pathway for possibly flammable gas to enter the safe area.
The first of these is the deck water seal, which is a form of non-return valve. There
are a number of variations but they all aim to prevent any back flow of flammable gas

66
from the cargo tanks to the safe area. This situation could occur if the pressure in the
cargo tanks exceeds the IG pressure through the lines. The main types of deck water
seal are the wet type, semi-dry type and dry type. All three are allowed by SOLAS but
the wet type is the most popular due to its reliability. The wet type is shown in Fig.3.

WET TYPE DECK WATER SEAL

Normal flow conditions Back flow condition

IG in To tanks From
tanks

Demister pads

Sealing water Water plug

Fig.4

In normal flow conditions IG bubbles through the water trap, through the demister
pads and into the deck IG main to the tanks.

If there is a back flow of gas from the cargo tanks the pressure created acts on the
sealing water surface. The water level falls under pressure and creates a plug of water
(the water seal) in the IG inlet pipe. There is insufficient pressure to penetrate the
water seal and so back flow of gas is prevented from entering the non-hazardous area.

There must be a continuous supply of water to the wet type deck water seal. Heating
coils are fitted as the deck water seal is located on deck and therefore exposed to
possibly sub-zero temperatures.

Forward of the deck water seal is a mechanical non-return valve. Any mechanical
type valve within an IG system cannot be relied upon totally as scouring of valve
seats can occur from any solid particles that are carried over from the scrubbing
process.

A deck isolation valve is located forward of the mechanical non-return valve. As the
name implies its purpose is to isolate the cargo tanks from the IG supply system. This
may be necessary if cargo tanks are gas-freed for tank entry purpose. A vent is fitted
between the mechanical non-return valve and the isolation valve to relieve any
residual pressure in the system when the isolation valve is closed.

From the isolation valve the IG main runs the full length of the tank deck area.
Branch lines direct the inert gas to the cargo tanks. Isolation valves will be fitted to
each branch line.

67
There is a further safety device fitted somewhere on the IG main. This is a pressure
vacuum breaker. This is a system protection device against over or under
pressurisation. It does not protect individual tanks; that is the function of full flow
vents, mast risers and PV valves. The PV breaker works on the same principle as a
deck water seal and is illustrated in Fig.5.

PRESSURE VACUUM BREAKER

IG Main

Water &
Glycol
mixture

Atmospheric pressure Positive pressure Vacuum

(& over presure)
ƒ At atmospheric pressure levels are the same
ƒ Under positive pressure level in the inner chamber drops and in the outer
rises.
ƒ If pressure exceeds design parameters liquid is dumped onto the deck and
relieves pressure
ƒ If a vacuum beyond design value occurs the liquid is drawn into the IG
main and allows air into the system

The breaker consists of an open-ended pipe connected to the IG main. An inverted

chamber, open to the atmosphere at its upper end surrounds the IG main connection
pipe. The breaker is filled with a mixture of water and glycol (anti-freeze) to prevent
freezing in cold conditions.

At normal atmospheric pressure the level of the liquid is the same in each chamber.
As IG flows along the IG main pressure is exerted on the liquid in the inner chamber.
The level will rise and fall according to the pressure exerted. If the design pressure for
the system is exceeded the level will drop below the end of the inner chamber and
release the excess pressure to atmosphere (and dump the liquid onto the deck).

If a vacuum is created in the system the liquid is drawn up the inner chamber and falls
in the outer chamber. If the level in the outer chamber falls to below the lip of the
inner chamber air is drawn in from atmosphere, thereby relieving the vacuum in the
system.

68
The design pressures for the PV breaker is higher than that of the vessels normal
venting arrangements, but less than the design pressure of the cargo tanks.

The PV breaker only protects the system against over and under
pressurisation. It does not protect individual tanks. SOLAS Regulation 59
requires individual tanks to be protected.

The IG main may terminate in a mast riser or a number of IG mains (say three) may
be used to group tanks together if cargo vapour carry over is an issue. The IG main
may also be used as the vapour recovery line.

There are a number of alarm and control systems that have not been shown. The
following alarms will initiate an automatic shut down of the IG plant:

ƒ Low scrubber water – this will close the gas regulating valve followed by
automatic shut down of the blowers.
ƒ High IG temperature – as measured on the output side of the blower. Shuts down
the blowers and closes the GRV.
ƒ High effluent level – this indicates a blockage in the scrubber, usually in the drain.
The tower will fill with water and effluent and possibly get back into the boiler.
Scrubber pump stops, level falls to below the low scrubber level setting. Blowers
stop and GRV closes.

High oxygen content is an alarm condition but does not result in an automatic shut
down; otherwise the plant could probably never be started! Oxygen content is a
combustion problem not a plant problem.

SOLAS Regulations
Regulation 60 and 62 of Chapter II-2 deal with inert gas systems. Reg.60 states which
ships require inert gas and can be summarised as follows:

ƒ All tankers* over 20000 deadweight must have inert gas.

ƒ Tankers, other than crude oil carriers, between 20000 & 40000 deadweight and
not fitted with high capacity tank cleaning machines are exempted**.
ƒ Tankers fitted with a crude oil washing system.

*This part of the regulations applies to tankers carrying crude oil or petroleum
products having a closed cup flashpoint not exceeding 60oC.

**High capacity tank cleaning machines are defined as those having an individual
throughput of greater than 60m3/hour. The problem with high capacity machines is
the danger of static electricity generation due to the ‘water slug’ effect.

Chemical tankers and gas carriers are exempt from the regulations, but IG may be
required for these ships under operational codes and/or commercial requirements.
This is currently under review at IMO due to a number of chemical tanker explosions
in the past few years. It is likely that the application of IG rules will be tightened up
although there are technical issues that still need to be addressed

69
Regulation 62 gives details of what comprises an inert gas system and the
requirements for the individual components in the system (blowers, scrubbers, alarms,
deck seal etc.). As the system has been described earlier in this chapter, the regulation
will not be repeated here.

Regulation 62 references the IMO publication ‘Inert Gas Systems’. This publication
outlines the regulations and gives guidance on the regulations and describes the
operation of different components. The book also details what must be done in the
event of an inert gas system failure. This will be dealt with later.

To be considered inerted a vessel must have an oxygen content of less than 8

percent in the cargo tanks and the tanks must be kept under a positive pressure.

If a positive pressure is not maintained air will be drawn into the tanks thorough the
venting arrangements, thereby increasing the oxygen content.

Inert Gas Operations

Introduction
It is a general principle that ships that are required to be inerted should remain so at
all times. The only exceptions are when it is required to gas free the tanks for
inspection or repair purposes on the ballast passage or dry-docking etc.

The Voyage Cycle

The following describes the use of the inert gas system during a normal voyage cycle:
ƒ Primary inerting – consider a new ship, or one coming out of dry dock. The
existing tank atmosphere, in this case air with an oxygen content of 21%, must be
exchanged for an atmosphere containing 8% oxygen or less. The inert gas plant is
run and the original atmosphere vented off.
ƒ Loading cargo or ballasting cargo tanks – prior to loading, the tanks are inerted.
Once loading or ballasting is commenced inert gas must be vented via the mast
riser to prevent over pressurisation. The inert gas plant will not be run, but a
positive pressure in the tanks must be maintained by controlled venting.
ƒ Top up pressure – Following the completion of loading or ballasting it may be
necessary to top up the inert gas in the tanks whilst on passage. Climatic changes
and/or diurnal variations in temperature will affect tank pressures due to varying
cargo levels. Leakage through PV valves or tank lids may occur if not maintained
properly. Some ships are equipped with a ‘top up’ generator for this purpose or
may use an exhaust gas. This avoids firing up the main boilers for the provision of
a relatively small amount of IG.
ƒ Discharging cargo or ballast – this is the main period when the inert gas plant is
run. The cargo or ballast being discharged will have to be replaced by inert gas,
positive pressure being maintained.
ƒ Changing tank atmospheres – This is necessary to vary a hydrocarbon or oxygen
content. This process is known as purging. If the oxygen content rises above 8%
then the plant is run and more inert gas is put into the tanks, the existing
atmosphere being vented through a purge pipe to the outside atmosphere. Some
companies require this to be done prior to arrival at the load port in order to
reduce hydrocarbon emissions and mercaptans (sulphur components) from the
mast riser during loading. There is no statutory requirement to do this.

70
ƒ Gas free from inert – this is required for tank entry purposes. The tanks inert
atmosphere must be purged to below 2% hydrocarbons with inert gas and then
ventilated to 21 percent oxygen plus1 percent of the lower flammable limit
(ISGOTT). It is necessary to purge initially with inert gas before introducing air
so as to avoid the tank atmosphere passing through the flammable range. See
Fig.6.
GAS FREEING

UFL
(A)
Hc
%
FLAMMABLE
ZONE
(D)

(B) LFL

O2 % (C)

ƒ Existing atmosphere is at (A), if air is introduced and the

atmosphere is taken to 21% oxygen (C) the atmosphere will
pass through the flammable zone
ƒ By purging with inert gas to less than 2% Hc gas [(A) to (B)]
when the atmosphere is at (B) air can then be introduced to
reach 21% [(b) to (C)}
ƒ Line [(D) (C)] is known as the critical dilution line

Fig.6

Emergency Operations
The regulations concerning inert gas on tankers are contained in SOLAS, it is
therefore considered a safety system and so a failure of the system is considered to be
serious. Regulation 62 contains one of the few conditions when IMO tells the ship
staff what they must do:

In the event that the inert gas system is unable to meet the operational requirements
set out above and it has been assessed that it is impracticable to effect a repair, then
cargo discharge, deballasting and necessary tank cleaning shall only be resumed
when the “emergency conditions” laid down in the ‘Guidelines on Inert Gas Systems’
are complied with. (Reg.62.1).

The guidelines referred to state the following:

On ships carrying crude oil:

• Stop all operations
• Close IG deck isolation valve and open vent to relieve pressure
• Effect repair of the fault or obtain an alternative source of IG

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On ships carrying products:
• Stop all operations
• Decide if repair is practicable
• If repair is not practicable operations can be resumed if:
1. The IG system is isolated from the deck
2. Open vent riser
3. Do not allow free fall of water into slop tanks (static hazard)
4. No sounding, ullaging or sampling unless essential for the safety of the ship. If
necessary wait 30 minutes from IG failure and restrict for 5 hours. All metallic
components to be earthed

If vessel is tank cleaning then operations can continue if:

• Only one tank at a time is washed
• The tank being washed is isolated from any common vent or IG main (stops
vapour carry over)
• Ventilation of the tanks is maximised and continuous
• Tank bottoms are flushed with seawater and stripped back. This removes as much
remaining product before washing as possible and hence reduces any subsequent
cargo vapour generation
• The tank atmosphere is measured at multiple tank levels and the hydrocarbon
content found to be less than 10 percent of the lower flammable limit before
washing commences
• The atmosphere is monitored during washing and if the reading reaches 50 percent
of the LFL washing must stop and the tank further ventilated until a level of less
than 20 percent LFL is achieved
• Only one high capacity washing machine may be used (throughput less than 60
m3/hour)
• The bonding on portable washing machines is checked for electrical continuity
• Tanks are kept well drained to prevent electrically charged mists due to sloshing
• No tank cleaning chemicals are used, only clean, cold sea water to be used
• Unnecessary tank cleaning openings are kept closed

Pyrophoric Iron Sulphides

The reason a tanker carrying products can continue operations, under certain
conditions, whilst a crude carrier cannot is due to the effect of pyrophoric iron
sulphides.
PYROPHORIC
These occur under the following conditions: IRON SULPHIDE
An oxygen deficient atmosphere must be present
• Iron oxides (rust) must be present
O2 H2S
• There must be hydrogen sulphide present
Iron Oxide

When all three are present a chemical process occurs that converts the iron oxide to
iron sulphide. This is not a problem in itself, but when there is a subsequent re-
exposure to air the iron sulphide rapidly converts back to iron oxide. Energy in the
form of heat (exothermic reaction) is produced which may be sufficiently high to
ignite a flammable atmosphere.

72
If the inert gas plant fails and operations are continued air may be sucked into the
cargo tanks. This could kick- start the chemical re-conversion process.
Crude oil contains hydrogen sulphide whereas the majority of products do not as it
has been refined out. Tankers carrying products are therefore permitted to continue if
the criteria met in the Inert Gas System Guidelines are met.

It is not possible to specify ‘safe;’ levels of hydrogen sulphide as it depends on the

exact combination of the three components at any given time.

SOLAS Reporting Requirements

Regulation 11(c) of Chapter 1, Maintenance of Conditions After Survey, requires that
whenever an accident or defect is discovered that affects the safety of the ship, the
master or owner shall report at the earliest opportunity to the Administration. If the
ship is in port then the Port State authorities must also be informed.

73
Summary of Chapter 5

Inert Gas
ƒ If an atmosphere contains less than 11% oxygen then combustion cannot take
place
ƒ Inert gases are used to replace the oxygen and/or flammable gases to a safe level
ƒ The most common inert gases used are from the by-products of combustion (flue
gas) or nitrogen
ƒ For a vessel to be considered inerted the oxygen content in the tank must be below
8 percent and a positive pressure must be maintained
ƒ The Inert Gas plant must be capable of producing inert gas with 5 percent oxygen
content or less
ƒ SOLAS requires all tankers over 20000 dwt to be fitted with, and use inert gas.
Product tankers 0f 20000 to 40000 dwt are exempted
ƒ Flue gases contain unwanted components; heat, water, sulphur compounds and
solid particles. These must be removed or reduced before putting inert gas into the
cargo tanks

The Inert Gas System

ƒ The inert gas system is required to produce gas of the required quality and the
design must conform to SOLAS requirements
ƒ The system consists of:
1. A flue gas inlet from the boiler
2. Scrubbing tower – to reduce heat, remove solids and sulphur compounds,
consists of a series of water sprays and baffle and impingement plates.
Demisters remove water droplets
3. Blowers to give the gas velocity to the tanks. Two blowers are required
with a combined capacity(at least) of 125% of the vessels cargo pumping
capacity
4. A gas regulating valve – to control the flow of gas to the deck
5. A recirculation line to the scrubber or vent to atmosphere
6. The deck water seal – a non-mechanical non-return valve to stop back-
flow of cargo gas to the non-hazardous area. Back flow of gas creates a
water plug in the inlet pipe so preventing flammable gas getting back into
the system
7. A mechanical non-return valve
8. A deck isolation valve – to isolate the system from the deck IG piping
9. The IG deck main – carries the inert gas up the deck
10. IG branch lines – directs the IG to the tanks
11. A PV breaker – a liquid filled pressure and vacuum relief valve to protect
the entire system
12. (Usually) a mast riser – for full flow relief when loading cargo or ballast
13. PV valves and full flow relief valves to protect tanks against over and
under pressurisation
ƒ The IG system may also be used for gas-freeing by opening the air intake and
running the blowers
ƒ Alarm and control systems are fitted, only three alarms initiate an automatic shut
down: high effluent in the scrubber, high IG temperature, low scrubber water level

74
IG Operational Cycle
ƒ Primary inerting – changing the existing tank atmosphere i.e repacing oxygen with
inert gas
ƒ Loading cargo or ballast- inert gas plant not running, inert gas in tank vented to
atmosphere to avoid over pressurisation
ƒ Topping up – due to climatic or diurnal changes in sea or air temperature the IG
may need to be topped up to maintain positive pressure
ƒ Discharging cargo or ballast – IG plant is run to replace discharged liquid.
Positive pressure must be maintained
ƒ Changing tank atmosphere – may be necessary to reduce oxygen content or to
reduce hydrocarbon content. Known as purging
ƒ Gas freeing from inert – required for tank entry purposes. Inert atmosphere must
be purged with air to 21% oxygen and then less than 1% of LFL

Emergency Operations
ƒ In the event of IG plant failure crude oil carriers must:
1. Stop all cargo operations
2. Close IG deck isolation valve
3. Effect repair or obtain an alternative source of IG
ƒ In the event of IG plant failure product carriers must:
1. Stop all operations
2. Decide if repair is impracticable
3. Isolate system from the deck
Operations can resume on product carriers if:
1. Open vent riser and check flame arrestors
2. Do not allow free fall of water into cargo tanks
3. Take precautions when ullaging, sounding, sampling. Do not do unless
necessary for the safety of the ship. Wait 30 minutes from IG failure and
restrict for 5 hours

ƒ If tank cleaning on product carriers and IG system fails operations can continue
with restrictions
ƒ The difference between response to IG failure on crude and product tankers is due
to pyrophoric iron sulphides
ƒ In an oxygen deficient atmosphere hydrogen sulphide, iron oxide(rust) and
oxygen combine to create iron sulphide
ƒ If re-exposure to oxygen occurs the iron sulphide tends to revert back to iron
oxide. The chemical reaction is exothermic (gives off heat) and may ignite a
flammable atmosphere
ƒ Crude oil contains hydrogen sulphide, clean products do not, hence different
operational allowances

75
Chapter 6 - Pollution
Introduction
Oil pollution is considered to be a major threat to the environment and strict controls
are placed on the discharge of oil/water mixtures. Penalties for infringement are harsh,
including imprisonment and heavy fines.

However, pollution has not always been considered a problem. Historically ships only
discharged a small quantity of oily water from their bilges, but when dedicated
tankers came along with their single hulls and ever increasing size the amount of oil
being discharged into the sea increased.

Tank cleaning was carried out by drawing the cleaning water direct from the sea and
stripping the washing residues directly overboard. Quite handy in some ways as when
the overboard discharge was sighted to be clean it was a good indication the tank was
as well. For line washing seawater was circulated through the lines and out through
the manifolds, again when the water was clean the lines were probably clean.

Before international oil pollution prevention conventions there was no internationally

accepted legislation against dumping oil. Some countries introduced laws within their
own territorial limits but these varied from State to State.

As the amount of oil being transported increased so did the levels of pollution - there
were no reception facilities in those days and no policing initiatives.

Concern was growing however and the first international convention on pollution was
held in 1954, this aimed to limit where pollution occurred - discharges less than 50
miles from land were prohibited. The convention only applied to persistent oils
(crude, fuel oil, dirty diesels etc. ) and not the clean products. The Convention entered
into force in 1958 and was the forerunner to MARPOL as it is known.

Pollution falls into one of two categories:

ƒ Operational (tank cleaning etc.)

ƒ Accidental (casualty, faulty valves etc.)

The 1954 convention only addressed operational spills and not accidental. Some
countries didn’t even think pollution was a problem at all.

In 1964 amendments were made that further controlled the amount of permitted
pollution as it was realised that most of the oil entering the sea was as a result of
operational discharges and not accidental discharges.

76
Load On Top
The ‘newer’ controls made it almost obligatory to use the Load on Top (ROB/LOT)
method of operating. Instead of washing the oil/water residues directly overboard they
are stripped back to the vessel’s slop tanks. The oil/water content is then allowed to
settle out, oil floating on top of the water due to the differences in density. The water
part is then decanted to the sea under controlled conditions. The remaining oil is then
retained on board. The next cargo is loaded on top of the slop tank contents.

LOAD ON TOP PROCEDURE

(1) Slop tank arrangement (2)

Secondary Primary

Oil layer

Emulsion Oil layer

Balance line Emulsion

Water Water

Fig (1) - during cleaning

ƒ Secondary slop tank filled with clean sea water for tank cleaning
ƒ Primary slop filled to same level with clean sea water
ƒ Wash water drawn from secondary slop tank
ƒ Tank washings stripped back to primary slop tank – level
increases. Oil and water separates out due to density differential

Fig (2) – after decanting

ƒ Clean water from secondary slop tank discharged to sea
ƒ Water content of primary slop tank discharged to sea
ƒ Oil and emulsion layer remains on board
ƒ Next cargo loaded on top

The balance line connects both slop tanks and is used to equalise
levels during the washing process. It is located sufficiently low down
that only water is transferred when the valves are opened

Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment (ODME) is required to be used. This equipment

measures the oil content of oil/water mixtures as they are discharged overboard.

The benefit to the environment is that the amount of oil going into the sea is
drastically reduced. For the cargo owner there is a commercial advantage in that the
LOT quantity is discharged ashore to aid the cargo outturn

In order to determine the amount of oil / water remaining in the slop tank(s) an
oil/water interface detector is used, commonly a portable electronic device.

77
Decanting of the slop tanks is a critical stage in the retention of oil onboard and the
timing of various steps is important.

The time required for sufficient settling out of the oil and water is variable and will
depend on a number of factors such as the type of oil, ambient temperatures and
vessel movement. Lighter oils will tend to separate quicker than heavier ones as the
density difference between the oil and water is greater, but some of the residues will
be denser than the stated density of the cargo and may contain a lot of waxy residues.
Heating of the slop tank contents may aid separation.

Under favourable conditions a few hours may be enough (light oil, warm
temperatures, calm sea) but typically 24 to 36 hours will be required.

Also the interface profile may vary in depth. There is rarely a clear-cut boundary
between the two. At best an emulsion layer will exist of varying depth - it is also
possible to get layering of the oil within the water. Discharge of the slop tank content
must cease well before the measured interface is reached. Every effort should be made
to remove as much water as possible consistent with the priority of not letting any
oil/water mixture entering the sea. In this context the latter stages of pumping will
have to be carried out at a slow rate with the stripping pump to avoid a vortex
dragging the oil through the water layer. The procedure to be followed is:

ƒ Use one main cargo pump at reduced speed until a tank sounding of about 20
percent of the tank capacity is reached
ƒ Stop the main cargo pump , remeasure the interface. Recalculate remaining water
depth.
ƒ Resume pumping using stripping pump until a predetermined level is reached -
based on experience & construction of tank, remember curvature of slop tanks at
low ullages means small volumes. As predetermined level is reached slow pump
right down
ƒ If oil appears, or ODME shuts the overboard discharge valve stop discharge.

An entry in the oil record book must be made and ODME print outs kept for
inspection (they must be retained onboard for 3 years).

MARPOL Conventions
In 1973 IMO adopted the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships(MARPOL) which covers the different types of ship generated pollution.
They are contained in five annexes presently with the further introduction of another
two (dates they came into force are shown):
ƒ Annex I 03/10/83 Oil
ƒ Annex II 06/04/87 Noxious Liquid Substances in bulk (chemicals)
ƒ Annex III 01/07/92 Packaged Harmful Substances
ƒ Annex IV 27/09/03 Sewage
ƒ Annex V 31/12/88 Garbage
ƒ Annex VI 19/05/05 Air Pollution

78
The 1973 convention re-defined oil as “petroleum in any form including crude oil and
refined products”, thus bringing product tankers into the scope of MARPOL.

The concept of the IOPP Certificate - International Oil Pollution Prevention - was
bought in. Every tanker over 150 grt must be surveyed and issued with a IOPP
certificate. It’s valid for 5 years with yearly inspections. Any convention country may
check that the vessel complies and if not can be detained. No changes may be made to
the structure or equipment without the Flag states approval. Any accidents or defects
affecting the IOPP must be reported to the Flag State and when in port to the Port
State.

The 1973 Convention was modified by the 1978 protocol that addressed accidental
pollution resulting from casualties (stranding & collisions). The main effect is to
reduce the size of tankers to which the regulations applied and introduce the concept
of protectively locating cargo tanks by surrounding them with ballast spaces.

Crude Oil Washing (COW) is required for crude oil tankers over 20000 dwt and
improved stripping arrangements are required.

Shore reception facilities were also mandated - many countries seem to have ignored
this!

Further limits are placed on the amount of oil that can be discharged into the sea
during routine operations and for Special Areas discharges are banned completely.

Oily discharges are only allowed from cargo spaces or pumprooms of tankers
under the following circumstances:

ƒ If Outside a Special Areas - Baltic, Black Sea, Mediterranean , North West

European waters, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Gulfs Area,. (The italics indicate
designation of a Special Area once adequate reception facilities are provided and
accepted by bordering coastal states. Presently the UK does not accept the Gulfs
Area as having done so although bordering States and other countries may well do
so. The advice from the MCA to UK ships is to consider the Gulfs Area to be a
Special area from an operational point of view irrespective of HMG’s position on
the subject).

The Antarctic is designated a Special Area in which any discharge from any ship is
prohibited
ƒ At least 50 miles from land - to stop small amounts of residue reaching the shore
ƒ Proceeding en – route - i.e not steaming round in circles, stopped or at anchor!! -
allows sufficient dispersion over a wide area
ƒ Instantaneous rate of discharge not > 30 litres per nautical mile. This means the
rate of discharge divided by the ships speed does not exceed the limit
ƒ Total quantity discharged does exceed 1/30000 of the volume of the last cargo
carried
ƒ Tanker has in operation oil discharge monitoring and control equipment and a slop
tank arrangement (as per reg15 - slop tank capacity for new ships must be not less
than 3 percent of the cargo carrying capacity - 2 percent if segregated ballast
tanker)

79
For machinery spaces of tankers the following applies:

ƒ Tanker is outside a Special Area - but Reg.10.3.b on pg 53 of consolidated

Marpol text allows discharges from machinery space bilges, not pumproom
bilges, in a Special Area if :

ƒ ship is en route
ƒ oil content not > 15 ppm without any dilution
ƒ oil filtering equipment(15 ppm) in operation
ƒ auto stop device fitted at 15 ppm
ƒ bilge contents are not mixed with cargo residues

Going back to the cargo space rules lets look at that 30 litres per nautical mile
requirement. The amount of contamination when an oily mixture is discharged is
dependent on:
ƒ The rate of discharge
ƒ Oil content
ƒ Speed of the ship

ppm of oil x discharge rate (m3/hr) = litres per mile

speed in knots x 1000

A high oil content at a low discharge rate may give similar result to a low oil content
at a high rate of discharge. This is one of the reasons the pumps are slowed down
when nearing the interface.

MARPOL Annex I Amendments

The 1992 amendments to MARPOL 73/78 bought in the concept of the double hull,
mainly as a result of the Exxon Valdez grounding and the subsequent OPA 90 laws of
the USA. Regulation 13F requires all new oil tankers over 600 dwt to be constructed
with a double bottom and have restricted tank size (not > 700 m3) or wing ballast
tanks and tankers over 5000 dwt to be double hulled. Further amendments have been
reactive to other incidents such as the Erika and Prestige. For example phase out
dates for single hull tankers have been amended and Condition Assessment Schemes
introduced to run in conjunction with Enhanced Survey Programmes; both of which
address the structural integrity of tankers.

Conclusion
In summary then, Annex 1 to Marpol 73/78 is the main instrument for the control of
pollution from ships and contains design and operational measures to reduce the
amount of oil entering the sea from operational and accidental sources. The use of
LOT, COW and segregated ballast have all helped to reduce pollution along with
more effective design of oily water separators and monitors. Constructional
requirements including damage survival capability (Reg.22-25), tank size limitation
(Reg.24), slop tank capacity (Reg.15) and overboard piping arrangements (Reg.18).

A modern, well run tanker should not need to put any oil overboard - just decanted
slop water. If every port had reception facilities even that would not be necessary.

80
Pollution is decreasing as a result. The majority of pollution incidents are of small
volume, but its the big ones that make the headlines. They are rare.

Some Facts & figures:

ƒ Oil entering the sea from tanker accidents: 4.7 percent
ƒ Oil entering the sea from tanker operations: 6.6 percent
ƒ Oil entering the sea from other shipping: 14.4 percent
ƒ Oil from industrial waste etc. 60.8 percent

Source : Intertanko(1999)

Oil Record Book

Reg.20 of annex I requires a cargo record book. It must be completed on a tank by
tank basis whenever any of the following are carried out:

ƒ loading cargo
ƒ internal transfer of cargo
ƒ unloading of cargo tanks
ƒ cleaning of cargo tanks
ƒ ballasting of cargo tanks
ƒ discharge of ballast from cargo tanks
ƒ discharge of water from slop tanks
ƒ closing of all applicable valves or similar devices after slop tank discharge
operations
ƒ disposal of residues
ƒ any accidental or intentional discharges

All entries are to be signed & dated by the officer in charge of the operation and each
page must be counter-signed by the master.

In front of the book a ship’s tank plan with capacities must be entered.

The Record Book is to be kept onboard for 3 years.

SOPEPS
Regulation 26 of Annex 1 requires tankers of greater than 150 grt to carry onboard a
Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP). This regulation entered into
force for new ships on 4/4/93 and for existing ships on 4/4/95.

The SOPEP will include:

ƒ Procedures to be followed in the event of an oil pollution incident

ƒ List of Authorities to be contacted
ƒ Detailed description of the action to be taken to reduce or control the discharge
of oil following an incident
ƒ Procedures to adopt with national & local authorities in combating pollution

Effective planning ensures that the necessary actions are taken in a logical and timely
fashion. For any plan to be effective it has to be:

81
ƒ Familiar to those with key functions on the ship
ƒ Reviewed & updated regularly
ƒ Tested for effectiveness regularly. Drills must be held at regular intervals not
exceeding 3 months and logged

Any oil spill should be treated as an emergency and it is vitally important to prevent
any oil escaping overboard. The authorities are not that concerned if you have an oil
covered ship, notwithstanding any flammability or toxic hazard that may be present.
Once the oil has gone over the side there is not much the ship can do about it beyond
stopping any further oil going over the wall. It’s a shore problem from then on but at
the end of the day the polluter is going to pay.

Two ship masters have recently (July 98) been jailed in Singapore for, amongst other
things, causing pollution following a collision. But every crew member has a
responsibility to prevent pollution, not just the senior officers.

It is a requirement of MARPOL that the nearest coastal state be notified of actual or

probable discharges of oil into the sea in order for them to take appropriate action and
salvage measures. This requirement is taken seriously
For example, in the US the USCG will prosecute and fine for any delay in reporting
and they are talking minutes not hours. They severely criticised a vessel for waiting
20 minutes following an incident in 1998 so it is a priority.

In the appendicies of this study guide there is an example of a SOPEP/SMEP

proforma plan provided by Lloyds Register.

There are a number of measures that can be taken in the event of a spill:

ƒ Hydrostatic levelling or cargo transfer internally

ƒ List or trim ship
ƒ Reduce IG pressure to reduce outflow if hull breached
ƒ Put water blanket under cargo by pump
ƒ Ship to ship transfer

It is a pre-requisite that ships’ officers know their vessels’ pipeline and pumping
system well including its capabilities and restrictions.
Preventative measures include:

ƒ Having all scupper plugs in

ƒ Double checking valve & line settings - incl. overboards
ƒ Portable air-driven pump rigged to drain rain water
ƒ Oil spill response equipment ready
ƒ Keeping moorings well adjusted
ƒ Vigilance!! - good deck watch etc.

Tankers are also required to have emergency towing equipment for use if the vessel is
adrift and in danger. It is part of the ships anti-pollution equipment.

82
Crude Oil Washing(COW)
Under Marpol 73/78 all crude oil tankers over 20000 dwt must be fitted with a COW
system. It follows that it is a pre-requisite to also have an inert gas plant because of
the safety implications in using an oil as a washing medium.

COW was initially developed as a means to reduce pollution and also for commercial
reasons. If cargo tanks are cleaned with an efficient washing medium during the
discharge more oil will be pumped ashore and will not be onboard when the ship is at
sea, and there is consequently less oil to cause pollution.

COW will be discussed more fully in Chapter 7.

83
MARPOL ANNEX II
Marpol Annex II concerns the discharge of noxious liquid substances in bulk - i.e.
chemicals and details the discharge criteria & measures for control of pollution by
them.

Chemicals transported by sea present a varying hazard to the environment; some are
fairly innocuous, others are extremely harmful. Chemicals are divided into four
categories according to the degree of hazard:

ƒ Cat.A - create a major pollution hazard

ƒ Cat.B - create a pollution hazard
ƒ Cat.C - create a a minor pollution hazard
ƒ Cat.D - create a recognisable pollution hazard.

Some are found to lie outside the above four categories and are considered to present
no significant hazard. These are listed in Appendix III of Annex II.

New chemicals are being developed all the time. This poses a problem for
transportation within the framework of existing legislation. If a new substance is
offered for transport it should be treated as being in the most critical category until it
has been assigned a pollution category by the Administration (within 90 days a
provisional category must be given). If provisionally assessed as A,B,C or D
authorisation by the Administration must be obtained before ship sails.

Special Areas
Each annex to MARPOL has its own Special Areas. For Annex II they are:

ƒ Baltic
ƒ Black Sea
ƒ Antarctic

The allowable discharge criteria for each category of substance follows:

Outside Special Areas

Cat A. residues or washings are not allowed to be discharged, they must be sent
ashore for disposal. Any water subsequently added to the tank(s) containing category
A substances can be discharged if the vessel is:

ƒ en route, min speed 7 knots

ƒ discharge is below waterline
ƒ more than 12 miles from land
ƒ water depth >25 metres

Cat. B. can be discharged if:

ƒ en route, > 7 knots
ƒ concentration < 1 ppm
ƒ total quantity discharged is < 1/3000 of tank capacity or 1 cuM, whichever is less
ƒ >12 miles from land
ƒ >25 metres water depth

84
Cat. C:
ƒ en route, > 7 knots
ƒ follow Procedures & Arrangement manual to give < 10 ppm in wake
ƒ <1/1000 of tank capacity or 3 CuM
ƒ below waterline
ƒ >12 miles
ƒ <25 metres

Cat. D:
ƒ en route, > 7 knots
ƒ concentration < 1 part substance to 10 parts water
ƒ > 12 miles from shore ( no water depth requirement)

For high vapour pressure cargo ventilation may be an acceptable means of removing
residues from tanks

Within Special Areas

Cat. A. Prohibited. Discharge residues ashore and then further dilute the remaining
residues. This is known as a pre-wash. A pre-wash aims to dilute any cargo residues
to an acceptable level prior to the vessel sailing and carrying out the main water
washing. It is carried out under the supervision of an approved surveyor, thereby
relieving the ships staff of any commercial pressure to not perform the job properly.
The surveyor must sign the cargo record book.

If the tank is washed in accordance with the Procedures and Arrangements manual it
is assumed that the minimum criteria for dilution are met

Cat. B. Pre-wash then as per criteria outside special area

Cat. C. As per outside special area except concentration reduced to 1 ppm from 10
ppm and maximum quantity reduced to 1 cuM or 1/3000 whichever is the greater i.e.
Cat. B requirements outside a special area are applied to a cat. C inside a special area.
Cat.D: Same requirements as outside a special area

It is a requirement that the vessel can strip efficiently and this will have to be proved
to a Class Surveyor before issuing an International Oil Pollution Prevention
Certificate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances In Bulk (valid for 5 years
with annual and intermediate surveys).

High Viscosity and Solidifying Substances

Certain chemicals are viscous or have high melting points. These cause problems if
they are discharged at too low a temperature as there will be a relatively high ROB
(remaining on board quantity), any subsequent tank washing over the side would
introduce semi-solid substances into the sea which will not readily disperse. In order
to address this Annex II imposes penalties if the viscosity at the discharge temperature
is too high or the discharge temperature is within 10oC of it’s melting point (if the
M.P. is => 15oC). Essentially if the cargo at the time of discharge is above these limits
it is moved up a category (i.e. Cat.B to Cat. A)

85
Procedure and Arrangements Manual (P & A Manual)
It is a requirement under MARPOL Annex II that chemical tankers have a ship
specific Procedures and Arrangements manual, the main purpose of which is to
identify for the ships officers the physical arrangements and all the operational
procedures with respect to cargo handling, tank cleaning, slops handling, and cargo
tank ballasting and deballasting which must be followed in order to comply with the
requirements of AnnexII.

Cargo Record Book for Ships Carrying Noxious Liquid in Bulk

Chemical tankers have their own separate oil record book when carrying chemicals, if
they are also carrying oil they need an oil record book too. The format is essentially
the same as the oil record book required for oil tankers.

Proposed Changes to Annex II

Introduction
IMO is in the process (2005) of revising Annex II. The rationale behind this is the
changing scientific thinking that has occurred since Annex II’s inception (1987).

As we know NLS’s are put into one of five categories A,B,C,D and App.III and
according to the category either nothing is allowed to be discharged or only in a
limited quantity. For App.III there is no restriction:

Category Max. disch Quantity Disch. Regulated

Existing Ships New Ships (Y/N)
A None None N/A
B 300 litres 100 litres Yes
C 900 litres 300 litres Yes
D Unrestricted Unrestricted Yes
App.III Unrestricted Unrestricted No

The pollution categories are determined on the basis of:

• Accumulative effect of biological hazard on the environment

• Tainting effect on fish
• Acute toxic effect on sea life
• Acute & chronic toxicity to humans
• Effect on amenities such as beaches etc.

The pollution category is decided by GESAMP – Group Of Experts On The Scientific

Aspects Of Marine Pollution. They generate a Hazard Profile.

GESAMP is a United Nations body that draws on expertise from other UN

organisations such as the WHO, IMO, IAEA etc

The Hazard profile is passed to IMO who has a working group that uses the Hazard
Profile to assign a pollution category. This system has been used since 1987, but IMO
now thinks the time has come to reconsider Annex II, especially with regard to the
Pollution Categories and ship types.

86
The reasons for this are:

(A) improved ship technology

(B) better understanding of the inter-reaction of chemicals and the environment
(C) 1992 Rio summit
(D) A new GESAMP procedure for evaluating products
(E) A review of the provisions of Annex I & II

Improvements in Ship Technology

The required efficient stripping systems around in 1987 were capable of meeting the
100/300/900 litre requirements, nowadays efficient stripping systems on new tonnage
can achieve far better results – 10’s of litres. If these levels can be achieved
consistently across the industry it may be possible to reassign some substances
accordingly – 100 litres warrants Cat. B but the effect of only 10 litres of the same
substance may warrant a Cat. C, depending on the effect that small quantity has on the
environment

Inter-Reaction Of Chemicals & The Environment

There is a feeling that the order of priority of assessing substances according to the
hazard produced may need reviewing. Is the tainiting of fish higher up the scale than
the reduction of amenities?

Rio Conference
This was the UN Conference on Environment & Development in. Part of which
required harmonisation of hazard classification & labelling of chemicals.

Examples. Flammable is defined in IMDG flashpoint = <61oC, EU <55oC

Toxic substances LD50 of 500 mgs per kg for IMDG, 2000 mgs for EU legislation

New GESAMP procedure

GESAMP have extended their criteria to include such things as skin irritation, or
whether the substance is a sinker or a floater. There is a long list of criteria.

It is likely that IMO will put different emphasis on properties when looking at
operational discharges than when considering ship types. For example vegetable oils
may score low on toxicity but high on reduction of amenities. Acids score high on
skin and toxicity but may have rapid dilution in the sea so that the overall effect may
be small.

IMO are of the opinion that it is irresponsible to allow unlimited discharges into the
sea of relatively harmless substance i.e. Cat. D & App.III. They also think that
combining Cat. B & C is in order. (100 L & 300 L) as 100 litres is readily
achieveable, so why bother with 300L?

87
Alternative Proposed System

Pollutant Max. Allowable

Category Discharge
X None
Y 100 L
Z 900 L

For comparison, and as a generalisation:

X = old A (plus some B’s probably}
Y = old B & C
Z = some C + old D & Ap. III

It is thought that there will only be a few Cat. Z cargoes that will require
transportation in chemical tankers

Conclusion
It looks as the proposed new system will be simpler, but there will still be Special
Area requirements and solidifying substances and low melting point substances to
deal with.

The changes will not happen immediately but by then end of 2005 the new system
should be finalized.

SOPEP & SMPEP

ƒ Annex I requires oil tankers to have a Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency
Plan (SOPEP) and Annex II requires a Shipboard Marine Pollution
Emergency Plan (SMPEP) for chemical tankers. This has been discussed
earlier.

In the case of a chemical tanker that is also certified to carry oil then the SOPEP &
SMEP can be combined.

88
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6

ƒ Pollution from ships can be from operational or accidental causes

ƒ The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973 is
incorporated into State law to control shipboard pollution from ships. It is known
as MARPOL 73/78 following further amendments in 1978.
ƒ The MARPOL Convention is divided into a number of Annexes, each dealing
with a different aspect of potential shipboard pollution sources.
ƒ The Annexes are: Annex I Oil pollution, Annex II Noxious Liquid Substances,
Annex III Packaged Dangerous Goods, Annex IV Sewage, Annex V Garbage
ƒ There are a further two annexes that are not yet in force. They deal with air
pollution and transfer of organisms and pathogens in ballast water
ƒ MARPOL Annex 1 restricts the amount of oil that can be discharged legally and
restrictions are stated in terms of distance from the shore and litres discharged per
mile
ƒ Certain special areas further restrict discharges
ƒ Annex I applies to all types of oil
ƒ The use of ROB/LOT procedures reduces the quantity of oil discharged
ƒ Oil discharge monitoring equipment is required
ƒ An oil record book is required to be maintained
ƒ If the vessel complies with MARPOL 73/78 an International Oil Pollution
Prevention Certificate (IOPP) will be issued. It is valid for 5 years with annual and
intermediate surveys
ƒ Crude Oil Washing(COW) is required for all crude oil tankers over 20000 dwt
ƒ Ships required to COW must be inerted
ƒ COW is carried out during the cargo discharge with some of the cargo being
directed through tank cleaning machines. The solvent effect of the oil and the
pressure remove residues. The washing oil and recovered residue is discharged
ashore from the vessel’s slop tank
ƒ All tanks that are to carry ballast must be crude oil washed plus approximately
25% of the remainder for residue control purposes
ƒ Some crude oils are not suitable for crude oil washing
ƒ Tankers are required to have a Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP)
ƒ The SOPEP is ship specific and gives details of procedures to be followed in the
event of pollution occurring, authorities to be contacted and detailed descriptions
of action to be taken.
ƒ Annex II controls pollution from chemical tankers
ƒ Pollutant chemicals are put into one of four categories; A,B,C & D. Category A
are the worst pollutants, category D the least.
ƒ Some substances do not present any significant pollution hazard and are listed in
Appendix III of Annex II
ƒ Category A residues must be pre-washed and discharged ashore for disposal prior
to sailing from the discharge port
ƒ Special Areas exist which further restrict disposal criteria
ƒ A chemical tanker must have a procedures and arrangements manual giving the
operational procedures to be followed to ensure compliance with Annex II
ƒ A chemical tanker that is constructed in compliance with Annex II requirements
will be issued with a certificate of fitness. Valid for 5 years with annual and
intermediate surveys

89
Chapter 7

DOUBLE HULL OPERATIONS & COMBINATION CARRIERS

Introduction
In 1989 the Exxon Valdez ran aground in Alaska, spilling a large quantity of crude
oil. Alaska is a particularly sensitive area environmentally and following a public
outcry the United States introduced the Oil pollution Act (OPA 90). One of its
provisions was to mandate all tankers entering US waters to be constructed with a
double hull as an anti-pollution measure. As the United States is the largest consumer
of energy, the introduction of this national law effectively imposed it internationally.
IMO subsequently introduced MARPOL Annex I Regulation 13F which requires all
tankers built since 1994 to have double bottoms and if over 5000 dwt double bottoms
and wing ballast tanks (equivalent arrangements are allowed for). IMO requested that
ISGOTT include a chapter of guidelines on Double Hull Operations following
introduction of Regulation 13F. Chapter 8 of ISGOTT gives guidance on:

ƒ Stability Considerations
ƒ Routine monitoring of double hull spaces
ƒ Tank entry procedures for double hull spaces
ƒ Ventilation procedures
ƒ Action to be taken in the event of cargo leakage
ƒ Inerting double hull tanks
ƒ Gas freeing and entry after inerting
ƒ Tank cleaning
ƒ Handling ballast after a leak

Combination carriers are hybrid vessels in that they can carry oil cargoes or dry bulk
cargoes; but not simultaneously. They do present particular operational problems and
these will be discussed as will the design of these vessels.

90
Double Hull Tankers

Design Aspects
There are a number of designs of double hull tanker. First generations tended to have
little longitudinal sub-division in the cargo tank area. Later generations had single or
double longitudinal sub-division. See Fig.1

DOUBLE HULL ARRANGEMENTS – Cargo tanks

No sub-division single sub-division double sub-divisions

Ballast Tank Arrangements

There are a number of arrangements used, from a simple ‘U’ tube design to more
complex combinations of ‘S’, ‘J’ and ‘L’ tanks. See Fig.2

DOUBLE HULL – Ballast arrangements

Amidship section side elevation Amidship section

‘U’ Tank ‘S’ & ‘L’ tank ‘L’ tank

Whatever the cargo and ballast tank arrangements there are certain operational
considerations that are imposed. These are discussed below.

Stress fractures
Double hull tankers are typically constructed with high tensile steel. This allows for
reduced scantlings. However areas of stress concentration may occur, and have been
identified on a number of double hull ships. The main areas of concern are where
there is misalignment of materials, discontinuity of strength, areas prone to corrosion
and areas where there is a sharp change in direction of stress flow.

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 AREAS PRONE TO STRESS
CONCENTRATION & MISALIGNMENT

ƒ Midship section shown

Fig.3

Corrosion
As these ships are double hulled the ballast tank surface area is effectively doubled.
Add this to a moist, poorly ventilated area and excessive corrosion can result.
Particular attention has to be paid to the quality and application of protective coatings.
Regular inspection of ballast spaces is required.

Accumulation of Mud
If there is a build up of mud or sediment in segregated ballast tanks the extra weight
imposed will affect the available deadweight for cargo. Where a ship takes on ballast
is rarely a matter of choice, but ballasting at low water on a river berth will exacerbate
mud accumulation.

The only remedy if the cargo deadweight is significantly reduced is to dig out the
mud, a labour intensive and time-consuming procedure. Suspending portable tank
cleaning machines in ballast tanks is unlikely to be effective due to the internal
construction of the spaces. There are various treatments being developed that aim to
maintain mud in suspension within ballast water.

Sloshing
If cargo tanks are left slack there is a danger of vessel movement generating waves at
the cargo surface. This could cause structural damage if the mass of the ‘wave’ is
sufficiently high. The problem is exacerbated in cargo tanks without longitudinal sub-
division.

Sloshing will create turbulence and thus increase vapour generation; there is also the
possibility of electrostatically charged mists. Good operational procedures dictate
tanks should be kept ‘full’ (98%) or ‘empty’. Restrictions imposed by class societies
normally allow for two slack cargo tanks only.

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Stability Considerations
"Standard" Single-hull tankers have such a high metacentric height that in all
conditions they are considered inherently stable, longitudinal stresses are the main
concern.

The addition of segregated ballast tanks and possibly wider cargo tanks makes the
effect of free surface a major consideration. The most critical stage is simultaneous
working of ballast and cargo during loading and discharging operations.

If too many cargo and ballast tanks are slack at the same time, the effect of free
surface may be sufficient to affect stability and cause a severe list or loll. Large free
surfaces are especially likely to impair stability when tanks are nearly full and the
vertical centre of gravity is high. The sequence of ballast and cargo operations should
be checked against the vessel’s stability. The most critical stage will be when working
cargo and ballast simultaneously.

Masters and Officers must be aware of this and closely follow the ships loading
manual. Interlocks to prevent simultaneous opening of too many cargo and ballast
valves may be fitted.

Routine Monitoring of Double Hull Spaces (leak detection)

One of the main dangers to double hull tankers is leakage of cargo into the ballast
spaces, which are not designed to deal with flammable atmospheres. It is essential that
ballast spaces are routinely monitored for leakage, from a flammability / toxicity and
pollution view point.

Fixed gas detection systems may be fitted or monitoring can be done by either
checking the tank atmosphere for hydrocarbon gas with portable instruments, or by
sounding/ullaging of the ballast tanks.

The atmosphere must be checked for hydrocarbon gas at least once a week during the
loaded passage (on very short trips, looking at surface of ballast water may be
sufficient), before ballasting the tank after heavy weather or after an unusual event
(unexpected list).

Designated sample points using fixed lines are used, or use a portable sampling hose
or fixed gas detection system if installed. The point of origin of fixed sampling lines is
to be indicated. Regular clearing of fixed sampling lines has to be done.

On the loaded passage, the ballast tanks are to be regularly sounded as a back up
procedure for detection of oil leaks. After ballasting, the surface of ballast is to be
visually checked. On ballast passage, ullages are to be checked.

Action in the event of Cargo Leakage

Because of the complexity of the tank structure, if any leak has occurred, gas may be
present in any part of the tank. The ship should have a plan for monitoring and
dealing with leaks taking into account limitations of the monitoring system and the
complexity of tank structures.

93
If gas is detected, the following options are available:
1 Continuous ventilation of the tank (in case of small amounts of gas)
2 Inerting the tank (so special IG connections and portable hoses to be provided)
3 Filling/partial filling with water (watch stress, trim, stability and loadline)
4 Secure tank & fit flame screens.

Handling ballast after a leak

If a pumpable quantity of cargo has leaked into a tank, it should be transferred to a
cargo tank via the emergency spool piece connection between cargo and ballast
systems. Alternatively, and for smaller quantities a portable pump could be used.

It is essential to deal with leaks early. The greater the quantity leaking into the ballast
tanks, the greater the cleaning problem incurred.

Ventilation
Ventilating ballast spaces is problematical, as it is difficult to achieve a rapid
throughput of air. It is now common practice to fit full-length purge pipes to reach the
extremities of double bottom tanks to facilitate airflow. These have proved successful
and rapid gas freeing results obtained (3 hours per tank)

Tank Entry
Due to the internal structure of ballast spaces, and the problems of ensuring efficient
ventilation and atmosphere monitoring tank entry is particularly hazardous. A two-
stage entry procedure is required. This involves the first person in wearing breathing
apparatus to check the atmosphere more fully with portable instruments. Normal tank-
entry procedures can then be carried out. IMO recommends that ballast tank coatings
are light in colour to aid light dispersion and leak detection.

It is easy to become disorientated whilst traversing ballast spaces. There are no

prominent visual references. IMO recommends the various bays in ballast spaces are
marked to identify them and a plan indicating bay location carried on board. If tank
entry is to be undertaken a planned route should be drawn up and stuck to.

Fire fighting
The space between the outer and inner hull acts as an insulator. If cargo catches fire
there will be less heat transmission and less cooling effect from the adjacent sea. Fire
fighting will be more difficult.

Summary
Although there are some problems to be considered in the operation of these ships, the
environmental benefits are significant. “Borga” a double hull tanker ran aground off
Milford Haven in October 1995 and spilled not a drop, “Sea Empress” single hull,
followed her 4 months later (Feb’96) in almost the same place and spilled 75,000
tonnes.

Double hull tankers prevent pollution in a low impact collision or grounding, but if
the inner hull is breached, as in the case of a high impact incident, the oil outflow can
be greater due to the raised height of the oil in the cargo tanks.

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COMBINATION CARRIERS (OBO - O/O)
Introduction
Combination Carriers are hybrid vessels being a cross between a bulk carrier and a
tanker. They were developed to take advantage of any shift in the freight market and
are the perfect earner, oil one way and bulk or ore back again.

Types of Combination Carrier

OBOs can carry Ore/Bulk/Oil. i.e. Iron Ore which stows very compactly (in an 11
hold ship, ore in alternate holds), Bulk Cargoes which stow only a little more heavily
than oil such as coal, petcoke or grain, and of course oil in the form of crude, fuel or
sometimes products.
O/O’s carry either Ore or Oil but not lighter bulk cargoes. Ore is carried in the holds.
Oil is carried in the holds and wing tanks. There are not many, if any, still operating
due to MARPOL Annex I phase out rules for single hull vessels

. COMBINATION CARRIERS
OBO O/O

Oil or Bulk Oil Ore Oil

or Oil

ƒ OBO ships carry oil or dry cargoes in the hold, ballast is carried in
the double bottoms and upper and lower hopper spaces
ƒ O/O ships carry iron ore in the hold space or oil cargoes in the wing
tanks and hold. Ballast is carried in the double bottom and the wing

The key to their safe and economical operation is the change over from one type of
cargo to another. Checklists for cargo changeover are given in Chapter 12 of
ISGOTT. Each ship will have its’ own detailed checklist.

Cargo Changeover
Changing from oil to dry bulk cargo: The main job is to remove all traces of oil and
vapour and to secure all oil handling equipment against damage from bulk cargo and
its handling gear, such as grabs and bulldozers.

Changing from dry bulk cargo to oil: Remove as much solid residue as possible, after
discharge have holds swept, every bucket-full which remains has to be lifted by hand!
Cleaning pump filters is a continuous process, an eductor is useful. Coal sticks to any
wax remaining from the last oil cargo, floats free in next oil cargo and blocks filters.

95
Special Considerations
Void Spaces and Duct Keels
May be oxygen deficient (lack of ventilation or IG leakage) or contain leaked
hydrocarbon giving off gas - strict enclosed space entry procedures are required.

Stability
Due to full width holds when handling cargo and ballast free surface effect is
possible.

Sloshing
Movements of liquid when rolling or pitching giving rise to structural damage and an
electrostatically charged mist and possibly water slugs. Slack holds to be avoided
whenever possible.

Slop Tanks
Cargo holds are not to be used as slop tanks. When trading in Bulk, they should be
empty, clean and gas free. If this is not possible, slops should be carried in tanks
specially designed for the purpose, isolated, inerted with IG and maintained at
positive pressure.

Venting
Venting arrangements can become blocked with cargo residues and must be cleaned
out regularly and especially before loading oil cargoes. When in bulk, cargo holds are
to be sealed from the main oil vapour venting system.

Hatch Covers
Hatch cover seals must be well maintained from a watertight and gas tight point of
view. Frequent inspection and maintenance is required.

Leakage into ballast tanks

Due to high localised stress, particularly in ships which carry ore, cracks between
hold and tanks can occur.

Testing of Holds etc. on bulk voyages

Frequent checks of all spaces are required, if petroleum gas detected, space should be
continuously ventilated. If vapour cannot be controlled, the vessel should be inerted
until it can be cleaned again.

Case History
The m/v Heythrop was in ballast and tank cleaning in the Indian Ocean in November
1971. No. 11 hold was being used as a slop tank. The IG system was not being
properly used. At breakfast time an explosion and fire occurred in No. 11 hold. The
hatch lids were blown clear over the accommodation to 200 metres astern and floated
for a little time. The blast broke the wheelhouse windows and the bridge caught fire.
The fire burned its way down through the accommodation. The engine room was not
badly damaged. The ship was abandoned in good weather; senior officers went back
to fight the fire. The Chief Steward saved the bar chits, which were presented to the
survivors!

96
The source of ignition was thought to be water slugs created as the ship gently rolled
in the seaway. Correct use of the inert gas system would have prevented the
explosion.

Conclusion
Combination carriers have improved in design since their inception in the 1970s but
they still pose operational hazards. Incidents that have occurred mainly involve failure
of proper changeover procedures between oil and bulk. Careful attention must be paid
to removing all traces of oil and cargo vapour during this critical period.

97
Summary of Chapter 7

Double hull Tankers

• MARPOL Reg. 13F requires all new tankers (built after 1994) to be built double
bottoms
• If over 5000 dwt wing ballast tanks are also required
• Double hull arrangements provide security against pollution in the event of low
impact collisions or grounding
• Earlier generation tankers had no longitudinal sub-division in the cargo tanks,
later generations have one or two sub-divisions
• Ballast tanks may have ‘U’, ‘S’ or ‘L’ configuration
• Double hull tankers pose certain design or operational problems:
1. Stress fractures – due to use of high tensile steel
2. Corrosion – ballast area increased, inadequate ventilation, moisture
3. Mud accumulation – reduces cargo deadweight
4. Sloshing – structural damage, vapour generation, electrically charged
mists
5. Stability – free surface effect, especially when cargo tanks and double
bottoms are concurrently slack
6. Leak detection – from cargo tanks to double hull, flammability, toxicity,
pollution hazard
7. Dealing with leaks – stop source and ventilate or inert
8. Tank entry – difficult to assess atmosphere
9. Fire fighting – double hull acts as an insulator, fire fighting more difficult
due to less heat transmission through hull to the (cold) sea

Combination Carriers
• Are a hybrid of a tanker and a bulk carrier. They can carry oil or bulk, but not at
the same time
• OBO’s (Ore / Bulk / Oil) can carry a variety of dry bulk cargoes or oil
• O / O ‘s ( Ore / Oil ) can carry iron ore or oil
• OBO’s carry liquid or dry cargo in the cargo holds. Ballast is carried in double
bottoms, upper and lower hopper tanks
• O / O’s carry iron ore in the hold and oil in the hold and wing tanks. The wing
tanks are also used for ballast. Some have double bottom tanks under the hold that
are used for ballast
• The most hazardous period in the operational cycle is the change over from dry
cargo to oil or vice versa
• All traces of oil and cargo vapour must be removed
• Slop tanks must be empty, clean and gas free before loading dry cargo. If this is
not possible the slop tanks must be inerted
• Void spaces and duct keels may become oxygen deficient
• Free surface effect may be a problem if too many holds are left slack when
carrying oil. Keep holds slack or full
• Sloshing effect hazard (as per double hull ships, above)
• Venting arrangements can become blocked with cargo
• Hatch covers must be kept water & gas tight
Leakage into ballast tanks is possible due to localised stresses

98
Chapter 8

CARGO CALCULATIONS

Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to give an understanding of the standard methods of
calculating oil quantities, the equipment used for measuring and some notes on
planning cargo operations.

Oil expands or contracts with temperature change, therefore it is necessary to quantify

volumes at a standard temperature for commercial reasons. This is done by means of
volume correction factors. If volumes are not corrected to a standard temperature one
party in a contract would gain or loose depending on the temperature whether the
change is upward or downwards.

There are two standard temperatures generally in use; 15oC is used when working in
metric units and 60oF used when calculating in ‘American’ units (US Barrels).

Gauging Equipment
In order to calculate the volume and weight of cargo onboard it is necessary to
accurately gauge the oil level in the cargo tanks and obtain the cargo temperature.

There are three types of gauging equipment used:

1. Open – a calibrated sounding tape with a brass ‘bob’ on the end. The tape is
lowered through the tank ullage port (usually located on the tank lid). This
involves exposing the tank contents to the open atmosphere and hence personnel
may be affected, and is not used if the ship is inerted or contains particularly toxic
cargoes such as some chemicals

2. Restricted – this equipment is usually a portable electronic device and comprises

a calibrated tape terminating in a
probe. The device is attached to a
vapour lock on the tank. When the probe
contacts the cargo a tone is generated and
the level can be read on the tape. It is
termed a restricted device because when the
vapour lock is opened to allow the tape
into the tank a small quantity of the
tank atmosphere is released through
the device.

99
3. Closed – so called because when in use there is no release of the tank atmosphere
to the deck. There are many types of device available, ranging from float type
units to radar systems. Closed gauging systems are required for ships operating
with inert gas.

GAUGING EQUIPMENT
Float Radar
Gas

Open Restricted Closed Fig.1

100
Measurement References
The level in a tank can be measured in two ways:

ƒ Sounding – measured from the bottom of the tank to the top of the liquid
ƒ Ullage – from the gauging point to the top of the liquid

Ullaging is more commonly used on tankers except when the tank is almost empty.

There are some important reference points that need to be identified on a tanker
because the tank calibration tables use them as datum points for determining the
volume for a given ullage or sounding. These are:

ƒ Tank reference height - this is the height measured from the official gauging point
to the tank bottom. Ideally measurement should be made from the official gauging
point but this may not always be possible. Correction must be made for any height
differences between the actual and official gauging point. If the full reference
height is not reached when sounding a tank residue may be present
ƒ Distance of gauging point to after bulkhead of the tank – this is required when
calculating wedge volumes remaining in a tank
ƒ Distance of gauging point in relation to the tank’s centre of area – this is required
for trim corrections to observed ullages

MEASUREMENT REFERENCES
Official gauging point
Correction Centre of area

Ullage
Liquid level

Sounding
Tank reference height

Fig.2

Tank Calibration Tables

The vessel will be supplied with calibration tables for each tank on board (cargo,
ballast, fuel, freshwater etc.). The shipyard will calculate the volume of the tank for
typically 1cm intervals of ullage or sounding. As cargo tanks will contain pipelines,
they will occupy a physical volume in the bottom of the tank. The volume of oil they
contain within that tank is usually accounted for in the calibration tables. Occasionally
pipeline volumes are excluded and a statement to this effect is given. The pipeline
volume must therefore be added when calculating quantities.

101
Trim Corrections
Liquid finds its own level. When a vessel is trimmed the oil level at one end of the
tank will be higher than at the other end. Unless the gauging point is at the geometric
centre of area then a correction must be made to correct the observed level to an
equivalent even keel level.

Tank calibration tables show corrected volumes for different trims. An approximation
for trim corrections to soundings in rectangular shaped tanks can be found by the
following formula:

Correction to sounding = d x trim

LBP
Where: d = distance of gauging point from the tank centre of area
LBP = vessel’s length between perpendiculars

Similar corrections are given for angles of list.

TRIM CORRECTIONS

Gauging point

ƒ Liquid residue forms a wedge

at one end of tank. Volume
(1) can be calculated by wedge
(2) (3) formula
ƒ Non-liquid residue is
considered to form an even
Non- liquid residue layer across tank bottom for
Liquid wedge calculation purposes

(1) = Observed level

(2) = Even keel level
(3) = Trim correction [(2) – (1)] Fig.3

There are a number of wedge formulas in use. A common one is:

Wedge volume = LBP x W x (P)2

2 x trim WEDGE FORMULA
Where W = tank width
P = corrected sounding at after bulkhead
U
The corrected sounding ‘P’ can be found by the formula:
P1
P = P1 + U x trim
LBP
Where P1 = observed sounding
U = distance from gauging point to after bulkhead W

102
The wedge formula is only applicable for free flowing liquid whose leading edge does
not reach the forward bulkhead and is suited to rectangular shaped tanks only.

Temperature Measurement
It is essential accurate temperature measurements are taken. A one-degree Celsius
error on a 300000-m3 crude oil cargo will result in a 240-m3 error in volume.

Temperature measurement may be by means of a laboratory standard mercury

thermometer lowered within an open metal cup on a line into the cargo. When
removed from the tank the cup retains some cargo to give accurate measurement.

Alternatively electronic thermoprobes may be used. These range from hand held
devices consisting of a display unit and temperature measuring probe on the end of a
wire to temperature sensors incorporated into restricted gauging devices.

Direct reading temperature sensors located in a tank may be fitted and these will give
a direct read-out locally and in the cargo control room.

Whichever method is employed it is essential to take temperatures on an individual

tank basis and at top, middle and bottom levels within the cargo. This is especially
important with heated cargoes as temperature stratification can occur.

Density Measurement
When a cargo is loaded the terminal generally provides the ship with the cargo density
and anticipated loading temperature. It must be established whether the stated density
is in air or vacuo and at what temperature the given density is. Normally stated
densities are at the standard temperature and in vacuum.

The prudent ship’s officer will check the density of the received cargo as any density
error will affect both volumetric and weight calculations. Hydrometers are used and a
number will be carried on board to cover the normal range of densities for the cargoes
to be carried. Hydrometers should be of laboratory standard and referenced to a
standard temperature.

Water Measurement
Certain cargoes may contain water i.e. crude oil. This volume of water needs to be
quantified. The simplest method to obtain the sounding of any free water underneath a
cargo is by means of water-finding paste. This is a water reactive paste that changes
colour when it comes into contact with water; other liquids do not affect its colour.
The paste is thinly spread on a sounding tape or rod.

Alternatively an interface detector may be used. These are electronic devices that emit
a tone when contact with water is made. Restricted gauging devices often have an
interface detector built in.

Volumetric Units
Vessel calibration tables give volumes in cubic metres and/or US Barrels. The latter is
derived from how oil was first transported, literally in wooden barrels. The US Barrel

103
is equivalent to 42 US gallons (approximately 159 litres) and is the standard unit at
which crude oil is traded on the petroleum markets.

Definitions
The standard industry definitions presently in use internationally are:

TOTAL OBSERVED VOLUME (TOV) - This is the total volume of all petroleum
liquids, basic sediment and water (abbreviated to BS & W) in suspension plus any
free water. AT THE OBSERVED TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE.

As pressure differentials between the outside atmosphere and the inside of the tanks
on oil and chemical carriers is small the effects of pressure are ignored.
Unrefined oils will contain impurities in the form of solid particles, sand etc. and
there may also be carried over water from the production process.
The BS & W is not readily measurable on board except by laboratory analysis of the
cargo sample and is expressed as a percentage of the total volume, i.e. 0.10 percent
BS & W.
Free water is the measurable amount of water under a quantity of oil once it has
settled out, it is found by means of an interface detector or water finding paste
(changes colour when in contact with water and does not react to oil)

GROSS OBSERVED VOLUME (GOV) - The total of all petroleum liquids and BS &
W but EXCLUDING free water. AT OBSERVED TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE.
(Free water is possible in some products from carry over from water plugs to clear
shore lines etc or poor line draining on board)

GROSS STANDARD VOLUME (GSV) - The total of all petroleum products and BS
& W but EXCLUDING free water, corrected to a STANDARD TEMPERATURE
( 60oF / 15oC ) by the appropriate temperature correction factor for the observed
temperature, API, RD or density.

NETT STANDARD VOLUME (NSV) - The total of all petroleum liquids

EXCLUDING BS & W and free water, corrected to a standard temperature.
(Applicable to crude cargoes -b s & w is refined out in products)

TOTAL CALCULATED VOLUME (TCV) - The total of all petroleum liquids and
BS & W corrected to a standard temperature and including any free water.
(Applicable when comparing total volumes received ship / shore, in - transit etc.)

Some other definitions that may be encountered are:

API - The API gravity of a product is a factor used for convenience and is based upon
Specific Gravity:

API Gravity = 141.5 - 131.5

SG @ 60oF

DENSITY - is mass per unit volume weighed in the absence of air, i.e. in vacuo.
Within the context of the tables a density at 15oC is used.
(Relative Density = Specific Gravity they are not the same as density)

104
SPECIFIC GRAVITY/RELATIVE DENSITY - Is the ratio of the weight of a given
volume of oil to the weight of the same volume of water. Both weights being
corrected for the buoyancy of air and therefore being declared in vacuum. Within the
context of the tables a temperature of 60F is used.

ROB / OBQ - the quantity of oil, sediment & water Remaining On Board after
discharge or the On Board Quantity of oil, sediment & water before loading.

WEDGE FORMULA. This is a mathematical approximation for calculating the

volume of liquid oil remaining in a tank when the vessel is trimmed. It is only
applicable when the depth of oil is small enough that the leading edge of the oil does
not reach the forward bulkhead. Not generally applied to water volumes. Only valid
for flat sided tanks so slop tanks and 1 wings may be un-wedgeable. Will show less
volume than using trim corrections.

VESSEL EXPERIENCE FACTOR (VEF). This is used for comparing ship and shore
figures over a number of voyages to arrive at arithmetic mean factor (ship-loaded
quantity divided by the shore delivered quantity). This vessel loading ratio is averaged
over a number of voyages to arrive at a mean factor that should represent the status of
a vessel’s calibration accuracy. It is used in cargo reconciliation calculations.
Traditionally ships calculated quantities indicate more than the delivered shore
quantity due to calibration differences between ship tanks and shore tanks. Modern
double hull tankers have more accurate tables due to flush-sided tanks and lack of
construction within the tanks making calibration easier.

ASTM / IP Tables
(American Standards for Testing and Materials / Institute of Petroleum)
Volume Correction Tables are produced by the American Petroleum Institute (API)
amongst others and are the most widely used. Extracts from the Tables are included at
the end of this chapter.

There are four sets of tables for volume correction - A, B, C, and D, for crudes,
generalised products, special applications and lubricating oils respectively. There are
moves afoot to introduce a volume e for natural gasoline and reformates etc. but these
have not been produced yet (1998)

The 53/54 series is for use with the metric system of measurement and the 5/6 series
for the American (barrels) system.
Additional tables give factors for converting between US Barrels at 60oF to Cubic
metres at 15oC (Table 52), Long Tons per barrel (Table 13) and Metric tonnes per
barrel (Table 13).
Both organisations produce sets of tables for use in oil calculations, including volume
correction. The actual table to use will depend on a number of factors such as the
vessels trading area, local custom or owners and charterers trading requirements. On a
geographical basis the USA and most of South America will use volume correction
factors from Tables 6A or 6B, with entry API gravity at 60F and temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit.

105
The ‘A’ Tables are for crudes and ‘B’ Tables for generalised products

European countries tend to use Tables 54A or 54B with entry Density at 15oC and
temperature in degrees Celsius.

The Arabian Gulf States seem to use Table 6A for crude shipments and 54B for
products.

Depending on which tables are used the following list will give the Tables to be
consulted in order to arrive at a volumetric and weight / mass calculation of quantities
onboard:

American System:

ƒ Table 6A / 6B = Volume correction factors to 60oF

ƒ Table 11 = Long Tons per Barrel
ƒ Table 13 = Metric Tonnes per Barrel
ƒ Table 53 = Barrels at 60oF to Cubic metres at 15oC

Metric System:

ƒ Table 54A / 54B = Volume correction factors to 15oC

ƒ Table 52 = Cubic Metres at 15oC to Barrels at 60oF (To obtain the mass
multiply the volume at 15oC by the density at 15oC )

Calculations
TABLE 6A / 6B CALCULATION

Units: Barrels

Standard Temperature: 60oF

Procedure:
ƒ From Ullage tables obtain volume for trim corrected ullage = TOV
ƒ Deduct Free water volume, if any = GOV
ƒ From observed temperature and cargo API enter Table. It is not necessary to
interpolate, as the changes are non-linear. For example API 33.3 and temperature
84.7oF enter with 33.5 & 84.5 (gives 0.9886) VCF is given to four decimal places

Table 6A
API Gravity at 60oF
o
Temp F 33.0 33.5 34.0 34.5
83.0 0.9893 0.9893 0.9892 0.9891
83.5 0.9891 0.9890 0.9890 0.9889
84.0 0.9889 0.9888 0.9887 0.9887
84.5 0.9886 0.9886 0.9885 0.9884
85.0 0.9884 0.9883 0.9883 0.9882

Fig.5

106
ƒ Multiply GOV x VCF = GSV
ƒ If necessary add free water to GSV = TCV. Industry practice assumes the water is
at a temperature of 60oF and has a density of 1.0000.

The above is the basic calculation. It will be necessary to calculate volumes loaded /
discharged. Deducting the OBQ (on board quantity before loading or the ROB
(remaining on board) after discharge does this. Neither is temperature corrected and it
is assumed the temperature is 60oF or 15oC (VCF = 1.0000). If you have sufficient
quantity and can accurately measure the temperature then this can be used.

METRIC CALCULATIONS
Units Cubic Metres

Standard Temperature 15oC

For metric calculations the procedure is the same as working with barrels except the
entry is with density in vacuo and temperature in degrees Celsius. Volumes are
usually in cubic metres.

Worked examples
Question 1
The total observed volume was measured as 385500 US Bbls at an observed
temperature of 82oF. The API of the cargo is 33.8. A volume of 348 bbls of free water
was measured. Calculate the gross standard volume and the total calculated volume
of this quantity of oil. Use the Table 6A extracts found at the end of this chapter.

1. TOV – Free water = GOV 385500 – 348 = 385152 Bbls at 82oF

2. From Table 6A entry with API 33.8 and observed temperature 82oF, gives volume
correction factor (VCF) of 0.9897.
3. Multiply GOV x VCF = 385152 x 0,9897 = 381184.9 Bbls at 60oF = Gross
Standard Volume
4. Add free water to GSV, = 381184.9 +348 = 381532.9 Bbls at 60oF = Total
Calculated Volume

Question 2
A vessel is nominated to load 2,000,000 Bbls at 60oF of crude oil having an API of
31.6. The expected loading temperature is 92.1oF. Calculate the volume this cargo
occupies at the observed temperature.

VCF from Table 6A = 0.9854

GSV = GOV = 2,000,000 = 2,029,632.6 US Bbls at 92.1oF

VCF 0.9854

107
Question 3
Prior to loading an on board quantity (OBQ) of 233 Bbls of oil residue was
measured. On completion of loading the TCV was measured as 547,892 Bbls at 60oF.
The free water measurement was 329 Bbls. Calculate the GSV quantity loaded.

After loading 547,892 Bbls TCV

Free water (-) 329 Bbls
GSV after loading 547,563 Bbls GSV
OBQ (-) 233 Bbls
GSV loaded 547,330 Bbls

Question 4
A volume of gasoline having a density at 15oC of 738.4 kg/m3 was measured as 53467
m3 at a temperature of 21.6oC. Calculate the GSV.

From Table 54A, VCF = 0.9920

GSV = GOV x VCF = 53467 x 0.9920 = 53039.26 m3 at 15oC GSV

Weight Calculation
It will also be necessary to calculate the weight, or mass of the cargo. Table 11 and
13 give, respectively; conversion factors for Long Tons in air per Barrel and Metric
Tonnes in air per barrel and are partly reproduced at the end of this chapter. Multiply
volume at the standard temperature by the factor. The shore and / or charterers will
require the GSV weight so multiply the GSV volume by the factor (s). Weights thus
obtained are in air not vacuo, but some countries Customs Laws (i.e. Holland) require
weights to be in vacuuo, i.e. the buoyancy of air is not taken into consideration, and
the majority of countries require weights in air.

For converting Bbls @ 60oF to Cu M @ 15oC use Table 52.

Note 60oF is not 15oC (= 59oF) and so it is not correct to convert from Barrels at 60oF
to cubic metres at 15oC by using the standard factor 6.28981. Use Table 52.

For obtaining the mass of cargo multiply the GSV / TCV by the density to obtain
metric tonnes in vacuo or deduct 0.0011 from the density in vacuo and multiply by the
GSV / TCV to obtain mass in air. 0.0011 is the factor to account for the buoyancy of
air and is dependent on density, but for most oils (density range 0.6 to 1.0011) this
factor is applicable. Alternatively ASTM/IP Table 56 can be used.

It is always wise to confirm from the terminal and / or cargo inspectors if the density
being given is in vacuo or in air to avoid misunderstandings, especially when loading
to a maximum cargo weight. A 0.0011 difference in the density on a 50000 mt lifting
is 64 tonnes or 0.13 pct. The excess may have to be pumped back!

108
Examples of Weight Calculation
Question 1.
A product cargo was measured as 357,000 US Bbls GSV. Calculate how many Long
Tons and metric Tonnes this quantity represents. The API is 65.0

1. From Table 11, entry with API 65.0, gives a factor of 0.11239 Long Tons / US Bbl
2. Multiply GSV by factor = 357,000 x 0.11239 = 40,123.23 Long Tons
3. From Table 13, entry with API 65.0, gives a factor 0.11420 Metric Tonnes / US
Bbl
4. Multiply GSV by factor = 357,000 x 0.11420 = 40769.4 Metric Tonnes

By definition both are weights in air. A Long Ton is a ton of 2240 Lbs

Question 2
The GSV of a product cargo is 45000 m3, the density at 15oC is 0.7890 tonnes/m3.
Calculate the metric tonnes in air and in vacuo of this volume of oil

1. Mass = Volume x Density

2. 45000 x 0.7890 = 35505.0 metric tonnes in vacuo
3. Metric tonnes in vacuo x Table 56 factor = metric tonnes in air = 35505.0 x
0.99865 = 35457.07 metric tonnes in air

(Alternatively deduct the general factor of 0.0011 from the density and multiply by the
GSV,
= [0.7890 – 0.0011] x 45000 = 35455.5 metric tonnes in air. The difference between
this answer and 3. Above is slight and due to rounding errors)

Conclusion
The measurement of oil and chemical cargoes is not an exact science; many variables
exist including the accuracy of temperature measurement, accuracy of calibration
tables etc., slight trim and list variations, and vessel movement. The methods outlined
are those generally considered to be the inspection industry norm for marine
measurement, within these practices variations may be encountered; these are
acceptable if they are in accordance with the API / IP standards.

109
Summary of Chapter 8

Gauging Equipment
ƒ Necessary to measure cargo levels
ƒ Open gauging equipment releases tank atmosphere to deck area and personnel
ƒ Restricted gauging releases a small amount of the tank atmosphere to the deck
area
ƒ Closed gauging does not release any of the tank atmosphere when used
ƒ Measurement may be by ullage or sounding
ƒ Ullage is from the measuring point to the liquid surface
ƒ Sounding is from the tank bottom to the liquid surface

Liquid Measurement
ƒ Ships calibration tables give tank volumes for incremental values of ullage or
sounding
ƒ Pipeline capacities are usually included in the tank calibrations. If they are not the
volumes occupied must be taken into consideration
ƒ If the vessel is trimmed corrections must be applied to the observed ullage /
sounding to obtain an even keel equivalent. These are given in the calibration
tables
ƒ If the liquid surface does not touch the forward tank bulkhead the wedge formula
can be used to calculate quantities
ƒ Accurate temperature measurement is required. Manual or electronic
thermometers are used. Temperatures should be taken on a tank by tank basis at
multiple liquid levels
ƒ The loading terminal normally provides the density of the cargo. Ship’s staff using
hydrometers should check it.
ƒ Density is usually stated in vacuum and at a standard temperature
ƒ The volume of any free water under the cargo should be quantified. Water finding
paste or an interface detector should be used to determine the water sounding

110
Calculations
ƒ The US Barrel is a unit of volume (42 US gallons) and is extensively used
ƒ Cubic metres are also used
ƒ Oil expands and contracts with temperature and it is necessary to correct observed
volumes to a standard temperature
ƒ If using US Barrels the standard temperature is 60oF
ƒ If using cubic metres the standard temperature is 15oC
ƒ 60oF does not equal 15oC
ƒ To correct observed volumes to volumes at a standard temperature Volume
Correction Factors are used
ƒ Tables 6A and 6B are used if working in US Barrels
ƒ Tables 54A and 54B are used if working in cubic metres
ƒ Tables suffixed by ‘A’ are used for crude oils, ‘B’ tables are for generalised
products
ƒ Tables 11 and 13 convert US Barrels at 60oF to Long Tons and Metric Tonnes
respectively
ƒ The Total Observed Volume (TOV) is the volume of all oil, free water and BS &
W in suspension at the observed temperature
ƒ BS & W is basic sediment and water found in suspension within a cargo. It cannot
be measured on the ship
ƒ The Gross Observed Volume (GOV) is the volume of all oil and BS & W at the
observed volume. Free water is excluded
ƒ The Gross Standard Volume (GSV) is the volume of all oil and BS & W at the
standard temperature. It is obtained by multiplying the GSV by the volume
correction factor(VCF)
ƒ The Total Calculated Volume (TCV) is the GSV plus any free water found
ƒ The Vessel Experience Factor (VEF) is a historical average over a number of
voyages of ship to shore loaded quantity differences. It is used for cargo
reconciliation purposes
ƒ When using volume correction factors it is not necessary to interpolate between
values
ƒ Weights may be expressed in air or in vacuo

Formula Summary
• TOV – Freewater = GOV
• GOV x VCF = GSV
• GSV + Freewater = TCV
• GSV – BS & W % = NSV
• Ship Received Quantity x 100 = Ship / Shore Ratio
Shore Delivered Quantity
• GSV x Table 13 factor = metric tonnes in air
• M3 x Density = metric tonnes (vacuum)
• M3 x Density x Table 56 factor = metric tonnes (air)

111
Chapter 9

TANKER OPERATIONS:

1. LOADING – planning

2. LOADED PASSAGE – cargo care

3. DISCHARGE – planning, characteristics of

crude oil, COW, ballasting

4. BALLAST VOYAGE - tank cleaning

112
Introduction
In this chapter the operational requirements for each stage of a typical tanker voyage
will be discussed. The loading, loaded voyage, discharge and ballast voyage will be
covered. The Chief Officer is directly responsible for the cargo and related operations
and will need to delegate appropriate tasks to the junior officers and crew. The C/O
must not only plan the detail but look at the bigger picture of the entire voyage; for
example ballasting sequences in relation to difficult heated cargoes, COW
requirements etc.

CARGO PLANNING
The Cargo Plan
For a plan to be effective it should contain enough information so that reference back
to the writer is not required. It follows that the writer should always consider what is
needed to be known by other people in order to carry out the operation successfully
and without incident.

It is useful to break down the operation into manageable parts. Instructions should be
clear and precise. A tabular format is often useful with, in a two-column table,
operational requirements on one side and “important points” on the other. Additional
columns for projected timings can be added if required.

If the operation is broken down into small elements the tabular format acts as a
checklist without the need to hunt through pages of instructions and will readily
identify critical points in the operation.

A good cargo plan will contain the following information:

ƒ Grades to be loaded / discharged

ƒ Sequence of loading / discharge
ƒ Quantities
ƒ Expected density / loading temperature
ƒ Tanks / lines / pumps for each grade
ƒ Status of critical valves in pipeline system
ƒ Ballasting / deballasting sequence
ƒ Inert Gas requirements
ƒ COW requirements including: tanks to COW, supply of oil for COW
ƒ Maximum rates and line pressures
ƒ Mooring management
ƒ Watchkeeping arrangements
ƒ Port specific details; tidal streams, water depth etc. communications

Further details can be added following the ship / shore ‘key’ meeting.

113
Tanker & Terminal Liaison on Safety Procedures
Following berthing and before starting cargo operations a ‘Key’ meeting will be held
between (usually) the chief officer of the tanker and the terminal representative. The
following will be agreed:
• Designated smoking areas
• Local safety and pollution regulations
• Information on the availability of fire fighting & emergency equipment on board
& in the terminal
• Action to be taken in an emergency
• Evacuation procedures – muster points ashore and escape routes
• Communications
• Cargo transfer procedures
• Vapour venting procedures
• Inert Gas requirements

The Ship / Shore Safety checklist will indicate this & other relevant information.
ISGOTT contains a pro-forma checklist, which is commonly used. It contains 46
different questions which must be answered (tick box) by both the ship and the
terminal. Provision is made for additional remarks to be made.

Some questions are marked as:

A any procedures & agreements should be in writing in the remarks column and
must be signed by both parties

P in the case of a negative answer, the operation should not be carried out
without permission of the port authority

R items so marked are to be re-checked at mutually agreed intervals

State of Readiness
Fire-fighting equipment should be available for instant use. Prior to cargo transfer
operations fire hoses should be connected to the fire main, one forward and one aft of
the manifold. Monitors should be pointed at the manifold area. Portable fire
extinguishers, preferably dry-powder should be placed near the manifold.

The International Shore Connection should be made available & confirmation sought
that transfer of water for fire-fighting purposes is available.

It is essential that the main engine and all critical auxiliary machinery required for
manoeuvring the vessel are ready for immediate use. Repairs and other work that may
immobilise the tanker should not be carried out at the berth without Port Authority
permission.

114
Ship/Shore Safety Check List,
Guidelines and Specimen letter
This Appendix comprises the Ship/Shore Safety Check List, Guidelines
relating to the Check List and a specimen letter for issue by the terminal
representative to masters of tankers at terminals.
SHIP/SHORE SAFETY CHECK LIST
Ship’s Name:__________________________________________________________
Berth:___________________________ Port:________________________________
Date of Arrival:____________________ Time of Arrival:________________________
INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETION:
The safety of operations requires that all questions should be answered affirmatively by
clearly ticking (4) the appropriate box. If an affirmative answer is not possible, the
reason should be given and agreement reached upon appropriate precautions to be
taken between the ship and the terminal. Where any question is considered to be not
applicable, then a note to that effect should be inserted in the remarks column.
A box in the columns ‘ship’ and ‘terminal’ indicates that checks should be carried out by the
party concerned. The presence of the letters A, P or R in the column ‘Code’ indicates the
following:

A – any procedures and agreements should be in writing in the remarks column of this Check
List or other mutually acceptable form. In either case, the signature of both parties should be
required.
P – in the case of a negative answer, the operation should not be carried out without
the permission of the Port Authority.
R – indicates items to be re-checked at intervals not exceeding that agreed in the
declaration.

· PART ‘A’ - BULK LIQUID GENERAL

Yes No
1. Is the ship securely moored? R Stop cargo at: ____ kts
wind vel.
Disconnect at: ____ kts
wind vel.
Unberth at: ____ kts
wind vel.
2. Are emergency towing wires correctly
positioned? R
3. Is there safe access between ship and
shore? R
4. Is the ship ready to move under its own
power? PR
5. Is there an effective deck watch in
attendance on board and adequate
supervision on the terminal and on the ship? R
6. Is the agreed ship/shore communication
system operative? AR
7. Has the emergency signal to be used by the
ship and shore been explained and
understood? A
8. Have the procedures for cargo, bunker and
ballast handling been agreed? AR

9. Have the hazards associated with toxic

substances in the cargo being handled been
identified and understood?

115
10. Has the emergency shutdown procedure
been agreed? A
11. Are fire hoses and fire-fighting equipment on
board and ashore positioned and ready for
immediate use? R
12. Are cargo and bunker hoses/arms in good
condition, properly rigged and appropriate
for the service intended?
13. Are scuppers effectively plugged and drip
trays in position, both on board and ashore? R
14. Are unused cargo and bunker connections
properly secured with blank flanges fully
bolted?
15. Are sea and overboard discharge valves,
when not in use, closed and visibly secured?
16. Are all cargo and bunker tank lids closed?
17. Is the agreed tank venting system being
used? AR
18. Has the operation of the P/V valves and/or
high velocity vents been verified using the
checklift facility, where fitted?
19. Are hand torches of an approved type?

General Ship Terminal Code Remarks

20. Are portable VHF/UHF transceivers of an
approved type?
21. Are the ship’s main radio transmitter aerials
earthed and radars switched off?
22. Are electric cables to portable electrical
equipment disconnected from power?
23. Are all external doors and ports in the
accommodation closed? R
24. Are window type air conditioning units
disconnected? and,
25. Are air conditioning intakes which may
permit the entry of cargo vapours closed?
26. Are the requirements for the use of galley
equipment and other cooking appliances
being observed? R
27. Are smoking regulations being observed? R
28. Are naked light regulations being observed? R
29. Is there provision for an emergency escape?
30. Are sufficient personnel on board and
ashore to deal with an emergency? R
31. Are adequate insulating means in place in
the ship/shore connection?
32. Have measures been taken to ensure
sufficient pumproom ventilation? R
33. If the ship is capable of closed loading, have
the requirements for closed operations been
agreed? R
34. Has a vapour return line been connected?
35. If a vapour return line is connected, have
operating parameters been agreed?
36. Are ship emergency fire control plans
located externally?

116
If the ship is fitted, or required to be fitted with an Inert Gas System the following questions
should be answered.

Inert Gas System Ship Terminal Code Remarks

Yes No
37. Is the Inert Gas System fully operational and
in good working order? P
38. Are deck seals in good working order? R
39. Are liquid levels in P/V breakers correct? R
40. Have the fixed and portable oxygen
analysers been calibrated and are they
working properly? R
41. Are fixed IG pressure and oxygen content
recorders working? R
42. Are all cargo tank atmospheres at positive
pressure with an oxygen content of 8% or
less by volume? PR
43. Are all the individual tank IG valves (if fitted)
correctly set and locked? R
44. Are all the persons in charge of cargo
operations aware that in the case of failure
of the Inert Gas Plant, discharge operations
should cease, and the terminal be advised?

If the ship is fitted with a crude oil washing (COW) system, and intends to crude oil wash, the
following questions should be answered. If the ship is planning to tank clean alongside, the
following questions should be answered.

• Delete Yes or No as appropriate

Yes No
Crude Oil Washing Ship Terminal Code Remarks
45. Is the Pre-Arrival Crude Oil Washing Check
List, as contained in the approved Crude Oil
Washing Manual, satisfactorily completed?
46. Is the Crude Oil Washing Check List for use
before, during and after Crude Oil Washing,
as contained in the approved Crude Oil
Washing Manual, available and being used? R

Tank Cleaning Ship Shore Remarks

Are tank cleaning operations planned during the
ship’s stay alongside the shore installation?
Yes/No*
If so, have the Port Authority and terminal
authority been informed?
Yes/No* Yes/No*

(Extracted from ISGOTT 4th Edition, ICS)

117
General Precautions while a Tanker is at a Petroleum Berth

Compliance with Terminal & Local Regulations

When a tanker is alongside a petroleum berth she must comply with the terminals
safety regulations as well as the ships own regulations and procedures. As terminal
regulations vary depending on local needs there must be clear guidance available.
This is achieved through the Ship / Shore Safety checklist. In addition there may be
local Port Authority requirements that have to be followed.

Manning Requirements
There must be enough officers and crew on board at all times to deal with normal
operations and emergency situations. As a rule of thumb no more than 50% of any
department should be ashore at any one time.

Management of Moorings
Ships’ personnel are responsible for frequent monitoring checks. The type of
moorings found at tanker berths varies, from a conventional berth type mooring
pattern, to offshore ship-to-ship lighterings or buoy moorings. Each will have their
own specific requirements. Good mooring practice should be adhered to at all times.
This will include turning up ropes on bitts and not leaving then on drum ends,
ensuring there are a minimum number of turns of wire on the working drum and
ensuring moorings are correctly adjusted. It is especially important that spring lines
are kept tight at all times when loading arms are used because of the limited fore and
aft envelope of the arms.

Emergency Towing Off Wires

In order for tugs to attach themselves to the tanker rapidly in an emergency most
berths require emergency towing off wires to be rigged forward and aft on the
offshore side from the berth. These should be wires of adequate length and strength
(6 x 36 construction, 28-mm diameter & 45 metres long for ships over 20000 dwt).
The eye of the wire should be kept approximately 1 metre above the waterline
forward & aft. This can be achieved by means of a light lashing on the wire and
secured on the ships’ rail. Sufficient slack should be maintained between the bitts and
the fairlead to enable a tug to make fast and tow effectively.

Emergency Towing Wire (forward)

Light lashing

(Similar arrangement aft)

1 metre

118
Alternative Tanker Berthing Arrangements
Buoy Moorings
There are two types: Conventional (CBM’s) and Single Buoy Moorings (SBM’s).
A typical SBM mooring layout is shown in Fig.1.
The former involve anchoring forward & tying up down aft to up to 6 buoys, a time
consuming process. Cargo hoses are lifted by means of the ships’ crane. SBM’s are
single buoys to which the ship ties up to forward by picking up a chafing chain
secured to the buoy rope mooring. The chain is secured onboard by a bow chock on
the forecastle (see fig.2); the ship is free to rotate about the buoy with the wind & tide.
Good communications & regular checks on mooring condition (especially chaffing of
ropes) should be made. Proximity of the vessel to an SBM must also be monitored
closely. The vessel must not over-ride the buoy under any circumstances. Engines are
usually on stand-by throughout.

Single Buoy Mooring (S.B.M.)

Buoy

Floats
Riser Undersea pipeline Cargo hose

Fig.1 Sea bed

Detail of S.B.M. Mooring Arrangement

Chain Support
Buoy
Pick-up Buoy

Buoy Hawser

Chafing
Chain

Bow
Chock

Bow Chock Fig.2

119
Ship to Ship Transfer
The introduction of VLCC’s resulted in these vessels being draft constrained at many
ports. Ship to Ship Transfers resolve this problem by using smaller lightering vessels
to off-load the VLCC’s cargo and transporting to the terminals located in the port.
Offshore lightering zones are designated and may be located many miles off shore.

In theory any vessel may act as a lightering vessel but in practice dedicated lightering
vessel are used, especially at the main regions where STS operations are carried out,
such as offshore Galveston.

The VLCC is refereed to as the Ship to be Lightered (STBL) or the ‘mother ship’.
Typically, for a 2 mBbl cargo there will be four lightering operations carried out.
Invariably the lightering vessel will tie up on the starboard side of the STBL for ship
handling reasons (transverse thrust when going astern will bring the lightering
vessels’ stern in). During mooring operations the VLCC will typically maintain a
steady course at slow speed (5 knots) and the LV will man oeuvre alongside. Large
Yokohama fenders on the LV are used to prevent damage. Once moored the two
vessels will usually drift or anchor.

Transfer Operations
Normal safety procedures are required but there are particular problems associated
with STS transfers, mainly associated with the management of moorings and weather
criteria for stopping or abandoning operations.

There are a series of five checklists that must be completed prior to each stage of the
operation, these cover:

1. Pre-chartering
2. Pre-mooring
3. Mooring operations
4. Cargo Transfer
5. Unmooring

Each checklist must be completed before the next stage can be carried out.

Moorings
The particular problem associated with moorings is chaffing as both ships move in the
seaway. This can be resolved by greasing fairleads. Wires and ropes should not be
sent out through the same lead (this is good general practice anyway). All moorings
must be of the same type. The OCIMF publication “Ship to Ship Transfer Guide”
should be consulted for further details.

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LOADING
On receipt of cargo orders from the charterers it will be necessary to establish whether
the ship can comply with the C/P requirements. These days voyage orders are
complex and detailed, a 2 metre long telex is quite common! The required detail must
be extracted as to grade, quantity, load and discharge ports, heating requirements (if
any), draft restrictions etc.

Charter Party Terms Related to Voyage Orders

There are a number of chartering terms used in voyage orders that the senior officers
need to be aware of and these will now be identified. It is common practice for
charterers to finance the purchase of oil cargoes by arranging for a Letter of Credit
(LOC) with a bank. Essentially the bank holds the money on behalf of the buyer and
seller until the cargo has been loaded. The LOC will specify a maximum cargo
quantity (and hence monetary value) up to which the bank will honour the LOC. If the
vessel loads to much then the LOC will have to be re-negotiated and banks only work
9-5 Monday to Friday! The vessel will invariably be delayed or have to pump the
excess back ashore.

The following chartering terms are commonly seen and must be understood:
ƒ MOL CHOPT – vessel to load more or less the specified quantity within a
percentage margin either side of the nominated quantity. For example 100000
tonnes + or – 5% CHOPT would mean the vessel has to load between 95000
and 10500 tonnes but it is for the charterer to decide the exact quantity within
these limits
ƒ MOLOO – as above but it is up to the owner (i.e. ship) to decide the quantity
ƒ MIN/MAX- minimum/maximum. Vessel to load the exact quantity nominated.
This is difficult to achieve with liquid cargoes and remember that Bill of
Ladings are based on shore not ship figures. In practice a small tolerance is
allowed. If min/max is specified it is suggested that a shore stop is arranged
for the nominated quantity.
ƒ ACAPT – as close as possible to; usually followed by “but not more than” or
“but not less than”.
ƒ LAYDAYS / LAYCANS – the period of time within which the must be
available to load the nominated cargo. If the vessel does not tender Notice of
Readiness (NOR) within the specified time range then the charterers have the
option to cancel the charter.
ƒ LAYTIME – the period of time the vessel has to complete the operation.
Penalties may be imposed on the owner for any delays within their control.

Cargo Plan Considerations

The following should be considered:

ƒ Has the vessel the volumetric capacity to load the nominated cargo? This may be
critical for lighter density cargoes. The actual loaded temperature may not be
known. Check previous voyage records if available or check with charterers /
agents etc. The higher the temperature, the greater the volume it will occupy. With
high-density cargoes does Class impose a restriction on tank height filling? There
usually is if cargo density exceeds 1.025.

121
ƒ With the nominated quantity is the trim/draft/stress acceptable for all stages of the
voyage. Don’t forget canal transits, which may have trim as well as draft
restrictions. The water density may not be salt and so the vessel will not only
suffer sinkage but also change her trim with a change of density. If you need to
transfer cargo on passage advise charterers of the need in advance - they have a
tendency to think you’re up to no good with “their” cargo if you don’t advise
them. The cargo inspector will compare departure and arrival quantities on a tank
by tank basis. Any discrepancy will be questioned.
ƒ Partial filling of tanks may lead to sloshing of cargo, causing structural damage
and free surface effect. Any restrictions in loading manual?
ƒ Is there sufficient room for expansion? The standard 98 percent maximum filling
of cargo tanks allows for about a 20oC expansion. Is this enough for the intended
voyage? The difference in temperature between the tropics and northern Europe
can exceed this.
ƒ Maintain as much lead free space as possible for future cargo requirements. Many
charterers insist on lead free stowage (last 3 cargoes). This is a reducing
requirement as most countries are now making the use of lead in gasoline illegal.
ƒ Always take manifold samples at the start of each grade. If you have samples it
can help to prove any contamination occurred ashore. If manifold samples are not
taken it will be almost impossible to prove contamination didn’t happen on the
ship.
ƒ If the cargo has a high vapour pressure is it within the vessels venting system
capabilities to deal with it? The RVP is usually given with cargo documentation.
This is based on a temperature of 37.8 degrees Celsius, if the cargo is hotter the
vapour pressure is higher than specified.
ƒ If cargo heating is required by charterers is the vessel capable of complying with
them? Heating coils should be tested prior to loading – this can be done with air.
Heating instructions normally specify a carriage temperature and a discharge
temperature (normally about 10o higher). The ability of the vessel to heat cargoes
depends on a number of factors such as whether single or double hulled, sea and
air temperature (most heat loss is through the deck) and condition of heating coils
or exchangers. Records must be kept throughout the voyage of individual tank
temperatures if the cargo is heated. If the cargo is received at below the charterers
carriage temperature Note Protest or refuse the cargo pending confirmation by
charterers that it is okay to load.

If the vessel is to load a number of grades then the following needs to be considered:

ƒ If a number of grades are to be loaded, consider the sequence of loading.

Generally speaking the more sensitive grades should be loaded first and
discharged last to reduce pipeline contamination.
ƒ Keep Kerosenes away from gasolines as far as possible. Gasoline’s can affect gas
oil (diesel) flashpoints adversely and v.v.
ƒ Start loading largest grade first. Smaller grades can be loaded during the time of
the biggest grade - no delay in starting or stopping grades this way.
ƒ Don’t, generally, handle more than two grades at once, the operation may become
unmanageable.
ƒ Look at the loading / discharge sequence. Does the plan allow for any change of
orders on passage? Is it flexible enough? Once a loading plan has been decided the
discharge has to be considered. Stresses / trim / draft okay? The discharge

122
sequence is often at the charterers discretion and can be reversed at fairly short
notice; always spread the grades around forward and aft to give flexibility. With
SBT tankers this is not so much an issue as tanks can be ballasted concurrent with
cargo operations. However, ballasting sequences with heated cargoes need to be
taken into account. If possible avoid ballasting adjacent tanks until the cargo tank
in question is empty due to the cooling effect of the ballast.

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LOADED PASSAGE
Duty of Care of the Cargo
Care of the cargo is paramount. This involves compliance with heating instructions (if
any), maintaining watertight integrity of cargo tank spaces and vapour release control.
The latter is increasingly being considered and methods are being introduced to
reduce this cargo loss. It has been estimated that 1.6 to 4 million tonnes of cargo is
lost due to VOC emissions every year (Intertanko, Gunner, T. 1999 and others).
Compare this to oil spills (10’s of 1000’s tonnes at worst yearly). Emissions produced
by venting during loading and venting on passage are calculated to be in the range of
0.1 to 0.3 % depending on vessel design (double hull tankers maintain higher cargo
temperatures due to the insulating effect of the double hull) and cargo vapour
pressure.

MARPOL Annex VI will reduce the quantity emitted during loading due to the use of
vapour return lines. For voyage emissions three approaches to the problem can be
made:
1. Vapour release control – either manually or automated via VOCON valves
2. Reliquifaction plants – to condense the vapour and return to the cargo tanks
3. Vacuum control – maintain a slight negative pressure in the tanks
(www.mhsystemcorp.com)

The pressure in a cargo tank is made up of: Atmospheric + IG + Cargo vapour.

Historically pressure was, and still is, manually released to a random low level.
However if the pressure is lower than the Vapour Pressure of the cargo then there will
be a rapid evolution of more vapour until saturation conditions are reached again. This
new gas will then be released to atmosphere.

Atmospheric pressure can be ignored as it is essentially a constant. The IG gas is

unsaturated and the cargo vapour saturated and will react differently during the
venting operation. Tanker officer’s need guidance or equipment to have better control
over vapour emissions. The VOCON procedure aims to address this. VOCON valves
have been developed (www.pre-vac.com) to control the venting process but are not
yet widely fitted. An alternative is to monitor the pressure drop profile whilst venting.
This can be achieved manually or by the IG oxygen and pressure recorder (a faster
paper feed rate may be needed). To manually record the pressure drop the following
should be done:

ƒ Record the pressure on the IG line

before venting
ƒ Open the tank PV valve or mast
riser and record the pressure at,
say, 30 second intervals
ƒ Plot the pressure drop profile
ƒ When the rate of pressure drop
becomes constant, after the initial
rapid pressure drop) then close the
PV valve/mast riser
ƒ Monitor the final tank pressure in
the tank until tank conditions have
settled

124
The diagram shows the pressure drop trend. As can be seen there is an initial rapid
pressure drop – this is basically the IG being vented. Any further venting will mainly
be of cargo vapour. VENTING SHOULD BE STOPPED AT THIS POINT.
Different cargoes and circumstances will have different profiles. If there is no
inflection in the curve stop the venting at about 800 mmWG anyway.

One consequence of using this procedure, either manually or by VOCON valves, is

that higher pressures will be maintained in the tanks than has previously been the
case.
Reliquifaction plants have been used on gas carriers, their use is being considered for
oil tankers as a means of condensing the cargo vapour back into its liquid phase.

A more novel approach of maintaining a slight negative (below atmospheric) pressure

in the cargo tanks is being developed. A closed loop system with blowers and a
seawater pump for tank vapour cooling purposes does this and in effect maintains a
‘constant’ pressure in the tanks. Because there is a slight negative pressure in the tank
then the pressure differential between the tank pressure and the venting pressure is
greater, so even diurnal variations of pressure, or during loading, can be taken up
during the pressure equilibrium process by the sea water driven cooling system.

Interestingly this system was initially designed as a means of reducing cargo outflow
in the event of grounding.

To summarise a negative pressure system eliminates, or greatly reduces, cargo tank

venting. It has been trialled on a tanker and appears to work. It has not yet been taken
up widely.

Phase Separation
A liquid cargo can exist in three states or ‘phases’; liquid, vapour or solid. The ideal
condition is of course to maintain the cargo in its liquid phase but there is a tendency
for phase separation to occur. Evaporation will occur and, if the cargo is cooled
sufficiently then phase separation to solids will occur. Once the latter has occurred
and sludge formed no amount of heating will return it back to liquid. It is therefore
important to prevent sludge formation from occurring in the first place. This is not
always possible but steps can be taken to minimise the amount of sludge; generally by
maintaining heat on the cargo. Different crude’s will require varying temperatures but
guidance is available from various sources. SEE TABLE IN APPENDIX.

125
DISCHARGE PORT

Introduction
The discharge is potentially the operation where things are likely to go wrong. The
tankers performance is directly in control of the ships staff and any deficiencies in
equipment or operational practice will soon become evident. A number of factors
need to be considered and allowed for in the planning of the operation. Th

ƒ If Crude oil washing is to be carried out, is the crude suitable? Lighter crudes are
better due to an increased solvent effect but washing with very light crudes may
give rise to excessive vapour losses or high tank pressures. With heavier crudes it
may be more prudent to carry out a “minimum” COW as required by MARPOL
(Ballasted cargo tanks + 25 percent of cargo tanks). In very cold conditions watch
adjacent cooling from ballast - can it be staggered so those adjacent cargo tanks
are not ballasted until they are emptied? Some crudes are totally unsuitable for
COW i.e. Laguna, TJP etc. - See the COW manual for list. If in doubt consult
owners / charterers.
ƒ Ascertain on arrival the configuration of the terminal set up. Size and length of
shorelines, elevation of storage tanks, are booster pumps used ashore? All these
will impact on the vessel performance and may be useful information for fighting
a claim from the charterers

Once the pre-planning has been carried out the main operational plan can be
developed to deal with the detail. The aim of the plan is to carry out the operations
safely and efficiently, in the minimum amount of time and within the vessels and
crews capabilities.

The properties of the cargo being carried must be understood and the next section
looks at this in some detail.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF CRUDE OIL

Introduction
Crude oil is the base material for refined products. It may be thought that all crude
oils have similar characteristics; in some cases this is true but each crude, and there
are 100’s of different ‘types’, does have its own individual characteristics and hence
how they are handled onboard may vary. As crude oil is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbon chains and other components a competent tanker officer will have
knowledge of the characteristics of the cargoes carried. This is as true for crude oil as
it is for products or chemicals.

Types of Crude Oil

Typically different types of crude oil have been described in terms of a geographical
name and a brief description of their density, i.e. Arabian Heavy, Iranian Light, North
Sea Blend, West Texas Intermediate. These descriptors do not inform as to how they
act. A guess maybe made that lighter crude’s give off more vapour or that heavier
crude’s may deposit more sludge, but this is not always the case. The following
describes the three main types of crude found:

Paraffinic Crudes
Have a high wax content and usually require heating to prevent the wax falling out
and sludge depositing itself on the tank bottom.

Aromatic Crudes
Have a high number of cyclical hydrocarbon chains with double bonds (i.e. benzene,
toluene, xylene). They are high viscosity crudes and therefore require heating to
remain pumpable

Napthenic Crudes
Are higher density and viscosity crudes and are relatively high in metals and acids,
but very low in wax.

Just to confuse the issue all crude’s contain paraffinic, aromatic and napthenic
components; it is the level of each that determines its description:

Crude Name Paraffins Aromatics Napthenes Density Type

(% vol) (% vol) (%vol)
Nigerian Light 37 9 54 0.84 Napthenic
Arabian Light 63 19 18 0.85 Paraffinic
Arabian Heavy 60 15 25 0.89 Paraffinic
Venezuelan Heavy 35 12 53 0.91 Napthenic
Venezuelan Light 52 14 34 0.88 Paraffinic
North Sea Brent 50 16 34 0.84 Paraffinic

(www.setlaboratories.vom/overview.htm)

127
From an operational viewpoint it maybe more useful to describe them as:

ƒ High Viscosity – generally have high aromatic content. These crudes may not
have a sludge deposit problem but will require heating for carriage and
discharge, usually with a temperature differential for the two stages of the
voyage. The high aromatic content has health implications (i.e. benzene
content). If there is a high aromatic content and it is used to wash paraffinic
crude oil tanks during COW then a chemical reaction can take place which
results in sludge deposits of asphaltines from the paraffinic crude.

ƒ Volatile crude – due to high level of C1 to C4 hydrocarbons excessive gas

evolution can be created; especially when crude oil washing. Rapid increase in
tank pressures can be found when COW commences due to the disturbance of
residue releasing lighter components. Keep the IG pressure low, but positive.
As previously discussed it is not desirable to vent off due to the loss of
valuable lighter ends of the cargo.

ƒ Waxy Paraffinic – prone to sludge deposits due to high wax content. Heating
is required to prevent the formation of wax crystals, although there is often no
difference between carriage and discharge temperature.

Terminology
The following terms are relevant to successful operations:

ƒ Wax Content. The total wax content is usually expressed as a percentage

weight and can give an indication of the amount of sludge deposit, although
there are many variables that must be taken into consideration such as ship
type, cargo temperature, voyage length, heating efficiency etc. As a guide:

Wax % weight Sludge

<3 Minor
3-6 Some deposits in cooler
climates
>6 Cargo heating probably
required

ƒ Pour Point. This is the temperature at which the cargo turns from a semi-liquid
to a semi-solid i.e a phase change is occurring. If a cargo is below its pour
point then sludge deposits will start to appear. Generally a cargo should be
kept about 10oC above its pour point although research has indicated that
significant sludging can occur even at temperatures above the pour point as
phase separation can occur.

ƒ Cloud Point. This is the temperature at which phase separation (liquid/solid)

occurs and is sometimes known as the wax appearance point. The cloud point
can be determined by calculation or experiment. Some sectors of the industry

128
 are of the opinion that the cloud point is a more reliable indicator of wax
formation than the pour point.

ƒ Kinematic Viscosity. Viscosity is the resistance to flow of a liquid and is a

function of the molecular attraction within the liquid. Viscosity is either
quoted in centistokes (cSt) or as a unit of mm2/s. Temperature is critical as
raising temperature decreases viscosity. Ideally the viscosity should not
exceed 250 mm2/sec for cargo pump bulk discharging or 600 mm2/sec for
stripping operations.

The cargo Certificate of Quality issued after loading should contain details of the
above specifications.

From the above we are beginning to see that crude oil is not such a simple cargo to
carry as may be first thought. A number of other factors need to be considered, not
least of which is Crude Oil Washing (COW).

Some crude oil data sheets are included in Appendix iv of this study guide

COW
MARPOL Annex I dictates that all tankers over 20000 DWT carrying crude oil must
carry out crude oil washing. Annex I also specifies the number of tanks that need to
be washed. It is implied, but not explicitly stated, in Annex I and also the ships’
Crude Oil Wash Manual that a full wash of a tank is required, i.e. a top, side and
bottom wash. This may not always be beneficial in meeting the legal (MARPOL) and
commercial requirements of removing as much oil as possible from the crude. For
example a light gassy crude may result in excessive gas evolution during the washing
whereas washing with a high viscosity or waxy crude may lead to a high ROB. The
latter cargoes are listed in the COW manual, but the list is almost certainly not
exhaustive. The chances are a high density cargo that requires heating may not be
suitable for COW. Advice should be sought from owners / charterers.

For the light, gassy crudes a bottom wash (0 – 40 – 0 degrees washing angle) only
may be the best solution, or even no washing if the tank in question is not required for
ballast water. However, minimum legal COW requirements must be met (number of
tanks to be washed).

For waxy paraffinic crude oil the slop tanks should be heated to a higher temperature
(typically 10oC higher) than the cargo to help the removal of wax in the cargo.

In determining the degree of crude oil washing necessary some idea may be found
from dipping the cargo tanks when the oil level is at the stripping stage i.e. 0.50 m or
so sounding left in the tank. Use a sounding rod and any sludge should be found either
through ‘feel’ or by inspection of the end of the rod. If no sludge is found at multiple
dipping points then the need for COW is arguable.

129
Stripping of Tanks
For any stripping operations it is necessary to maintain a good stern trim; typically at
least 4 metres by the stern for a large vessel. If tank pump suctions are not on the
centerline then a small list in the appropriate direction should also be put on the
vessel.

The type of cargo should also be considered. For a high viscosity or waxy crude oil
then any run down from bulkheads will be slow. Therefore stripping should be carried
out twice; initially and then a short time afterwards whilst the cargo is still warm. A
final strip should be carried out shortly before the completion of all discharge
operations should also be carried out.

For low viscosity crude oils tanks should be left as long as possible before final
stripping takes place in order to allow as much cargo run down to occur. Again strip
twice even if there is not much time available.
For more details see the Institute of Petroleum Publication: HM40 Guidelines for the Crude Oil Washing of Ships’ Tanks and the
Heating of Crude Oil

Heating Systems
Cargo is heated by means of heating coils
within the cargo tanks. Steam is used as the
heating medium or sometimes, on chemical
tankers, thermal heating oil is used. The
heating coils are made of stainless steel,
aluminum / brass or steel with copper-
nickel alloys. The later may not be suitable
for product tankers as leeching out of the
copper can render certain cargoes off
specification i.e. Jet Fuels.

Alternatively deck mounted heat

exchangers are used. They are in effect
mini-boilers where the cargo is passed over
steam heating coils in the tube on deck.
These are more efficient but have a big
disadvantage in that they cannot be used
whilst discharging a tank as the cargo is
recirculated through the heater and back
into the tank to achieve heat. During
discharge therefore, recirculation cannot
take place and the cargo is subsequently
cooling throughout the discharge time for
that tank.

R.O.B.
Most charter parties retain the right to withhold the value of any liquid cargo
remaining on board at the end of discharge from the freight payments to the owner.
This is known as the cargo retention clause. It is rare for a tanker to discharge all of
her cargo due to pump and pipeline design restrictions, cargo run down from

130
bulkheads etc. Determining whether cargo is liquid or solid (sludge) is a matter of
judgment. It is usually the appointed cargo inspector who has the final say.

Irrespective of whether the ROB is liquid or not there is also the issue of whether the
cargo is ‘reachable’ by the ships pumps. This is a matter for pump experts and
lawyers and is an arguable point.

In order to protect the owners interests ships’ officers should attempt to ‘persuade’
cargo inspectors that the ROB is non-liquid.

BALLAST VOYAGE

On a double-hulled crude oil tanker the ballast voyage will involve at most a quick
water wash of any cargo tank that is to be gas-freed and inspected. The heavy weather
ballast tank may also be washed.

On a product tanker the ballast voyage is a busy period where the cargo tanks are
prepared for the next cargo. The degree of cleaning required will depend upon:

ƒ The cargo to be loaded

ƒ The previous cargo(es)
ƒ Tank coating condition
ƒ Ambient weather conditions

Irrespective of any charterers ‘advice’ it is the vessels’ responsibility to arrive at the

load port ready in all respects to load the nominated cargo. The Master will tender his
Notice of Readiness (NOR) on this basis. The tanks, pumps, and cargo lines being
cleaned to the required standard is integral to this. Charter Party clauses usually state
that tanks should be cleaned to the cargo inspectors’ satisfaction. The ship is therefore
in the position of having to assess a third parties judgement before the event.

Tank cleaning is as much of an art as a science in that there are many variables as
outlined above. Product tanker cargoes are sold on guaranteed specifications; any
contamination may affect some of these specifications and thus affect the value of a
cargo. Some cargoes may be able to tolerate a bit of pipeline mixing between grades,
others cannot.

The tables on the next pages give some indication of the different issues between
grades and some SUGGESTED procedures. They are NOT definitive and should be
taken as guidance only.

131
CRITICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
Generally speaking product tanker cargoes should be kept separated from each other,
both in the tanks and within pipelines and cargo pumps. This is not always possible
and it should be understood which grades are able to withstand some minor
contamination with other grades. The following indicate some of the critical
properties of commonly carried petroleum products and the Table 3. shows permitted
pipeline mixtures.

Table 1.
Grade Flash Lead Water Colour Octane Other
Point
Avgas Low Dyed Critical Do not
Load after
‘Sour’ grades
Avtag (JP 4) Low Water Clear Do not
Critical Load after
‘Sour’ grades
Avtur (Jet Med. Lead Water Clear Do not
A1) Free stow Critical Load after
‘Sour’ grades
Mogas Low Dyed Critical
(un-leaded)
Naphtha Low Lead Water Clear May be
Free Critical ‘Sour’
stow
Condensate Low Lead Clear May be
Free ‘Sour’
stow
Kero Med Clear Critical

Gasoil High Yellow / Critical

Brown
Vacuum High Salt Brown / Needs
Gas Oil Water Green heating
Critical
Diesel High Yellow / Critical
Brown
Lubes High Water Varies
Critical

Notes:
1. Flashpoint. It is essential to maintain the flashpoint specification for medium /
high flash cargoes. Contamination with low flashpoint cargoes should be avoided.
2. Lead. Is used as a performance enhancer for motor engines. Due to environmental
issues its use in petroleum is being phased out. It may still be carried in certain
parts of the world. Following the carriage of a ‘Leaded’ cargo it is usually
required to have the last three cargoes ‘unleaded’ before carrying lead critical
cargoes. Minimise the number of ‘leaded’ tanks used.

132
 3. Water. Some grades are particularly water sensitive. When preparing for these
grades it is essential all tanks are hand mopped dry and pipelines and pumps are
thoroughly drained of water. Would you want to be in a Jumbo at 30000 feet when
any water in the fuel and engine system freezes?
4. Colour. Certain grades are dyed for Customs purposes to indicate duty has been
paid. Others are either naturally clear or have a slight colouring. Although colour
in itself will not affect product performance the darkening of a product within a
ships cargo tanks indicates the presence of a contaminant. From previous cargoes.
Most oils have a solvent effect and will draw out any previous cargo trapped in
tank coatings or pipelines.
5. Octane Number. Any unavoidable pipeline admixture between Avgas or Mogas
grades should be from the higher to lower octane number (load higher octane first
and discharge last)
6. Hydrogen Sulphide / Mercaptans. These are sulphur based components and are
rarely present in petroleum products, however they may be found in Naphthas and
condensates. Aviation fuels are particularly sensitive to sulphur components and
cannot be carried after ‘sour’ (sulphur present) grades.

Table 2. Permissible Pipeline Admixture

FROM

CHANGING Avgas Mogas Naphtha Condensate Avtag Avtur Kero Gas Diesel
TO Oil
Avgas 1 X X X X X X X
Mogas 1 1 1 1 X
Naphtha X X X X 1 1 1 X
Condensate X X X X 1 1 1 X
Avtag X X X X X 1 X X
Avtur X X X X X X X
Kero X X X X X X X X
Gas Oil X X X X X X X
Diesel X X X X 1
(distillate)
Codes:
X Pipeline mixture not acceptable
1 Pipeline & pumps to be drained of previous
grade
Pipeline admixture acceptable

Notes:
1. Pipeline admixture should be avoided if at all possible or at least minimised
2. Acceptable admixtures are indicated for planning purposes only
3. Acceptable pipeline admixture assumes the total admixture does not exceed 1%
4. Where it is stated pumps and lines should be drained the assumption is that the
total admixture is not greater than 0.2%
5. In order to assess the quantities in 3 & 4 above it is necessary to know the
capacity of the vessels pipeline system. The formula Vol = Π r 2 × L can be used for
this purpose.

133
 Table 3. Tank Cleaning Guidance – Petroleum Products
FROM Avgas Avtag Avtur Mogas Naphtha Con- Kero Gas Diesel Lube
dens- oil Oil
ate
TO
Avgas A B B A X X B B B E
Avtag E A A D X X A D D E
JP4
Avtur E C A D X X A A A F
Jet A1
Mogas A A A A A A A B B B
Naphtha E A A A A A A B B E
Conden- E B A A A A A A A A
sate
Kerosene C C A C C C A A A E
Gas oil C C A C C C B/A A A A
Diesel C D A D D D D/A A A D
Lubes D D D D D D D G G G

Notes:
ƒ Avgas = Aviation gasoline, used for piston engine aircraft
ƒ Avtur = aviation turbine fuel and is a kerosene, also known as Jet A1 (the
military equivilant is JP-8) and has a flashpoint of >38oC and a freezing point
of at least – 47oC
ƒ Avtag(JP-4) = is a distillate of naphtha and kerosene and has higher
flammability. Mainly used in colder climates due to better cold weather
performance
(Avcat, or JP-5, is a special blend for carrier based aircraft and is a high
flashpoint kerosene)

See next page for the suggested cleaning procedure codes as shown in Table 3
above

134
CODE SUGGESTED CLEANING

X Special cleaning instructions will be required from charterer / owner

A Drain tanks and lines as well as possible

B Flush tank bottoms and cargo lines with sea water and drain well.

C Flush tank bottoms and cargo lines with sea water and drain well (including
pumps). Gas free to < 40% LEL. or, if inerted, purge to < 2% hydrocarbon by
volume
D 1 to 2 hour cold water machine wash, drain tanks. Flush cargo lines & drain
(including pumps), gas free or purge as per code ‘c’
E 2 – 4 hour cold water machine wash, flush and drain lines and pumps. A hot
wash may be required if tank coating breakdown. Gas free, de-scale & mop dry
F 1 – 2 hour cold machine wash followed by 2 hour hot wash (not less than 60
celsius). flush lines and pumps and drain. gas free, de-scale tank. mop dry
notes 1. additional cleaning may be required if excessive tank coating breakdown

2. it is the vessels’ responsibility to arrive at the load port with tanks cleaned
and ready to load. this is irrespective of any advice on cleannig given by
charterers or cargo owners

3. For effective hot water washing the water temperature must be at least 60
degrees celsius. Washing below this temperature will not be of any benefit if it
is decided hot washing is required. Some tank coatings have a maximum
temperature limit (70-75 degrees Celsius).

4. Hot water washing can only be carried out in an inerted or ‘too lean’ tank
atmosphere. follow advice in ISGOTT 9.2.3

5. For water critical cargoes all tanks, lines and pumps must be well drained.
tanks should be dry of all moisture

Dirty to Clean
Cleaning from dirty oils such as crude or fuel oil to clean oils is sometimes
undertaken. This is a specialist operation requiring extensive cleaning. It is almost
inevitable that either an interim cargo of a solvent such as diesel or gas oil will need
to be carried, or washing carried out with ‘cutter’ stock such as diesel or gas oil,
followed by hot water washing for a long period (6-8 hours per tank); even then
results are not guaranteed. It is often getting the pipelines clean that is more
problematical than the tanks themselves.

135
Line Cleaning

Introduction
An integral part of the tank cleaning process is to clean the cargo lines (and pump
casings). It is a necessary procedure for a number of reasons:

ƒ To avoid contamination of cargo on the next loaded voyage

ƒ To put clean ballast into cargo tanks
ƒ Prior to refit or maintenance (remove hydrocarbons - fire or toxic hazard)

MARPOL Regulations prevent the lines being washed directly over the ships side and
so lines are washed into the slop tanks and then the slop tanks are dcecanted to sea –
the oil content being retained onboard.

Towards the completion of discharge of the cargo lines and pump casings are stripped
with the stripping pump into the slop tanks. A VLCC could have as much as 300 m3
of oil remaining on board in the lines otherwise. The slop tanks are then pumped
ashore via the small-bore MARPOL line with the stripping pump. The MARPOL line
terminates outboard of the manifold valve which is kept shut during the procedure.

It might be assumed that all the lines are therefore empty of cargo but it is likely that
there are still small quantities remaining, for example trapped in dead ends of pipe
line, behind valves or coating the interior surfaces of lines etc. It is the function of line
washing to remove as much of this residue as possible.

A good understanding of the ships pipeline system is required to achieve a successful

outcome and for all the components of the line system to be flushed. The trouble is
that until the clean ballast is put through the system and the surface of the ballast
water inspected it is not known if the required standard of tank and line cleanliness is
achieved.

Preparation for Line Cleaning

ƒ Prior to tank & line cleaning all tank suction valves should be opened to drop
any cargo remaining back into the tank
ƒ Slop and aftermost centre tank suction valves should be opened as they are at
the end of the lines and the vessel will have stern trim
ƒ COW lines should be drained back to the slop tank – open the COW machine
valves at the slop tanks then open the forward most COW machine to break
any vacuum in the line
ƒ Then open the COW line on each tank
ƒ Open manifold valves and the manifold drains to a nearby cargo tank, this will
drain down the top manifold lines
ƒ Drain bottom lines back to the slop tank
ƒ Drain pumproom lines back to the slop tank

The vessel is now in a position to commence tank, line and pump washing safe in the
knowledge that the majority of any remaining cargo is either in the slop tanks or in the
bottom of the tank – where it will subsequently be diluted through the cleaning
process before being stripped back to the slop tanks.

136
The above advice will go along way to ensuring a successful outcome. Trying to take
short cuts at this\stage will result in complications later.

The Line Wash

There are many different pipeline systems in use ranging from the simple to the
complex. For successful line washing the washing water should maintain a full bore in
the pipelines, this is best achieved by washing UP lines rather than down (especially
drop lines). Throttling in on downstream valves may help. Dead ends in pipelines may
benefit from applying suction rather than pressure for a part of the washing process.

Conclusion
Successful cargo operations revolve around having a good understanding of the
characteristics of the cargo being carried, a good understanding of the tankers
systems, capabilities and restrictions and proper planning.

137
Summary of Chapter 9

ƒ Cargo plans need to be effective and contain all relevant

information
ƒ Tanker and terminal liaison is critical and is formalized through the
ship / shore safety checklist
ƒ The vessel must be sufficiently manned at all times to ensure safety
is not compromised
ƒ Moorings must be closely attended to in order to prevent the vessel
breaking off the cargo arms
ƒ Emergency towing off wires must be rigged forward and aft
ƒ Alternative berthing and cargo transfer arrangements are often used
and include SBM moorings and ship to ship transfers. Each have
their own particular requirements
ƒ Cargo voyage orders must be strictly complied with
ƒ The cargo plan should ensure the cargo can fit the vessels tank
capacity, allowing for expansion etc.
ƒ The sequence of loading different grades should be considered.
Generally load the higher specification grade first and discharge
last
ƒ On passage control of the release of vapours should be carried out
in order to protect the quality of the cargo and reduce vapour
losses, which can be significant
ƒ Crude oil can co-exist in three phases: liquid, vapour and solid.
Control of vapour and solid phase separation should be aimed for
ƒ Discharge planning should be carried out in order to maximize the
vessels capabilities. COW requirements should be considered
ƒ A good understanding of the cargo characteristics will dictate how
the cargo is handled and what COW is required
ƒ The Ballast voyage is used for preparation of the tanks for the next
cargo and any necessary inspection and maintenance work required
ƒ It is the ships responsibility to present the vessel at the load prt
ready in all respects for the nominated cargo
ƒ For product tankers the required amount of cleaning depends upon:
the next cargo to be loaded, ambient weather and tank coating
condition
ƒ Some grades can tolerate pipeline mixing, others cannot
ƒ Line cleaning is as critical as tank cleaning

138
Chapter 10

Chemical Tankers and Gas Carriers

Introduction - Chemical Tankers
Chemicals are essential in modern day life for use in paints, plastics, fertilisers,
solvent cleaners etc. There are about 20000 chemicals in existence with new ones
being added every day and over 400 organic chemicals (those that are carbon based)
are regularly transported by sea in bulk with additional products such as acids, alkalis
and vegetable oils being carried. There are specific hazards associated with some
chemicals and these will be looked at in this section of chapter 10.

There are about 11 chemicals known as commodity chemicals (styrene, toluene,

xylenes etc). These are the main building blocks of the chemical manufacturing
industries and are generally carried in larger parcels of on long haul routes. The other
organic chemicals are generally carried in smaller parcel sizes.

The first chemical tankers were essentially oil tankers cleaned sufficiently well to
carry chemicals and then used in that trade. Today’s chemical tanker is a very
sophisticated vessel and is able to deal with the stringent safety and commercial
quality demands required of the industry

Today chemical tankers are amongst the most sophisticated vessels afloat, they are
also amongst the safest. As it is a newer industry than the oil industry it has learnt
from the mishaps suffered i.e. the problems of static charges during tank cleaning,
amidships accommodation hazards etc. The construction, equipment and operation of
these vessels is strictly controlled and we will look at this in some detail as we
progress.

Definition of a chemical cargo

In order to be classified as a chemical the cargo must be listed in Chapter 17 of the
International Code for the construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous
chemicals in bulk (commonly known as the IBC Code).

All chemicals offered for carriage are evaluated by a committee of experts (GESAMP
– Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental
Protection) in order to assess the hazard posed. If the cargo is not listed in Chapter 17
it cannot be carried although there are special procedures for new chemicals that are
not included to be quickly evaluated and carried.

Generally speaking chemicals can be grouped into a number of chemical families. It

is important to know what chemical family a cargo belongs to, especially as some are
not compatible with others.

Ship operators are not expected to know the hazards of every one of the 500 or so
chemicals normally carried. But they must know where to find information relating to
them.

139
Some of the chemical groups are:
ƒ Acrylates – used to manufacture various plastic products
ƒ Alcohols – paint strippers etc
ƒ Isocyanates – make polyurethane
ƒ Ketones – adhesives, nail polish remover (acetone)
ƒ Acids
ƒ Alkalis

The Main Hazards

Oil cargoes have three main hazards:
ƒ Flammability
ƒ Toxicity
ƒ Pollution

Chemical cargoes may exhibit all, some or none of the above. They may also have
two additional hazards:

ƒ Corrosivity
ƒ Reactivity

Flammability
Much the same end result as oils but chemicals may have varying flammable ranges.
For example:
Hydrocarbons 1 – 10%
Methanol 6 – 36 %
Carbon Disulphide – 2 – 48%
Ethylene oxide – 2 – 100%

Most also need the same amount of oxygen, i.e. 11 – 21 percent for combustion to be
possible. There are some that can ignite at low levels of oxygen. Ethylene oxide must
be inerted to less than 2% for carriage due to its ability to ignite at low oxygen levels.

Toxicity
Falls into acute (short term) and chronic (long term) poisons

Certain chemical cargoes pose a far greater toxic effect than oil. For example the
Occupational Exposure Limit of petroleum is 300 ppm. phenol and benzene 5ppm and
allyl chloride 1 ppm.

There is also the problem with two incompatible chemicals mixing, or mixing with
something else that can produce an enhanced reaction. For example Acetone
Cyanohydrin forms cyanide gas when it becomes heated.

A number of cargoes carried are known carcinogens (approximately 10 percent of the

500 listed).

Material Hazard Data Sheets must be consulted for details of toxicity hazards and
precautions to be taken. First aid measures are also given.

140
The IBC Code will give details of any extra precautions to be taken (i.e. extra
protective equipment that is required to be carried)

Pollution
The threat to the environment from chemicals can be far greater than that from oil.
This is mainly due to the toxic effect to sea life and the clean up problems.

Marpol Annex II is concerned with the control of pollution from noxious liquid
substances in bulk; this will be discussed later in this chapter.

Essentially chemicals are placed into one of five categories A, B, C, D and what are
known as Appendix III cargoes to which the provisions of Annex II do not apply.

Category A cargoes carry the most environmental hazard, category D the least. Strict
controls are placed on the disposal of residues, tank washings and slops.

Corrosivity
This covers two aspects – the corrosive effect on the ship and her construction and the
corrosive effect on human skin.

The materials of construction must be considered:

ƒ Steel used – stainless steel may be needed in pipes and tanks especially for acids

Most modern chemical tankers are built with stainless steel clad tanks. This is
expensive but the value and sensitivity of cargoes allied with cargo owners quality
control expectations makes this almost compulsory.

Acids, or cargoes with a high acid content, will attack mild steel. There are a number
of cases of sulphuric acid eating through shell plating in the past. Stainless steel is not
affected by acids, is easier to clean than coated tanks (cargo not absorbed, especially
in broken down coatings).

The tanks can either be clad in SS or constructed of SS. There are different qualities
used.

In service the SS should be chemically PASSIVE (i.e a layer of chromium oxide

formed on the surface). If this layer is removed then the SS can be attacked, i.e.
become ACTIVE by reaction with cargo or especially salt or dock water. Only fresh
water should be used for tank cleaning. Chemical tankers typically have the after peak
filled with fresh water for this purpose.

Spraying with a weak solution of nitric acid, or exposing to air for a number of days
can passivate tanks.

141
Reactivity
If two oil cargoes are mixed together the cargo may be put off specification, but that’s
about all in the way of a reaction.

Certain chemical cargoes are REACTIVE. They may react with themselves, with air,
with water or other cargoes.

The nature of the reaction may be a fire or explosion, release of toxic vapours,
produce heat, cause rapidly increasing pressure, change the nature of the cargo or
affect its quality.

ƒ Reaction with self

Certain cargoes can have a self-reaction; this is usually set off by heat. For example
styrene polymerizes if it is heated sufficiently. The chemical reaction turns it from a
liquid to a solid – polystyrene

Such cargoes can be inhibited and must not be heated or placed next to adjacent heat
(keep less than 35oC).

ƒ Reaction with air

A small number of cargoes will react with air. It is therefore essential to avoid contact
with air. This can be achieved by either inerting or, if the cargo is denser than, and
immiscible in water, putting under a water pad (IBC requires not less than 760mm).
Phosphorous is one such cargo. If it meets air it spontaneously ignites.

ƒ Reaction with water

Cargoes that react with water must avoid contact with water, moisture or vapour.
This is achieved by draining & drying the entire cargo system. The cargo is loaded
into the tanks with a moisture free atmosphere. This is best achieved by inerting with
low dew point IG (nitrogen).

Water reactive cargoes should not be stowed adjacent to ballast tanks containing
ballast, slops or cargoes containing water (caustic soda is 50% water). Heating coils
should be drained or oil used instead of steam.

ƒ Reaction with other cargoes

This is one of the most critical areas, especially at the planning stage. Two non-
compatible cargoes if mixed can cause a severe reaction as described earlier.
Guidance is given in compatibility charts -–the USCG one is the most popular and
most ships have a separate line & pump for each tank

142
The IBC Code & Ship Types
This is the International Code For The Construction And Equipment Of Ships
Carrying Dangerous Chemicals In Bulk. It is an IMO publication and is incorporated
into UK law through a Statutory Instrument (Merchant Shipping (Chemical Tankers)
Act 1986)

The Code aims to provide an International standard for chemical tankers and applies
to all tankers, irrespective of size, carrying noxious liquid substances in bulk. It
applies to ships built after 1/7/86

It is based on assigning each chemical tanker to one of three ship types depending on
the degree of hazard presented by the cargoes carried. It recommends design criteria,
construction standards and equipment provisions as well as operational procedures. In
itself it is not concerned with pollution but provides pollution categories of MARPOL
against the cargoes listed.

Damage to a chemical tanker could lead to a release of hazardous cargo and so,
depending on the cargoes carried, the cargo is protectively located. Under the IBC
Code assumed limits of damage are taken and are in terms of head on collision, side
penetration, stranding and minor damage from tugs, jetties etc.

Under the IBC Code one of three ship types is designated:

ƒ Ship Type I. Can carry the most hazardous (safety & environment) cargoes which
require maximum protection
ƒ Ship Type II. Can carry appreciably hazardous cargoes which require significant
protection
ƒ Ship Type III. Can carry products with sufficiently severe hazards which requires
moderate protection.

Accordingly the Type I ship should be able to withstand the greatest degree of
damage.
There is a vast amount of detail into requirements for specific cargoes. This
information is made more readily available by referencing against a cargo name in
Chapter 17. A tabular format is given for ease of reference in the book.

143
Column Contains
a Product name Proper shipping name not trade name

b UN Number As per IMDG Code, if available

c Pollution category As per Marpol Annex II

d Hazard S = safety, P = pollution

e Ship type 1,2,3. Type 1 ships can carry type 2 or 3 cargoes, type
2 ships can carry cargoes allowed in type 2 or 3 ships
f Tank type 1 = independent, 2 = integral, G = gravity, P = pressure
most cargoes are type 2, some acids are 1G, none P
g Vents Open, controlled, SR = safety relief device

Inert – tanks, lines & possibly surrounding spaces

h Tank environment Pad – fill tank & lines with liquid or gas to avoid air
Dry – tanks & pipes moisture free gas
Ventilation – forced or natural
i Electrical Temperature class
equipment Apparatus (gas) group – depends on ignition energy
required to ignite
Flash point – NF = non-flammable
j Gauging Open, restricted, closed
Indirect = flow meter, weigh bridge. None listed
No = gauging not allowed, applies to a few acids
k Vapour detection F = flammable, T = toxic. Must have correct tubes on
board
No = no requirement
l Fire protection A = alcohol resistant foam or multi-purpose
B = regular foam (i.e. non alcohol resistant) includes
fluro –protein, aqueous film forming. Must have
correct type onboard
C = water - spray
D = Dry foam (may also need water spray for boundary
cooling)
No = no special requirements under the code
m Materials of Lists those not to be used, i.e. N5 = copper, aluminium
construction or alloys
Z = encapsulation of electrical equipment from cargo &
vapours
Y =materials for tanks, pipes etc. Y1 = coated or SS
n Respiratory & eye E = extra equipment, i.e. beyond SOLAS requirements,
protection may be required
No = no special requirements
o Special Must be consulted within the body of the book as some
requirements are cargo specific

144
Chapter 18 of the Code lists cargoes that have no recognisable hazard other than
pollution one. They are therefore outside the scope of the code but included as a guide
for planning

An index of chemicals carried is given. This is useful for establishing the correct
chemical name. Synonyms are given.

The IBC Code is the main source of reference at the planning stage. Its requirements
must be followed

145
Other Sources of Information
Additional sources of information to consult include:
ƒ ICS Chemical Tanker Safety Guide
ƒ ISGOTT
ƒ MARPOL
ƒ Hazard Data sheets
ƒ Ships Procedures & Arrangements (P & A) manual
ƒ Coating compatibility guide
ƒ USCG cargo compatibility guide

The ICS Chemical Tanker Safety Guide has not been revised since 1974 and is
considered to be somewhat out of date. A new edition is expected in 2001 or 2002.
ISGOTT should be consulted for safety advice in the interim.

The P & A Manual

The P & A manual is required under MARPOL and is concerned with the
environmental aspects of the cleaning of tanks and disposal of residues & mixtures. It
is not a safety guide.

It identifies the equipment and arrangements on board for complying with MARPOL.
It is therefore ship specific and gives operational procedures for:
ƒ Cargo handling
ƒ Tank cleaning
ƒ Slop handling
ƒ Residue discharges
ƒ Ballasting & deballasting

The manual must be approved by the Administration

Certification
In addition to normal ship certificates a chemical tanker must be issued with a
Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk.
Commonly known as the COF. It is valid for 5 years with intermediate and yearly
surveys. An attachment to the certificate states the cargoes the ship can carry. If a
cargo is not on this list then it cannot be carried.

Remember also that a chemical tanker could carry oil products in which case she must
comply with oil tanker construction and operation regulations and have an IOPP
Certificate.

Venting Arrangements
The IBC Code specifies location (height, distance from inlets to accommodation etc).
These are stricter than for oil tankers, although the latter have been improved to bring
them more in line with chemical tankers.

146
Ventilation Arrangements
There are minimum atmosphere changes per hour requirements for pump rooms etc
(spaces normally entered during cargo handling), requirements are listed in Ch. 12.

Newer chemical tankers do not have cargo pump rooms as individual pumps and lines
are fitted.

Individual products may have individual ventilation requirements. This will be listed
in column ‘g’ or ‘o’ of chapter 17.

Inert Gas
The rules for Inert Gas on chemical tankers are a little complex.

SOLAS Regulation 55 & 60 details the requirements for tankers carrying crude oil or
low flash products. The regulations are stated in terms of cargo type (high/low flash
point and ship size).

Chemical tanker owners and cargo producers were concerned that the quality of IG
produced by ships was not of sufficiently high quality to prevent product
contamination. For example carbon dioxide in flue gas can put certain cargoes off
specification. Some inhibitors put into polymerisible cargoes react with oxygen to
provide protection. If the oxygen is displaced then the inhibitor may breakdown.

Some cargoes listed in Chapter 17 of the IBC are subject to special inerting
requirements for reasons other than flammability hazards, for example for cargoes
that react with air or water vapour present in air.

Chemical tankers if they carry oil cargoes as defined in Reg. 60 must comply with the
IG regulations. However, flammable chemicals fall outside the scope of these
regulations. It was therefore possible for chemical tankers to operate without inert gas
even when carrying flammable cargoes. This was considered to be unacceptable and
revised regulations now require inert gas protection on chemical tankers as follows:

IG is not required:
ƒ On chemical tankers constructed before 1/7/86
ƒ If constructed after 1/7/86 provided:
1. Individual tank capacities are <3000m3
2. Individual nozzle capacities are not > 17.5 m3/hour
3. Total throughput for all machines in a tank is not > 110m3/hour

In practice modern chemical tankers either use nitrogen supplied from shore prior to
loading, compressed nitrogen in cylinders or have nitrogen generators on board.

Due to a continuing series of chemical tanker cargo tank explosions in recent years
IMO are currently (2005) reviewing the use of inert gas on chemical tankers. It is
expected the rules will be tightened up.

147
Tank Coatings
There is not an all-purpose tank coating (other than possibly stainless steel) that is
suitable for all chemical cargoes. Some coatings have better resistance to certain
cargoes than others. A modern chemical tanker with coated tanks will have a variety
of coatings to achieve flexibility as to the cargoes able to be carried.

It is essential the coating manufacturers guide is consulted when planning a load to

check compatibility and/or any restrictions imposed. The main coating types found
are:

Zinc Silicate
Poor resistance to acids or alkalis (even Fatty acids in vegetable oils, <2.5% required)
and sea water. Most suitable for the carriage of solvents (toluene, benzene), but the
cargo may pick up traces of zinc. Cargoes must be in the Ph range 5.5 - 11

Epoxy
Resistant to Alkalis, glycols, amines (by products of ammonia), weak acids, vegetable
oils, sea water.

Not suitable for alcohols (methanol, ethanol) and ketones. Limited resistance to
aromatics (benzene & toluene) – time limits for carriage usually imposed as these
cargoes can cause softening of the coating, which will increase the chance of
absorption.

Epoxy – Phenolic
These are modified epoxys which give better resistance to solvents. They are more
expensive than basic epoxy.

Polyurethane
Gives a similar level of protection to epoxy tanks but the high gloss finish makes for
easier tank cleaning. Therein lies its advantage.

IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT WHEN LOADING A CARGO THE COATING

MANAFACTURERS COMPATABILITY GUIDE IS CONSULTED. Failure to do
this can cause severe damage to the coatings (and your career!)

148
Cargo Record Book for Ships Carrying Noxious Liquid in Bulk

Chemical tankers have their own separate oil record book when carrying chemicals, if
they are also carrying oil they need an oil record book too!

Reg.9 of annex II requires a cargo record book. It must be completed on a tank by

tank basis whenever any of the following are carried out:

• loading cargo
• internal transfer of cargo
• unloading of cargo tanks
• cleaning of cargo tanks
• ballasting of cargo tanks
• discharge of ballast from cargo tanks
• disposal of residues to shore reception tanks
• discharges to sea in accordance with reg. 5
• ventilation of residues in accordance with reg. 5
• any accidental or intentional discharges

All entries to be signed & dated by officer in charge of operation and each page
counter-signed by master

In front of the book a ship’s tank plan with capacities must be entered

Record book to be kept on board for 3 years

149
Gas Carriers

Introduction
A gas carrier is a tanker designed to carry cargoes that exist as a gas at ambient
pressures and / or temperatures. In order to transport them economically the gas must
be converted to a liquid. This is achieved by pressurising the substance or cooling it
sufficiently so that it condenses. A gas that is liquefied occupies a volume of between
400 and 600 times less than in the gaseous state at atmospheric pressure.

There are a number of gases regularly transported by sea ranging from methane (or
Liquefied Natural Gas), pentane and butane (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) to chemical
gases such as vinyl chloride and ammonia.

The design of gas carriers is very sophisticated and their construction costs are far
greater than an equivalent sized oil tanker. Much of the extra cost is put into the
design and construction of the cargo containment system and safety devices.

This section of Chapter 10 gives an overview of the main hazards and operational
procedures.

The main source of reference for the safe operation of gas carriers is the Tanker
Safety Guide – Liquefied Gas.

Cargo Properties
The majority of gases carried by sea are hydrocarbon based. As previously discussed
the simplest hydrocarbon is methane and consists of a single carbon atom to which is
bonded four carbon atoms. Methane exists as a gas at ambient temperature . If further
carbon atoms are added the substance will remain a gas at atmospheric pressure and
temperature until there are five carbon atoms in a chain (C5). This is pentane which
can exist as a gas or liquid in ambient pressure conditions depending upon the
temperature.

ƒ Methane C1
ƒ Ethane C2
ƒ Propane C3
ƒ Butane C4
ƒ Pentane C5

Methane is known as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), the other gases listed above are
Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG).

The remaining gases carried are chemical gases and consist of substances such as
ammonia, chlorine, vinyl chloride etc.

If a substance has a saturated vapour pressure (SVP) above atmospheric pressure it

will boil. Saturation occurs when the rate of evaporation equals the rate of
condensation and is a function of temperature. Further evaporation can only take
place by increasing the temperature. The SVP can be plotted against a range of
temperatures.

150
An alternative way of relating SVP to temperature for a particular substance is to
quote the temperature at which the saturated vapour pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure. This is the atmospheric boiling point.

By varying the pressure above the liquid the boiling point can be adjusted –
increasing the pressure raises the boiling point.

IMO defines a liquefied gas as one having a vapour pressure at 37.8oC equal to or
greater than 2.8 bar absolute. Absolute pressure is the pressure as read from a gauge
plus atmospheric pressure.

Pressure can be applied to a liquid within a containment system but above a certain
temperature the substance cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. This is the critical
temperature.

The critical pressure is that required to liquefy a substance at its critical temperature.

The following table correlates atmospheric boiling point, critical temperature and
critical pressure.

Gas Atmospheric Boiling Critical Critical

Point (oC) Temperature (oC) pressure (Bar)
Methane - 161.5 -82.5 44.7
Ethane - 88.6 32.1 48.9
Ethylene - 103.9 9.9 50.5
Butane - 0.5 153.0 38.1
Propane - 42.3 96.8 42.6

Gas cargoes may be refrigerated, pressurised or a combination of both (known as

semi-refrigerated or semi-pressurised / fully refrigerated). For example methane is
only carried refrigerated to below its atmospheric boiling point. Otherwise the
containment system would have to be able to withstand 44.7 bar pressure, which is
very high, and would also have to be cooled to below minus 82.5 oC anyway. It is
more practicable and economic to refrigerate.

Provided a gas is below its critical temperature it may be liquefied by pressure alone.
From the above it can be seen that ethane and ethylene cannot be liquefied by
pressure alone as it cannot be guaranteed that the cargo will be carried below the
critical temperature. Some refrigeration will be required. Butane and Propane can be
pressurised only but must be able to withstand high pressures, this normally makes the
tanks very heavy and wasteful of hold space. Fully pressurised ships are usually small
coastal type vessels.

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Gas Carrier Codes
As in the case of chemical tankers IMO has developed a series of Codes dealing with
the design and equipment of gas carriers. Depending upon the year of building a
different Code will apply. The latest edition is the International Code for the
Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (the IGC
Code) and applies to ships constructed after 1986.

Cargo Containment Systems

The IGC Code specifies the design criteria for different tank types. Pressure vessel
configurations are required if the design pressure exceeds 0.7 bar g. The choice of
system depends on cargoes carried & trading pattern.

The IMO codes identify five different cargo containment systems:

ƒ Independent tanks
ƒ Membrane tanks
ƒ Semi-membrane tanks
ƒ Integral tanks
ƒ Internal insulation tanks

The independent and membrane type tanks are by far the most common found in
service.

Independent Tanks
So called because they are completely self-supporting and do not form part of the hull
and so do not contribute to the strength of the hull.

Depending on the design pressure there are three types of independent tanks; types A,
B and C

Type A (Fig.1)
Have plane surfaces and can withstand pressures up to 0.7 bar. Secondary
containment is
required in case of leakage if the carriage temperature is below – 10oC. Generally
used for fully refrigerated ships.

Fig.1

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Type B (Fig.2)
May be plane or spherical construction. Partial secondary containment (splash
barrier). Pressures
up to 0.7 bar.

Fig.2

Type C (Fig.3)
Spherical or cylindrical. Able to withstand pressures from <2 bar to 17 bar. Used for
semi-refrigerated or fully pressurised cargoes. Can be used for fully refrigerated ships
if suitable steels used.

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Secondary containment is required for refrigerated cargoes. The tank is constructed of
special carbon steels that can withstand cold temperatures, whereas the hull is made of
ordinary mild steel. If cold vapour or liquid contacts the latter brittle fracture could
occur. Excessive vapour generation could also occur due to relative temperature
differentials between the cargo and hull.

Membrane Tanks (Fig.4)

This type of tank consists of very thin primary barriers and insulation layers that are
supported by the ships hull. Membrane systems must always have full secondary
barriers. Such systems are mainly used for the carriage of LNG.

Fig.4

Semi-Membrane Tanks
Primary barriers are significantly thicker than on full membrane ships. The tanks are
self supporting when empty but non-self supporting when full as the vapour pressure
and liquid head loads are transmitted through the hull via the primary barrier and
insulation. Originally designed for LNG but developed for LPG carriage as well.

Integral Tanks
This type of tank forms a structural part of the ships hull. Not normally allowed for
cargoes carried below –10oC. Not very common.

Internal Insulation Tank

The insulation is attached to the inner hull of the ship and capable of carrying cargoes
at low temperatures. Again not very common.

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Materials of Construction
The minimum cargo temperatures expected and also compatibility with those cargoes
to be carried affect materials used.

Ordinary mild steel becomes brittle at low temperatures and so fine grain carbon
steels are used extensively as they can withstand brittle fractures induced by cold
temperatures. For temperatures below –55oC alloy steels such as carbon manganese
with additional nickel are used.

For fully refrigerated cargoes such as ethylene or LNG nickel alloy steel, stainless
steel or aluminium are used.

Piping, valves and gaskets must be of suitable materials.

Tank Insulation
Serves two purposes:
• reduces heat leakage and evaporation of cargo
• prevents excessive temperature reduction of steelwork

Greater thickness of insulation will reduce ‘boil off’ (dealing with excessive vapour
produced) and reduce reliquefaction plant capacity requirements.

Self-supporting tanks have insulation on the outside of the tank. The insulation is
sometimes in pellet form in the space between the hull and free-standing prismatic
tank.

Insulation must be able to withstand mechanical damage, be of light weight and not
be affected by the cargo or vapour. Polyurethane, mineral wool, balsa wood and
polystyrene are commonly used.

Ship Equipment and Instrumentation

Cargo Piping and Valves

Gas carriers must be able to deal with liquid cargo and vapour. Separate cargo and
vapour lines and manifolds are fitted. Liquid lines lead to the bottom of each tank and
vapour lines from the top. On semi and fully refrigerated ships vapour connections
lead to the compressor room where the reliquefaction plant is located. On LNG ships
only the boil off may be fed to the engine room for use as main propulsion fuel. Pure
LNG ships do not usually have reliquefaction plants due to the costs involved of
having plant capable of cooling to the extremely low temperatures involved. Some
95% of boil off is used for propulsion, the balance is vented off. Other cargoes are
returned to the tanks once condensed.

All pipe work is located above main deck level. Pipelines must be able to cope with
thermal expansion and contraction. Bellows units are fitted to allow for this. Vapour
relief valves are located on the tank domes.

Emergency shut down (ESD) devices are located at the liquid and vapour crossovers.
They must be tested regularly.

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Spray Rails
These are located in the cargo tanks and are used when cooling down cargo tanks in
preparation for loading. By vapourising the cooling liquid through the spray rail
nozzles even cooling of the entire tank surface is achieved.

Cargo Pumps
Most gas carriers use deep well or submerged centrifugal pumps in each tank. Fully
pressurised ships may discharge by the use of pressure alone, in which case booster
pumps ashore assist.

Reliquefaction Plant
Cargo vapour pressures must be controlled during loading and on passage. The
reliquefaction plant is used for this purpose and carries out the following functions:
1. Cools down the tanks and lines prior to loading
2. Reliquefies cargo vapour generated during loading
3. Maintains or reduces cargo temperature on passage

The reliquefaction plant is essentially a large-scale refrigerator

CARGO TANK PIPING ARRANGEMENT

Vent
Vapour
Condensate
Sample connections Liquid

Spray rail

Fig.4

Inert Gas System

Inert gas is used to inert hold spaces and purging of cargo tanks. Nitrogen is used and
most ships have their own N2 generators. The quality of inert gas must be high and
cannot contain any moisture as this would freeze in cargo tanks used for refrigerated
cargoes. De-humidifiers ensure that low dew point nitrogen is used.

Gauging Equipment
IMO Gas Codes require every cargo tank to be fitted with certain types of gauging
equipment depending on the cargo to be carried. Restricted or closed equipment is
used and gas carriers must have two separate systems. High level alarms are required
that give an audible and visual alarm and have automatic shut down of cargo loading.
The alarm may be incorporated in the gauging device.

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Pressure and Temperature Monitoring
Pressure monitoring is required throughout the cargo system including cargo tanks,
discharge lines, liquid and vapour crossovers.

Cargo tanks must have at least two temperature sensors, one at the top and one at the
bottom of the tank. For Type A tanks below –55oC temperature sensors within the
insulation or on the hull structure are required.

Gas Detection
It is vital that any gas leakage is immediately detected. A fixed gas detection system is
required with audible and visual alarms on the bridge, and cargo control room.
Sensors must service the following spaces:
ƒ Cargo compressor room
ƒ Cargo control room
ƒ Enclosed spaces such as hold and inter-barrier spaces
ƒ Air locks
ƒ Gas supply to engine room (LNG ships only)

Certification
In order to operate as a Gas Carrier the vessel must be constructed and equipped in
accordance with the IGC Code. Once the vessel has been surveyed and found to
comply with the Code a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in
Bulk.

The Certificate of Fitness is valid for 5 years and is subject to intermediate (30
months), periodical (5 years) and annual surveys.

Cargo Handling Operations

A voyage cycle on a gas carrier coming out of dry dock will involve the following
stages:
ƒ Inerting. Cargo tanks are inerted with nitrogen to reduce the oxygen content to
prevent flammable atmospheres. Hold spaces may also be inerted.
ƒ Drying. The cargo tanks coming out of dry dock will contain 21% oxygen that
will have a varying degree of humidity. The air must be dried and any free
moisture / water in the tank and lines removed to prevent icing problems with
refrigerated cargoes. Inert gas is passed through a dryer prior to introduction to the
containment system
ƒ Purging (‘gassing up’). Displaces the inerted tank atmosphere with cargo
vapour, this is necessary as IG is incompressible at required cargo temperatures
ƒ Cooldown. Reduces the temperature of the cargo tank before loading. Cooldown
reduces thermal stresses and excessive cargo vapourisation. Spray rails are used.
ƒ Loading. Cargo must be loaded into tanks that are at or below the delivered
temperature ashore. Excessive vapour is returned to shore for reliquefaction via a
vapour return line.
ƒ Loaded Passage. Temperatures and pressures must be monitored. Excessive boil
off can be released through the vent line and mast riser or reliquefied using the
reliquefaction plant.

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ƒ Discharge. Cargo tank pressures and temperatures must be at values acceptable to
the terminal i.e. minimal differentials. Cargo may be discharged by pressure alone
or by ships pumps with or without the assistance of shore booster pumps.
ƒ Ballast passage. Cargo tanks must be prepared for the next cargo. For refrigerated
cargoes the tanks must be cooled down. This is achieved by retaining a small
amount of cargo (known as a ‘heel’) in each tank at the discharge port and passing
it through the reliquefaction plant and spray rails.
ƒ Changing cargo. If an incompatible cargo is to be carried next voyage then the
tanks must be purged of all previous cargo with nitrogen. Chemical gases are
particularly sensitive to contamination.
ƒ Tank Inspection or Dry Docking. This involves purging with inert gas and then
aerating to achieve 21% oxygen and no traces of gas.

Gas Cargo Hazards

Gas carriers are designed so that personnel do not come into contact with the cargo or
cargo vapour during normal operations. The hazards associated with gas cargoes are
similar to those on oil or chemical tankers with one addition:

ƒ Flammability. All the gases carried are flammable with the exception of
chlorine. The degree of flammability of the remainder is similar to oil
cargoes with the exception of ammonia which requires much higher
ignition energy. Due to high vapour pressures involved the spread of
flammable vapours is greater than with oil cargoes.
ƒ Toxicity. The toxicity hazard of gas carrier cargoes is much the same as
with other hydrocarbon cargoes. The chemical gases have lower
occupational exposure limits
ƒ Cold & Chemical Burns. Skin contact with extremely cold vapour or
material can cause severe burns. Protective equipment should be worn if
contact is likely. Ammonia, chlorine, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide
can cause chemical burns which can be difficult to treat. They are
especially hazardous to the eyes.

Conclusion
Gas carriers are extremely safe vessels due to their design and operational procedures.
Officers serving on them should understand the hazards involved and the cargo
handling requirements of this ship type. This section of Chapter 10 has aimed to give
an overview of the systems and procedures used.

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Summary of Chapter 10

Chemical Tankers

ƒ The five main hazards of chemical cargoes are; flammability, toxicity, pollution,
corrosivity and reactivity
ƒ Flammability ranges of certain chemicals may be wider than oil cargoes.
ƒ Some chemicals are non-flammable.
ƒ Some chemicals can be ignited at very low oxygen levels
ƒ The toxicity of some chemicals is high
ƒ A toxicity hazard can occur when two incompatible substances are mixed. This
may be another chemical or heat or water
ƒ Material hazard data sheets are carried for each cargo carried
ƒ The hazards from pollution vary; some chemicals pose little hazard, others are
extremely hazardous
ƒ Some chemicals (acids and alkalis) carried are corrosive to materials of
construction and to human skin
ƒ Stainless steel is used in cargo tanks and for pipelines and pumps, alternatively
resistant coatings may be applied
ƒ Certain substances may react if they come into contact with each other. A severe
reaction can occur, usually involving the generation of heat and possible release of
toxic gas. Compatibility charts give guidance on incompatible cargo groups
ƒ Certain cargoes can react with air or water. Inert gas is used and contact with
water or moisture avoided
ƒ The International Code for the Construction and Equipment of ships Carrying
Dangerous Chemicals in bulk (the IBC Code) sets the standard to which chemical
tankers are built
ƒ Three ship types are designated in the IBC Code 1,2 & 3. Type 1 ships can carry
the most hazardous cargoes
ƒ Specific requirements for individual cargoes are listed in Chapter 15 of the IBC
Code
ƒ Chemical tankers must have a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Noxious
Liquid Substances in Bulk. It is valid for five years
ƒ MARPOL Annex II controls pollution from noxious liquid substances in bulk
ƒ Cargoes are placed into one of five categories; A, B, C, D and Appendix III.
Category A substances are the most environmentally hazardous
ƒ Annex II requires chemical tankers to have a Procedures and arrangements (P &
A) manual on board
ƒ The P & A manual is ship specific and gives operational procedures to be carried
out to ensure compliance with MARPOL Annex II
ƒ Special areas under Annex II are the Baltic Sea, Black Sea and Antarctic
ƒ Within Special Areas Category A substance residues must be pre-washed and then
discharged ashore
ƒ For other categories limits are imposed in relation to quantity, distance from land,
speed of ship and depth of water
ƒ A cargo record book for ships carrying noxious liquid substances in bulk must be
kept

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Gas Carriers
ƒ Gas cargoes are those that exist as a gas at atmospheric pressure and normal
ambient temperatures
ƒ Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is methane
ƒ Other gases are either Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) or Chemical Gases
ƒ Gases are carried in a liquefied state by either cooling or pressurising the cargo
ƒ If the saturated vapour pressure(SVP) is greater than atmospheric pressure the
substance will exist as a gas
ƒ The temperature at which the SVP is equal to atmospheric pressure is the
atmospheric boiling point
ƒ The critical temperature is that above which a gas cannot be liquefied by pressure
alone
ƒ The critical pressure is that pressure required to liquefy a gas at the critical
temperature
ƒ Depending upon the atmospheric boiling point, critical temperature and critical
pressure gases will be fully refrigerated, fully pressurised or a combination of the
two
ƒ The IGC Code sets an international standard for the construction and equipment of
gas carriers
ƒ Five different containment systems are identified in the IGC Code. The most
common are independent tanks and membrane or semi-membrane tanks
ƒ Independent tanks are self supporting and do not form part of the hull
ƒ Type A and B independent tanks can withstand pressures up to 0.7 bar. Type C
can withstand pressures up to 17 bar
ƒ Membrane tanks consist of thin primary barriers and insulation layers that are
supported by the hull. Mainly used for LNG
ƒ Semi-membrane ships have thicker primary barriers
ƒ Materials of construction must be able to withstand low temperatures (LNG is
carried at minus 163oC)
ƒ Secondary barriers prevent leaked cargoes contacting the mild steel of the hull
ƒ Tank insulation must reduce evaporation of cargo and prevent excessive
temperature reduction of steelwork
ƒ Separate piping is provided for dealing with liquid and vapour
ƒ Individual tank cargo pumps are used
ƒ Cargo conditioning is carried out by means of the reliquefaction plant
ƒ Excessive boil off can be vented or, for LNG only, used for main propulsion
machinery
ƒ Emergency shut down devices are fitted
ƒ Pressure and temperature monitoring is fitted
ƒ Fixed gas detection is required
ƒ Gas carrier Voyage cycle:
ƒ Inerting – reduces oxygen content to prevent a flammable atmosphere.
Nitrogen is used
ƒ Drying – removes moisture of the inert gas which would otherwise freeze
ƒ Purging (‘gassing up’) – displaces the gas atmosphere with cargo vapour
ƒ Cooldown – reduces the tank temperature to the incoming cargo
temperature. Cargo heel retained for this purpose and reliquefaction plant
and spray rails used

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ƒ Loading – tank and incoming cargo must be at the same temperature.
Excess vapour returned ashore via vapour recovery line
ƒ Loaded passage – temperatures and pressures monitored. Boil off safely
reliquefied, or used for propulsion (LNG only)
ƒ Discharge – cargo at suitable temperature and pressure for terminal
ƒ Ballast passage - Preparation for next cargo. Tanks cooled
ƒ Changing cargo – for incompatible cargoes purging is required to remove
all traces
ƒ Tank inspection or dry docking – purge with IG and then aerate to 21%
oxygen
ƒ Gas cargo hazards are: flammability, toxicity and cold or chemical burns

161