Heat Sealing Technology

HEAT SEALING
TECHNOLOGY and ENGINEERING

for PACKAGING
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HEAT
SEALING
TECHNOLOGYand
ENGINEERING
for PACKAGING
Principles and Applications
KAZUO HISHINUMA, Ph.D.
Translated by: Hiroaki Miyagawa, Ph.D.

Heat Seal No Kiso to Jissai by Kazuo Hishinuma
Copyright © 2007 by Kazuo Hishinuma
All rights reserved.
Original Japanese edition published by Saiwai Shobo
This English edition is published by arrangement with Saiwai Shobo, Tokyo

in care of Tuttle-Mori Agency, Inc, Tokyo
Heat Sealing Technology and Engineering for Packaging
DEStech Publications, Inc.

439 North Duke Street
Lancaster, Pennsylvania 17602 U.S.A.
Copyright © 2009 by DEStech Publications, Inc.

All Rights Reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America

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Main entry under title:

Heat Sealing Technology and Engineering for Packaging: Principles and Applications
A DEStech Publications book

Bibliography: p.
Includes index p. 247
ISBN: 978-1-932078-85-5
Contents
Foreword ix
Preface to the Japanese Edition xi
Preface to the English-Language Edition xiii
Acknowledgements xv
1. History and Function of Heat Sealing Technology. . . . . . . . . . 1

Development of Heat Sealing Technology 1
History of Improvement for Heat Sealing of
Thermoplastic Thermoplastics 3
Maintenance Function of Packaged Product Quality using
Heat Sealing 3
Features of Heat Sealing 4
Problems of Over Heating for Sealing 10
Approach of Rationalized Heat Sealing 11
References 14
2. The Chemistry of Heat Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Utilization of the Thermoplasticity of Polymer
Materials 15
Adhesion in Heat Sealing 16
Features of Thermoplastic Polymer Materials for Packaging
Applications using Heat Sealing 19
References 20
3. The Fundamentals of Heating for Heat Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Aspects of the Responses of the Melting Surface Temperature
during Heat Sealing 21
Strategies for Efficient Heat Sealing 24
v
vi Contents
Features and Selected Applications of Heating Methods 27

Problems with Conventional Evaluation Methods for
Heat Sealing 42
References 48
4. Fundamentals of Heat Sealing Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Melting Surface Temperature as the Fundamental Control
Factor in Heat Sealing 49
Measuring Method for Temperature of Melting Surface:
The “MTMS” 51
Measuring the Melting Properties of Each Film Material and
Determining a Lower-Limit Temperature 62
References 70
5. Factors in Heat Sealing Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Adequate or Inadequate Heating 71
Thermal Stresses that Cause Packaging Failure 75
Causes of Crinkles 76
Controlling Overheating as a Solution for Heat
Sealing Failure 78
6. Making the Conventional Heat Sealing Method

More Efficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Introduction 81
Measuring the Temperature Response of Each Heat-Seal
Portion in Quadruple-Layered Films 82
Relation between Applied Pressure and the Temperature
of the Melting Surface for Heat Sealing 82
Measurement of the Melting Surface Temperature for Heat
Sealing with Films Containing Volatile Components 83
Effects on Heat Sealing Operations of Teflon Sheet
Attached to the Heating Block Surface 87
Measurement of Surface Temperature Distributions
on the Heating Block 92
Problem Analysis in Single-Side Heating 94
Other Factors Affecting Temperature Distributions and
Radiant Heat on Heat Seal Films 96
Pros and Cons of Knurling Tool Finish 98
Changes in Heat Seal Strength Caused by Roughness of the
Bonding Surface 100
References 101
7. Experimental Technique for Inspecting Peel Seal

and Tear Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Polyball as a Cause of Package Failure 103
Contents vii
Experimental Technique for Inspecting Peel Seal and Tear Seal:

Development of the “Angle Method” 105
References 112
8. Methods for Confirmation and Improvement of

Heat Sealing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Utililization of the Peel Energy of Peel Seal 113
Thickness and Heat Seal Strength of the Heat
Sealant 123
Synergism of Laminate Strength and Heat Seal
Strength 129
Satisfying HACCP Regulations when using Heat
Sealing 134
Observation, Inspection, and Utilization of Easy Peel 148
Causes of and Countermeasures against Foaming
in the Melting Layer 157
References 161
9. Functional Improvements to the Heat Sealing

Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Causes and Correction of Pinhole and Edge Cutting 163
Utility of Peel Seal Region 167
Accurate Adjustment Technique of Surface Temperature
for Heating Block 170
Simulation of Arbitrary Melting Surface Temperature 173
Hot Tuck and the Effect of Cooling Press 186
Practice of Optimization of Heating Temperature 187
Novel Heat Sealing Method Combining Peel Seal
and Tear Seal: “Compo Seal” 199
References 207
10. Case Studies of Analysis and Improvement of

Heat Sealing Failure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Introduction 209
Examination of Appropriate Heat Sealing Conditions
for Sterilized Medical Packaging Materials
(Nonwoven Fabrics) 209
Case Studies of Lid Seal Failure in Paper Cup Packaging 215
Effect of Redesigned Packaging Materials on
Performance Improvement 217
Precise Measurements for Heat Sealing Properties of
Biodegradable Plastic 219
MTMS Analysis of Failure by ASTM Standard (F88-00) 222
Collaboration among Packaging Material Manufacturers,
Package Machine Manufacturers, and Users 223
References 226
viii Contents
11. Heat Seal Test Method that Complements the

JIS Standard Method and uses the Melting Surface
Temperature as a Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Proposed Novel Methods for the Analysis and Management
of Heat Sealing 227
Future Directions of Novel Methods for the Analysis and
Evaluation of Heat Sealing 228
References 235
Appendix 1—Heat Sealing Issues and Troubleshooting Methods Addressed 237
Appendix 2—List of Patents/Pending Patents Discussed in the Book 239
Glossary 243
Index 247
About the Author 251
Foreword
The requirements for improving the effectiveness of heat sealing seem

to imply an antinomy. On the one hand, heat sealing ought to provide su-
perior bonding to preserve the product, and on the other hand, the seal
must be easy to open. In other words, heat sealing technology must strike
a balance between the demands of bonding and those of peeling.
The present text addresses this challenge, and at the same time repre-
sents one of the few books providing a detailed account of the many fac-
ets of heat sealing as applied to packaging. Based on the author’s
long-term research and consulting, the present book forms at once a de-
tailed guide to specific packaging problems associated with heat sealing,
as well as a compendium of unique solutions. The author points out how
in the past heat sealing technology often overlooked the potential of easy
peel in favor of obtaining superior adhesion. The book demonstrates the
importance of controlling temperature distribution at the microscopic
level, in contrast to adjusting the melting temperature of bulk thermo-
plastic polymers macroscopically. This point reinforces, and is rein-
forced by, careful investigations of the differences between the
thermophysical behavior of bulk polymers and thermophysical behavior
on the surface of polymer films as heat sealing is being carried out. Be-
cause existing methods of analysis were not adequate, these real-time in-
vestigations of film surface behavior during heat sealing required the
development of novel methods of testing, whose application are ex-
plained in this book. An additional feature of the text is its demonstration
of how biodegradable polymers can be used for heat sealing, as long as
the temperature distribution on the polymer surface is controlled.
In sum, Dr. Hishinuma’s work, presented in this volume, provides a
new and important understanding of the melting process of thermoplas-
tic polymers in heat sealing, thereby allowing one to improve heat seal-
ix
x Foreword
ing for many packaging requirements. I thus recommend the book, not
only for engineers and researchers in the field of heat seal technology, but
also for students and researchers in materials development.
DR. HIROKUNI ONO

Professor, Kogakuin University
Professor Emeritus, University of Tokyo
Preface to the Japanese Edition
Heat sealing allows packagers to seal thermoplastics together to create

a wide variety of packages, such as pouches. It also expedites sealing of
lids to cups and bottles. Heat sealing, as well as the use of plastic packag-
ing in general, became more widespread with the advent of single-serve
portion packaging in the 1980s. It is estimated that in Japan, each citizen
consumes up to 10 different products a day packaged in heat sealed plas-
tics. These range from staple foods to drinks, snacks and medications.
As heat sealing technology evolved, the original protective functions
of the heat sealed package were expanded to include selective barrier
functions, shielding, and antimicrobial safeguarding. The barrier func-
tions were made possible by the development of polymers designed to
exclude chemical compounds and species, as well as light. Heat sealed
packages routinely protect sterilized foods, as well as sterilized medical
devices and injectables. Flexible packages, formed by heat sealing, are
designed not to rupture. Heat sealed packages must conform to
numerous standards and safety regulations.
Despite the widespread application of heat sealing, until now there
have been no methods for measuring the temperature in the microscale
regions of surfaces being adhered by heat sealing. Among other things,
this means it is difficult to gain quantitative insight into the actual condi-
tions of heat sealing adhesion. One of the contributions of this book is to
make available technical means for measuring heat sealing surfaces with
a much higher degree of accuracy than the standard methods, which de-
pend on the tensile testing of 10–25 mm wide strips of specimen materi-
als. As will be seen, the methods presented here offer wider and more
concentrated data than that available through the use of Japanese (JIS)
and American (ASTM) testing standards.
The conditions of heat sealing are dependent in part on the polymers
xi
xii Preface to the Japanese Edition
used. Each polymer has a range where its adhesion strength depends on
temperature. Polymer films are normally soft or paste-like in this temper-
ature range. Once the temperature reaches the melting point, Tm , the
thermoplastic polymers behave like a liquid. During the liquid phase the
molecules of two or more films can be combined, with the films becom-
ing cohesively bonded. The strength of two cohesively bonded films is
almost equal to that of the non-bonded film by itself. Once cohesive
bonding occurs, the adhered portion of the films is thicker than the origi-
nal film, and tests reveal that this thicker portion has a greater resistance
to tensile failure.
Conventional experiments and testing focus on cohesive bonding.
They measure strain in the thinner region proximate to the thicker
heat-sealed portion. As a result of this methodology, the main solution to
improving heat-sealed thermoset polymer films is to improve the tensile
strength of the films themselves.
This book offers an alternative to linking improved heat sealing with
cohesive bonding and tensile strength. It presents a method for directly
measuring temperatures on the heat sealed surfaces, converting the data
to electrical signals, and analyzing it via computer programs. This
method, referred to herein as the MTMS has been applied to solve many
heat sealing problems, and was summarized in the author’s University of
Tokyo doctoral dissertation, titled “Optimization of Heating Tempera-
ture for Heat Sealing.” This work was preceded by a decade of research
and actual applications of the MTMS in industry situations, where it was
found that the method could reduce heat sealing defects in packaging,
e.g., in retort pouches.
The present volume draws on the above mentioned dissertation and
consulting work and explains new methods and data for improving heat
sealing. Beginning with the basics, the book presents an overview of the
chemistry and mechanics of heat sealing. It contrasts traditional ways of
analyzing the process with a novel method, and shows how the experi-
mental data derived from the method can be used by engineers to trouble-
shoot and solve many heat sealing problems.
KAZUO HISHINUMA, Ph.D.

Preface to the English-Language Version
Almost as soon as the Japanese book appeared, requests were made to

me to arrange the translation of this book into English. I was fortunate to
be able to identify Dr. Hiroaki Miyagawa as a translator. Dr. Miyagawa
received his doctoral degree from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, and
carried out post-doctoral work at Northwestern University in the United
States, and most importantly for the book also was a researcher at the
School of Packaging, Michigan State University. Encouraged by me and
associates at Michigan State, Dr. Miyagawa undertook the translation,
while engaged in full-time employment as a materials scientist. Through
his efforts, and that of other English-speaking packaging technologists
who agreed to read and comment on excerpts from the English text, we
were able to complete the translation offered herein.
I am also grateful to Saiwai-Shobo, publisher of the Japanese original,
and Dr. Hugh Lockhart for securing DEStech Publications, a U.S.-based
publisher specializing in materials science and packaging technology, as
publisher of the English-language translation.
xiii
Acknowledgements
Many specialists, teachers, and friends have contributed intellectually

and materially to the publication of this book, both in the original Japa-
nese and in the English translation. I owe a special debt to Prof. Hirokuni
Ono (Professor Emeritus of the University of Tokyo and Professor of
Kogakuin University), who encouraged me to create this book. The lo-
gistics consultant, Mr. Takeo Koyama, kindly guided me in acquiring the
fundamentals of thermoplastic polymers, melting properties, and other
basics of materials science. Prof. Hugh Lockhart from the School of
Packaging, Michigan State University invited me to lecture and intro-
duced me to a number of unique problems related to heat seal technology
in the USA. Hugh was also helpful in establishing a number of research
collaborations. Dr. Ben Miyares, the vice president of the U.S.-based in-
dustry society, the Packaging Machinery Manufacturers Institute
(PMMI), was instrumental in conveying information about heat seal
technology in industries and universities in the USA and Europe.
Through Ben’s generosity and connections I was able to meet and
converse with many heat sealing engineers and researchers throughout
the world.
The Society of Packaging Science & Technology, Japan (SPSTJ) and
the Japanese Packaging Institute (JPS), provided opportunities to pres-
ent my research in stimulating settings and gave me constant encourage-
ment. Colleagues in the Japan Packaging and Logistics Consultants
Society (JPLCS) and Japan Packaging Consultants Association (JPCA)
supported the investigations presented in the book and were helpful in of-
fering feedback. For many years the Japan Packaging Machinery Manu-
facturers Association (JPMA) integrated the new investigative method,
the MTMS system presented here, into its lectures on an annual basis.
xv
xvi Acknowledgements
Friends in various fields persuaded me to continue the research pre-

sented herein and helped me make it a lifetime work. I hereby acknowl-
edge the support of these engineers, professors, and researchers. As a
result of this support, I could finally include the most recent achieve-
ments of heat seal technology, denoted as “Compo Seal”, in this volume.
CHAPTER 1
1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT SEALING TECHNOLOGY
Packaging is important for the safe preservation and transportation of

various products. Additionally, it is expected to satisfy ease of use, con-
venience, and low cost. The functions for packaging are now not only to
simply wrap but also to completely seal products inside. Examples of
these functions are to safely prevent packaged products from contamina-
tion with bacteria, toxins, oxygen, and moisture, as well as to avoid leak-
ing gases, including odors from packaged products.
The growth of petroleum chemistry in the 20th century resulted in the
development of thermoplastic polymeric materials, which have become
widespread, and even indispensable, in daily life. Thermoplastic materi-
als are widely used for packaging applications. For example, the amount
of thermoplastic materials used for packaging applications was 3950 k
ton in 2005, which was 18.9% of the total amount of all materials for
packaging; sales of thermoplastic materials for packaging applications
were JPY 165.7 million, which were 28.2% of the total sales of all
materials [1].
The market size of all the packaging materials in the world is ap-
proximately JPY 50–55 trillion [2]. Considering the ratio of different
packaging materials used in Japan, it can be determined that the mar-
ket size of thermoplastic materials for packaging is JPY 14–15 tril-
lion. It can be estimated that 80% of the thermoplastic packaging
market is found in the US, Japan, and EU, whose population (approxi-
mately 700 million people) is only about 12% of the world’s total. The
remaining 88% of the global population cannot benefit from thermo-
1
2 HISTORY AND FUNCTION OF HEAT SEALING TECHNOLOGY
plastic packaging, mainly due to the high costs of advanced packag-

ing technology.
The widespread application of thermoplastic packaging encouraged
mass-production, which in turn led to the additional development of
small-size packaging, designed to contain single portions for each indi-
vidual user. Small-size packaging, also called “portion pack,” takes ad-
vantage of one packaging functionality of thermoplastic materials
developed in the US and EU, namely preventing intentional contamina-
tion (for example, by food terrorists). It is expected that the significant
cost reduction for portion packs will contribute to more efficient supply
and distribution, even at the risk that smaller quantities of foods and
beverages will be purchased.
1.1.1 Heat Seal Technology
In general, heat seal technology is applied to packaging using thermo-

plastic materials, since heat seal technology can easily create bags from
thermoplastic films, seal the bags, or fabricate bottles after heating and
cooling them.
Heat seal technology is used for packaging pre-heated and sterilized
foods (called “retort pouches”), baby and family care products, inject-
able and oral medicines, snacks, toiletries, and components of electron-
ics and precision machines. In Japan, more than 10 of these packaged
products are used by every person every day. In other words, a huge num-
ber of heat sealed products, estimated at more than 1 billion prod-
ucts/day, are supplied to the market and consumed.
Heat seal technology has been in use for more than a half century. On
reason for its continued popularity is that its main element, thermoplas-
tics, can be heated 20–100°C higher than their melting points and then
cooled, which readily enhances complete sealing.
However, heat sealing is not without problems. Typical problems with
heat seal technology include: insufficient operating temperatures, break-
age of heat sealed parts (due to overheating), and pin holes. Inspections
are often conducted by tensile testing to investigate the strength of ran-
domly selected heat sealed films [3,4]. One obvious problem with this in-
spection method, which is used throughout the world, is that the
temperature at the melted film surface has not been directly controlled.
As a result, packaging problems are normally addressed by the use of
thicker films and other thermoplastic materials having higher melting
temperatures. However, these solutions increase packaging costs.
With the foregoing in mind, the objectives of this book are to replace
conventional and qualitative analysis, which depend on empirical
Maintenance Function of Packaged Product Quality using Heat Sealing 3
knowledge, and to explain a novel method to optimize heat sealing that

uses different packaging thermoplastic materials and to allow one to di-
rectly measure the temperature of the melting surface.
1.2 HISTORY OF IMPROVEMENT FOR HEAT SEALING OF

THERMOPLASTIC THERMOPLASTICS
Thermoplastic polymer materials have the properties of melting at

high temperature as well as being permeable to oxygen, moisture, and
other gases such as nitrogen. In order to ensure complete sealing without
pin holes, it is necessary to obtain suitable adhesion on the heat sealed
surface, resulting in perfect airtightness. Defects like pin holes on the
heat sealed surface have often been observed, especially in single-layer
heat-sealed packaging films. When pin holes are present, complete
sealing is impossible.
To eliminate inadequate and even unsafe heat sealing and to obtain
better barrier properties, laminates consisting of two or more different
films, each with its own function, became popular.
A heat sealant can easily be deformed or can be caused to fail by ther-
mal stress, while it is heated and softened for heat sealing. Consequently,
materials having high- temperature properties and better mechanical du-
rability must be selected for the surface of the laminate. Efforts were also
made to avoid problems stemming from foreign substances on the heat
sealed surface due to surface charge. A further goal was to develop new
materials exhibiting minimal deformation at higher temperatures.
In 1979, Dow Chemical Company unveiled linear low density poly-
ethylene (L-LDPE) for heat sealing [5]. The length of the branched poly-
mer structure of L-LDPE is short, and this fact leads to stronger
intermolecular force and hence to better adhesion properties for heat
sealing. L-LDPE is manufactured by ionic polymerization, not radical
polymerization, under high temperature and high pressure. L-LDPE is a
suitable heat sealant since radical oxidization does not occur during the
heat sealing process and thermal deformation is small at heat sealing
temperatures. L-LDPE is still widely used for packaging applications,
because it can help avoid problems often encountered in the heat sealing
process at high temperatures.
1.3 MAINTENANCE FUNCTION OF PACKAGED PRODUCT

QUALITY USING HEAT SEALING
Three factors are important as quality-control issues for pharmaceuti-

cal and food packaging [6]. Table 1.1 summarizes these factors and their
TABLE 1.1 Health-related Functions of Heat Sealed Packaging.
counter-measures. As can be seen in Table 1.1, heat seal technology ad-

dresses prevention of contamination by bacteria and relates to the gas
barrier function. The issue of preventing bacterial contamination also
corresponds to a number of HACCP regulations.
1.4 FEATURES OF HEAT SEALING
1.4.1 Basis of Adhesion
There are two different methods for adhering two objects. One in-
volves supplying glue to the adhered surface. The other involves heating
thermoplastic polymer materials, melting them, pressing them together
and then promptly cooling them, a process similar to the welding of met-
als. Heat seal technology uses the latter method to adhere thermoplastic
films.
Figure 1.1 depicts different microscale adhesion mechanisms.
“Chain bonding” in Figure 1.1(a) utilizes the permeating nature of wa-
ter or other solvents. The adhesive becomes entwined with the fibers of
the adherend. It then forms a chain-like structure, and the two adherends
are bonded. A typical example is the adhesion of paper.
“Wedge bonding” in Figure 1.1(b) occurs when an adhesive fluid is
FIGURE 1.1 Adhesion in microscale.
made to flow into microscale holes on the adherends. The adhesive is

then cured, and the two objects are bonded using the wedging effect of
“pot-like” shape. A typical example is adhesion using glue.
“Vacuum bonding” in Figure 1.1(c) is done by using high pressure to
push out the air found in microscale holes on the rough surface. After the
air is removed from the microscale holes, polymer materials are added to
restore the adherend’s original shape. A vacuum is then applied to the
microscale holes. Adhesion occurs as a result of the differential between
the vacuum state and atmospheric pressure. For example, wet paper is
adhered to a flat glass plate, because there is no air between the paper and
the glass plate.
“Intermolecular bonding,” represented in Figure 1.1(d), is the bonding
mechanism of heat seal technology discussed in this book. Heat seal
technology utilizes the intermolecular bonding of two melted adherends.
Compared with other bonding, it is easier to obtain excellent adhesion
and bonding at the molecular scale.
“Static electric bonding” is achieved as a result of the positive and neg-

ative static charge on the surfaces of insulated materials. The typical ex-
ample is polymer films adhered to one another.
Comparing these different mechanisms of adhesion enables one to un-
derstand the special properties and advantages of heat seal technology.
1.4.2 Process of Heat Sealing
The fundamental idea of heat seal technology is to attach both sides of

two thermoplastic adherends and heat them. In the most widely-used
thermal press type of heat sealing, a heat jaw is pressed to the thermo-
plastic films, heat is conducted from the surface of the thermoplastic
films, the bonded surface is heated to the appropriate temperature, and
then it is immediately cooled down to complete the bonding. Figure 1.2
offers a schematic drawing of this procedure.
In conventional heat seal technology, it is not the actual temperature at
the melting surface that is controlled but rather the temperature of the
surface of the heat generator. This causes problems, either overheating or
improper cooling, i.e., insufficient low temperature. Figure 1.2(b) shows
the different responses of temperature at the melting surface as depend-
ing on different press times, t1–t3, where the temperature of the heat gen-
erator is Ts. Depending on the state needed to reach the range of an
appropriate heating temperature [TL–TH], it can be seen whether any one
or more of the press times t1–t3 are suitable. In this case, an appropriate
heating temperature range depends on the thermoplastic films them-
selves.
1.4.3 Definition of Heating Temperature, Peel Seal,

and Tear Seal
For heat sealed films there are two different failure modes that depend
on the heating temperature. The first is interfacial/pseudo-adhesion (peel
seal), which shows increasing strength with the increase of heat tempera-
ture, and the second is melt/cohesive adhesion (tear seal), whose strength
value reaches a plateau.
Figure 1.3 shows the relation between the temperature at the melting
surface and tensile strength (the strength of heat sealed films). The slope
of the strength increase with rising heating temperature is dependent on
different thermoplastic films, as well as on their molecular weight. For
thermoplastic films with consistent molecular structure for pharmaceuti-
cal applications, a sharp slope is observed for the peel seal region, as
shown in Figure 1.3(b). Polyethylene for pharmaceutical and electronic
packaging applications is softened and then melted in a narrow

temperature range (2–3°C).
When a load is applied to heat sealed films that have a low elastic
modulus, the load tends to be concentrated on the heat sealed region. In
other words, the load is not homogeneously distributed around the heat
sealed region, as with thicker rigid materials. This is visualized in Figure
1.4.
FIGURE 1.2 Basic operation of heat sealing in heat jaw system.

FIGURE 1.3 Change of tensile strength of heat sealed films.
Figure 1.5 shows the difference between a peel seal and tear seal, when
the tensile testing is conducted for heat sealed films. For a peel seal, the
heat sealed films are delaminated, since the polymer molecules are not
completely diffused and the interface of the two films is still identical. On
the other hand, for a tear seal, plastic behavior is observed after a stress
larger than the tensile strength of the film itself is applied to the heat
sealed film. At that point, the sample experiences failure near the heat
sealed region. The reason is that in the tear seal the polymer molecules
FIGURE 1.4 Different deformation of rigid and heat-sealed film specimens.

FIGURE 1.5 Failure modes of peel and tear sealing.
are well diffused in relation to one another. The peel seal does show
weaker strength than the tear seal. However, the peel seal has the poten-
tial to thoroughly solve problems in conventional heat seal technology.
Thus, it is necessary to take into account the peel seal, as well as the tear
seal, which will be done in this text.
Features of the peel seal include the following:
1. Heat sealed packages are easy to open. This can be utilized for
“easy peel.”
2. The force applied to heat sealed packages can be absorbed as peel-
ing energy. This can eliminate the need for the tear seal.
3. The tear seal is often plagued by defects due to overheating. Over-
heating also causes lower strength. The peel seal can eliminate
these problems.
4. Polyballs, which are protruded from melted films during the heat
seal process, often cause pin holes and the subsequent failure of
heat sealed packages. The peel seal—with careful temperature con-
trol—can avoid the formation of polyballs.
5. As long as the temperature is controlled for the peel seal, the adhe-
sion between heat sealed films can be maximized. In other words,
the maximum strength at the border region of peel seal and tear seal
can be realized, as represented in Figure 1.3. (An example is
“Compo seal”) [7].
It is necessary to accurately control temperature at the melting surface,

when a peel seal is being formed. The actual applications of peel seals
will be discussed in detail in the following chapters.
1.4.4 Requirement for the Easy Peel
Most previous work was designed to obtain stronger heat sealed pack-
ages, in order to avoid package failure. On the other hand, most consum-
ers preferred what is called easy peel.
Easy peel can be realized by taking advantage of the peal seal region
where the seal strength increases with increasing sealing temperature.
However, as can be seen in Figure 1.3, thermoplastic polymers with a
consistent molecular structure have an extremely narrow temperature
range which can realize peel seal. When an easy peel is obtained by con-
trolling the heating temperature, it is necessary to control the tempera-
ture at the melting surface in increments of 2–5°C.
G.L. Hoh et al. (DuPont) have investigated a solution for expanding
the melting temperature region to 7–10°C by adding a 10% metallic ion
to polypropylene (PP) or by incorporating copolymers into the sealant.
As a result, these investigators developed a novel sealant, which allowed
them to linearly increase the tensile strength of heat sealed films with in-
creasing heat sealing temperature [8]. After the year 2000, new copoly-
mers having a wider range of melt temperature were manufactured by
now widely used as packaging materials, and their use significantly con-
tributes to easy peel sealants [9]. Future research and development must
aim for a new method to control the sealing temperature, including the
temperature at the boundary between peel seal and tear seal.
1.5 PROBLEMS OF OVERHEATING FOR SEALING
A heat sealant is solid at room temperature. As the temperature in-

creases, it will become soft, and then melt. The mechanisms of adhesion
between the softening and melting stages and the melting state are differ-
ent. The mechanism of adhesion at the softening/melting stage is interfa-
cial. Interfacial adhesion on the contact surfaces causes peel seal,
whereas the mechanism of adhesion at the melting state is cohesive,
which causes tear seal. In cohesive adhesion, the polymer molecules in-
teract with the highest intermolecular force. Therefore, the tensile
strength at the heat sealed region is maximized. In reality, evaporation of
unpolymerized materials, thermal degradation, or oxidation within the
thermoplastic materials will lead to lower strength in the heat sealed re-
gion. These phenomena, however, occur only after the high-temperature

process has been carried out.
Since thermoplastic films have a low elastic modulus in general, stress
that occurs after the heat seal process is concentrated at the edge of the
sealed region. That is, the stress is not homogeneous. For a peel seal, as
seen in Figure 1.5(a), cracks are propagated from the edge of the heat
sealed edge in the direction of the film. On the other hand, in a tear seal,
there is no clear interface between the two original films, since the poly-
mer molecules are diffused with one another other at the melting temper-
ature. As a result, plastic deformation is observed at the vicinity of the
heat sealed region, as seen in Figure 1.5(b), and it is in this vicinity where
failure occurs.
Peel seal and tear seal of a retort pouch are shown in Photo 1.1.
In the conventional monitoring of heat sealing, operators change the
temperature of the heat sealing machine, and then inspectors visually
look for failures within the heat sealed regions. With this method it is
easy to find the failures that are due to insufficient (low) temperatures,
and as a result it is currently applied all over the world.
However, this method does not allow operators to directly know or
control the actual temperature at the melting surface. Therefore, it is dif-
ficult to understand, in quantitative terms, either what the adequate heat-
ing temperature range is or when overheating will occur. In response,
operators tend to overheat the films to avoid too low temperature pro-
cessing. In effect, heat sealing operations on the shop floor are based on
trial and error, since there are no standards for quantitative temperature
control. It should be repeated that overheating causes pin holes and tear-
ing at the heat sealed edge. As noted above, because no standard process-
ing method can be applied for heat sealing, operators have been forced to
use thicker films. One example is the heat sealing of retort pouches. The
standard film thickness for the retort pouch packaging industry is 70 mi-
crons, which has led not only to higher packaging costs but also to delays
in the popular acceptance of retort pouches.
1.6 APPROACH OF RATIONALIZED HEAT SEALING
Traditionally, three parameters, temperature, time, and pressure, have

been used to control the results of heat sealing. However, these parame-
ters have never been clearly and universally defined. As a result, the pa-
rameters are interpreted differently by individual operators based on
their experiences.
PHOTO 1.1 Samples of peel and tear sealing. Material: Retort pouch [PET12/AL7/CPP70].
12
Reliable heat sealing depends on controlling the temperature to

achieve proper melting of the sealant. In this context, seven different
heating methods, now in commercial use, will be discussed (see Chapter
3).
No matter which heating method is used, four factors, which are based
on the two parameters of temperature and time, need to be directly mea-
sured. These are:
1. The temperature of the melting surface.
2. The point when the melting surface reaches a sufficient tempera-
ture.
3. The time it takes for the melting surface to reach a sufficient tem-
perature.
4. The temperature at which thermal degradation occurs.
These four factors are discussed in chapter 3 with schematic drawings.

A rational and standardized method for heat sealing is discussed in Chap-
ter 4, and later chapters present guidance on how to understand and apply
new methods for monitoring and analyzing heat sealing. These include
the following:
1. A technique to easily measure temperature at the melting surface in
a range of approximately 20–30 micron thicknesses, at high speed
and with high accuracy for heat sealing investigations.
2. Using this measurement technique for determination of tempera-
tures at the melting surface enables the following:
a. Quantitative investigation and monitoring of conventional heat
seal technology.
b. Methods for characterizing the difference between tear seal and
peal seal, as well as an improved utilization of melt bonding
phenomena, made possible by being able to measure the tem-
perature of the melting surface with high accuracy and high
speed.
c. Established reliability of heat sealing by optimizing the heating
procedure through controlling the temperature ranges of the
heating necessary for bonding.
d. Optimizing the heat seal process using the temperature parame-
ters at the melting surface.
When applied, the technologies presented below will lead to greater

efficiencies and lower costs in heat seal packaging. Further suggestions
will also be made showing how these benefits can be achieved in

real-world packaging operations. To repeat, a major task for optimizing
heating temperature is to quantitatively understand the heating tempera-
ture, as well as to combine the basic state and elements of the peel seal
and tear seal. This task will be addressed in the following chapters.
1.7 REFERENCES
1. Japan Packaging Institute, Statistics of Production and Shipment of Packaging In-

dustries in Japan in 2005, Packaging Technology, vol. 44, No. 6, p. 3 (2006) (In Japa-
nese).
2. VDVM, Interpack 2005, April (2005).
3. JIS, JIS Z 0238; Section 7 (1998) (In Japanese).
4. ASTM F88-00.
5. C&E News Oct 29, 8 (1979).
6. Ajinomoto Co Ltd., 1980.
7. Kazuo Hishinuma, Patent application in Japan 2007-26377 (2007) (In Japanese).
8. G.L.Hoh et al., US Patent, 4, 346, 196, Aug 24 (1982).
9. Hiroshi Ohmori, Fundamental of polyolefin materials Part 2, Proceeding of 33rd the
Society of Packaging Science & Technology, Japan symposium, p. 33 (2004) (In Jap-
anese).
CHAPTER 2
When heated, thermoplastic polymers change from a solid to a liquid,

and then return to the solid state after cooling. Thermoset polymers, the
other main type of polymer, exhibit a low viscosity when heated. They
then begin cross-linking and cannot subsequently be melted. Heat seal
technology uses thermoplastic polymer materials. Heat sealed films are
adhered to one another in the melt state and exhibit strong bonding once
cooled.
2.1 UTILIZATION OF THE THERMOPLASTICITY OF

POLYMER MATERIALS
The thermal characteristics of various polymer materials are summa-

rized in Table 2.1 [1].
The thermoplastic polymers used in heat seal technology are classified
into crystalline and non-crystalline. Crystalline polymers exhibit a regu-
lar molecular arrangement in three dimensions, whereas non-crystalline
polymers show an irregular arrangement. In general, non-crystalline
polymers are highly transparent, since the gap between the non-crystal-
line molecules is much larger than the wavelength of a visible ray.
The physical properties of polymers, such as volume, thermal expan-
sion, specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and elastic modulus,
are temperature-dependent. Glass transition temperature (Tg) and melt-
ing temperature (Tm) are temperature thresholds specific to non-crystal-
line and crystalline polymers, respectively. These temperatures will vary
among individual polymers. For packaging applications, non-crystalline
and crystalline polymers are often mixed, in which case the resulting
15
16 THE CHEMISTRY OF HEAT SEALING
TABLE 2.1 Varieties of Polymers (classified by Thermophysical Behavior ) [1].
polymer film exhibits both Tg and Tm. Tm is strongly correlated with a

range of heating temperatures that are sufficient to maximize bonding
strength. Tg, defined as a point of inflection within the elastic
modulus-temperature curve, can be correlated with the strength of
heat-sealed films. Table 2.2 summarizes the Tm of typical thermoplastic
polymer materials. Table 2.3 summarizes the Tg, Tm, and temperature
ranges of various polymer melts as these relate to bonding.
Polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), which are frequently used
as sealants, have a Tm of 100–150°C, whereas polyamide (nylon) and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) have a Tm above 170°C. Although PE
and PP are often used by themselves for applications requiring inexpen-
sive materials, nylon or PET are used for the surface layer of laminates,
and PE and PP are used for sealant layers, in order to achieve several
functions in one film.
2.2 ADHESION IN HEAT SEALING
2.2.1 Adhesive Bonding Force of Heat Sealing
The macroscopic classifications of adhesion are summarized in Fig-
TABLE 2.2 Melting Points of Various Thermoplastic Polymers.

Polymers Repeating Unit Melting Point
Polyethylene –CH2CH2– 140°C
Polypropylene –(CH3)CH CH2– 180°C
Polyvinyl chloride –CH2CHCl– 273°C
Polystyrene –CH2CH(C6H5)– 250°C
Polyvinyl alcohol –CH2CH(OH)– 270°C
Nylon 6 –(CH2)5CONH– 228°C
Adhesion in Heat Sealing 17
TABLE 2.3 Tm and Temperature Range of Welding for

Various Thermoplastic Packaging Films.
Tg or softening Temperature
Temperature, Range for
Materials Tm, °C °C Welding, °C
Low density polyethylene 102–115 75–86 100–
(softening temp)
Polypropylene (retort 155–170 150–155 140–
pouch) (softening temp)
Polypropylene co-polymer — — 116–
“Nippon polyace”
Poly lactic acid 165–170 57 (Tg) 62–
ure 1.1. The microscale factors correlated to bonding strength are as

follows:
1. Chemical bonding
2. Hydrogen bonding
3. Intermolecular force
4. Wedge effect
5. Inter diffusion
In general, chemical bonding is the major factor underlying adhesion.
Numerous other factors also play a role to create strong adhesion. Heat
sealing with thermoplastic polymer materials is a type of adhesion that
depends on the intermolecular force, which is weaker than chemical
bonding. Since intermolecular force (the van der Waals force) is in in-
verse proportion to the 6th power of the spacing between two molecules,
it becomes significantly weaker as the spacing between molecules be-
comes larger1.
2.2.2 Adhesive Surface Model of Heat Sealing
A heat-sealed surface is caused by the phenomenon of “entanglement”
1Van der Waals force is defined as the spacing between molecules, and it was thought that it is in in-
verse proportion to the 6th power of the spacing distance. Here, the bonding surface can be sur-
face/surface, sphere/sphere, parallel rods, or crossing rods. When the attracting force between
quartz of 25–300 nm spacing was measured by atomic force microscopy (AFM), a research results
showed that the force was in inverse proportion to the 3rd power of spacing. In other words, the
intermolecular force influences more distance than a theory of van der Waals force [2].
FIGURE 2.1 Different adhesion mechanisms in peel seal and tear seal.
or “sticking together” of polymer molecules after the thermoplastic

polymer materials are physically melted.
The bonding surface created by heat sealing is like an assembly of
microscale “bonded spots” that form entangled molecules. In this regard,
it is not like homogeneous bonding. As the temperature increases, the
number of the bonded spots increases. At the temperature where the
bonding layers are melted and bonding occurs, the melted area for bond-
ing has increased—in proportion to the increasing temperature. At this
stage, bonding is maximized and a plateau is reached.
When loading is placed on bonded films heat sealed in a temperature
range where the strength increases with increasing sealing temperature,
interfacial failure is observed. This is called a peel seal. In the tempera-
ture range where the bonding strength is brought to a maximum, the
polymer molecules become entangled with one another. As a result, the
interface between the two polymer films cannot be precisely delineated.
In this case, the bonding strength of the two films is extremely strong.
This is called a tear seal. The tensile strength of a tear seal is the same as,
or slightly higher, than that of the original films, and no interfacial failure
is observed. Failure in a tear seal is observed in the vicinity of the heat
sealed region (as shown in Figure 1.5). The difference of the bonding
conditions between a peel seal and tear seal is schematically shown in
Figure 2.1.
Features of Thermoplastic Polymer Materials 19
A detailed analysis of the peel seal mechanism is described in Section

[8.5], using experimental data. Generally, the sealant thickness is only a
few micrometers, which is discussed in Section [8.2].
2.3 FEATURES OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYMER

MATERIALS FOR PACKAGING APPLICATIONS
USING HEAT SEALING
Heat-sealed packaging is one type of flexible packaging, which is

widely used as a material-saving packaging technique for producing var-
ious bags or containers from thermoplastic polymer films. The most im-
portant functions of heat-sealed packaging include: sealing the
container, isolating the product from external oxygen, and forming a bar-
rier against odor and gas emission from the packaged products (as shown
FIGURE 2.2 Configuration examples of thermoplastic packaging films.

PHOTO 2.1 SEM micrograph of retort pouch for food. (Source: IAA center for Food
Quality, Labeling and Consumer Services).
in Table 1.1). In addition, heat-sealed packaging materials must have suf-

ficient strength to be able to withstand physical loading.
There are several different methods for heat sealing (as shown in Fig-
ure 1.2). The thermal and impulse methods heat the surface of the films
and the sealant is melted for bonding. In these methods the film surface
attached to the heat sealer becomes hotter than the sealant.
In single-layer films, the surface of the film will be melted (as seen in
Figure 3.5). Therefore, it is necessary to wait until the surface tempera-
ture cools, once heat sealing is completed. Co-extruded films having a
polymer layer on the surface that has a melting temperature higher than
the melting temperature of the sealant or laminated films consisting of
two different films with different melting points are often used for heat
seal packaging. Co-extruded and laminated films contribute to ease of
processability, automation, and high-speed throughput. Recently devel-
oped laminated films include multi-layer films possessing excellent gas
barrier properties. The typical compositions of films for heat sealing are
shown in Figure 2.2. A scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micro-
graph of the cross-section of packaging films used for a retort pouch is
shown in Photo 2.1.
2.4 REFERENCES
1. Japan Packaging Institute, Packaging Handbook, p. 372, Japan Packaging Institute

(1995) (In Japanese).
2. Hirokuni Ono, Adhesion Technology, Vol. 26, No. 3, p. 3, The Adhesion Society of
Japan (2006) (In Japanese).
CHAPTER 3
Heat sealing takes place when a sealant is heated to its melting temper-
ature and then immediately cooled to room temperature. The heat jaw
method of heat sealing involves heating a block to a specified tempera-
ture and applying it to a film for a set period of time. As a result, the seal-
ant expands due to the heat conducted from the heat block. The heating
method and temperature of the melting surface using a pair of heating
blocks are schematically shown in Figure 3.1. This chapter describes
methods for measuring the temperature at the melting surface.
3.1 ASPECTS OF THE RESPONSES OF THE MELTING

SURFACE TEMPERATURE DURING HEAT SEALING
3.1.1 Fundamentals of Heating Temperature and the

Temperature Response of the Melting Surface
The temperature in the middle of a heated material can be regarded as a

step response of a first-order linear time-invariant equation. Assuming
that the melting surface is in the middle of heat-sealed films, the tempera-
ture of the heating block (Ti), the temperature of the melting surface (Tn),
the time (t), and the thermal property (k) of the heated material are corre-
lated as:
Tn = Ti (1 - e-t/k) (3.1)
In this equation, the heating rate of the melting surface is determined

21
22 THE FUNDAMENTALS OF HEATING FOR HEAT SEALING
FIGURE 3.1 Response model of heating by heat jaw and temperature change of melting
surface.
from the difference between Ti and the original temperature of the heated
material, as well as k.
A material’s thermal property (k) is dependent on: (1) its heat capac-
ity/thermal conductivity, (2) the contact heat resistance at the material/
heating block interface, and (3) the heat supply capacity of the heating
block.
The cooling rate after heating can be determined by measuring the
amount of radiation from the heated surface to the atmosphere. When a
metal block at room temperature is placed into the heated area, the heated
area can be cooled more rapidly than the rate at which it was heated. (The
actual experimental data are shown in Figure 9.15).
3.1.2 The Relation between Heating Temperature Changes

and the Temperature Response of the Melting Surface
The temperature of the melting surface is controlled by temperature

changes within the heating block. Changes in the temperature response
of the melting surface as linked to different temperatures are shown in
Figure 3.2. Here, the target temperature is denoted as Ts. When the heat-
ing temperature is increased from (Ts + 1–2°C) to the minimum tempera-
ture required for heat sealing (TL) and a standard temperature (TH), the
time to reach Ts is shortened from ts to tL and tH, respectively. Although
the time to reach Ts is shortened when the temperature increases, the ratio
(of the temperature of the melting surface)/(heating time) also increases.
This leads to a need for greater precision in monitoring time as it relates
to moving the heating block.
For heating at higher temperatures, the temperature difference be-
tween the heating block surface and the melting surface will be more
than 10°C, which can result in thermal degradation. Care must be taken
Aspects of the Responses of the Melting Surface Temperature 23
to avoid thermal degradation. A higher temperature difference of this

type is more noticeable in thicker films.
When the material type and the film thickness are fixed, Equation (3.1)
is a function of t, and the relation between the heating temperature and
the temperature of the melting surface is a simple exponential function
with the coefficient of (Ti/Tn). Using this relation, it is possible to simu-
late temperature responses for arbitrary temperatures after obtaining just
one experimental datum at any given temperature (see Section [9.4]).
3.1.3 Relation between Film Thickness and the Temperature

Response Change of the Melting Surface
When the heating temperature is constant and the film thickness is in-
creased, the temperature response at the melting surface is also changed.
When a single type of film material is used, the thermal conduction to the
melting surface is delayed as the film thickness increases. Hence, the
temperature response at the melting surface is also delayed, and it takes a
longer time to reach the correct temperature. Conversely, thinner films
result in a faster response. This correlation is shown in Figure 3.3. If the
TH is lower than the temperature causing thermal degradation, any length
of heating time can be selected, once the temperature reaches Ts. Here, as
mentioned in the previous section, it is important to keep in mind that the
temperature difference between the film surface and the melting surface
FIGURE 3.2 Response model of temperature change of melting surface with a parame-
ter of heating temperature.
FIGURE 3.3 Response model of temperature change of the melting surface as related to
film thickness.
is larger, especially when a higher Ts is used to increase the processing

speed. As a result, the following points are important:
1. The temperature response of the melting surface is dependent on
the heating temperature and on the thermal property of the materi-
als.
2. The temperature difference between the film surface and the melt-
ing surface is dependent on the fact that each polymer film has a dif-
ferent thermal resistance and heat capacity. These material
properties cannot be changed, no matter which heat seal process is
used.
3. Heating temperature and time need to be determined. Choosing
these will depend on the required temperature range and the rate of
heat conduction for any given polymer film.
3.2 STRATEGIES FOR EFFICIENT HEAT SEALING
3.2.1 Problems with Conventional Heat Sealing
The conventional heat seal methodology uses three elements: temper-

ature, time, and pressure.
Heat sealing is supposed to control the creation of intermolecular
bonding forces, and the main factor in heat sealing operations is tempera-
Strategies for Efficient Heat Sealing 25
ture control. To improve efficiency, it is necessary to control the tempera-

ture of the melting surface of the sealant. However, until now there has
been no general-purpose method for directly measuring the temperature
of the melting surface. As a result, the temperature of the heating block,
rather than the actual temperature of the melting surface of the films, is
what has been controlled. The quality of bonding by heat sealing is
judged by the tensile strength of 15–25 mm wide specimens from the
heat sealed region [JIS Z 0238, ASTM F88-00].
Pressure is necessary to reduce the gap between the films’surfaces and
to obtain intermolecular bonding. The appropriate pressure range mea-
sured by experiments has been found to be 0.08–0.2 MPa. A pressure less
than 0.08 MPa will cause a loss of thermal conduction, resulting in inse-
cure adhesion. A pressure greater than 0.2 MPa will force melted ther-
moplastic polymer from the heat sealing region and create “poly ball” (as
seen in Photo 7.2 and Figure 5.2).
3.2.2 Secure Heat Sealing by Means of a Confirmed

Melting Surface Temperature
Our analysis has shown that to obtain excellent adhesion by heat seal-
ing it is necessary to understand the temperature of the melt surface. Spe-
cifically, the following four conditions are crucial:
2. Confirmation of whether the melting surface reaches a temperature
required for welding.
3. The time it takes for the melting surface to reach the required weld-
ing temperature.
4. Being able to limit the temperature, so that it remains lower than the
temperature where thermal degradation occurs.
Practically, these four conditions need to be monitored using the pro-

cedure shown in Figure 3.4 after determining the melting temperature of
each material and its thermal degradation temperature. The numbers
having a grey background in Figure 3.4 are related to the four conditions
above. The smaller numbers after the hyphens designate three different
heating levels.
The temperature of the melting surface of condition number 1 (above)
will be determined based on tensile strength as shown by the different
failure modes for peel seal and tear seal heat sealing. The tensile strength
is ascertained from tensile testing conducted on the heat-sealed films.
The way to arrive at the appropriate melting temperature will be de-
scribed fully in Section [4.3.2] “Method for determining the thermal de-
naturation point from the melting surface temperature data."
The thermal degradation temperature, condition number 4 (above), is
decided based on the temperature at which the melted sealant protrudes,
either creating “polyball,” or where the seal itself tears due to a bubble in
the heat-sealed region. This qualitative analysis method is discussed in
Section [7.2] “Experimental technique for inspecting peel seal and tear
seal.”
It is necessary to conduct experiments to measure the actual tempera-
ture of the melting surface at high speed and great accuracy, in order to
determine conditions #3 and #4 (above). This can be ascertained using
the Measurement Method for the Temperature of the Melting Surface
(MTMS), which is presented in Chapter 4. The procedure for ascertain-
ing the optimum conditions can be explained using Figure 3.4. It is not
satisfactory to use heating procedure 4, denoted on Figure 3.4 as a line of
single dots, no matter how long it takes, since the heating temperature is
too low and does not reach a high enough melting temperature. [T1], [T2],
and [T3] in the y-axis represent the set-up temperatures of the heating
blocks. The responses of the melting surface to the three different set-up
temperatures are shown in curves “1,” “2,” and “3.” For set-up tempera-
FIGURE 3.4 Rationalized heat-sealing conditions.

ture [T1], the temperature of the melting surface is in the proper tempera-
ture range after time (3-1); any heating time range longer than the
minimum heating time will result in proper heat sealing.
For set-up temperature [T2], the proper temperature range for heat
sealing is between (3-2) and the intersection of response curve “2” and
temperature limit 4), which is the temperature needed to avoid thermal
degradation. For set-up temperature [T3], the proper temperature range
for the heat sealing is the narrow temperature range between (3-3) and
the intersection of response curve “3” and temperature limit (4), which
relates again to thermal degradation. The temperature of the film surface
attached to the heating block will reflect the response curve “3-2”, which
is compared to the response curve “3” of the melting surface. When the
speed of heat sealing becomes faster, the temperature difference between
the melting surface and the film surface attached to the heating block be-
comes larger. As a result, it is necessary to consider the temperature lim-
its not only for the melting surface but also for the film surface attached to
the heating block. Considering the large temperature difference at faster
processing speeds, the appropriate temperature range for heat sealing
will be narrower.
Once these fundamental data are analyzed in the laboratory, it will be
possible to design and quantitatively plan manufacturing facilities for
each distinct kind of thermoplastic packaging material.
3.3 FEATURES AND SELECTED APPLICATIONS

OF HEATING METHODS
3.3.1 Various Heating Methods
Obviously it is necessary to heat an adherend to the melting tempera-

ture to accomplish the heat seal process. The heating methods generally
used are summarized in Table 3.1. There are two distinct methods: one
involves a heat source attached to the adhered surfaces, and the other uti-
lizes electromagnetic radiation that generates heating without contacting
the sealant surfaces. Selection of either heating method depends on the
properties of the packaging materials and the finish required of the
completed package.
3.3.2 Features of Double-Sided Heating and

Single-Sided Heating
Either double-sided heating or single-sided heating can be used for

28
TABLE 3.1 Kind and Characteristics of Heat Sealing Technology.
Heating Surface
Principle of
Methods Double Single Heating Characteristics Used For
1. Heat bar 䊊䊊 Conduction from · Large heating capacity (Double) · Laminate film
contact surface · Influence of cradle temperature (Single) · Single layer film
2. Impulse (䊊) 䊊 Conduction from · Small heating capacity · Single layer film
contact surface · Narrow heat-sealed width · Lamination film (thin)
· Easy use
· Low cost
3. Hot air 䊊䊊 Burst of hot air · Direct heating for melting surface · Paper carton
· Small influence of heat conductance of · Tube
packaging material
4. Ultrasonic 䊊 Energy loss · Minimal influence of heat conductance · Thick single layer film
Spread division of packaging material
· Inappropriate for metallized layers
5. Induction 䊊 Joule heat of · Need for metallic layer · Metallic multi-layer film
conduction material · Heats only circular edge · Heating only circular edge
6. Electric field 䊊 (䊊) Flush of electric loss · Large influence of water content from · Paper multi-layer sheet
packaging material
7. Hot wire 䊊 Conduction from · Small heating capacity · Single layer film (thin)
contact surface by · Cutting together with sealing
heating wire
heat sealing. The method selected will depend on the following circum-
stances:
1. A limitation exists such that heat can be generated on one side only,
as in the case of ultrasonic waves, induction sealing, etc.
2. In single-layer films where the surface is melted first, it is necessary
to preserve one side as a solid (i.e., unmelted) substrate.
3. With laminate films, which are used for easier transport, the surface
is not melted, and the time required for heat sealing can be short-
ened by double-sided heating.
4. Double-sided heating is applied in order to stabilize the heating
process by eliminating the effects of the ambient temperature and
of any temperature changes within the non-heating block.
Figure 3.5 is a schematic drawing that displays the different features of
double-sided heating and single-sided heating as exemplified in the heat
jaw method. Figure 3.5(a) represents a model of double-sided heating.
The surface temperature of the melt is the same as room temperature,
shown by the dashed line. As soon as the heating blocks are attached, the
temperature distribution within the polymer films can be represented by
FIGURE 3.5 Heating flow model of heating block for heat sealing process.
a curved V-shape, as shown by the solid line. Since the two heat blocks
have the same temperature, the melting surface itself is the terminus of
thermal conduction. As a result, the temperature of the melting surface
can be determined from the temperature of the heating blocks and the
thermal conductivity of the films. Over time, the temperature distribution
in the film becomes more uniform and nearly reaches the same tempera-
ture as that found in the heating blocks. Once the heating temperature is
higher than the melting temperature of the film, the heated region of the
film becomes softened or liquid. In a single-layer film, the melted film
sticks to the heating block and may be damaged when the heating block
is removed from the film. Therefore, double-side heating cannot be used
for heat sealing a single-layer film. Double-sided heating is more appro-
priate for laminate films consisting of a polymeric sealant layer and a
solid surface layer with a melting temperature higher than that of the
sealant layer.
Figure 3.5(b) illustrates the heat flow model for single-sided heating.
The single-sided heating system consists of a heating block and a
non-heated receiving block, which is assumed to be at room temperature.
Heat flow is determined by the temperature difference between the heat-
ing block and the receiving block. That is, the heat flows in one direction:
from the heating unit to the receiving block. Since the welding surface
represents one element in the heat flow rate, the temperature at the weld-
ing surface can be determined from the temperature of the receiving
block. In a single-sided heating system, when heating stops at the mo-
ment the temperature of the welding surface reaches the melting temper-
ature, the film on the receiving block does not become liquefied, and
indeed the rigidity of the film is maintained. It is easier to handle sin-
gle-layer films for welding with a single-sided heating system, since
both polymer films are not liquefied. On the other hand, the heating
speed of the single-sided heating system is slower than that of the dou-
ble-sided, because the polymer films are heated from only one side. That
is, the heat supply to the welding surface is one half of that provided by
the double-side heating system. It should be noted that the thermal dete-
rioration on the heated side of the film will increase if an attempt is made
to offset a lessened processing speed by increasing the heating
temperature.
3.3.3 Features of Various Heating Methods
The heating methods for heat sealing, the structure of the process ma-
chinery, as well as the properties of the different heating methods sum-
marized in Table 3.1, are explained in the following section.
3.3.3.1 Heat Jaws Heating
The heat jaw method is the most popular heat sealing process. As
shown in Figure 3.6, the heat jaw system is based on a heating block,
which has a built-in heat source and temperature sensor. In order to keep
the temperature distribution of the heating block at sufficiently low lev-
els, a heating tube is also installed between the heat source and the sur-
face of the heating block. The distribution of the surface temperature can
be suppressed to approximately 0.2°C by inserting the heating tube.
The temperature sensor is located adjacent to the heating source to pre-
vent overheating and to reduce fluctuation between the actual and set
temperature. The sensor continually monitors the actual temperature.
Since the temperature sensor is located in the middle of the heating
block, the surface temperature of different areas of the heating block can
vary, depending on their proximity to the sensor. This can cause a delay
in detection and subsequent temperature adjustment. The reaction of the
adjustment operation can also be delayed simply as a result of changes in
the surface temperature itself. Fluctuation of the adjustment temperature
can be controlled by applying operations of “Proportion”, “Differentia-
tion”, and “Integration.” Although the surface temperature is lower than
the set temperature by several degrees C due to heat emission from the
surface of the heating block as well as the heat outflow to the sealed
films, the surface temperature of the heating block can be adjusted more
precisely by placing the temperature sensor near the surface. This allows
one to adjust the difference between the set value and the actual
temperature [1]. The precise technique for determining the surface
temperature is described in Section [9.3].
The height of the heating side of the heat jaw is designed based on the
width of the section of the product that is being heat sealed. The length of
FIGURE 3.6 Constitution and movement of heating block.

the heat jaw can be set using the width of the product being heat sealed. A
rule of thumb is to make the heat jaw more than 1.3 times longer than the
width of the heat-sealed products, which is done to take into account the
temperatures fluctuations at both ends.
The heating capacity of the heat source can be determined from the fol-
lowing equation:
(Necessary joule value) =

(absorbed joule value/piece) × (the number of operations per unit time)/
(loss of heat generation and heat conduction)
where:
(absorbed joule value/piece) =

(heat capacity/unit area) × heated area
Heat jaws are integrated directly into production machinery and are
automatically operated. The modification of the melting surface during
operation is shown in Figure 3.1.
3.3.3.2 Impulse Heating
An impulse heating system consists of a resistance wire with a width of

2–5 mm and thickness of 0.1–0.15 mm covered with a Teflon coating,
and a non-heating press bar. This device first clamps the films to be
heat-sealed and heats these by applying an impulse current at 20–50 Å
for a short time (i.e., 0.2–3.0 sec), and then cools the heated area using
pressure for several seconds, after the current is stopped. Figure 3.7(a)
provides a sketch of the impulse heating system. To ensure rapid cooling,
the heat source of the impulse system is made very thin, which expedites
reducing the thermal output of the heating source. Since the joule value is
expressed as the product of temperature multiplied by time, it is neces-
sary to raise the temperature of the heating source for heating in a very
short time. As noted above, the resistance wire is coated with Teflon of
0.1–0.2 mm thickness to help adjust the heat flow rate. In general, the
current into the resistance wire is set as constant, and the amount of heat-
ing can be changed by adjusting the energizing time in the resistance
wire. That is, the heat generation temperature rises as the energizing time
becomes longer. Figure 3.7(b) illustrates the temperature change be-
tween the melting surface of the impulse sealant layers and that between
the impulse sealant surface and the Teflon cover. The energizing times in
this figure are 0.4 sec (1) and 0.75 sec (2). The surface temperature of the
FIGURE 3.7 Schematic diagram of impulse heat sealing.
impulse sealant, adjacent to the Teflon cover, was measured by a temper-

ature sensor inserted between the Teflon cover and the impulse sealant,
whereas the temperature of the melting surface was measured by a sensor
inserted between the two impulse sealant films. The temperature re-
sponse on both the surface of the Teflon cover and the melting surface of
the impulse sealant shown in Figure 3.7(b) was similar to that in the heat
jaw method. The discrepancy between reaching the temperature peak on
the melting surface and the surface temperature on the Teflon cover is
due to heat transmission from the impulse sealant material. In the exam-
ple of heating with a 0.4 sec energizing time, the temperature on the Tef-
lon cover reached 135°C when the temperature of the melting surface
reached a maximum of 92.5°C. Similarly, where heating was done with a
0.75 sec energizing time, the temperature on the Teflon cover reached
198°C when the temperature of the melting surface reached 145°C. Tem-
perature differences were thus 43°C and 53°C for the 0.4 sec and 0.75 en-
ergizing times, respectively. In this situation, the surface of the impulse
sealant became overheated and caused thermal degradation. Since the
applied current was excessive and the heat supply in the material was too
strong, it became necessary to adjust the current to a lower value and to
make the impulse sealing time longer. Since the impulse sealant is cooled
by applying pressure, it is necessary to use a heating wire of less than
5mm diameter with a relatively small thermal capacity, especially when
the heat sealing operation must be rapidly repeated. When the width of
the heat sealed region is mm, it is necessary to select the temperature
range of the tear seal. This is because the peeling energy of the peel seal is
smaller than the tearing energy of the tear seal. (See Section [8.1.5]).
3.3.3.3 Hot Air Blast Heating
When heat sealing is applied to thick materials, such as milk cartons

and tubular containers, longer times are needed to complete the heat seal-
ing process via heat conduction from a material’s surface. This causes
poor productivity. In cases such as these, the sealant materials are heated
by air blast to a high temperature. Such a hot air blast can be in the
400–500°C range and is produced by drawing compressed air through a
heated radiator. The hot blast is jetted from slits or pinholes to the surface
of the heat sealant. Afterwards, the sealed portion is promptly pressed by
cooling jaws to complete the sealing process. Figure 3.8 shows an exam-
ple of heat sealing applied to tubular containers. Non-uniform heating
can easily occur in the hot air blasting method. Consequently, tubular
containers are rotated to ensure that the heating temperature remains
uniform.
3.3.3.4 Ultrasonic Heating
When an ultrasonic wave is applied to materials, the wave velocity var-

ies depending on the mass of the material. Heat is generated as a result of
nonuniform vibrations stemming from the waves reflected at the inter-
face of two different materials. This leads to an energy loss, which occurs
when materials of different mass are adhered together and an ultrasonic
wave is applied perpendicularly to the interface. Ultrasonic sealing takes
FIGURE 3.8 Heat sealing for tubular container using hot air blast heating.
advantage of this heat generation phenomenon. An ultrasonic wave seal

machine uses piezomagnetic and piezoelectric elements that are de-
formed by magnetic and electric fields. The power of the vibration ele-
ment is focused by an ultrasonic horn, and the sealant is heated and
pressed for bonding. Figure 3.9 depicts the components of the ultrasonic
sealing system and displays instances of differences among the heated
layers, which is traceable to the use of different materials. Heat genera-
tion in an ultrasonic sealant is not found inside the materials but on the at-
tached surface of two different materials possessing different densities.
Additionally, energy transmission is weakened because of the gap in the
attached surface of the two materials. As a result, it is necessary both to
apply ultrasonic energy and also to add pressure in order to securely join
two films. The heat generation of different film layers is illustrated in
Figure 3.9(b). When single-layer films are used, it is comparatively easy
to achieve sealing, simply because there are fewer layers generating heat.
On the other hand, with laminate materials, there are a number of layer
interfaces, and the interfaces closer to the ultrasonic horn are heated
more. As a result, with multilayer films it is more difficult to generate the
necessary heat on the targeted sealing surface. Additionally, when lami-
nate film contains metallic layers, such as aluminum, most of the

ultrasonic wave is reflected by the metallic layer. Therefore, it is almost
impossible to seal the reverse side of a metallic layer using the ultrasonic
heating method.
3.3.3.5 Induction Current Heating
The mechanism of the induction sealing method begins when an AC

magnetic field is radiated to a metallic layer. An induced current is gener-
ated in the metallic layer, and in turn the sealant layer adjacent to the me-
tallic layer is heated by the Joule heat generated from the induced
current.
This is a relatively old technique and was used for the inner seal of bot-
tle mouths. Induction current heating was not widely used for heat seal-
ing because of difficulties in materials design and the adjustment of
machines. In recent years, however, there has been an increased demand
for safety and security in heat-sealing. Tamper prevention and detection
have drawn renewed attention to the induction current method, because
the method provides a more secure seal, given that the sealant is attached
with a bottle cap and then is cut without any contact. The induction cur-
rent heating method also has the distinction of being able to take advan-
tage of an electrical phenomenon where only a circular outer edge needs
to be heated. To produce induction current heat sealing, an AC current of
20–30 kHz is applied to a coil to create a magnetic field. The sealing ma-
FIGURE 3.9 Components and heated layers of ultrasonic heating.

FIGURE 3.10 Components and mechanism of induction current heating.
terial is then passed through this magnetic field for a specified time in the
direction of the heat sealant. This is illustrated in Figure 3.10(a).
When the magnetic field acts vertically on the metallic thin layer, an
eddy current for each magnetic force line is generated on the metallic
thin layer. (The drawing of the eddy current in Figure 3.10(b) is enlarged
and out of scale.) Since the value of each eddy current is the same, while
the spin direction of each is opposite from the eddy current nearest to it,
the eddy currents repel one another. As a result, no current is generated
inside the circle. However, a current is generated at the circle’s circum-
ference, since the offsetting repulsion of the eddies is not manifest on the
outer edge. Because current is transmitted only at the circumference, this
method enables heat sealing to occur at the rounded mouth of containers.
As noted above, Figure 3.10(b) is a schematic drawing explaining this
phenomenon. Figure 3.10(a) depicts the inner sealing of a bottle using
the induction current heat-sealing method. An aluminum layer is often
used as a metallic foil to generate heat. The heat sealant is applied on the
aluminum layer in advance. This inner seal needs to remain over the con-
tainer’s mouth, so that when the container is opened by the end user, the
unbroken seal will show the consumer that the opening has not been tam-
pered with. Since the consumer needs to remove this inner seal, it is in-
stalled on the packing material of the cap with a light bonding (soft
lamination). The cap can be used for re-sealing after the bottle is opened.
The inner seal material is added only after the bottle is filled and the cap
is tightened. At this point, the bottle’s closure goes through the induction
seal machine to complete the heat-sealing process. Figure 3.11 shows the
temperature behavior measured by an MTMS sensor inserted between
the surface of a bottle’s opening area and the welding side of the heat
sealant.
Excitation time is one parameter that can be used to control the heating
temperature during the operation. Since induction current heat-sealing is
a method for heating the rounded lip of containers, its application is lim-
ited mainly to sealing bottle, jar, and cup mouths.
The conditions for attaining superior induction sealing are as follows:
1. The magnetic flux density that the sealed film receives. This in-
cludes excitation power, convergence of the magnetic flux, and the
distance between the excitation coil and the heat sealant.
2. Excitation time. This denotes the time the product passes through
the excitation zone, as well as the operation time of the excitation
device.
FIGURE 3.11 Melting Surface Temperature response of Induction Seal by “MTMS”.

3. Heating capability. Heating capability depends on electrical resis-

tance and the thickness of any metallic layers.
4. Heat capacity of the heat sealant. Heat capacity is related to the
thickness and thermophysical properties of the heat sealant.
5. Heat capacity of the sealed materials. The sealed materials are nor-
mally glass and thermoplastic polymers.
In the induction current method, over-excitation will lead to extreme
overheating, which can cause melting not only of the polymer films but
also of the metallic layers. The result is huge holes and thus fatal defects
in the finished products.
3.3.3.6 Electrical Field Loss Heating
In electrical field loss heating, a high-frequency current is generated

between two electrodes. The films are placed between two electrodes
whose surfaces are covered with an insulator, and then high-frequency
voltage is applied. In the current are a phase that is 90 degrees different
from, and one that is the same as, the phase within the voltage. Heat is
generated when phases are the same in the high-frequency current. The
ratio of the same phase is expressed as dielectric loss (tan d). Dielectric
loss is also correlated with the degree of insulation (polarization) of ma-
terials. The dielectric loss (tan d) of the insulator surrounding the con-
ductor is: 0 and ¥, respectively. The dielectric loss must satisfy: tan d
>10-2 [2], in order for enough heat to be generated for heat sealing. PVC,
cellulose, and paper are examples of single-layer films used in electrical
field loss heat sealing. Electric field loss heating is a method of heat seal-
ing that utilizes moisture in the sealing materials. Figure 3.12 illustrates
the electric field loss heating method and explains how it generates heat.
Although the mechanical structure of the electric field heating method is
similar to the heat jaw method, heat is generated inside the films, with the
exception of an insulating heat sealant. Since the caloric value depends
on the amount of moisture within the heated materials, both moisture
content and its location influence the uniformity of heating and its
reproducibility. With this method it is difficult to increase the tempera-
ture to more than 100°C because of moisture evaporation, unless the
heating is pressurized to a pressure greater than the pressure correspond-
ing to steam at the boiling temperature (approximately 0.8 MPa maxi-
mum). To withstand such high pressure the electrode components must
be strong. (See Section [10.5], volatile elements and foam control.) Elec-
tric field loss heating can be applied only to relatively small areas. Uni-
FIGURE 3.12 Components and heated layers of electric field loss heating.
form heating of larger surfaces is difficult, due to the significant

influence of variable moisture spots on electrical field distribution.
3.3.3.7 Hot Wire Heating
As its heating device, the general-purpose hot wire method uses a re-
sistance wire with a 0.2–0.5 mm diameter, which is similar to the heating
bar utilized by the impulse seal method. Although the heating device is
similar, the operation is different. In hot wire heating, a pulsed current is
applied to the resistance wire to heat it to 400–500°C, and then the films
are melted and cut. This is a method that both welds and cuts films by
conducting heat. It is a convenient method because bonding and cutting
can be done at the same time with one simple method. The heating time is
extremely short, since the welding and cutting are done almost simulta-
neously at the contact speed of the heating wire.
While the heating wire moves together with the melting films, almost
no compressive force is applied on the welding surface. The operation of
this process is shown in Figure 3.13. As seen in a magnified drawing, the
welding surface is not heated directly by the hot wire. Rather heat is cre-
ated by a “melt mass,” which is the heating source. Although the welding
surface is extremely narrow, the hot wire method creates the welding,
which contains the tear seal and the peel seal consecutively. As a result,
neither polyball or damage at the welding edge occurs, either of which
can cause heat sealing failure. For these reasons, the hot wire method is
able to produce secure sealing with single-layer films. A high-speed sys-
tem, used to manufacture grocery shopping bags, presses the heating
wire, which is constantly charged with an electric current, to the films
and heats the films under tensile loading.
FIGURE 3.13 Components of hot wire heating (bonding and cutting) and its processing
procedure.
The strengths of the heat-sealed polyethylene films processed by hot

wire heating, impulse heating, as well as the recent “Compo Seal”
(which creates a mixture of peel seal and tear seal) [3] are compared in
Figure 3.14. The application of hot wire heating using high temperatures
(which cause thermal degradation) resulted in the same heat-seal
strength as the tensile strength of the film itself and the impulse-seal
strength of seal possessing a 5 mm sealing width.
FIGURE 3.14 Evaluation of heat-sealing characteristics processed by hot wire.

The tensile testing result of the heat sealed film made by “Compo
Seal,” which creates an inner peel seal as well as an outer tear seal within
a 10 mm heat-sealing width, is also shown in Figure 3.14 for reference.
Considering that the load showing the beginning of elongation for the
hot-wire-sealed films almost agrees with the load for the Compo-sealed
films with a 1.4–1.6 mm displacement, it can be determined that hot wire
heating can create a heat-sealed film with a strength equivalent to the
strength of film itself, although the heat sealing wire is less than 1 mm in
diameter.
3.4 PROBLEMS WITH CONVENTIONAL EVALUATION

METHODS FOR HEAT SEALING
This section compares United States and Japanese standards pertain-

ing to heat sealing and discusses the terms and problems of both. JIS and
ASTM standards are explained in terms of experimental techniques,
analysis, and evaluation methodology.
3.4.1 Analysis and Evaluation Methods of ASTM Standards
The ASTM standard related to evaluation of, and analysis methods

for, heat sealing is: F 88: Test Method for Seal Strength of Flexible Bar-
rier Materials. Other related ASTM standards are: D 882, D 903, D 996,
D 1898, D 3078, D 4169, E 171, E 515, F 88, F 1140, F 1585, F 1608,
F 1886, F 1921, and F 2054.
3.4.2 Analysis and Evaluation Methods of JIS Standards
In Japan, the JIS Z 0238 standard entitled “Experimental evaluation

methods for heat-sealed packages” is widely accepted, and other related
standards are also set based on the Z 0238 standard.
The other related JIS standards are:
Z 1702: Polyethylene films for packaging
Z 1707: Thermoplastic films for food packaging
Z 1711: Thermoplastic packaging bags made of polyethylene films
3.4.3 Differences between JIS and ASTM Methods
The ASTM and JIS standards are not compatible, although there is a
similarity between them. The JIS Z 0238 standard is an integrated stan-
Problems with Conventional Evaluation Methods for Heat Sealing 43
dard for heat sealing, which itself includes provisions from the ASTM
standards. Differences between the two are compared as follows, based
on the JIS Z 0238 standard.
Passages from the JIS Z 0238 standard entitled “Experimental evalua-
tion methods for heat-sealed packages” published in 1998 are correlated
below with similar sections from various ASTM standards:
1. Coverage
2. Reference standards
3. Definition
a. Heat-sealed flexible packaging bags
b. Heat-sealed quasi-rigid containers
c. Strength of the heat-seal
d. Resistance against explosion
e. Resistance against dropping
f. Anti-pressure strength
g. Leakage and others
4. Experimental
a. Heat sealing tests of packaging bags [ASTM F88-00]
b. Resistance test against explosion [N/A for ASTM]
c. Resistance test against dropping [ASTM D 4169]
d. Anti-pressure test [ASTM F2054-00]
e. Leakage test [ASTM D 3078]
5. Experimental conditions
6. Specimen preparation
7. Strength test for heat-sealed packaging bags [ASTM F88-00]
7.1 Experimental apparatus
7.2 Samples
7.3 Operations
Note: A table summarizing examples of various strength values as
related to different packaging applications is presented.
8. Resistance test against explosion of containers [N/A for ASTM]
9. Resistance test against drop [ASTM D 4169]
10. Anti-pressure test [ASTM F2054-00]
11. Leakage test [ASTM D 3078]
12. Method to round experimental values
13. Report
3.4.4 Features of Analysis and Evaluation in

JIS and ASTM Standards
This section summarizes properties of heat sealing that are analyzed

and evaluated in terms of sections found in the JIS standards. Problems
associated with the standardized evaluations are outlined.
1. Although heat sealing is conducted by controlling thermophysical

phenomena, the heating/sealing temperature is not listed as a pa-
rameter within the evaluation procedure.
2. Experiments based on the standard provide macroscopic results for
heat-sealed films that are relatively wide. The experimental results
are based on the fundamental properties of each individual film it-
self. For this reason, the experimental results cannot uncover the
causes of pinholes and tears, so that actual shipping and distribution
problems will not be reflected in the experiments. A causal analysis
of such problems is presented below in Chapter 6 under the heading
the Angle Method.
JIS Z 0238 standard, Section [7.2]: 15 mm
ASTM F88-00 standard, Section [9.2]: 25.0 mm, 15 mm, or 1 inch
3. As shown in Figure 3.15, test specimens are long, and loading is ap-
plied perpendicularly to the heat-sealed portion of the specimens.
As a result, the welding/sealing strength of the actual heat-seal is
FIGURE 3.15 Specimen dimensions of heat sealing sample for tensile testing in ASTM
and JIS standards.
FIGURE 3.16 Sampling portions for the tensile test by JIS.
not measured by this experiment. Rather the strength and elonga-

tion of the original film are measured.
JIS Z 0238 standard, Section [7.2]: 100 mm or more
ASTM F88-00 standard, Section [9.2]: 152 mm (6 inches)
4. Because of the sampling locations, set as shown in Figure 3.16, to
measure the performance of the heat-sealed packaging materials
with minimal errors, neither the corner of the heat-sealed packag-
ing bag, where more problems can occur, or the seams, are properly
evaluated.
JIS: JIS Z 0238 standard, Section [7.2]
ASTM: F88-00 standard, Section [6.2]
5. In the stress-strain diagram shown in Figure 3.17, strength is de-
fined as the maximum stress value. Other useful information from
the stress-strain curve is not used. Failure in the packaging materi-
als happens on a scale of less than 1 mm. One problem in measuring
strength based on this standard alone is not taking into account a
broader understanding of the failure modes (peel seal or tear seal).
JIS Z 0238 standard, Section [7.3]: Strength as the maximum value
ASTM F88-00 standard, Section [8.8.1]: Average value after reach-
ing plateau.
Failure modes following tensile testing are described in Section

[10.1.14] of the ASTM F88-00 standard. However, no details are pro-
vided about the mechanisms of the different failure modes. There is a
recommendation to describe the failure modes corresponding to each ac-
tual experiment. This may imply that having a standardized method to
understand the causes of the different failure modes is desirable.
A table summarizing the causes and effects of failure modes can be
found below in Section [10.6].
3.4.5 Inadequacies of the JIS and ASTM Test Methods
1. There is a poor qualitative relation between tensile strength and

heat-sealing temperature.
2. The testing utilizes relatively wide specimens for averaging
strength value.
3. Fundamental properties of film materials are not taken into ac-
count: including adhesion strength, temperature causing soften-
ing of thermoplastic polymers, melting point (Tm), and other
thermophysical properties.
4. Stress measurement of heat-sealed films is done with loading per-
pendicular to the heat-sealed line.
6. Problem spots, e.g., corners, are excluded from test monitoring.
FIGURE 3.17 Observation point of the tension pattern.

FIGURE 3.18 Mechanism of the generation of peeling stress of heat sealing.
7. Only a limited determination can be made as to whether the failure

mode was tear seal or not.
8. The analysis is biased towards tear seal/cohesive bonding as the
most appropriate case of adhesion.
9. Difficulties are not considered in detecting thermal degradation
due to overheating.
10. No monitoring is done of the conditions leading to pinholes and
tears.
11. No investigation is made into polyball generation.
3.4.6 Types of Excessive Forces that can Lead to Failure in

Heat Sealed Packaging
Heat-sealing problems are generated by the combination of (1)

good/poor bonding and (2) excess applied load. In general, heat-sealed
packages fail when excess stress is applied perpendicularly to the
heat-sealed line. The mechanism of this failure in a heat-sealed packag-
ing pouch is shown in Figure 3.18.
The causes of excess stress on the heat seal are summarized as follows:
1. Stress increases as a result of increased internal pressure in the
package.
2. Internal pressure does not increase in vacuum pouches.
3. Impact tensile stress occurs inside packages when they are
dropped.
4. Solid products inside packaging function as a buffer against exter-
nal compressive stress.
5. Portion packs function as a buffer against external compressive

stress.
6. A faulty method leads to determining the wrong heat-seal strength.
This can happen with any type of packaging.
4.1 REFERENCES
1. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP patent application; 2006-146723 (2006) (In Japanese).

2. Osswald/Menges, Kunihiko Takeda Ed., p. 382, Sigma Shuppan (1997) (In Japa-
nese).
3. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP patent application; 2007-26377 (2007) (In Japanese).
CHAPTER 4
Heat sealing, as applied to polymer bags and container sealing,

achieves molecular level bonding with a simple technique. It can be used
to create airtight closures and to prevent all bacterial incursions. In addi-
tion, because thermoplastic properties tend to remain stable under simi-
lar conditions, sealing reliability with heat sealing is high and can be
expected to remain so, as long as the heat-sealing temperature is quanti-
tatively monitored and controlled. This chapter explains the basics of
heat sealing operations and connects them to variables that must be
controlled.
4.1 MELTING SURFACE TEMPERATURE

AS THE FUNDAMENTAL CONTROL FACTOR
IN HEAT SEALING
4.1.1 Problems with Conventional Thermal Control
It is widely known that temperature, time, and pressure are the critical
control elements for heat sealing. Temperature regulation as a main con-
trol element refers to the “melting temperature” of the sealant materials
[1]. However, for several decades, adjusting the temperature value of the
heating block (the heating source) has been used throughout the world to
manage the heat sealing process. Verification of sealing is done empiri-
cally by correlating mechanical testing of the seals with changes in the
heating temperature and processing speed and by observing failure
modes [2,3].
49
50 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT SEALING OPERATION
There are a number of problems with this methodology:

1. It is difficult to establish temperatures that consistently lead to the
most desired performances of the polymeric materials.
2. It is difficult to assess required and expected sealing performance.
3. It is necessary to spend large amounts of time and materials to de-
termine and confirm the optimal processing conditions.
4. Purer and thicker materials have to be used to obtain better yield
and assured sealing results at higher costs.
5. There is no established theory that can satisfy the requirement of
HACCP’s “defense against mischief” (deliberate tampering).
With regard to manufacturing, the methodology also presents problems:
1. Manufacturing operations need to be halted for lengthy periods
while fabrication parameters are established for each product on a
trial-and-error basis.
2. Large amounts of test material must be used over thousands of trials
to obtain adequate data for statistical evaluation.
3. The evaluation itself is expensive in terms of manpower and wages.
4. Since the melting temperature is not directly controlled, the heating
temperature tends to be set higher, which often causes thermal deg-
radation at the heat-sealed portion of the packaging materials.
5. The method pays minimal attention to thermal degradation of the
sealant layer in laminates (polyball and foam).
6. In contrast to easy peel, it is difficult to control peel seal conditions
without being able to adjust the heat-sealing temperature with high
precision.
7. Since operating conditions can be adjusted using only temperature
settings and processing speeds, it is impossible to show customers
the exact operating conditions that guarantee an airtight seal.
8. Because there is no way of quantitatively controlling heating, there
is no assured quality control for the heat seal itself.
9. Because exact specifications for the conditions of heat sealing are
lacking, the design and fabrication of heat sealing ancillary prod-
ucts cannot be carried out. However, these are needed to design
heat-sealing devices suitable for manufacturing.
In order to solve such problems, it is necessary to directly measure the
melting temperature, which is in turn directly related to the process con-
ditions for heat-sealing.
Measuring Method for Temperature of Melting Surface: The “MTMS” 51
4.1.2 The Need for Information about the Melting

Surface Temperature
A key for the heat-sealing process is to be able with certainty to raise

the temperature to more than the melting temperature of the sealant ma-
terials. Since there is no certain means to guarantee this temperature via
the conventional method, heat seal conditions have been determined in-
directly by adjusting the temperature of the heating block or by modify-
ing the electrical output and operation times in the cases of ultrasonic
heating and electromagnetic heating. Since it has not been possible to ad-
just the heating capacity within a range of proper heating temperatures,
heat sealing problems were “solved” by specifying that the heat-sealed
materials themselves have a wider temperature range for the heat-sealing
process [1].
It used to be difficult to gain accurate information about the melting
temperature as a parameter in the heat sealing process. Without this in-
formation, it was hard to identify peel seal and tear seal [4] and to identify
the causes of heat-sealing problems. A definite requirement is that tem-
perature must be controlled within a range of 5–10°C to obtain a secure
heat-seal. The heating rate can be 100–300°C/sec during the actual
heat-sealing operation. Given these processing conditions, when pres-
sure is applied, it is necessary to repeatedly adjust the temperature within
a range of 20°C to exactly 0.01 sec of press time.
4.2 MEASURING METHOD FOR TEMPERATURE OF

MELTING SURFACE: THE “MTMS”
This section introduces the Measuring Method for Temperature of the

Melting Surface (referred to in the following as “MTMS”), developed by
the author, in which a fine thermocouple is inserted into the melting sur-
face in order to measure and analyze changes in real-time temperature re-
sponse. All measurement data of the temperature of the melting surface
discussed in this book were obtained using the MTMS experimental sys-
tem1.
4.2.1 What is MTMS?
As noted above, in the heat jaw heating method, the temperature value
1The trademark for the Measuring Method of Temperature of the Melting Surface. “MTMS” [4–6]
has been registered in Japan as 4622606 (2002).
of the heating block is used as an operational parameter. MTMS metrol-

ogy is a generalizing technique that uses experimental data acquired in
the laboratory. The data allows one to correlate the temperature of the
melting surface with the temperature of the heating blocks in manufac-
turing facilities, without directly installing temperature sensors on the
manufacturing equipment.
Figure 4.1 is a schematic drawing showing the fundamentals of
MTMS and the differences between it and conventional procedures used
in the heat jaw method. The main feature of MTMS is that it directly
measures the temperatures on minute areas of the melting surface of
films and on the heating block. Figure 4.2(a) shows a model of MTMS
applied to the heat jaw method. Figure 4.2(b) represents a simulation
with an actual electric circuit. It displays all heat flows from both the
heating device and the heated film. [Figure 4.2(b) shows only one of the
two heat jaws.] As the figure indicates, the heat flow from the heating
block passes through other heat-conducting elements, which are influ-
enced by the surrounding temperature, before reaching the surface of the
element where heat could be adjusted and then finally reaching the sur-
face of the heated material itself. Given this fact, it is easy to understand
why it is difficult to keep the temperature of the melting surface constant
by adjusting the temperature of the heating blocks in the conventional
manner. Heat radiation from the heating block and heat conduction into
the structure supporting the heating blocks (turbulence) directly affect
the temperature of the melting surface. The influence of turbulence can
be neutralized, if the temperature of the melting surface itself, and not the
temperature adjusted for the heat-sealing device, is able to be controlled.
FIGURE 4.1 Comparison of MTMS and Conventional Method.

FIGURE 4.2 Simulation circuit for heat seal heating jaw.
It is possible to adjust the temperature of the melting surface and elimi-

nate the turbulence influences of heat radiation and heat conduction, if
the temperature is monitored and if any preset temperature value can be
immediately changed to reflect the correct temperature of the melting
surface. Of course, one can devise an automated temperature adjustment
system that would directly connect the measured temperature to a tem-
perature adjustment meter. One problem with such a device is that there
is a long delay, as well as radiated heat, that occur between the heating
source and the surface temperature. Consequently, it is likely that the
temperature cannot properly be adjusted due to such temperature fluctu-
ations and instability. In addition, the heating blocks become overheated
if there is any lengthy delay. Such overheating will cause the heating
device to fail. (Automated adjustment of the surface temperature of the

heating blocks in a production device can be improved by installing a
surface temperature adjustment system like that shown in Figure 9.7).
Although the contact between the covering materials and the heated
materials does influence thermal conduction, it can be treated as a ther-
mal resistance constant, regardless of the materials, as long as the applied
pressure is within the range of 0.1–0.2 MPa (see Section [6.3]). Since
various materials, such as Teflon sheets or woven glass fibers coated with
Teflon, are used as cover materials, gauging the effect of cover materials
requires more than a single simulation. However, the influence of the
cover materials can be reflected directly in the measurement data, if the
same cover materials used on the manufacturing device are used also on
the experimental device in the laboratory.
4.2.2 Fundamental Functions Necessary to the MTMS System
The following conditions are required for temperature measurement

of the melting surface, as this corresponds to temperature precision and
the heat conduction rates of materials.
1. The temperature measurement capacity must be for a very small
size, 10–50 mm.
2. Delay must be minimized—with no disturbance caused by inser-
tion of the temperature sensor.
3. Temperature detection must be extremely sensitive: (–0.1°C).
4. Measurement must take place at a high rate of speed: (< 10 m sec).
4.2.3 Constitutive Elements of and Specifications

for the MTMS System
1. Sensor Selection
The thermocouple can easily be integrated, since the structure of
a thermocouple is simply the contact point between two different
wire materials and is the temperature detection point. The applica-
bility of a thermocouple of chromel/alumel (CA; “K”) with diame-
ters of 13, 25, and 45 mm was examined.
2. Temperature Sensitivity
The “K”-type thermocouple has the capacity for a small tempera-
ture/voltage conversion ratio (–0.04 mV/°C). A temperature sensi-
tivity of at least 0.05°C is necessary to attain the resolution of 0.1°C
required for temperature analysis of the heat-sealing process. This
value can be converted to 2 mV (2 ´ 10-6 V) in voltage. As a result, a

stable DC amplifier with a sensitivity greater than 120 db is re-
quired.
3. Detection Speed
The rate of the temperature change of the melting surface is de-
pendent on the thermal conduction rate of the heat-sealed films, re-
gardless of the operating speed. Based on the actual operating
speed and the thickness of heat-sealed films, the temperature slope
is extremely steep, approximately 100–200°C/sec. In other words,
the time slope can be reverse calculated as approximately
0.005–0.01 sec/°C.
4. Digital Data Conversion
A highly sensitive and high-speed signal processing system is re-
quired in order to directly measure the temperature of the melting
surface. To process the digital data electronically, it is necessary to
convert the analog temperature signal using an A/D converter. The
conversion of at least four digits is required to obtain the resolution
of 0.1°C, considering that the temperature range is between room
temperature and 250°C. Consequently, 16 bits are needed in the
data processing of the BCD system.
5. Data Acquisition and Transmission
The MTMS is expected to acquire data not only about the tem-
perature of the melting surface but also other information such as
the thermal response characteristics of the sealant, as well as the
temperature distribution on the surface of the heating block. An ad-
ditional requirement is the capability to measure temperature at the
micron scale. As a result, it is necessary to be able to correct to at
least 200 data points (where the resolution is 0.5% of total data
points). It is obviously necessary to transmit measurement data to a
computer and store these automatically.
6. Data Processing Software
At least 200 data points need to be collected in one experimental
measurement. In order for the collected data to be useful, it is neces-
sary to be able to carry out calculations on the data, transfer the data
among separate computers and visualize the data graphically.
7. Heating Unit
The heat jaw method is discussed, where one portion of the heat-
ing unit is a pair of heating blocks that are stable and capable of be-
ing adjusted. A heat tube is installed in order to minimize
temperature distribution on the surface of the heating blocks. Sur-
face temperature sensors are installed to ascertain accurate temper-

ature values and to confirm any discrepancies between the targeted
and the actual temperatures. A high-resolution display meter is set
up for accurate evaluation.
A testing system, the MTMS kit, capable of carrying out the functions
mentioned above, has been able to achieve the following:
· Range of heating temperature: Room temperature to 220°C.
· Temperature accuracy: ± 1.5°C.
· Temperature resolution: 0.1°C (w/16 bit analog to digital
conversion).
· Method of adjusting temperature: On-Off PID, every 0.1°C.
· Response resolution: 2/1000 sec.
· Jaw operation: Manual and semi-automatic.
· Telecommunication capability (LAN): RS-232C (TCP/IP).
The actual constitution and assembly of the example discussed are
shown in Figure 4.3 and Photo 4.1, respectively. Photo 4.1(a), (b), and (c)
depicts, respectively, the entire MTMS kit, the piece used for manual
FIGURE 4.3 MTMS kit construction for testing of heat sealing.

PHOTO 4.1 Manual-type “MTMS” kit.
57
heating operation, and the sample after the experimental measurement of

the temperature of the melting surface was ended. The amount of the to-
tal test sample, processed with the MTMS kit, is quite small, as shown in
Photo 4.1.
4.2.4 High-Speed Response of MTMS System
A very refined sensor must be used to measure the temperature on a

micron-scale melting surface. The system developed here uses an un-
coated conducting wire to improve the response speed of the sensor and
to reduce the diameter of the conductor. The applied pressure of heat
sealing can lead to contact between the uncoated wire and the metal sur-
face of the heating block. This will result in short circuiting. Therefore,
the uncoated conducting wire is placed between 12 mm thick PET sheets
to measure the response speed. The experimental results of the response
speed using uncoated wires having three diameters, of 13, 25, and 45 mm
respectively, are shown in Figure 4.4.
Table 4.1 displays comparisons of a 95% response for various packag-
ing materials. The data for the 12 mm thick PET sheets were acquired
FIGURE 4.4 High-speed response capability of microsensor.

TABLE 4.1 Comparison of Temperature Responses of Melting Surface for

Various Materials (95% response).
Materials Size of Sensor 95% Response
(Thickness) (mm) (sec)
13 0.011
12 mm PET 25 0.012
35 0.036
25 0.016
25 mm Nylon
35 0.037
25 0.025
30 mm CPP
35 0.060
25 0.160
75 mm OPP/AI deposited
45 0.180
25 0.130
100 mm (Dried) paper
45 0.150
25 0.110
75 mm Teflon
45 0.130
from the data shown in Figure 4.4. Based on the response of 12 mm thick
PET sheets, it can be concluded that the response time of a sensor with 13
mm diameter is less than 11 m sec. The difference between the responses
of sensors with 25 mm and 13 mm diameters is only –1 millisecond.
Therefore, the delayed response of about 10 milliseconds can be seen as
the time needed for heat to be conducted through the 12 mm thick PET
sheets. The response of nylon material with a sensor 25 mm in diameter is
16 milliseconds. The delayed response can be calculated as 14 millisec-
onds, which is due to the nylon. In the same way, the delayed response of
a sensor with a 45 mm diameter can qualitatively be evaluated as –20 m
sec. From this it can be concluded that a sensor of 45 mm diameter can
practicably and satisfactorily be used with films that are more than 30 mm
thick. Also, it has been demonstrated that there are no problems in apply-
ing a sensor of 25–45 mm diameter to measure the temperature of a melt-
ing surface during heat sealing.
4.2.5 Measurement Examples of Heat Sealed Surface

Segments using the MTMS Kit
Figure 4.5 shows experimental responses to the temperature of a melt-

ing surface when the surface temperature of the heating block was
FIGURE 4.5 Measurements of the melting surface temperature as varied by surface

temperature of the heating block.
changed from 137 to –210°C approximately every 10°C. Measurements

were taken using the MTMS kit. In this figure, the horizontal line was
drawn at 120°C to reflect the target heating temperature. The heating
time can be correlated to the x-axis value of the intersection of each data
point and this horizontal line.
Using four separate sensors, sample temperature changes were con-
currently measured: (1) on the heating block, (2) between the first and the
outer Teflon layers, (3) between the first and second (melt) layers, and (4)
on the innermost layer, as shown in Figure 4.6. The optimal temperature
for the heating process is verified by measuring the temperature of the
melting surface on the separate multiple layers.
4.2.6 A Method for Detecting the “Optimal Heating Range”
A method for discovering the optimal temperature range for the heat-
ing process is presented, with a sample and experimental results, in Fig-
ure 4.6. Assuming that the minimum and maximum temperature values
of an appropriate melting temperature are 150 and 170°C, respectively,
the difference between the initial set-up temperature and the time a tem-
perature is attained in each layer is discussed in this section.
Case Study 1: An analysis based on how much time it takes for Line (4)
to reach 150°C.
Line (4) reaches 150°C in 1.56 sec. At this moment, the temperature of
Line (3) between the first and second layers is 168°C, while the tempera-
ture of Line (2), between the first and outer Teflon layers has already
reached 174°C, which is 24°C higher than the temperature of Line (4).
This temperature is also above the permissible maximum temperature.
For lines (2) and (3) the time required to reach 150°C is 0.52 sec and 0.96
sec, respectively.
FIGURE 4.6 An example of four-point simultaneous measurement by MTMS.

Case Study 2: An analysis based on how long it takes for Line (3) to
reach 150°C
Line (3) reaches 150°C in 0.96 sec. At this moment, the temperature
values of Lines (2) and (4) are 164°C and 133°C, respectively. In this
case, the temperature of Line (2) is still lower than the maximum tem-
perature allowed (170°C). At the same time, however, the temperature
of Line (4), measuring the innermost layers, does not reach the neces-
sary minimum temperature of 150°C, which leads to deficient heat-
ing.
When the heating time is lengthened, the temperature at each layer ap-
proximates the set temperature. Therefore, it is advisable to reduce the
set temperature from 190°C. To find the proper set temperature it is nec-
essary to bring the temperature of Line (4) to 150°C, while at the same
time making certain the temperature difference between Lines (2) and
(4) is less than 20°C. The proper heating time will be the same as the time
it takes for the temperature of Line (4) to reach150°C.
This method makes it possible to arrive at the proper heating parame-
ters for any sequence of layers, whether the heat-sealed films contain
only 2 layers or contain more than 6 layers. This is accomplished using a
“temperature-time matrix” based on experimental data. A methodology
of this type is fundamental for examining a temperature range for
optimum heating.
It should be added that temperature differences cannot be reduced by
focusing on heating time, since the heating time itself is determined by
the properties of the materials being heated.
4.3 MEASURING THE MELTING PROPERTIES OF EACH

FILM MATERIAL AND DETERMINING A LOWER-LIMIT
TEMPERATURE
To rationally establish all heat-sealing conditions it is necessary to

measure and confirm the following four points for each different film
material, using the parameters of temperature and time:
2. The point when the melting surface reaches a sufficient tempera-
ture.
3. The time it takes for the melting surface to reach a sufficient tem-
perature.
4. The thermal degradation temperature.
Measuring the Melting Properties of Each Film Material 63
A method for determining the temperature of the melting surface

(point 1 above) is described in the sections that follow.
4.3.1 Method to Detect the Proper Temperature

for Heat-Seal Strength
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is often used to analyze the

thermophysical properties of thermoplastics, including glass transition
temperature (Tg), crystallization temperature (Tc), and melting tempera-
ture (Tm). For the heat-sealing process, Tm is the most important polymer
property. As seen in Table 2.3, heat-sealed films already begin to show
strength values, even when heat-sealed at temperatures lower than the
melting temperature (Tm). However, setting the heat-sealing temperature
based on Tm causes overheating.
A methodology for determining the temperature that provides strength
in heat-seal films, based on data from melting temperature responses, is
presented in this section2.
The temperature of the melting surface rises exponentially when
films are heated by a heat jaw. This is recognized as the Heaviside step
function, which is shown in Figure 4.7. A heating temperature (Ti) can
be set that will heat films to whatever temperature range causes ther-
mal degeneration. The heat flow rate changes slightly at the thermal
inflection point, and this can be understood as a change in the temper-
ature of the melting surface. When the heating block is attached to a
heat-sealed sample, the slight change in the heat flow at the thermal
inflection point can scarcely be detected, due to the much higher joule
value being supplied from the heating block. The sample is placed be-
tween the films, which can be Teflon sheets having low thermal de-
generation and high thermal resistance, and then the heat flow is
adjusted to place the temperature difference between the surface and
the melting surface within 2°C. Figure 4.8 shows an example where
the heat flow is adjusted by using Teflon sheets. For instance, the tem-
perature difference for PE 80 mm thick is 1.4°C, when a 0.15 mm × 3
Teflon sheet is added.
2Two pans, one containing a polymer sample and the other a reference pan without any sample, are
placed on a pair of identically positioned platforms connected to a furnace by a common heat flow
path using differential scanning calorimetry. The temperature rises or falls in the furnace, and the
two separate pans are heated at the same rate. Temperatures for thermal degradation in heat sealing
are determined by measuring the heat flow temperature differences between the two pans.
The metrology of the thermal properties that the author proposes assumes that the heat flow being
conducted from the surfaces to the internal layers is the temperature change that is measured at each
temperature level. Consequently, it can be said that MTMS is a differential type analytical method,
whereas DSC is an integral type.
FIGURE 4.7 Step response of melting surface temperature.
4.3.2 Method for Determining the Thermal Denaturation Point

from MTMS Data [6]
Figure 4.7 shows the change in the temperature at the melting surface
when films are heated via the Heaviside step function.
The temperature response of the melting surface is expressed as:
Tn = Ti (1 - e-t/k) (4.1)
The curve of Equation (4.1) is shown in Figure 4.9. The first differen-
tial of Equation (4.1) is expressed as an asymptotic curve to 0 with posi-
tive numbers. The second differential of Equation (4.1) is expressed as an
asymptotic curve to 0 with negative numbers. No inflection point can be
defined in either of the asymptotic curves.
FIGURE 4.8 Example of heat flow control of heating.
65
FIGURE 4.9 Differentiation results of primary delay response.
The process for determining the inflection point of the temperature of

the melting surface using the differential operation is shown in Figure
4.10. Figure 4.10(a) is a sample curve of the temperature of the melting
surface showing 3 inflection points. According to 3 inflection points, P1,
P2, and P3, the constant value (1) is obtained between t = 0 and P1 by the
first differential. Since there is no temperature change between t = P1 and
P2, the value after the first differential is 0. The value after the first differ-
ential between t = P2 – P3 is the constant value (2). The value after the
first differential after t = P3 is the constant value (3). These constant val-
ues (1)–(3) represent the degree of thermal denaturation. In addition, the
degree of thermal denaturation can be compared using these constant
numbers. However, since the supplied joules cannot be quantified as with
DSC, the exact amount of degeneration is not determined by the differen-
tial operation. The first differential value changes when the slope of the
heating temperature changes. Since the inflection points can be shown as
positive or negative values after the first differential curve is further dif-
ferentiated, it is possible to find a temperature “point” that can be re-
garded as the thermal inflection point by overlooking the secondary
differential of heating.
In order to carry out the differential calculation of the collected data for
the temperature of the melting surface, an approximation differential is
calculated to understand the finite difference among the data gathered at
adjacent temperatures. The method for obtaining the approximation dif-
ferential is explained in Figure 4.11. Dt is the temperature difference be-
tween adjacent temperatures, where DT is the value of the finite
difference of the temperature of the melting surface. The objective is to
set Dt so that it results in a DT ranging from 0.5–1.0°C. The value of Dt
can be determined as the sampling time in the computer software for ac-
quiring data on the temperature of the melting surface. It is easy to calcu-
late the approximation differential using spreadsheet software, once the
data is input into a computer in digital form. Figure 4.12 shows an exam-
ple where the inflection points of polyethylene are analyzed. In this ex-
ample, Dt was set at 0.04 sec. An inflection point, after the secondary
differential, was obtained at 118°C. The films were heat-sealed in a range
of 110–150°C to observe different failure modes. The peel seal was ob-
tained in the range of 116–123°C, and the heat-sealed films were elon-
gated without failure at a range of 125–140°C. Heat-sealing at a
temperature greater than 145°C resulted in tearing along the heat-sealed
edge.
Time is a key parameter in the data of thermal degeneration, since this
calculation is carried out based on time. If the x- and y-axes are replaced
by the melting temperature and the differential value, respectively, it is
possible to obtain the data as a parameter of the temperature of the melt-
ing temperature. The reason for this is that changes in time and changes
in the melting temperature are correlated. Since a change in the melting
temperature is a response to heating as the Heaviside step function, the
FIGURE 4.10 Differential processing result for discontinuous points.

FIGURE 4.11 Approximate differential method for thermophysical analysis.
response of the temperature of the melting surface is first-order linear

time-invariant, and thus its graph, as shown in Figure 4.12, is curved, not
straight.
4.3.3 Case Studies Showing No Inflection Point
Remarkably, the inflection point appears even when a sealant material

has a thickness of more than 10 mm and is a crystalline polymer, such as
PE and CPP. For polymers having low crystallinity, and for heat sealants
thinner than laminates, as well as for co-polymers and biodegradable
polymers commingled with other polymer materials, no clear thermal
degeneration is detected, or the thermal degeneration temperature does
not match the temperature at which strength in the heat seal begins to de-
velop Even in this case, it is still possible to find the proper heat-sealing
condition, by using tensile testing, along with the temperature of the
melting surface as one parameter.
4.3.4 Relation Between Thermophysical Properties

and Heat Seal Strength
Figure 4.13 illustrates the analysis of a retort pouch available on the

market. The x-axis in this data is the temperature of the melting surface.
Tensile testing data, as well as DSC data of the heat-sealed sample in the
vicinity of the inflection point, are also shown in this figure. In the initial
segment of the data, where the heat seal strength (peel seal) begins to ap-
pear, the data were acquired in increments of 2.0°C, in order to examine
the peel seal in more detail. The numerical value of the DSC was modi-
fied to fit the scale in the same figure. In this figure, heat seal strength
started to appear at 140°C, and the maximum temperature for obtaining
the peel seal was 154°C. In the figure, a clear inflection point for the heat
seal strength is shown at 147 or 148°C. This result leads to an assumption
that a secondary component starting to show the heat seal strength at
147°C is mixed in the heat sealant. The initial temperature range to ob-
tain heat seal strength was approximately 140–147°C, and a strength of
at most 28N/15 mm was obtained. Where the second temperature range
was approximately 145–154°C, a maximum strength of 22N/15 mm was
obtained. The second inflection point for the thermal degeneration dur-
ing the second temperature range was detected at approximately 152°C.
The integration of the two different stages of bonding (or two different
FIGURE 4.12 An example of thermophysical analysis using MTMS.

FIGURE 4.13 An example of integrated analysis for thermophysical properties using

MTMS.
bonds) is measured by tensile testing. The temperature ranges of the first

and second bonding are approximately 7°C and 9°C, respectively; the
entire temperature range for the peel seal is 14°C (the detailed method to
expand the peel seal by this bonding mixture is explained in Section
[9.2.1]). Tm analyzed by DSC was 170°C, which was approximately
16°C higher than the maximum temperature that led to a peel seal. As a
result, the heating temperature tends to be set higher when Tm is used to
determine the conditions for heat-sealing. With this in mind it can be
seen that the MTMS method is very useful for analyzing and arriving at
proper heat-sealing conditions. The data obtained by MTMS can also be
fed back to arrive at temperature ranges sufficient for heat sealing.
4.4 REFERENCES
1. Geroge L.Hoh, (Donald A. Vassallo, E. I.) Du Pont de Nemours and Company, US

Patent 4,346,196, p. 6, Aug.24, 1982.
2. JIS standard Z 0238 (1998).
3. ASTM standard F88-00 (2000).
4. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP Patent 3465741 (2003); US Patent US 6197136B1 (2001).
5. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP Patent application 3056172.
6. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP Patent 3318866 (2002); US Patent US 6,197,136B1 (2001).
CHAPTER 5
Problems with heat-sealed products can be characterized in general

terms as peeling within the internal heat seal line or tearing. Problems of
this sort occur as a result of interactions involving the following three
factors:
1. The finish on the heat-sealed surface.
2. Sources of stress for peeling and tearing.
3. The causes of stress concentration.
A more detailed presentation of these factors is summarized in Table

5.1. The explanation of each element follows.
5.1 ADEQUATE OR INADEQUATE HEATING
5.1.1 Elements Affecting the Temperature of the Melting Surface
1. The specific temperatures reached on the melting surface (see

Chapter 3).
2. Problem factors negatively affecting the heating temperature.
Problem factors in temperature adjustment for heat-sealing de-
vices are:
a. Faulty temperature setting, which can be due to:
(1) Inaccurate thermometer.
(2) Poorly located sensors.
71
72 FACTORS IN HEAT SEALING FAILURE
TABLE 5.1 Factors Causing Failure of Heat-Sealed Packages.
(3) Using the wrong type of sensor.

(4) Faulty temperature calibration (for the thermocouple).
(5) Air turbulence on the surface of the heating block.
(6) Using only one sensor for control when two are required.
(7) Too brief a warm-up period (non-uniform temperature in-
crease of the components around the heat jaw).
(8) Large temperature swings due to seasonal changes in the
ways the packaging materials are kept.
(9) Improper understanding of the relation between the heating
temperature required for heat-sealing and the heating tem-
perature required for heat-seal strength.
b. Insufficient heating capacity
(1) A heating speed slower than that needed for proper opera-
tion (heating source with inadequate capacity).
(2) A temperature decrease during the heating process (heating
source with too low a capacity).
Adequate or Inadequate Heating 73
(3) Lack of contact between the heating block and the

heat-sealed films.
(4) Lack of contact between the heating block and Teflon sheet.
(5) Using a Teflon sheet that is too thick.
(6) Using pouf wrapping material (silicon rubber and Teflon).
c. The heating capacity of the packaging materials
(1) The temperature setting is not altered for different packag-
ing materials (see Figure 3.3).
(2) The operating speed is not changed for different packaging
materials (see Figure 3.3).
3. Problems pertaining to heating time
a. Uncontrolled operating speed
(1) Too many repetitions per unit/time during the operation.
(2) Inappropriate temperature setting for the operating speed.
(3) Fluctuations in the press time (due, for example, to com-
pressed air etc.).
b. Heating capacity of the packaging materials is not known
(1) The heat conduction properties, which vary with each indi-
vidual packaging material, are not known.
(2) The temperature setting is kept the same despite the fact
there are different packaging materials.
(3) The operating speed is kept the same despite the fact there
are different packaging materials.
c. Misalignment of adjustable equipment
(1) Misalignment of heating blocks that are supposed to be par-
allel.
(2) Misaligned edge locations on a pair of heating blocks
(shown in Figure 5.1).
(3) Heating block surface is rusted or dirty.
(4) Heating block is misshaped or otherwise distorted.
(5) Timing of operation is not correct.
5.1.2 Failure Generated by Overheating
1. Polyball
As the temperature is increased, the heat sealant is first softened
and then liquefied. When too high a pressure (more than 0.3 MP;
see Chapter [6.3] for references) is applied for heat sealing while
the sealant of the laminate film is in the liquid state, liquid thermo-
plastic polymer is forced out of the sealed section, and “polyball” is
formed along the edge of the heat-sealed portion (at the boundary
between the heated and the unheated part). This process is illus-
trated in Figure 5.2. It should be noted that in these instances the
seal strength is also weaker than normal, due to the fact that the
bonding layer is thinner than normal and to the formation of
polyball itself.
2. Shrinking
The melted polymer film is rolled, in order to obtain planarity
and transparency. The rolling technique is done by applying tensile
force during the cooling phase following extrusion. If a rolled film
is heated again to the melting stage, the film’s volume will revert to
its prior state, and the film shrinks. If a rolled film is overheated,
crinkles are generated along the edge of the heat-sealed portion.
Such crinkles result in stress concentration, which in turn causes
pinholes.
3. Thermal denaturation of packaging materials
Thermal denaturation can be classified as part of thermal degra-
dation in general. Denaturation includes “depolymerization” and
the evaporation of volatile contents. “Depolymerization” occurs
when reactions with radicals, caused by heating, create covalent
bonding with hydrogen and oxygen in the middle of the polymer
chains. Such reactions shorten the polymer chains. When the
chains are shortened, the polymer’s elasticity decreases. The poly-
mer loses elasticity and becomes brittle.
FIGURE 5.1 Misaligned heating blocks and creation of wavy heat-sealed line.
Thermal Stresses that Cause Packaging Failure 75
FIGURE 5.2 Generation of polyball.
Foam generated by the evaporation of volatile elements.

Examples of volatile elements include moisture absorbed from
the air into the polymer, as well as unpolymerized monomers. At
higher temperatures, the evaporated volatile elements generate va-
por pressure, and small bubble volume inside the sealant material
can increase as much as 1000 times under atmospheric pressure.
Such volatility creates cloudiness, which can be visually detected.
Foaming conditions depend on compressive forces, the heating
temperature, and the viscosity of the melts. Control techniques to
prevent foaming are discussed in Section [8.6].
5.2 THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAUSE

PACKAGING FAILURE
Even if there are peel and tear defects in the heat-sealed films, these do
not immediately cause packaging failure without excess loading force.
Excess loading or destructive force can be caused by dropping, vibrating,
and loading. The main stress element that causes packaging failure is
perpendicular to the heat seal band made by the heating block. Poten-
tially destructive energies are reduced if they are deflected by the pack-
age contents or absorbed by the crushing of an external package
covering. Figure 3.18 shows how stress can cause the failure of a sealed
pouch. Heat seal strength does not have to be set as a constant value for
all packaging; indeed, this value can be flexibly set in terms of different
modes of packaging.
5.3 CAUSES OF CRINKLES
Two or three edges of a flat polymer film are heat-sealed to make a

plastic bag. Then the bag is filled with product, and the fill opening is fi-
nally heat-sealed. Stress distribution is uniform, and some crinkle in the
packaging films is unavoidable. The reason is that the plastic bag, origi-
nally formed from polymer films on a single plane, is filled with product,
thus creating volume. Force is localized at crinkles on the package. The
crinkles are generated on the heat-sealed edge of the film during
heat-sealing. Their generation depends on the weight, volume, and fluid-
ity of the bag’s contents, the location of any tabs for opening the bag, the
force needed to open the tabs, the shape of the bag, and the shrinkage of
the rolled film. Several of these elements are presented in Figure 5.3 and
5.4:
1. Crinkles caused by weight of content (Figure 5.3).

2. The absence of any force for re-forming the crinkles in packaging
films.
3. The absence of a force to flatten the heat-sealing surface (as shown
in Figure 5.4).
FIGURE 5.3 Creation of crinkles by filled product.

Causes of Crinkles 77
FIGURE 5.4 Tensile force applied to heat-sealed region.
4. Positioning the opening tabs too far from the heat-sealed top of the
plastic bag (as shown in Figure 5.5).
5. The weight of the content falls too far away from the tabs (as shown
in Figure 5.6). Examples of crinkles in actual product packaging
are shown in Photo 5.1.
FIGURE 5.5 Suitable positions for tabs.

FIGURE 5.6 “Slack” caused by the weight of filled products.
5.4 CONTROLLING OVERHEATING AS A SOLUTION

FOR HEAT SEALING FAILURE
The classification of the elements causing peel seal and tear seal as
well as their mechanisms have been discussed in the foregoing. In addi-
tion, each of the foregoing statements was divided into direct and indirect
(accompanying) issues that must be addressed and controlled. The direct
issues are marked with “star mark” in Table 5.1. The following factors
are related to one another and must be controlled:
1. Attaining welding temperature
2. Overheating
3. Tension caused by filling weight
4. Force applied to tabs
5. Position of tabs
PHOTO 5.1 Crinkles created in heat-sealed packages.

Controlling Overheating as a Solution for Heat Sealing Failure 79
Problems (3)–(5) (above) are related to the finished heat-sealed pack-

aging, but are not related to the heating process. Therefore, these are ex-
cluded from further discussion of the heat sealing process. Bonding
conditions and failure stresses are related, in complex ways, to the failure
of packaging. Problems with bonding conditions and failure stresses
must both be present for failure to occur. Pinholes and weak bonding can
repeatedly be formed by a heat-sealing device. However, these do not re-
sult in packaging failure unless a loading force is applied to the packag-
ing. Packaging failure can be prevented by controlling any of the causes.
In practice, it is easier to address modes of packaging failure by dealing
with overheating, which causes constant and recurring problems, rather
than by attempting to deal with unpredictable and thus uncontrollable
causalities. Melting temperature and overheating are not separate and
discrete issues. In fact, “adequate heating temperature” and “overheat-
ing” are closely related. One can say that “applying adequate heating”
and “avoiding overheating” are synonymous. If the mechanism of over-
heating is well understood, it is possible to take effective measures
against many heat sealing problems.
CHAPTER 6
6.1 INTRODUCTION
As mentioned earlier, temperature, time, and pressure have tradition-

ally been used as the main indicators for regulating the heat sealing pro-
cess. However, these three elements have not been well defined, and as a
consequence reliable control of heat sealing could not be readily guaran-
teed. In this chapter, the causes of packaging failure in conventional
heat-sealing are explained using the MTMS method, which directly
measures the temperature-related elements of the melting surface (see
Section [4.2]). The following topics are discussed in this chapter:
1. The temperature response of each heat-seal portion within

four-layer films.
2. The relation between applying pressure and the temperature of the
melting surface as this pertains to heat sealing.
3. Temperature changes on a heat sealing melting surface containing
volatile elements.
4. The temperature behavior of the heating block’s contact surface
when Teflon film is attached.
5. Measuring temperature distribution on the surface of the heating
block.
6. A method for precisely adjusting the surface temperature of the
heating block.
7. Troubleshooting single-side heating.
81
82 MAKING THE CONVENTIONAL HEAT SEALING METHOD MORE EFFICIENT
6.2 MEASURING THE TEMPERATURE RESPONSE OF EACH

HEAT-SEAL PORTION IN QUADRUPLE-LAYERED FILMS
As shown in Figure 6.1 for packaging bags, including pouches, bags,

and vertical form-filling, the heat-sealing process is generally used not
only for simple double-layered films but also for quadruple-layered films.
The temperature response of the melting surface varies, depending on
the interfaces between the first and second, the second and third, and the
third and fourth layers of quadruple-layered films—or at the interface
between the first and second layer of double-layered films. In order to
optimize the heating temperature, it is necessary to measure the tempera-
ture response of each separate melting surface.
Figure 4.6 shows an example of the measured temperature changes on
the heating block, between the first and the outer Teflon layers, between
the first and second layers, and between the second and third layers,
when one pair of heating blocks is used.
6.3 RELATION BETWEEN APPLIED PRESSURE AND THE

TEMPERATURE OF THE MELTING SURFACE FOR HEAT
SEALING
In a heat jaw system, heat is transmitted from the heat jaw by contact
with the films to be heated. The quality of the resultant heat-sealed films
is influenced by the gap between the heated films, even if such a gap is
measured in microns. In other words, heat sealing depends on how the
heated films are in contact with one another (See Section [8.2]). Also, as
discussed in Section [5.1.2], it is necessary to avoid applying excess
pressure, since otherwise the sealant will be squeezed from the heat
FIGURE 6.1 Different structural features of the heat sealed planes depending on pack-
ages.
Measurement of the Melting Surface Temperature for Heat Sealing 83
FIGURE 6.2 Contact of heat sealant caused by the pressing of heat jaw.
sealed region. Thus, it is assumed that one can measure the amount of
pressure sufficient to remove any microscale “wrinkles” in the films and
to ensure excellent contact between the films. This function is illustrated
in Figure 6.2.
The temperature response of the melting surface was measured under
conditions of changing pressure (not just the operating air pressure of the
heat jaws). Pressures ranged from 0.05 MPa, a minimum required pres-
sure for the films to contact one another, to 0.30 MPa, as shown in Figure
6.3. It is recognized that the temperature response of the melting surface
is obviously delayed under low pressures (P1 and P2), due to imperfect
heat conduction. At a pressure of 0.08 MPa the temperature response was
immediate. However, even if the pressure is increased, no clear change in
temperature response is seen. Consequently, it is assumed that heat trans-
mission is almost the same at pressures of more than 0.08 MPa. When the
temperature response at a pressure of 0.30 MPa is carefully observed, an
anomaly appears, in that the temperature response occurs much earlier
and in a temperature region higher than the melting temperature (approx-
imately 130°C). This may be caused, we hypothesize, by the fact that the
liquid melted layer becomes “runny” because of the higher pressure. It
should be noted that heat sealing operations at high pressure must be
done carefully. The proper pressure is 0.1–0.2 MPa, which can generally
prevent undesirable flow or “running” of the sealant.
6.4 MEASUREMENT OF THE MELTING SURFACE

TEMPERATURE FOR HEAT SEALING WITH FILMS
CONTAINING VOLATILE COMPONENTS
Volatile elements can originate from liquids in packages enclosed by

heat-sealed films. Volatile elements also stem from unpolymerized
monomers contained in the packaging films themselves and from mois-

ture absorbed from the air. The elements are volatilized when heated.
The temperature of the melting surface remains at the vapor pressure
temperature until the volatile elements are released from the sealant to
the surroundings. Vapors that are trapped in the polymer films will be ob-
served as bubbles in the heat-sealed films. Figure 6.4 shows the behavior
of volatile elements.
To help understand the influence of volatile elements on heat-sealing,
the relation between pressure and the temperature of melting surface was
examined by using paper containing water, namely, plain copy paper
soaked in a wet towel. In each of the experiments, the same amount of
water was absorbed; however, the data was not quantitatively correlated
with the amount of absorbed water. The pressure was calculated as the
load applied divided by the pressed area of the specimens. The measure-
ment results are shown in Figure 6.5. Although the temperature response
of the melting surface rises faster at the beginning, when water is present,
the time to reach the heating temperature is longer, compared with the re-
sponse of a sample that does not contain water. In other words the tem-
perature is held back or retarded. At the same time it can be seen from the
FIGURE 6.3 Temperature response of melting surface corresponding to the parameter

of the press.
Measurement of the Melting Surface Temperature for Heat Sealing 85
FIGURE 6.4 Behavior of volatile components in the heat sealing process.
data that the retarded temperature of the melting surface varies depend-
ing on the pressure being applied. The pressure value in the figure is the
vapor pressure of the retarded temperature. When the relation between
the retarded temperature and the vapor pressure is observed, the relation
between the retarded temperature and the pressure being applied is sig-
FIGURE 6.5 Temperature response of melting surface with the volatile components in
melting surface.
nificant. In fact, the vapor pressure and the pressure being applied are
well correlated. Since the sample in these experiments is paper, which
has a fibrous morphology, it is assumed that the moisture inside the paper
reaches the boiling point and is then exhausted to the outside by heating.
Figure 6.6 represents a sample that was measured to investigate the in-
fluence of moisture, which was added to milk carton container material,
on the temperature of the melting surface at three different temperature
levels during heating. This example shows that the heat-sealing tempera-
ture corresponds to the evaporation temperature that is retarded, such
that the target temperature is higher than the evaporation temperature. In
this example, the amount of time for moisture to evaporate from the
packaging paper is strongly influenced by the pressure being applied, as
well as by the duration of the heat-sealing process.
When the volatile elements exist inside the layers of laminate films,
the evaporated gas remains as bubbles in the layers. Photo 6.1 illustrates
examples of “foams” in the laminate layers of nylon used as retort pouch
material. Peel seal is obtained at 145°C, and in this instance the appear-
FIGURE 6.6 Experimental result showing the effects of the moisture contained in the
paper packaging material for milk.
Effects on Heat Sealing Operations of Teflon Sheet 87
PHOTO 6.1 Foaming on the heat sealed surface of the laminates.
ance of the film is transparent. In other words, interfacial debonding is

occurring with loading. When the film is heated to150°C, bubbles be-
come visible, and the failure mode is tear seal. Because of the way they
are formed, the bubbles appear in the sealed film as separated into two
partitions.
When heat-sealed films contain volatile elements, it is necessary to un-
derstand the relation among the volatilizing temperature, the heating
temperature, the melting temperature, and the pressure being applied [1].
The techniques for controlling bubble formation are explained in Section
[8.6] in more detail.
6.5 EFFECTS ON HEAT SEALING OPERATIONS

OF TEFLON SHEET ATTACHED TO THE HEATING
BLOCK SURFACE
Teflon sheets, actually woven glass fibers whose surface is coated with
Teflon, are often used to cover the surface of the heating block. Teflon
sheets are applied for the following purposes, which are listed with their
underlying reasons, where these are known:
1. Easy clean-up of filled products, especially sticky liquids and pow-

ders;
2. Reducing the possibility of thermal degradation of the packaging

films due to overheating, which in turn acts to prevent excess extru-
sion of the sealant due to overheating;
3. Creating an “attractive” textured finish on the heat-sealed surfaces,
based on customary perceptions of what is attractive;
4. Cushioning, for no known reason;
5. Creating a uniform surface temperature, for no known reason;
The logic of several of these actions is unclear, since many of the ex-
pected functions above, except for number (3), apply to problems caused
by conditions other than the surface coating of the block, for example, by
faulty set-up. The following sections report on investigations into the
question of what are the actual functions and effects of Teflon sheeting
installed on heating blocks.
6.5.1 Surface Temperature Behavior with Teflon Sheet on

Heating Block
Installing Teflon sheets causes resistance to thermal conduction, be-

cause the Teflon sheet is thermally insulating. As shown in Figure 4.8, re-
sistance to thermal conduction reduces the thermal flow. Although this
results in longer heating time, the temperature difference between the
surface of the packaging film and the melting surface is reduced. Figure
6.7 shows the measured temperature change in the contact surface be-
tween a heat-sealed polymer film and the Teflon cover during a repeated
automated heat-sealing process. At contact, the temperature of the mea-
surement point on the Teflon cover rapidly decreases to be the same as
the surface temperature of the heat-sealed polymer film. The rate of tem-
perature decrease is mainly determined by the thermal resistance of the
cover material (its thickness and thermal conductivity) and by the initial
temperature and heat capacity of the heat-sealed films. Since the correla-
tion between the heat flow rate and the temperature difference is propor-
tional, the heat flow rate in the cover is reduced while the temperature of
the heat-sealed film increases, as heat is stored in the film. The tempera-
ture at the measurement point starts to increase, when the correlation be-
comes: (absorbed thermal energy) < (supplied thermal energy). The
temperature increase is dependent on the thickness and heat capacity of
the heat-sealed film. When the heating block is released from the
heat-sealed film, the temperature of the surface of the Teflon cover starts
again to increase, so that it can reach the stand-by temperature. This tem-
FIGURE 6.7 Change of the surface temperature of the cover material during the actual
heat sealing operation.
perature increase is determined both by the heating capacity of the heat-

ing block and by any radiant heat from the heating block. The
temperature of the melting surface at the moment the heating block re-
leases from the heat-sealed film must be a prescribed number of de-
grees.
Proper release time can be well understood, if the Teflon sheet is actu-
ally installed while the simulation data is acquired using the MTMS kit.
When a heat-sealing operation starts before the surface temperature
reaches the stand-by temperature of the heating block, the lower surface
temperature of the Teflon sheet is the initializing temperature of the
heat-sealing operation. As a result, the operating temperature becomes
lower than whatever is the prescribed temperature. This causes a defi-
ciency in the heating temperature. When a regular commercial thermom-
eter is used to measure the surface temperature of the Teflon sheet on the
heating block, the measured temperature will be 5°C lower than the ac-
tual temperature, due to heat flow from the Teflon sheet to the thermome-
ter as well as radiant heat. It is necessary to use a thermometer capable of
detecting very small temperature increments.
FIGURE 6.8 (a) Comparison of difference responses of melting surface temperature
depending on the mounting of the Teflon cover films on the heating block. The thickness
of the packaging film is 0.1 mm. (b) Summary of the response of melting surface depend-
ing on the mounting of the Teflon cover films on the heating block.
90
6.5.2 Appropriateness of using Teflon Sheet on the Heating Block
Since Teflon sheet has the function of modifying heat flow rate, the
temperature difference between the surface of the heating block and the
melting surface can be reduced by adjusting the heat supply that corre-
sponds to the thermal performance of the heat-sealed films. In this exper-
iment, levels of heat conduction are compared by means of one sample
where the heat flow rate is adjusted by using Teflon sheet and a second
sample in which the films are pressed by the metallic heating body with-
out any cover and at a lower temperature. On the basis of the results, the
appropriateness of installing Teflon sheet is discussed.
The most rapid heating occurs under the following conditions. The tar-
get temperature of the melting surface is 140°C, and the maximum tem-
perature limit for heating is 160°C, as is shown in Figure 6.8(a) and (b).
Figure 6.8(a) shows almost the same temperature responses using the
temperature of a heating block at 150°C without a Teflon cover as that of
a heating block at 185°C with a Teflon cover 0.14 mm thick. It takes ap-
proximately 0.5 second to reach 140°C when the temperature of the heat-
ing block is 150°C, and the surface temperature of the heated film at this
time is 143°C.
There is no restriction on the heating time when a Teflon sheet is not
used, since the maximum temperature limit for heating is 160°C. There is
no chance of overheating, however long the heating is continued. On the
other hand, it is necessary to raise the temperature to 185°C to obtain the
equivalent heating time when a Teflon cover of t = 0.14 mm thickness is
used. When a Teflon sheet is used, the margin between the maximum
temperature limit (160°C) and the temperature when the heating is halted
is small, and as a result a highly precise stoppage of any heating increase
is required.
The other experimental result with a Teflon cover, which can be as thin
as t = 0.1 mm, performed under the same experimental conditions pre-
sented in Figure 6.8(a), is displayed in Figure 6.8(b). This figure shows
the correlation between the heating temperature and the time it takes to
reach 140°C for the melting surface as well as the surface temperature at
this moment, using the heating temperature as a parameter. From this
data the effects of the installation of Teflon sheet were concluded to be
that: (1) the heating time is prolonged, (2) it is necessary to increase the
heating temperature to speed up the temperature response, and thus, (3)
the risk of thermal degradation on the surface of the heat-sealed films in-
creases due to the higher heating temperature. From the point of view of
trying to stabilize heat-sealing, installation of Teflon sheet was found to
be of no significance.
6.6 MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE TEMPERATURE

DISTRIBUTIONS ON THE HEATING BLOCK
The largest factor preventing achievement of a homogeneous tempera-

ture on the heat-sealed surface is the uneven temperature on the heating
surface of the heating block.
An irregular heating temperature on heat-sealed films is caused by the
following elements:
1. Temperature irregularities of the heating block: A temperature ir-
regularity in the direction of the heating plane of the heat block may
be due to how the block was manufactured. A temperature irregu-
larity perpendicular to the direction of the heating plane may be due
to the block’s heating configuration.
2. A pressure irregularity of the heating block during the pressing op-
eration: Unevenly-finished surface of the heating block, misalign-
ment of the parallel heat jaws, thermal deformation of the heat jaw.
3. Temperature fluctuation between the center and the edges of the
heating block: Temperature fluctuation from the center to the edges
of the heating block, either parallel with or perpendicular to the di-
rection of the heating plane of the block, depends on the shape of
the heating block.
4. Irregularity of heat radiation: Heat radiation from the heating
block, thermal conduction to the structural materials holding the
heating block, and variations in air flow around the heating block.
Irregular heating is due to multiple causes, as listed above. Therefore,

it is necessary to analyze and verify each factor in order to discover the
appropriate heating condition(s).
The distribution of the surface temperature of the heating block in the
heat jaw system was analyzed using the functions of the MTMS kit to
measure the temperature in the microscale region. The following were
measured:
1. the surface temperature along the x-axis as pressure is applied;
2. the surface temperature at the middle of the heating block along the
y-axis as pressure is applied.
Figure 6.9 shows the experimental results of temperature variation

from the median temperature (150°C) during the application of pressure.
This was measured on heat jaws for double-side heat-sealing (having an
adjustment sensitivity of 0.1°C), whose dimensions are 100 mm in
Measurement of Surface Temperature Distributions on the Heating Block 93
FIGURE 6.9 Structure of heat jaw with heating tube.
length, 30 mm in width, and 15 mm in the width of the press surface. The

heat jaw used in this experiment was equipped with a heating pipe, which
could have reduced the temperature fluctuation. However, a lowering of
the heating temperature on the surface of the heat jaw was observed just
adjacent to the electric wire. A surface area containing an electric wire
should be avoided.
On the other hand, temperature fluctuation along the y-axis is caused
by heat radiation. However, it must be understood that a lowering of the
temperature from the center to the edge along the y-axis cannot be
avoided. An excellent result of the temperature fluctuation between the
center and the edge was less than 0.2°C in this experiment. Since the
y-axis is the direction that ensures heat seal strength, it is extremely im-
portant to understand y-axis temperature fluctuation, so that one can de-
termine acceptable heating tolerances. This finding can be used as a
reference for designing the right heat-sealing width and the shape of the
heating block itself.
6.7 PROBLEM ANALYSIS IN SINGLE-SIDE HEATING
It is often difficult to heat both sides for heat-sealing, as in the bonding

of lid material to a cup (as shown in Table 3.1).
For single-side heating, the amount of heat flowing from the heating
block to the non-heating stand varies, depending on heat capacity and
thermal conduction properties. Also, the surface temperature of the
non-heating stand changes during heating. The temperature increase of
the non-heating stand influences the temperature increase of the melting
surface, and such temperature fluctuation impedes attainment of proper
heating. As a result, standardization of the single-side heating operation
is difficult, and it becomes necessary to measure the temperature re-
sponse for each operating condition. Observation shows contrasting in-
fluences with thick and thin films. Figure 6.10 presents the observed
temperature changes of the non-heating stand when thin silicon rubber,
with a high thermal resistance, is utilized as the non-heating stand. The
interval in the operation is approximately 1 cycle/sec.
The heating condition is shown in Figure 6.10 for thinner-film packag-
ing materials. The surface temperature of the non-heating stand is the
standby preheating temperature. When the heating operation is started,
the temperature increases as the heat flow moves from the heating block
to the non-heating stand through the heat-sealed polymer films after the
heating block makes contact with the films. The heat is then stored in the
non-heating stand. The surface temperature of the non-heating stand
then decreases to the preheating temperature, after the heating process
stops and the heat jaw is withdrawn. If the subsequent heating operation
is started before the non-heating stand can return to its original preheat-
ing temperature, the temperature of the non-heating stand increases dur-
ing every repetition of the operation, and reaches a plateau after
repetition number 8. If a product sample is taken at the start of operation
and tensile tested for heat seal strength, the lack of heating will be de-
tected. Using such a sample, the operator tends to set a higher tempera-
ture. It must be noted, however, that this is done before the temperature
reaches its subsequent plateau. As a result, only the products from just af-
ter the start of the heat-sealing operation are satisfactory, while later ones
are subject to overheating as the operation continues.
For thicker heat-sealed films having a high heat capacity, heating be-
comes insufficient due to the heating block, because of thermal conduc-
tion in the Teflon sheet, as well as due to the non-heating stand. As a
result, the surface temperature decreases, as illustrated in Figure 6.11.
After the heat seal operation is repeated several times, the heat supply
becomes more balanced, and the surface temperature reaches a station-
Problem Analysis in Single-Side Heating 95
ary level. Figure 6.11 illustrates this. For both the heating block and the
non-heating stand, a large temperature difference can be seen, and the
temperature during the initial phase of operation will fall outside the reg-
ulated temperature value. The causes of this problem are the silicon rub-
ber of the non-heating stand and the double-layered Teflon sheet with its
increased thermal resistance on the heating block face. Since the temper-
ature of the non-heating stand influences the temperature of the melting
surface, it is necessary to use materials having a high thermal conductiv-
ity for better heat radiation and to cool the non-heating block by
40~50°C . For single-side heating it is also necessary to verify the opti-
mum conditions, which will depend on the number of actual process
repetitions once the heat-sealing operation has started.
FIGURE 6.10 Temperature increase of the surface of the receiving stand in the applica-
tion with the thin packaging materials.
FIGURE 6.11 Lack of heat flow for heat-sealing thin packaging materials.
6.8 OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE

DISTRIBUTIONS AND RADIANT HEAT ON HEAT SEAL
FILMS
As noted, the surface temperature of the heating block and the melting
temperature are critical factors for heat sealing. However, even if a uni-
form surface temperature of the heating block is applied, the resulting
temperature of the melting surface is not necessarily uniform, due to dif-
ferences in the thermal capacity (thickness) and the thermal conductivity
of the films themselves.
Other Factors Affecting Temperature Distributions and Radiant Heat 97
More specifically, these factors may include the following:
1. The thermal conductivity of the surface material of a laminate film

is less than that of the film’s inner layer.
2. Metallic foil with high thermal conductivity is embedded inside the
film.
3. The heating block is covered with thick Teflon sheet.
Since osmotic and radiant heat flows are created by these factors, the
temperature distribution is generated in the direction of the heat-sealed
film. Figure 6.12(a) shows the different temperatures of the melting sur-
face at five points on two samples A and B, with different positioning of
the heating blocks. The temperature of the melting surface depends on
the radiated heat. There is no influence of radiant heat on a film of less
than 30 mm thick, and the level of the melting temperature is asymptotic
to the surface temperature. Figure 6.12(b) presents different profile
curves of tensile testing for the two samples A and B, showing peel seal.
Since Sample A has radiant heat flow from both ends, the profile curve in
Figure 6.12(b) is symmetric by the middle point of the peel distance. On
the other hand, the initial profile curve of Sample B is the same as that of
FIGURE 6.12 Temperature of melting surface at different locations and their dependen-
cies on tensile strength.
FIGURE 6.13 Generation of the temperature distribution on heat sealing plane caused
by runoff heat.
Sample A, and the heat seal strength keeps increasing to the outside
edge) of the film. Figure 6.13 is a schematic drawing explaining the heat
flow of sample B in Figure 6.12(a). The temperature at the edge is heated
to the temperature of the heating block, due to the fact there is no radiant
heat flow at the edge. On the other hand, heat flow is generated on the
side of the bag since heat can easily be radiated in this direction. Remark-
ably, this phenomenon appears in laminate films containing aluminum
foil.
6.9 PROS AND CONS OF KNURLING TOOL FINISH
Although heat-sealed surfaces are often finished by knurling tools as

shown in Photo 6.2, the benefit of this type of finishing is hard to discern.
In fact, knurling finishing can lead to a number of problems:
PHOTO 6.2 Products with the knurling tool finish.

Pros and Cons of Knurling Tool Finish 99
1. Inferior efficiency of thermal conduction due to the rough, uneven

surface of the press.
2. Stress concentration due to the surface of the press, which causes
pinholes.
3. Possible puncture of surface materials.
4. Spotty adhesion. This is traceable to a thinning out during pressing,
which results in non-maximized heat seal strength.
5. Utility for flattening uneven surface.
Figure 6.14 shows an example where finishing with a knurling tool

causes pinholes. This is an example where a large number of pinholes are
generated at the point the knurling tool clasps the package. This is posi-
tion [c] in Figure 6.14. To investigate proper heat sealing, the size of the
FIGURE 6.14 Failure analysis of the knurling tool finish (and the site of dimensional
changes at different points on the heat sealed film).
heat-sealed materials was measured before and after the heat sealing pro-
cess. The thickness of the film was 78 mm. In this instance, one problem
was the 0.171 mm difference between the thickness of 0.159 mm of the
double layers at part [a] and the 0.330 mm thickness of the quadruple lay-
ers at part [d]. Bonding cannot be achieved without filling this gap. The
portion with the most loading is position [c]. Position [c] is compressed
to 0.035 mm (= 0.370 - 0.335). One half of the heat sealant, totaling 80
mm thick, is extruded from the compressed surface. Even if portion [c] is
compressed to a 0.335 mm thickness, the amount of pressure for [a] and
[b] is still insufficient. The heating temperature had to be set higher to
supplement this thickness gap, and as a result, most of the sealant was
squeezed out at position [c]. This portion ends up being aluminum foil
only. In turn, the aluminum foil is damaged by the emboss of the knurling
tool, which causes the pinhole.
6.10 CHANGES IN HEAT SEAL STRENGTH CAUSED BY

ROUGHNESS OF THE BONDING SURFACE
Figure 6.15 shows a comparison of tensile testing results when 0.1mm

woven Teflon films or smooth metal are used as the surface of the heating
FIGURE 6.15 Effect of the flatness of the press surface on heat seal strength.
References 101
blocks. In this figure, the temperature shifts due to different surface

roughness were 4°C and 6°C for 20 NT (sealant: 3.5 mm) and 50 NT
(sealant: 6.4 mm), respectively. Peel seal was created on the entire
heat-sealed surface with the smooth metal. On the other hand, only pro-
jecting portions of the 0.1 mm woven Teflon were effective for pressing.
With the Teflon, only one half of the area was actually heat-sealed. This
was due to variations in the pressure, which in turn was dependent on the
surface of the woven Teflon.
In Figure 6.15 bonding with the Teflon sheet appears to be peel seal.
However, it should be noted that the temperature for this heat-sealing
process with Teflon sheet was in the range of tear seal. When an impact
force was applied, tear seal from the heat-sealing edge was confirmed.
Therefore, the seal was a thinned-out tear seal, not the usual peel seal.
This phenomenon could lead to interesting new applications for peel
seal, depending on packaging objectives.
6.11 REFERENCES
1. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP Patent 2003-1708 (2003).

2. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP Patent 2006-146723 (2006).
CHAPTER 7
7.1 POLYBALL AS A CAUSE OF PACKAGE FAILURE
After heating, the sealants are mixed in a liquid form, and a film is
formed. At this stage, even if the desired result is obtained by tensile test-
ing based on the JIS standard (Z 0238), package failure can still occur, as
seen in Photo 7.1. When the failed portion is carefully inspected via scan-
ning electron microscopy, it can be ascertained that polyball had formed
along the failed heat-sealed edge during the time the sealant was com-
pressed. This is depicted in Photo 7.2. Since the excess that led to poly
ball is not uniform, microscale jaggedness is created. When stress is con-
centrated on this microscale rugged portion, a notch is first initiated and
then a pinhole is easily produced due to stress concentration on the notch.
Subsequently, a crack is propagated from the pinhole, which ultimately
causes failure of the package.
For JIS standard (Z 0238), the heat seal strength is measured using a
specimen 15 mm wide. In this instance, the stress load at the microscale
is calculated for a sample exhibiting a heat seal strength of 30 N/15 mm.
Since the size of polyball is measured as 30–50 mm (from the Photo 7.1),
the stress on this region is calculated as (0.03–0.05/15) × 30N. There-
fore, it can be concluded that it is difficult to detect the existence of
polyball by tensile testing. Figure 7.1 shows the analytical model for ten-
sile testing. The load is first applied to the top portions of the wavy
heat-sealing edge as shown in Figure 7.1 by a top arrow. The jagged line
can appear in the initial stage (where the displacement is approximately
1.0 mm) of the load-displacement diagram, seen as (1) and (2) in the dia-
gram. Since the failure mode of peel seal is interfacial, debonding occurs
103
PHOTO 7.1 Pouch package with tear seal.
PHOTO 7.2 Optical micrograph of Polyball.
104
Experimental Technique for Inspecting Peel Seal and Tear Seal 105
FIGURE 7.1 Schematic diagram explaining impossibility of detecting poly ball based
on the conventional JIS standard method.
uniformly within the 15 mm width. Fluctuations such as (3) and (4) ap-
pear, when air bubbles and foams are found at the interface. On the other
hand, the failure mode of tear seal is cohesive. Interfacial debonding does
not occur once the molecules of heat sealant polymers are fused with one
another in cohesive bonding. The matrix is either elongated or torn once
the load reaches a maximum. Interfacial debonding can readily occur in
the peel seal, since the bonding near the vicinity of the top of a wavy
heat-sealing line is weaker than the bonding at the heat-sealed sur-
face—due to non-uniform heating. However, in the tear seal a wavy
heat-sealed edge line is formed from polyballs, and entire heat-sealed re-
gions are cohesively bonded. As a result, tearing along the heat-sealed
edge can be easily caused. In this instance, it is important to understand
that the sealing function is dependent on the heat-sealed edge line within
1 mm; the heat-sealed bonding surface does not contribute to the sealing
function.
7.2 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE FOR INSPECTING PEEL

SEAL AND TEAR SEAL: DEVELOPMENT OF THE “ANGLE
METHOD”
Pinholes and package failure are caused by the wavy heat-sealed edge
line that can occur with cohesion bonding. On the wavy edge lines,
polyballs of 30–50 mm diameter appear due to extruded sealant material
106 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE FOR INSPECTING PEEL SEAL AND TEAR SEAL
liquefied by overheating and excessive high pressure. The basic solution

for controlling the occurrence of pinholes and tear failure is to establish a
method for evaluating the right heating temperature, i.e., a temperature
that can avoid the overheating that leads to polyballs. (Excessive pres-
sure can automatically be avoided once the temperature setting is opti-
mized.)
In this chapter, an identification method for peel seal and tear seal, de-
noted as the “angle method” by the author [1,2], is introduced.
7.2.1 Finding the Factors that Improve Heat Seal Strength
The factors that improve heat seal strength are listed in Table 7.1.
TABLE 7.1 Constituents of Heat Seal Functions..

When causal factors (control factors) are selected from this list, there are
7: heating temperature (temperature of melting surface), method of
heat-sealing, overheating, polyballs and “crinkles,” non-uniform press-
ing, and uneven heating, where polyballs and crinkles are not the con-
trolled objects but accompanying phenomena depending on processing.
A way to avoid the overheating that leads to polyball is clear, once its
causes and effects are analyzed.
7.2.2 The Detection Method for Tear Seal and Presentation of the
Angle Method
The standard test method for heat-sealed films [3,4] has been strictly
defined as tensile testing using specimens with 15–25.4 mm width, to
which a load is applied perpendicularly to the heat-sealed line. As ex-
plained in Section [7.1] and Figure 7.1, this conventional testing method
cannot detect peel and tear on a scale in the range of 30–50 mm.
As shown in Table 5.1, pinholes are created because of the complex in-
teractions among three factors: the wavy heat-sealed edge, crinkles, and
stress. When the stress becomes excessive as expressed in the following:
(strength of films) < (stress)
the package fails.
In order to prevent pinholes and package failure, it is essential to con-

trol at least one of the above-cited factors. In this section, the focus is on
detecting the wavy heat-sealed edge line, caused by overheating, using
as a parameter the temperature of the melting surface. Based on the find-
ing that pinholes and package failure are caused by stress concentration
in a microscale region of 20–30 mm, we simulated processing in a labora-
tory facility. A testing method, where the heat-sealed specimen has a
heat-sealed edge with an angle of 30–45°, was introduced to concentrate
stress on a microscale region of the heat-sealed edge. Although an angle
larger than 45° is more effective for detecting tear seal, the 45° angle was
selected to avoid difficulties in preparing longer heat-sealed specimens
without any non-uniform heat-sealing. The method of preparing the
specimens is described in Chapter 11. The “angle” testing method is
schematically shown in Figure 7.2.
The initial specimen length must be less than 30 mm in the angle
method, as shown in Figure 7.2(b), to minimize elongation of the
non-heat-sealed portion of the specimen. The theoretical reason is pre-
sented in Figure 11.4. With peel seal in the specimen using the angle
FIGURE 7.2 Principle of the Angle Method.
method, debonding starts from one single point and then extends to a sur-
face. The tensile load increases while the debonding width linearly in-
creases to a width of 15 mm and takes on a triangular shape.. Once the
debonding width reaches 15 mm, the tensile load reaches a plateau value.
This plateau value agrees with the load applied to a conventional speci-
men designed in accord with the JIS standard.
On the other hand, with the tear seal sample, specimens fail, or in the
case of composite films become delaminated because of polyballs and
the state of the tear seal on the heat-sealed edge line in the tear seal sam-
ple. Seal strength decreases drastically as a result of failure of the
heat-sealed films or delamination.
7.2.3 Case studies with the “Angle Method”
Using the MTMS presented in Section [4.2], the heat-sealed specimen

was prepared and the heat-sealing temperature was changed at intervals
of 2–10°C. The angle was set at 45°. The applied pressure on the speci-
men was approximately 0.2 MPa. The original films for the specimen
were laminate films used for commercially available retort pouches. All
measured data was computer processed. Figure 7.3 shows the experi-
mental data. The specimen used for the JIS standard testing prepared at
150°C reached the maximum load, and was then asymptotic to approxi-
mately 40N. The specimen used for the “Angle method” showed the in-
creased triangular area of debonding as displacement increases, and then
the load became asymptotic to approximately 40N after the debonded
width reached 15 mm. The tensile strength values discovered with the
angle method agrees well with those found by means of JIS standard
testing.
As illustrated in Figure 7.3, the specimen prepared for JIS standard
testing at 158°C showed elongation without debonding. The other speci-
men prepared for the angle method at the same temperature failed as the
tensile load increased, which was different from JIS standard testing.
Therefore, for the heat-sealed samples in this test, it was concluded that
the temperature boundary between peel seal and tear seal was 150°C.
Additionally, data from other specimens prepared at 147°C are included
FIGURE 7.3 Actual experimental data measured by Angle Method.

FIGURE 7.4 Example to distinguish peel seal and tear seal using Angle Method (Retort
pouch).
in Figure 7.3. Not surprisingly, the plateau value after the width of
debonding becomes constant, was close to the samples’tensile strength.
Figure 7.4 shows the combined data of thermal characteristics of the
sample analyzed in Section [4.3.1], as well as the change in tensile
strength measured by both the JIS standard method and the angle
method. Data from the angle method was the tensile load at the failure of
the specimen.
Data from tensile testing using the angle method showed a remarkable
decrease in tensile strength with heat sealing at more than 154°C. This is
different from the results of the JIS standard method. It suggests that pin-
holes and tearing are easily created by the heat-sealing process, along
with decreased tensile strength.
Data obtained from the angle method in Figure 7.4 shows that the ten-
sile strength of specimens prepared at approximately 170°C tends to be
higher. A possible reason for this is that the sealant material, which forms
a relatively thick layer of 70 mm, can be more uniformly dispersed at this

high temperature range.
7.2.4 Information Obtained from Application of the

Angle Method
1. Angle method testing, in which the loading direction of the tensile

testing for the heat-sealed film is changed from a perpendicular an-
gle (as in JIS standard testing) to an acute angle, shows a substantial
change in the tear failure mode above the boundary temperature of
the peel seal. As a result, it could be inferred that the angle method
is effective as a detection method for the tear seal.
2. High temperature is frequently applied to obtain tear seal. How-
ever, the causes of packaging failure that occur in the commercial
market can be investigated based on experimental data from the an-
gle method.
The “solutions” to the problems of heat-sealed packaging failure form
TABLE 7.2 Vicious Circle of Problems Regarding the Heat Sealing Process.
a kind of negative feedback loop, a “vicious circle,” as shown in Table

7.2. What is done as a solution leads to the very problems the solution is
designed to solve. Stated differently, the conventional methods for de-
tecting and preventing packaging failure do not work. This can be seen
once the mechanisms of packaging failure are analyzed using the experi-
mental findings of the angle method. Determining and setting the appro-
priate heat-sealing temperature are the only paths to process
improvement. The angle method has the potential to contribute to opti-
mizing available methods for detecting overheating and excess pressure,
two factors that lead to heat sealing problems. The foregoing angle
method analyses, integrated with different data, will again be discussed
in Section 9.1.
7.3 REFERENCES
1. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP Patent 3876990 (2006).

2. Kazuo Hishinuma, USPatent 6,952,956 B2 (2005).
3. JIS standard Z-0238, p. 7 (1998).
4. ASTM standard: F88-00.
CHAPTER 8
When heat sealing was introduced, its main purpose in packaging was
mechanical bonding. Currently heat sealing must also prevent bacterial
incursions and eliminate gas leakage. The following elements of heat
sealing are discussed in this chapter:
1. A method for utilizing the peel energy of peel seal.
2. The thickness of the heat sealant and heat seal strength.
3. The interrelation between heat seal strength and laminate strength.
4. HACCP for heat sealing.
5. A way to verify the presence of easy peel—and the usefulness of
easy peel.
6. The causes of foaming in the welding layers and solutions to it.
7. The utility of peel seal.
8.1 UTILILIZATION OF THE PEEL ENERGY OF PEEL SEAL

[1,2]
8.1.1 Introduction
When heat-sealed products are examined, they exhibit a heat seal fin of
about 10 mm width (Photo 8.1). For many heat sealed products, excess
heating, applied to obtain tear seal, causes packaging failure along the
heat-sealed edge. As shown in Figure 1.5, tensile stress is not applied on
the fin of the heat sealed film, which has low rigidity; rather, the stress is
113
114 METHODS FOR CONFIRMATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF HEAT SEALING FUNCTIONS
PHOTO 8.1 Heat sealed fin retort pouches.
concentrated at the heat sealed edge. In other words, the width of the heat
seal fin will not influence an increase in strength. As explained for the
functions of impulse sealing and hot wire sealing above (see Figure
3.14), it is known that tear seal in cohesive bonding is caused by com-
pleted bonding having a heat seal width of approximately 1.0 mm.
Polyball, which causes tearing from the edge, is formed at the
heat-sealed edge (Figure 7.1). Process control to prevent polyball is in-
dispensable for avoiding problems in heat sealed products. In a heat seal-
ing operation, peel seal with interfacial bonding has traditionally been
avoided as “imperfect bonding.” The functionality of the peel seal (the
interfacial bonding) is investigated in Section [8.1].
8.1.2 Failure Energy on the Heat-Sealed Bonding Surface
Tensile testing is conventionally used to evaluate the strength of mate-

rials. The method focuses on tensile strength at specimen failure as the
main index for evaluation. Tensile testing is also used to evaluate
heat-sealed polymer films [3,4]. Tensile testing mainly evaluates the fail-
ure of bulk or bonded polymer specimens having a high rigidity as tensile
stress is uniformly applied to a specimen’s rigid portions or bonded sur-
faces. However, the rigidity of soft and thin materials, such as polymer
films, is low. Therefore, the tensile stress is not uniformly applied to the
entire heat-sealed surface. Rather, the stress concentrates on the
heat-sealed edge line. Tearing or peeling is caused by the applied tensile
stress. Figure 1.4 illustrates this phenomenon. Since conventional tensile
testing estimates the bonding strength by the measured maximum stress
value (see Figure 3.17), the strength with tear seal is stronger than that
with peel seal. Here, one clear problem for packaging of foods and medi-
cal products, as well as that of precision machinery components requir-
ing higher-level oxygen interception, is pinholes and the tearing that
occurs on the heat sealed edge line, which may be caused by impact, or
by loading generated during the manufacturing process, or by the
distribution of the packaged products.
8.1.3 Methodology of Peeling Energy
Thermoplastic polymers consist of tangled macromolecules several

micrometers long. Under pressure and heated to the point of softening,
the polymers in heat sealing, which initially face one another, are stuck
into one another to a depth of several micrometers. When the heat sealant
polymers are cooled down in this condition, friction adhesion (i.e., inter-
face adhesion) is created on the stuck portions, and the result is adhesion
by heat-sealing. On the other hand, heat sealant polymers facing each
other in a completely molten state heated above the melting point (Tm)
are “mixed,” and when cooled the macromolecules of the sealant poly-
mers become entangled with one another. Some of the entangled
macromolecules of the sealant polymers result in tear seal due to radical
oxidation, which shortens the macromolecular polymer chains. A sche-
matic drawing of the two different adhesion states is shown in Figure 2.1.
The former adhesion state becomes interface adhesion, and breakage
of the macromolecules in the heat sealant polymer does not occur. The
latter case involves a combination of the heat sealant polymers on both
sides, such that there is no definable interface. When stress is applied to
the heat-sealed surface, the stress is heterogeneously applied to each
polymer molecule. As a result partial failure near the heat-sealed edge
line is initiated, and tear seal suddenly occurs. By comparing the tensile
strength value of specimens 15 mm wide, the following relation is
obtained:
(Peel seal strength) £ (Tear seal strength) (8.1)
Generally, energy in a system is the sum of kinetic and potential en-

ergy. Here, the potential energy of the heat-sealed welded surface can be
expressed as the function: adhesion force x area. Since the kinetic energy
generated by dropping is not correlated with the adhesion condition of
the welded surface, the adhesion condition of the welded surface was
evaluated using the function of “adhesion force multiplied by area”. The
following Equation (8.2) does not contain the function of time. In cases
of failure involving limited elongation and delamination, the failure en-
ergy (St) per unit of width is expressed as:
Lt
Dl
S t = å k × F(L) × (8.2)
t=0 w
where,
St = Failure energy (J)
F(L) = Tensile strength at each position along width
Dl = Arbitrary unit distance for energy calculation (m)
Lt = Displacement at initial failure (m)
k= Conversion coefficient per unit length for energy calculation
w= Specimen width (m)
In the actual experiment, the initial curve in the tensile testing is ex-
tremely sharp. As a result, the tensile testing focuses mainly on strength
[F(L)]. The peel seal without film failure shows a constant tensile stress
during peeling. Using the same equation, integral calculus is performed
with a range from L = 0 to Ln, the peel width. This calculation can be ex-
pressed as follows, defining the peel energy as (Sp):
Ln
Dl
S p = å F(L) × (8.3)
t=0 w
Sp = Peel energy (J)
Ln = Peel width (m)
Figure 8.1 illustrates the relation between St and Sp, as defined in this
section.
8.1.4 Utility of the Peeling Energy
The tear seal strength of heat-sealed polymer films is greater than the
peel seal strength. If heat sealing is carried out to deliberately cause peel
seal by converting (absorbing/consuming) the input energy to peel en-
ergy, the occurrence of tearing can be controlled. That is, the energy that
could cause failure is continuously absorbed by a buffering action, and
FIGURE 8.1 Definition of peel energy and tear energy.
pinhole/tearing can be prevented. If (Sp ³ St) can be found by combining

the peel seal strength (which depends on the heat-sealing temperature)
and the peel distance (width of the heat seal fin), it is possible to improve
the reliability of the heat seal and to develop new sealing techniques.
8.1.5 Experimental Procedures
Aluminum laminate films for packaging commercial products were

tested. The films consisted of PET (12 mm)/PE (15 mm)/Al (7 mm)/PE
(15 mm), with a co-polymer adhesive (Anchor Coat) between each layer.
MTMS was applied (see Section [4.2]), and the heat-sealed specimens
were processed at 2–10°C intervals in the temperature range required to
obtain both peel seal and tear seal. The heat-sealed specimens prepared
at each melting surface temperature were cut to 15 mm width and 30mm
lengths, and the tensile testing was conducted based on the JIS standard
[3]. Displacement and tensile load (load-displacement diagram) were re-
corded by a computer with A/D conversion. A schematic drawing of the
experimental setup and method is shown in Figure 8.2. The loading rate
was held at 50mm / min to minimize influence of the tear/delamination
speed.
8.1.6 Integral Range and Analysis of Data
Displacement and the tensile load of the tensile testing data were re-
corded digitally as an Excel file. (Displacement) ´ 0.5 is the peel length.

Therefore, the unit of the length was converted to (m) after all displace-
ment values were multiplied by 0.5. Since the total peel length was ap-
proximately 10 mm, the precise peel length was kept to approximately
0.1~0.2 mm in digital data, in order to maintain the accuracy of the inte-
gral calculation for failure energy and peel energy.
The value of the tensile load was converted to (N).

When the precise digital data for peel distance is 0.1 mm,
(Energy at Ln point) = (F(Ln) ´ 0.1/1000) (8.4)
Here, k = 1/1000. (See Equation 8.2 above.)

Peel energy from the initial peel point to the tear point (yield point) or
peel energy with more than 10 mm, (total) ´ (width for calculation) was
calculated using the data in the Excel file of specimens prepared at each
heat-sealing temperature. The integrated values in the middle of peeling
(e.g., 5, 7.5, and 10 mm) were plotted on a graph.
8.1.7 Load-Displacement Diagrams
Load-displacement diagrams were acquired for specimens
FIGURE 8.2 Apparatus for tensile testing and measuring peel and tear energy.
FIGURE 8.3 Tensile testing diagrams of peel and tear seal.
heat-sealed at each different temperature. As examples, the tensile test-

ing diagrams of peeled specimens prepared at 100, 105, and 124°C and
those of torn specimens prepared at 125 and 135°C are shown in Figure
8.3.
For the samples showing peel seal, the tensile load is kept almost at the
maximum after reaching the plateau value, which is dependent on the
heating temperature. On the other hand, with the tear seal, the tensile
load decreases after the initiation of tear seal. The reason for not obtain-
ing a sharp increase in the tensile loading just after the tensile testing be-
gins is because of weak bonding adjacent to the heat-sealed edge. This is
caused by radiant heat from the heating block and by the heat transfer
from the heating block, although the heat-sealed edge line is still straight.
The vertical lines were added in Figure 8.3 to clarify the integration
range (the range of the measurement of the peel energy) with peel dis-
tance at 5, 7.5, and 10 mm, as well as the tear point. The intersection of
the vertical lines and the load-displacement diagram is the range of inte-
gral calculation for peel energy.
8.1.8 Results of Tear Energy and Peel Energy
Figure 8.4 shows the relation between calculated energy (J/15 mm) in
the y-axis and heat-sealing temperature (temperature of melting surface)
in the x-axis, as regards the peel energy calculated from each load-dis-
placement diagram of specimens prepared at 100–125°C and tear energy
prepared at 125–135°C. For reference, the heat seal strength measured
by the JIS standard [1], the conventional evaluation method, is also
shown in the same figure.
8.1.9 Utility of the Peel Energy
From Figure 8.4 it can be seen that there is a boundary temperature of

the peel seal and the tear seal at about 125°C, based on the analysis of
peel/tear energy in certain commercial packaging films. Since either
heat-sealing temperature shows a smaller peel energy than tear energy
FIGURE 8.4 Peel and tear energy based on the parameter of temperature of melting sur-
face.
for the 5 mm peel distance, a fin shorter than 5 mm cannot be used to im-
prove heat sealing. This example, with a fin shorter than 5 mm, corre-
sponds to heat-sealed products using the impulse seal.
When the heat-sealed width is more than 7.5 mm, a broad temperature
zone between 105–124°C exhibited higher peel energy than tear energy.
This suggests that the peel energy is important for evaluating heat seal
strength. Since the conventional JIS standard method cannot distinguish
the differences among different adhesion conditions once tensile testing
is started, it cannot investigate strength by focusing on peel energy. Con-
ventional heat seal management establishes attainment of maximum
strength as the most important parameter. However, it is now possible to
analyze appropriate heat seal strength by examining peel energy.
8.1.10 Practical Applications of Peel Energy
Pouches are made from polymer films by heat sealing. “Crinkles” are
automatically generated in a pouch, since it is a plane bag being filled
with solid contents (see Photo 5.1). Pinholes and pouch failure generally
start at the ridges of crinkles and the intersections of the heat sealing
lines. In actual heat-sealed products, stress is often concentrated at one
point, not as in tensile testing where a uniform tensile stress is applied to
the heat-sealed films along the entire width of 15 mm. For instance, con-
sider a heat-sealed sample on which the maximum load of 30N/15 mm is
placed and assume also that the size of the load-concentrated width is
only 1 mm. This can be calculated as 30N/15 mm = 2N/mm, and it can be
understood that a pinhole is generated and peeling occurs even as a result
of such minor loading.
In actual heat-sealed films, peel exhibits a circular arc under loading
rather than the standard straight line, as shown in Figure 8.5. If the width
of peeling is assumed to be L, the peeling edge line becomes (p ´ L).
Moreover, the peeling area is (0.5 ´ p ´ L2). Higher energy dissipation
can be expected based on the experimental result with a width of 15 mm,
when L is more than 5 mm. In other words, if the width of the heat seal is
more than 5 mm, the line length undergoing stress is p times longer when
using the peel seal. Therefore, the stress on the unit length decreases un-
der the same load, because of the longer stress line. This can be used to
control the progress of peeling, as long as peel seal strength and the peel
load are balanced.
8.1.11 Applicability of the Peel Energy Methodology
A 10 ´ 10 cm size pouch was made of the same laminate films used in

FIGURE 8.5 Model of actual delamination process.
the experiment by heat-sealing all four sides. The pouch was filled with
water, and loading testing was conducted based on the JIS standard
method. Results of this experiment are shown in Figure 8.6 with pho-
tos.
The pouch failed at a load of 113N in the tear seal mode, when the
pouch was heat-sealed at 130°C. On the other hand, it failed at a load of
189 N in the peel seal mode, when the pouch was heat-sealed at 120°C,
and the width of peeling was at a maximum 7 mm. The shape of the peel
line was like a circular arc. This analysis confirms that the peel energy
methodology of heat-sealing is effective in preventing packaging fail-
ure.
FIGURE 8.6 Experimental results of JIS method.

Thickness and Heat Seal Strength of the Heat Sealant 123
8.2 THICKNESS AND HEAT SEAL STRENGTH OF THE

HEAT SEALANT
8.2.1 Introduction
When stress is applied on the heat seal line, heat sealing can be catego-
rized into two kinds, peal seal and tear seal. When pressure is applied
while the polymers are in the softening/semi-melting stage, the facing
heat sealant polymers encroach on one another on the melting surface at
the micron scale. In this state, after cooling, the peel seal of friction bond-
ing is generated.
On the other hand, above the melting temperature the heat sealant
polymers are liquefied and the facing heat sealant polymers are mixed.
The heat sealant polymers are unified after cooling, and the heat-sealed
films will be torn from the edge of the heat seal line by tear stress (see
Figure 1.4). Since tear seal can fail under some stress and easily causes
pinholes and failure in packages, the application of peel seal is desirable
for reducing the influence of the stress concentration in a small region by
absorbing/consuming energy through peeling [5]. (See Section [8.1]).
Since it can be presumed that polymer molecules have encroached on
the polymer crystals for the bonding of peel seal, it can be inferred that
the appearance of bonding depends on the molecular structure at a
sub-micrometer scale.
In the following section, the results investigated for peel seal correlat-
ing the sealant thickness and heat seal strength are discussed using co-ex-
truded co-polymer films of the polypropylene system as the heat sealant
polymer.
8.2.2 Mechanism of Peel Seal Using Co-Polymers
As shown in Figure 8.7, there are 2 types of polypropylene (PP):

isotactic PP in which there is regularity in the methyl group (CH3) and
hydrogen array; the other PP type is atactic PP, which has an irregular ar-
ray. The former is crystalline, hence, strong and hard. The latter is more
flexible. There is also a difference in melt characteristics, and ongoing
efforts have been made to expand the temperature range of the peel seal
by using co-polymers with ethylenes added during PP polymerization
process [6]. The re-forming of the co-polymer with a metallocene cata-
lyst makes it easier to control PP synthesis, and this is used to adjust the
heat sealing process [7].
A co-polymer of PP has been designed in such a way that the PE in the
co-polymer is initially melted and then the major PP matrix is melted
FIGURE 8.7 Orders of methyl group and hydrogen for polypropyrene.
once the temperature again increases. PP co-polymers are increasingly

applied for heat sealing, since several polymer elements can be blended
to match different sealant applications. In general, the blend ratio of eth-
ylene to a co-polymer of PP applicable as a heat sealant is 8–10 mol %.
At a relatively low temperature the co-polymer starts to melt. The
length sufficient to obtain heat sealing can be assumed to be 1/10–1/100
mm of the size of the polymer of one unit [8]. Considering also the finish-
ing of the heat sealant, it can be concluded that several micrometers are a
sufficient thickness of the heat sealant to obtain peel seal.
8.2.3 Materials for Experiment
In this experiment, the experimental material was selected with a main

focus on the thickness of the heat sealant. Co-extruded films were se-
lected in view of the fact that they are seldom affected by the laminate
strength between the heat sealant and the matrix films. In order to mea-
sure heat seal strength exclusively, it is necessary to use matrix films that
have a much higher elastic modulus than the heat sealant layers and to
use heat sealant polymers with a different thickness. “Nippon Polyace”
(the type name: NT) supplied from Nippon Polyace Ltd., a co-extruded
heat sealant film of PP and co-polymer, was used in the experiments dis-
cussed in this section. Table 8.1 shows the thickness specifications of the
films used.
8.2.4 Preparation of Heat-Sealed Specimens
To realize precise heat sealing, it is necessary to have reproducible

TABLE 8.1 Specification for the Materials used for the Testing.
Specimen Code Sealant Thickness Entire Thickness
A: 20T 3.5 mm 20 mm
B: 30T 4.2 mm 30 mm
C: 50T 6.4 mm 50 mm
D: 60T 7.5 mm 60 mm
heating temperatures and to minimize irregularities in the press pressure.

Heating and pressing were conducted using the MTMS kit (see Section
[4.2]), as shown in Figure 8.8. The sample was placed into and heated in a
0.08 mm metallic block with a guaranteed planarity of approximately 1
mm. To avoid making the melted heat sealant polymer thinner due to ex-
cess pressure, a press gap was installed by inserting a spacer to create a
space for heat-sealing equivalent to the thickness of each sample. Be-
sides the boundary temperatures of the peel seal and the tear seal, the
temperature of the heat jaw was adjusted to allow several different
heat-sealing temperatures. The film was pressed at an initial pressure of
approximately 0.2 MPa (see Section [6.3]) for the appropriate number of
seconds, as confirmed by the MTMS method (see Section [11.1]), and
then promptly cooled at a press pressure of approximately 0.03 MPa.
8.2.5 Tensile Testing
The tensile strength was measured by tensile testing based on the JIS
standard method.
FIGURE 8.8 Experimental conditions for precise evaluation of heat sealing.

FIGURE 8.9 Reinforcement for reducing elongation.
Since the bonding strength for tear seal is greater than the strength of
the matrix polymer film, the matrix polymer is elongated. Before tensile
testing, a thin transparent tape was attached as a reinforcement on the
side opposite the heat-sealed surface. The distance between the tensile
testing fixtures was set at approximately 30 mm, and the measurement
was conducted to minimize the influence of tensile stress in the matrix
films on the measurement for heat seal strength. Figure 8.9 shows how
the reinforcement tapes were attached to the heat-sealed specimen.
8.2.6 Effects of Thickness and Tensile Strength of Heat Sealant
Tensile test results of four different samples with different heat sealant
thicknesses after heat sealing and cooling are shown in Figure 8.10. A
heat sealant in this sample becomes molten state at more than 125°C.
There seems to be a meaningful difference between 3.5, 4.2 mm and 6.4,
7.5 mm in the experimental results of conventional tensile testing based
on the JIS standard. Because the thickness of a matrix film with the heat
sealant of 3.5 mm thick is as thin as 20 mm, the heat seal strength is “con-
cealed within” the tensile stress even when peel seal is formed at less than
125°C. Attaching the tape as a reinforcement markedly increased heat
seal strength, and heat seal strength was the same as approximately
15N/15 mm at 124 degrees near the peel seal/tear seal boundary, regard-
less of the heat sealant thickness, which ranged from 3.5 to –7.5 mm.
Using the data shown in Figure 8.10, another correlation between heat
seal strength and the thickness of the heat sealant, with one parameter be-
ing the heat sealing temperature, is shown in Figure 8.11. When the data
with reinforcement at 124°C, which is the upper temperature limit for
obtaining peel seal, is considered, the heat seal strength with heat sealant
of 3~6.4 mm thick exhibited the same strength, whereas that with the heat
sealant of 7.5 mm thick exhibited a slightly lower value.
In non-reactive polymer systems not containing metallic ions, the
bonding mechanism after melting is caused by the entanglement of lin-
ear macromolecules, including intermolecular frictional force and inter-
facial bonding. In the peel seal state, molecules of the interfacing heat
sealants encroach on one another, but only to a depth of 3–6 mm. There-
fore, it can be concluded that co-polymer at a depth of more than 7 mm
does not effectively influence intermolecular friction. From the experi-
mental results, it can be inferred that the favorable probability for bond-
ing of the co-polymer exists at approximately 3–6 mm (see Figure 8.12).
FIGURE 8.10 Relation between sealant thickness and heat seal strength.
FIGURE 8.11 Measured results of the relation between sealant thickness and heat seal
strength depending on heating temperature.
FIGURE 8.12 Probability model of heat sealing with co-polymer in the peel seal condi-
tion.
128
Synergism of Laminate Strength and Heat Seal Strength 129
The heat sealant becomes molten at 128°C, and samples 4.2–7.5 mm

thick demonstrate an excellent strength of 30N with reinforcement.
Elongation happens at 20N without reinforcement. From these experi-
mental results, it can be concluded that a heat sealant of approximately 5
mm is enough to obtain peel seal.
8.3 SYNERGISM OF LAMINATE STRENGTH AND HEAT

SEAL STRENGTH
8.3.1 Introduction
In the tear seal (cohesive bonding) without thermal degradation, it was

discovered from the investigation in Section [8.2] that the tensile
strength was higher than the tensile force applied to the matrix film. In
this section, the correlation between the laminate strength of laminate
films and heat seal strength is verified using the data for tear seal.
8.3.2 Correlation Between Heat Seal Strength and

Laminate Strength
The delamination strength of the transparent tapes used for reinforce-

ment was measured and found to be 3–4N/15 mm. The adhe-
sion/delamination strength of polymer films without any surface
modification was almost the same, regardless of different brands of
tapes, and this strength is mainly subject to vacuum bonding (see Figure
1.1).
The load-displacement diagram of heat sealed films displaying tear
seal, with a heat sealant 6.4 mm thick and heat sealed at 130°C (cohesion
bonding), is shown in Figure 8.13. This figure also contains the
delamination strengths of the adhesive tape used as reinforcement at-
tached to the film. The delamination force of the reinforcement was al-
most 3N/15 mm. The load-displacement diagram without reinforcement
reached 17 N, at which point the specimen started to show elongation in
the original films, and then the tensile strength showed the tensile stress.
Tearing along the heat seal line did not occur. The conventional evalua-
tion method [3,4] in fact prescribes this value of 17N /15 mm as the heat
seal strength.
Laminate strength was investigated with regard to laminate films con-
sisting of an outer layer reinforcing laminate and inner matrix layer ma-
terials. Here, the heat seal strength can increase to 28N /15 mm with the
addition of a reinforcement layer. The heat seal strength seems to be im-
FIGURE 8.13 Tensile testing diagram of tear seal (with cohesive bonding).
proved by a measure of 10N/15 mm. In this case also, tearing does not oc-
cur along the heat seal line. Given an adhesive strength of 3N/15 mm
between the sample and reinforcement, the tensile strength improved to
10N/15 mm with the addition of reinforcement, which is approximately
3 times higher. Based on observations of tensile testing, the mechanism
of delamination was analyzed, as shown in Figure 8.14.
During tensile testing, tensile stress is uniformly distributed over the
cross-section of the laminate films. Therefore, the total tensile stress is
applied at the positions shown by (ⵧ) and (䊊) in Figure 8.14. If the rigid-
ity of the surface matrix layer is slightly higher than that of the heat seal-
ant and less than the heat seal strength, delamination is produced at
position (ⵧ). At this point the tensile force is applied mainly to the heat
sealant layer, and it becomes elongated. The delamination is caused by
differences in the elongation of the outer matrix layer and the heat sealant
layer. As shown in Figure 8.14(b), “triangles” are formed from a fin, the
delaminated outer matrix layer, and the heat sealant layer.
8.3.3 Effect of Components of Laminate Films on

Heat Seal Strength
Figure 8.14(c) shows an analysis focusing on the delamination force

(1) and (2) the heat sealant polymer and reinforcement. Since the initial
tensile stress is applied vertically to the adhesion surface of the reinforce-
ment of the fin, delamination force (1) is transferred to the surface layer
of the fin, and delamination readily begins in the experimental specimen
with more than 3N.
As a result, a triangle is formed at the corner of the heat seal, and the
delamination force (2) [(tensile force) ´ cot q] is applied to the heat seal-
ant and outer matrix layer. In this experiment, the improvement of the
heat seal strength was approximately 10N/15 mm, that is, an increase
from 17N/15 mm to 28N/15 mm. Since the delamination force (2) is ap-
proximately 3 times higher than the adhesion force (lamination force),
the angle at this rate can be calculated as 71–72 degrees. The triangle that
is formed spreads until a heat sealant layer fails. From this investigation,
the heat seal strength measured by the conventional testing method was
the result of a number of factors: (a) the tensile force applied to the heat
FIGURE 8.14 Mechanism of the delamination generated at the heat sealed locations.
sealant, (b) the laminate strength, (c) the heat seal strength, and (d) crin-
kles created by non-uniform loading to the heat-sealed films with 15 mm
width during the tensile testing. If the elongation of the heat sealant and
the surface matrix layer is the same, no triangular shape is formed and
consequently no delamination results.
When the related elements are expressed as follows:

Heat seal strength: FH (N/15 mm)
Initial expansion force of heat sealant (after stress is applied):
FS (N/15 mm)
Laminate strength: FL (N/15 mm)
Initial expansion force of surface film: FC (N/15 mm)
Angle constant of delamination generation: k (approximately 3–4) then
the relation of each element and the generation of delamination is as fol-
lows:
1. If FS > FH
—No delamination is generated regardless of the laminate
strength.
—Peel at heat seal line.
2. If FL ´ k > FH > FS
—No generation of delamination. Elongation of the heat sealant is
suppressed, since it is constrained by the surface layer.
—Partial failure of the heat sealant.
3. If FH > FL ´ k > FS
a. For FC > FH
—Suppression/reinforcement of the heat sealant through inter-
action with surface layer. The potential for generation of
delamination is high.
b. For FH > FC
— Differences of elongation in the surface layer and the heat
sealant generate stress for delamination. Elongation of heat
sealed film is large, and the potential for generation of
delamination is small.
4. If FH > FS > FL ´ k
—No peel and failure on the heat seal line. The elongation is gener-
ated from the heat seal line.
—Potential for generation of delamination is high.
Schematic drawings of the relations discussed above are displayed in

Figure 8.15. The diagrams of tensile testing for each of the elements as
well as for the laminate film in the case of (1) (FS > FH), are shown in Fig-
ure 8.16. Although case (2) theoretically provides the strongest bonding
state, it might also be seen that a laminate strength of the condition (FL ´ k
> FH) cannot easily be designed.
In the temperature range that leads to peel seal, tensile strength is de-
pendent on heat sealed conditions on the heat sealed surface. Therefore,
it is less likely to be affected by other elements, and this corresponds to
case (1). It is possible to easily achieve case (1) as long as heat sealing can
provide peel seal.
The case of (FH > FS) corresponds to the condition of tear seal. Here
the occurrences of delamination are different and depend on various
conditions. The tear seal of a retort pouch with a thick (70–80 mm) heat
sealant of PP having high rigidity is an example corresponding to this
case.
The foregoing findings should prove to be useful indicators for design-
ing laminate films.
FIGURE 8.15 Heat seal strength and delamination correlated with film compo-
nents.
FIGURE 8.16 Elongation and peeling of sealant due to the difference of the tensile load-
ing constants.
8.4 SATISFYING HACCP REGULATIONS WHEN USING

HEAT SEALING
8.4.1 Background
HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point System) was devel-

oped in 1960s as a rigorous counter-measure to prevent the food poison-
ing of astronauts. As part of NASA’s strategy, the retort pouch, made of
polymer sheets, replaced metal cans. This permitted a more highly reli-
able asepsis technique and allowed for greater portability. The retort
pouch was first used in Japan in 1969 for packaging curry roux and was
rapidly applied. Packaging with a retort pouch is approved for food man-
ufacturing, according to the “Comprehensive Health Management
Manufacturing Process” prescriptions [9].
Retort pouch packaging is characterized by thinly finished materials
that are uniformly heated for sterilization. Retort packaging is one of the
most widespread packaging methods using polymers. The Food Sanita-
tion Law requires that retort pouch packaging meets the following
performance standards:
1. Light-blocking (protection against the oxidation of foods contain-
ing oils).
2. Heatproof (must protect against degeneration of packaging poly-
mer materials at 130–140°C, the temperature at which the polymer
materials are heated for packaging with heat sealing. Must also pre-
vent generation of toxic substances).
3. Resistance to pressure (must prevent damage during distribution
and freight; also guard against static electricity).
Satisfying HACCP Regulations when using Heat Sealing 135
4. Heat seal strength [23N/15 mm] [13] (guarantees adhesion by heat

sealing).
5. Impact strength against dropping (prevent damage during distribu-
tion and shipping; resist dynamic loadings).
Performance standards (3) and (5) depend on the reliability of heat

sealing. However, these are conventionally judged by random inspec-
tions of heat seal strength or mechanical testing of the actual products
concerned [13].
Random inspection of this sort does not meet the policy standards of
HACCP, which assumes a reliability warrant at the design stage of the
manufacturing system. With that in mind, this section discusses perfor-
mance evaluation results of heat-sealed retort packaging based on lim-
ited laboratory examinations prior to manufacturing. The following
methods, discussed in the previous chapters, which guarantee HACCP
standards of heat seal strength of retort packing, are applied in the
evaluations described in this section:
· MTMS (see Chapter 4)

· Simple analysis and evaluation methods of the thermophysical
characteristics of the packaging materials (see Chapter 4)
· Evaluation of the performance of the conventional heating
method (see Chapter 3)
· Identification method between peel seal and tear seal (see
Chapter 6)
· Utility of peel energy of peel seal (see Chapter 7.1)
8.4.2 Applicability of HACCP to Retort Packaging
HACCP is the approval system for manufacturing foods based on the

“Comprehensive Health Management Manufacturing Process,” which is
prescribed in Food Sanitation Law Article 7 Section 3, revised with the
law (No.101 issued in 1995) regarding Food Sanitation Law and Nutri-
tion Improvement Law. The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare es-
tablished five items (milk and dairy products, meat products, retort
pouch foods, seafood and related products, and soft drinks) as the ap-
proval objectives; that is, retort pouch food is one of these objectives. Re-
tort pouch packaging is one product within the objectives. HACCP itself
consists of two parts: HA (Hazard Analysis) and CCP (Critical Control
Point). When the role of heat sealing in retort pouch packaging is com-
pared with the performance standard of HACCP and the method of deter-
mining the performance is considered, it can be summarized in the

following two items:
1. Verified attainment of the fundamental 4 elements for heat sealing
packaging materials (see Section [3.2.2]).
a. It is necessary to know the melting temperature of the welded
layers of the packaging polymers.
b. The welded layers need to be heated to more than the melting
temperature.
c. The time to reach the proper heating temperature must be con-
trolled.
d. The range of the overheating temperature for heat sealant layers
and surface polymer materials must be understood.
2. Guidelines and confirmation guarantee for high-temperature pro-
cess and generation of internal pressure inside the retort boiler dur-
ing the specific operations of retort pouch packaging.
When the “QAMM” analysis [10] is applied, “pertinent items” and the
action method can be enumerated as shown in Table 8.2 according to a
standard requirement of HACCP. If a prior quantitative evaluation of
these action items can be conducted, then HACCP management of the
heat sealing process becomes possible.
8.4.3 Features of Sterilization in Retort Packaging
As for the retort product, the packaging procedure has the following
steps:
1. The product is placed into a polymer packaging material (pouch).
2. The filling entrance is closed by heat sealing.
3. High pressure/high temperature heating takes place followed by
cooling.
4. The water is removed.
Processes (3) and (4) are different from typical packaging processes. A
heating temperature of 120–130°C is applied in the retort sterilization
process. Since moisture at this temperature range is evaporated at atmo-
spheric pressure (see Figure 8.17), it is necessary to precisely adjust pres-
sure above the vapor pressure (0.2 MPa) corresponding to the heating
temperature [11]. The rate of temperature increase inside the pouch by
heating is determined by heater performance and the heating capacity of
the products inside the pouch. Although a problem does not occur when
TABLE 8.2 HACCP Requirements for Heat Sealing.
7 Principles of HACCP Managing Components Apply MTMS to HACCP
1 Hazard Analysis Grasp of a “inconvenience” factor of a heat seal Apply “composition origin analysis”
1. Packaging materials · Welding temperature · Data analysis of melting surface temperature
· Heat capacity
· Thermal degeneration
· Heat seal strength (peel. tear) · Measurement of strength based on melting
surface temperature
2. Equipment · Operation speed · Reflection of the laboratory data of temperature
of melting surface/film surface
temperature/press pressure
· Heating temperature · Dynamic measurements for surface temperature
of heating block and reflection of the data to
operation setting
· Homogeneous press · Verification with measuring temperature of
melting sample with actual materials and
machinery
· Self diagnosis · Matching of surface temperature and operation
speed of packaging machinery
3. Operating conditions · Production plan · Matching of packaging materials and operation
· Operation speed speed of packaging machinery based on MTMS
· Setting for management value data
· Dirt on heat sealed surface · Control for “dropping liquid” and “raised
powders”
· Considerations of heating time and press
pressure
137
(continued)
TABLE 8.2 (continued) HACCP Requirements for Heat Sealing.
138
2 Critical Control · Determination of welding temperature · Understanding of temperature of melting
Point surface for each material
· Setting for correct heating temperature range depending · Determination based on the data of MTMS and
on thermal properties welded specimens for each packaging material
· Understanding and homogeneity of surface temperature · Dynamic measurement for temperature of
of heating block melting surface and surface temperature of
heating block during continuous operation
· Monitoring surface temperature
· Setting for proper press pressure (suitable stress, · Measurement of “constraint” temperature of
homogeneous loading) melting surface of wet paper
· Control for cleanness of heat-sealed surface · Application of the control against “dropping
liquid” and “raised powders”
· Consideration of extended heating
temperature/press time
· Polyball
3 Critical limit · Setting of operating method that guarantees temperature · Necessity of control criteria of temperature
range of proper heating and heating speed of each standard of melting surface [Standardization of
packaging material CCP items]
4 Monitoring · Setting control values for each packaging material · Measurements of welding temperature and
· Understanding and homogenization of surface response speed of each packaging material
temperature of heating blocks (each lot)
· Optimization of press pressure (sufficient and · Regular measurements
homogeneous loading)
(continued)
TABLE 8.2 (continued) HACCP Requirements for Heat Sealing.
5 Corrective action · Theoretical cancellation or control of problem factors · Analysis of phenomenon of temperature
standard of melting surface
6 Verification · Exclusion of empirical-based rules · Automatic monitoring of surface
· Setting of temperature standard for the melting surface temperature/operation speed (including
preventive monitoring)
· All numerical and automatic operation
monitoring of surface temperature changes
7 Keeping records · Reliable record management of troubleshooting and · Automatic recording of causes of problems
problems in controlling settings
139
FIGURE 8.17 Temperature and vapor pressure of water [11].
heating and cooling rates are set to be slower than the response speed,
which is determined by thermal capacity, heat deterioration of the prod-
ucts is still possible. Practically, a large amount of heat is supplied during
the heating process, and the temperature increase in the retort pouch is
accelerated with predictive control (feed forward). After heating, the
pouch is cooled by cold water circulated around its exterior. The pressur-
ized environment, greater than the pressure corresponding to the vapor
pressure at the set heating temperature, is achieved by adjustments made
during these operations.
The pressure to sterilize the retort pouch needs to be controlled as:
[internal pressure of the pouch] £

[external pressure on the pouch (internal pressure of the retort boiler)]
(8.1)
Figure 8.18 shows the change of the pressure difference between the
internal pressure of the boiler and the internal pressure of the retort pouch
during retort heating/cooling processing. This figure indicates that the
adjustment of pressure did not work well and hence problems occurred.
The following two points need to be guaranteed with regard to heat
sealing.
1. The heat seal strength must be sufficiently high to withstand the

stress caused by a potential pressure difference [(internal pressure)
– (external pressure)] (maximum 0.2 MPa), in the event that the
pressurizing control fails.
2. The heat sealant must be designed so that the heat-sealed surface
FIGURE 8.18 Temperature behavior in the retort oven and temperature change in the re-
tort pouch.
does not undergo softening at the heating temperature range used

for retort processing.
8.4.4 Confirmation and Objectives of HACCP
In Table 8.2, the methods discussed in Chapters 3 to 7, including the

procedures of MTMS, are applied to the HACCP—pertinent items,
which are specified in Table 8.2. This enables one to confirm the numeri-
cal values for the following items:
1. (Liquefying) melting temperature (°C)

· Data collection at the temperature range of tear seal
· Data collection regarding overheating
2. Minimum welding temperature (°C)
· Data collection for the onset temperature of peel seal
· Confirmation of any temperature overlap with the temperature
range of retort processing.
3. Temperature difference between the retort temperature and mini-
mum welding temperature (°C)
· Confirmation of temperature overlap with the temperature
range for retort processing of heat sealant
· [HA] guarantee information for HACCP
4. Recommended temperature range for welding (°C)
5. Heat seal strength (N/15 mm)
6. Adjustment target temperature of melting surface (°C)
· [CCP] guarantee information for HACCP
7. Response of melting surface temperature of pouch materials, (Tef-
lon cover) 95% response (sec)
· Data collection for the heat capacity of packaging materials
· [CCP] guarantee information on HACCP
8. Conditions for proper and highest running operation
· [CCP] guarantee information for HACCP
8.4.5 Overview of Pouch Materials used for Confirmation
The pouch materials were supplied from a manufacturer currently sell-

ing into the commercial market.
Table 8.3 shows the composition specification of the pouch material.
TABLE 8.3 Compositions of Commercially-utilized Retort Pouch

Materials used in the Experiment.
Sample Code Supplier Composition
A AP PET12 mm/AL7mm/CPP70mm
B TY PET12/AL7/CPP70
C-a DN PET12/AL7/CPP70 (1)
C-b PET12/AL7/CPP70 (2)
C-c PET12/AL7/CPP70 (3)
C-d PET12/ON15/AL7/CPP70 (1)
C-e PET12/ON15/AL7/CPP70 (2)
C-f PET12/ON15/AL7/CPP70 (3)
D-a FM PET12/AL7/CPP70
D-b PET12/AL7/NYL15/CPP80
E MK SPR15/CPP70
F PET12/TCB-NR15/CPP60
G PET12/TCB-T12/CPP60
For example, the purposes of the material composition of the sample

whose code number is [C-d] can be explained as follows:
PET12 / ON15 / AL7 / CPP70

ß ß ß ß
Surface material Flexibility Gas barrier Heat sealant
Printable material Stressed material UV barrier Anti-tear material
Stressed material
The number after the alphabetical code refers to the thickness (mm) of
each material.
8.4.6 Thermal Characteristics of Pouch Materials for

Heat Sealing
The thermal characteristics of each material was measured using the

MTMS kit as follows:
1. Characteristic thermal properties of pouch packaging material
(temperature of melting surface and heat denaturation point) were
determined.
2. The measurement of the heat seal strength within the temperature
range showing the bonding of melting surface was carried out.
3. The response measurements of the melting surface and the surface

temperature of the material correlated with the changing surface
temperature of the heating blocks, were ascertained.
The integrated experimental results including thermal denaturation

(primary and secondary differentiation) indicated as (1) above, heat seal
strength measured by the conventional JIS standard method indicated as
(2) above, and tensile strength measured by the angle method for Sample
code [A] are shown in Figure 7.4.
The integrated experimental results response of the melting surface
and the outer layer surface indicated as (3) above for Sample code [A] are
FIGURE 8.19 Measured examples of the temperature response of melting surface tem-
perature and film surface temperature of retort pouch.
shown in Figure 8.19. The temperature range in this figure where the tear
seal occurs above the maximum proper heating temperature was qualita-
tively measured using the angle method, discussed in Section [7.2].
8.4.7 Experimental Results
The measured characteristic data of four representative specimens

within various pouch materials shown in Section [8.4.1] are summarized
in Table 8.4.
The measured data of the Sample code [A] can be transferred to the
HACCP management index as follows:
· Minimum melting temperature (heat seal strength > 5N/15 mm):
140°C
· A difference between retort temperature and minimum melting
temperature: DT = 19°C (when the retort temperature is assumed
to be 121°C)
· The liquefying temperature of the heat sealant polymer: 150°C
· Upper temperature limit for the melting surface: 160°C [from the
experimental data using the angle method]
· Recommended temperature range of melting surface: 147–160°C
[peel energy and heat seal strength; (more than 25N/15 mm) and
the minimum temperature of the tear seal]
· Heat denaturation temperature of the material used as the outer
surface layer: 170°C (This is correlated to the maximum
temperature of the recommended temperature range of melting
surface)
· The adjustment target temperature of melting surface: 154°C (The
middle of the recommended temperature range) [±6.5°C]
8.4.8 Selection of Heating Time and Heating Temperature
Based on the fundamental data of heat seal strength/temperature of the

melting surface, a diagnostic chart, Figure 8.20, has been worked out to
make sure that three following limiting conditions of HACCP guarantee
heat sealing
1. Temperature overlap between the retort temperature and softening
temperature of melting surface.
2. Guarantee of 25N/15 mm regulated by HACCP for retort packag-
ing.
3. Avoidance of any overheating that might cause pinholes and tearing
from the edge.
146
TABLE 8.4 Transfer List of the Measurement Results to the HACCP Evaluation Item.
Management Items A Sample Code/Material Composition
PET12/ON15/ PET12/AL7/
Materials’ Composition PET12/AL7/CPP70 AL7/CPP70 NYL15/CPP80 SPR15/ CPP60
Specimen Codes A B C-d D-d E
Welding temperature [Liquefying] (°C)1 148 150 150 140 150
Melting temperature (°C) 140 144 143 132 137
Difference between retort and melting tem- 19 24 22 11 16
peratures (°C)2
Recommended temperature range for melting 150–165 150–165 150–170 140–175 148–175
surface (°C)
Heat seal strength (N/15 mm) 39–53 39–56 45–68 54–78 33–48
Target value of melting surface temperature 154 154 157 150 154
(°C)
The proper maximum operation speed Press- (Sec/°C) 0.32/220 0.41/211 0.37/220 0.28/222
ing time/surface temperature (sec./°C)3 0.42/203
1
Based on the MTMS measuring of thermal properties.
2
[(Melting temperature)-121°C [Melting temperature]; Temperature of melting temperature at which the heat seal strength of approximately [5N/15 mm] appears.
3
Simulated from “response temperature data of melting surface” [with 180°C as maximum heating on the film surface].
Specimen E is at 170°C, press pressure; 0.10–0.15 MPa, Teflon cover; 0.1 mm.
FIGURE 8.20 Diagnosis of the optimum thermal condition for retort packaging.
Overheating is the case for Sample code [A]. In the area where plots of
heat seal strength do not overlap with the 3 limiting conditions are three
points. This is the area of proper heating. Although the proper tempera-
ture range could be confirmed, neither an actual operating heating tem-
perature or the heating time can be set from this figure. It is necessary to
select the operating condition from the response data of the temperature
of the melting surface, which is determined from the heat capacity of the
packaging material. The heating temperature at which welding is
achieved and the temperature where overheating will not occur, even for
the outer surface layer, can be selected from the data of Figure 8.19. The
proper heating temperature does need to be pre-selected to make the tem-
perature of the outer surface lower than the maximum limiting tempera-
ture. For Sample code [A], 154°C, the target temperature of the melting
surface, will be obtained in 0.35 sec during pressing of the film at 223°C.
The surface temperature of the material at this time is 179°C. This tem-
perature exceeds 170°C, at which heat denaturation of the surface mate-
rial is observed. A melting surface temperature of 154°C will be reached
in 0.42 seconds when the film heating temperature is 203°C. The temper-
ature of the surface material at this time is 169°C, and this is lower than
the maximum of the temperature range to avoid heat denaturation of the
surface material. As seen in Figure 8.19, it takes 0.54 seconds and 183°C
of film heating, for the surface temperature to reach 164°C, which is still
lower than the temperature limit. As a result, the allowed maximum sur-
face temperature of the heating block can be set at 203°C as a dynamic
heating condition. Overheating of the surface material can be avoided if a
heating level of approximately 163~170°C is selected in spite of longer
heating time. Moreover, the reliability of heating for the heat seal is sig-
nificantly improved. A verification of the HACCP specifications for heat
sealing of retort packaging could be confirmed from laboratory results.
At the same time, it must be recognized that, although the material
compositions are similar, film properties vary according to the
manufacturer. A more detailed method to set the temperature range of
proper heating is described in Section [9.6].
8.5 OBSERVATION, INSPECTION, AND UTILIZATION OF

EASY PEEL
8.5.1 Introduction
In practice, a stronger bonding for heat sealing, rather than the rela-
tively easy peeling of the heat seal, must be generated during production.
But, excessive strength can lead to an inability to open the package with-
out scissors or knives. Also, many consumers demand the convenience
of easy peeling and re-sealing of packaged commodities. However the
easy peel sealing technique is vulnerable in defending against malicious
tampering. The current, global safety environment requires new packag-
ing functions and tamper evidence for packaging with the easy peel.
The easy peel technique must achieve the following levels of perfor-
mance:
1. The “regular” seal must provide guaranteed protection against in-
ternal stress.
2. The package must be easy to open.
3. It must be possible to re-seal the package.
4. The contents must be secured by tamper-evident packaging.
In order to satisfy these requirements, it is certainly inexpensive and
industrially more advantageous to provide the easy peel function for the
heat sealed portion, although a method to separately add the re-sealing

function, such as a zipper system, is available.
To obtain the easy peel function in heat sealing, the following can be
done:
1. Heat seal strength can be decreased by the thermal degradation of
the heat sealant polymer.
2. This can be controlled with the addition of a small amount of
adulterants (reactive and non-reactive) that show the function of
partial bonding.
3. Peel seal [6], realized at the temperature range where the heat seal
strength starts to be shown, can be utilized.
Any of these methods requires precise adjustment during the heating

operation of heat sealing.
Although packaging products intended to meet consumers’needs have
started to appear in the commercial market, the performance levels stated
above have not yet been met. Photo 8.2 shows intravenous medication
packaging requiring easy peel performance.
In this section, the following points are investigated using commercial
packaging materials for the easy-peel packaging of bread. These points
are: (1) to precisely control the temperature of the melting surface by
MTMS, (2) to understand in detail the mechanisms for obtaining the heat
seal strength of easy peel packaging, and 3) to discover a more efficient
operating method.
8.5.2 Mechanism of Easy Peel
The methods for obtaining the easy peel function are mainly realized
by:
1. The tear from the edge and the delamination caused by installing a
thermally degradable layer within the lamination layer (see Figure
8.15), or
2. The peel seal of the heat sealant itself [6].
These mechanisms are shown in Figure 8.21.

The former case requires lamination of the layer which can be delami-
nated, and generation of the delaminated strips can be found on the de-
laminated surface. Such lamination can be costly. On the other hand, the
latter peel seal, using the sealant itself, can be realized with a single-layer
film. However, in this case the thermoplastic polymer materials have a

higher purity. Since their crystallinity is greater, the correlation between
the heat seal strength and heating temperature is sharpened. For this rea-
son, a narrower temperature range is required to control heat sealing [see
Figure 1.3(b)]. It is more difficult to control peel seal with higher purity
polymers. This is addressed by introducing a co-polymer, for example,
by mixing the ionomer and EPR in order to widen the temperature range
of the peel seal.
Today, the methods of co-extrusion or coating of co-polymers of PP, as
well as the technique of lowering the heat sealing temperature by adding
EBR to the heat sealant, are widely applied for easy-peel. In this section,
the method of applying the peel seal caused by the peel performance of
the heat sealant and the methods for measuring the phenomena of easy
peel are described.
PHOTO 8.2 Example of medical packaging with the application of easy peel function.
FIGURE 8.21 Explanation of the peel mechanisms on the heat-sealed surface.
8.5.3 Experimental Method for Easy Peel Performance
Commercial packaging materials for the easy-peel packaging of bread

were used as test materials.
The constitution of the materials is a 32 mm co-extrusion PP film with a
co-polymer of PP as the heat sealant. Heating was conducted using the
MTMS kit, and the pressing apparatus shown in Figure 8.8 was used. The
surface of the heating block was covered with Teflon sheet 0.1 mm thick.
The temperature of a pair of heating blocks was adjusted to be uniform,
and several samples were prepared by changing the temperature for heat
sealing. The gap between a pair of the heating blocks was set to be the
thickness of a film layer, and the samples were being pressed with the ini-
tial pressure of 0.2 MPa until the targeted melting surface temperature
was reached.
In order to achieve homogenous cooling and hasten the heat sealing
process, the heat-sealed portion was pressed with a flat metal piece at
0.03 MPa at room temperature just after the end of heating. Samples
were cut to a width of approximately 25 mm to make sure that the heating
and pressing were uniform. After heating and pressing, the cooled speci-
mens were cut exactly to the width of 15 mm for tensile testing based on
the JIS standard method [3]. Load-displacement diagrams were then
computer generated.
The maximum and minimum values of the load in the diagram for the
heat-sealed packaging films with peel seal were changed significantly. In
order to analyze the mechanism, the loading speed was set as slow as 0.8
cm/min and the resolution of the displacement was set at 0.05 mm. The
sample was placed on a metallic sheet, where planarity of several mi-
crometers was guaranteed, to secure the uniformity of heating at a micro
scale level.
8.5.4 Tensile Testing Result of Easy Peel Materials
The load-displacement diagrams of the easy peel package are found to

be completely different depending on peel seal or tear seal. The tempera-
ture range showing bonding was found by a preliminary heating analysis
to be more than 74°C, and the practical heat seal strength could be ob-
tained at a temperature higher than 80°C. Heating temperatures to bring
the temperature of the melting surface to 80, 84, and 86°C were selected,
and the load-displacement diagrams of these specimens are shown in
Figure 8.22. The heating temperature to bring the temperature of the
FIGURE 8.22 Tensile testing diagrams of easy peel packaging materials.

melting surface to 86°C resulted in tear seal of the molten adhesion state;
therefore, this heating temperature is inappropriate to realize peel seal.
A significant fluctuation in the load-displacement diagram after the
maximum load is reached was found in the samples heated at 80–84°C.
The JIS standard method suggests focusing on the maximum in such
cases (the ASTM standard method is the same). It cannot be known by
means of the JIS standard method how the maximum value from the data
in the experimental procedure is related to the performance of the peel
seal.
8.5.5 Change of Tensile Strength
The maximum and the minimum values of the tensile strength of the
specimen heat-sealed at 74–90°C were measured, and the correlation be-
tween the strength and the heat sealing temperature is shown in Figure
8.23.
Considering a report that co-polymer of PP was distributed like an “is-
land” in the PP matrix [7], it could be assumed that the maximum and
minimum tensile strengths are the bonding strengths of the co-polymer
of PP and the PP matrix, respectively. The minimum tensile strength (2)
from the measurements for the specimens heated at 75–90°C was the ten-
sile strength of the PP matrix, whereas the maximum tensile strength (1)
was the integrated tensile strength of both the copolymer of PP and the
PP matrix. The value (3) after the maximum tensile strength is subtracted
from the minimum tensile strength is the bonding strength of the
co-polymer itself. These calculated data are shown in Figure 8.23.
The tensile strength of the matrix becomes dominant above 84°C, and
it could be hypothesized that the integrated tensile strength will suddenly
increase, as represented by the dashed line. However, the measurement
results showed it remaining constant as 7.5 N/15 mm.
The tensile strengths of the specimens heated at 86–90°C are caused
not by the peel or tear from the edge of the heat-sealed line but by the
elongated film itself. The measured tensile strength of the heat-sealed
specimens is the tensile strength of the film. Various assumed tensile
strengths were added to Figure 8.23. (The interaction between the tensile
strength and the tensile stress of the film is discussed in Section [8.3.2]).
The maximum temperature to obtain peel seal for the packaging mate-
rial used in the experiment must be established as 84°C. Additionally, the
peel seal strength of the material can be known as a maximum of 5N/15
mm from the fundamental performance of the packaging material. It is
difficult to obtain higher strength with the same material.
When 3N/15 mm is selected as the minimum peel seal strength, the op-
FIGURE 8.23 Broadened temperature range for peel seal by combining two different
heat sealant materials.
timal heating condition can be set at 80~84°C, as determined from the

data in Figure 8.23.
8.5.6 Practical Applications of the Optimal Heating Temperature
When this result is applied to an actual manufacturing facility, it is nec-

essary to measure the heat response of the applied packaging materials
using MTMS, and to select the best combination of running speed and
adjustment temperature of the heating block.
The packaged commodity used in this experiment has double triple
layers. This means that a heat sealing condition is required that can cope
with two separate layers of 3 and 6 layers overall. (A detailed method is
explained in Section [9.6].)
8.5.7 Mechanism of the “Sawtooth” Pattern in the

Load-Displacement Diagram
Even when the tensile testing data of packaging materials are carefully
studied, in which the peel seal function is not particularly considered, a
sawtooth pattern is observed as the response of peel seal. Packaging ma-
terials with a high-performance easy peel function exhibit a more pro-
nounced sawtooth pattern.
When the results of tensile testing are analyzed in more detail, “lateral
stripes” consisting of peeled and weakly-bonded portions, correspond-
ing to sawtooth patterns, can be observed as evidence of interfacial bond-
ing on the peeled surface. This is shown in Figure 8.24(a). Moreover, a
small noise revealing the non-continuous peeling can be heard as the
FIGURE 8.24 Detailed analysis for marks of peel seal.

FIGURE 8.25 Analysis of mark generations on the peel surface.
peeling stopped and progressed repeatedly. It is assumed that large and

discontinuous energy conversion occurs during peeling.
A portion of the precisely measured load-displacement diagram for
the specimen heated at 82°C with an extremely slow loading speed of
0.8cm/min and a resolution of 0.02 mm is shown in Figure 8.24(b). The
correlation at (1)–(6) of the peel morphology shown in Figure 8.24 (A)
and the diagram shown in Figure 8.24 (B) is indicated in this figure.
Since approximately 10% ethylene is mixed with the co-polymer of
PP, it can be hypothesized that the macroscopic bonding spot is distrib-
uted like an “island” along the tensile direction at a ratio of 10%. The
added force of microscopic tensile distance (which can be assumed as
20–30 mm) and the spring stress of each adhered molecule will be mani-
fest as the tensile strength.
When the applied tensile load increases continually, the bonding mol-
ecules are stressed beyond cohesion and become detached as heat is cre-
ated. The applied stress to the remaining bonding molecules increases
cumulatively, and more and more molecules are separated. The in-
creased heating leads to a softening of the polymer. When the load
reaches a certain value, it can be assumed that the detachment of the
polymer molecules occurs with a cascade effect. This presumed model is
shown in Figure 8.25. It seems that bonding is incomplete at the heat
sealed portion showing the minimum tensile strength. However, the heat
Causes of and Countermeasures against Foaming in the Melting Layer 157
seal strength of this portion is 0.5N/15 mm, and thus, it could be assumed
that bonding was realized at the molecular level.
8.6 CAUSES OF AND COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST

FOAMING IN THE MELTING LAYER
8.6.1 Foaming Background
Laminate packaging films consisting of different layers of film, which

are adhered, are used to obtain superior barrier properties and rigidity.
Hydrophilic polymer materials, such as nylon, often contain volatile ele-
ments, including moisture, in the layers. The volatile elements are evapo-
rated when the films are heat sealed, and as a result foaming is generated
in the welding layer [11]. Foaming in the welding layer not only damages
the appearance of the heat sealed surface of the transparent films but also
influences the quality of the heat seal itself. Conventionally, a print layer
and a metallic foil on the surface or mesh marks using Teflon sheet are
added to make the foaming inconspicuous.
In this section, by focusing on the fact that the foaming (evaporation)
of embedded volatile elements depends on the vapor pressure of the vola-
tile elements, a new method for controlling foaming is introduced. The
method centers on the adjustment of the press pressure corresponding to
the applied heating temperature.
8.6.2 The Foaming Mechanism as Related to Heat Sealed

Locations
As press pressure and the foaming phenomenon were outlined in Sec-

tion [6.4], the behavior of the volatile elements contained in the packag-
ing materials can roughly be divided into two categories. Fibroid
materials like paper can retard or restrain foaming, whereas foaming is
expanded in the layers of polymer materials exhibiting low porosity.
Since paper materials deplete evaporative heating as evaporated ele-
ments move out of the heated portion, the temperature of the melting sur-
face is retarded or held back at the temperature corresponding to press
pressure until evaporation is completed. The paper milk carton box is a
typical example. When the moisture is being evaporated, it becomes
(22.4 ´ 103/18) = 1,250. Even after this, a small amount of moisture ab-
sorbed from the atmosphere leads to foaming while the packaging mate-
rial is stored. At this point the heat sealed surface becomes cloudy, which
leads not only to a poor appearance but to reduced heat seal strength.
FIGURE 8.26 Effects of foaming on heat seal strength.
8.6.3 Experimental Results
1. Specimen used for the experiment: PET 12 mm/Ny l.15 mm/CPP 60

mm.
2. Summary of the experimental method: The specimens are prepared
beforehand with pressure at 0.2 MPa at the melting surface temper-
ature parameter, and the data of the heat seal strength based on the
JIS standard method [3] were acquired. The data are shown as the
dashed line in Figure 8.26.
From this result, it can be determined that the boundary temperature of
the peel seal and tear seal is 155°C. Based on the information of this
boundary temperature, heating temperatures of 145, 150, 155, and
160°C were selected as parameters, and the press pressure was changed
to between 0.1–0.7 MPa using the device (a semiautomatic-type MTMS
press) shown in Figure 8.27. The prepared specimens were visually in-
spected for foaming. A gap adjustment stand was installed on the testing
device to avoid destruction of the heat sealant by high temperature and
high pressure outflow of the melt. Since the heat seal strength of the re-
tort package is expected to be more than 23N/15 mm, the target heat seal
strength needs to achieve this value. Hence, as can be inferred from the
dashed line in Figure 8.26, the heating temperature needs to be higher
Causes of and Countermeasures against Foaming in the Melting Layer 159
FIGURE 8.27 Heat sealing testing machinery with control of press pressure (semi-auto-
mated heating press).
than 145°C. For heating at 145°C a press pressure greater than 0.3MPa is
required. The results correlating visually inspected foaming on the
bonded surface with the parameter of varying press pressure, are summa-
rized in Table 8.5. The foaming condition between 145–150°C and a re-
sult of controlled foaming are shown in Photo 8.3. Controlling foaming
using pressure required application of higher pressure above 150°C.
Since the heat sealant of this specimen is liquefied at more than 155°C,
its viscosity decreases and hence formation of the foaming becomes eas-
ier. Consequently, precise pressure maintenance is required. Higher
TABLE 8.5 Summary of Evaluation for Foaming with the Parameter of

Press Pressure.
Operated Press Pressure (MPa)
Heating temperature
(°C) 0.20 0.23 0.30 0.37 0.43 0.50 0.57 0.63
145 ✕ 䊊䊊䊊䊊䊊䊊䊊
150 ✕ ✕ 䉭䊊䊊䊊
155 ✕ ✕ 䉭䉭䊊䊊
160 ✕ ✕ 䉭䉭䊊
Temperature correspond- 134 136 143 150 154 158 163 167
ing to the press pressure
(vapor pressure)
䊊: No visible foams, 䉭:Visible foams, ✕: Not transparent
press pressure is needed, probably, to offset pressure heterogeneities on

the press surface.
8.6.4 Change of Heat Seal Strength of the Foaming Location
The datum shown in Figure 8.28 is the load-displacement diagram

measured by the angle method (see Section [6.1]) of the specimen with
the foamed melting surface. In the case of typical peel seal, the load in-
creases linearly, as shown by the dashed line. It then reaches a plateau
value after the peeled length becomes 15 mm. One can conclude from the
solid line that the adhesion state is deteriorated by foaming. The tensile
strength of the specimens prepared at lower than 154°C, which is repre-
sented as a dashed line in Figure 8.26, is the same as the test result from
the angle method. As seen from this figure, deterioration in tensile
strength emerges at approximately 154°C, the point at which a heat
sealant is liquefied.
8.6.5 Effects of Gap Control on Creating Poly Ball in

High-Pressure Adhesion
During heating at more than 150°C for the tested specimen, the heat
sealant is almost completely liquefied. Since the vaporization pressure is
0.37 MPa, the melted heat sealant is forced by a press pressure corre-
PHOTO 8.3 Foaming on melting surface and results after foaming was controlled.
References 161
FIGURE 8.28 Tensile testing diagrams of formed melting surface measured by angle
method.
sponding to the vaporization pressure. As a result polyball is formed (see

Figure 5.1). Therefore, a gap control, allowing for self adjustment of
press pressure, can be effective. In this experiment, it was possible to
control and limit generation of poly ball when the pressure was adjusted
to create 30–60% of the thickness of the heat sealant after heat sealing.
This is shown as the solid line in Figure 8.26. This requires an accurate
understanding of the thermal characteristics of the packaging material,
and selection of a heating temperature in the region of the boundary
temperature of peel seal and tear seal.
9.1 REFERENCES
1. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP Patent, 3811145 (2006) (in Japanese).

2. Kazuo Hishinuma, US Patent 6,952,959 B2, Method of Designing a Heat Seal
Width, October 11, 2005.
3. JIS standard Z 0238 (1998) (in Japanese).

4. ASTM standard F88-00 (2000).
5. Mitsuhiro Kakuta, Kazuo Hishinuma, Proceeding of 12th Annual Conference of the
Society of Packaging Science & Technology, Japan, p. 86, June 2003 (in Japanese)
6. G.L.Hoh, US Patent 4346196 5-7 (1982).
7. Hiroshi Oomiri, Proceeding of 33rd symposium of the Society of Packaging Science
& Technology, Japan, p. 33 (2004) (in Japanese).
8. Menges Osswald, Kunihiko Takeda (Ed.), Materials Science of Polymers for Engi-
neer, Sigma Shuppan, p. 74 (1997) (in Japanese).
9. Food Sanitation Law Ordinance (in Japan) No. 82 on March 28th 1998: Article 1.
10. Home page of Hishinuma Consulting Engineer Office, URL: http://www.e-hishi.
com/qamm.html.
11. Kazuo Hishinuma, Journal of Packaging Science & Technology, Japan, Vol 14, No.
4, P.240 (2005).
12. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP Patent, 2006-70547 (2006).
CHAPTER 9
9.1 CAUSES AND CORRECTION OF PINHOLE

AND EDGE CUTTING
9.1.1 COMPLEXITY OF HEAT SEALING PROBLEMS
Current shortcomings in heat sealing can be summarized as follows:

· Adjusting the temperature of the heating block is the only control
point.
· Monitoring can be conducted only after heat sealing is carried
out.
· Available monitoring procedures are not well suited for
troubleshooting.
· Optimal heating conditions cannot be decisively confirmed. In
other words:
—The heating temperature cannot be verified.
—The proper heating condition is determined indirectly—from
heat seal strength.
—There is no protection against overheating.
· Testing requires long periods of time and the waste of expensive
materials.
· Yields become low when adjustments have to be made for a new job.
· The right heat seal conditions cannot be discovered for packaging
polymers.
· Device specifications emphasize mainly mechanical operation,
not material performance.
163
164 FUNCTIONAL IMPROVEMENTS TO THE HEAT SEALING PROCESS
· Heat sealing operations are managed with a high priority on

processing and manufacturing.
· The heat seal cannot be guaranteed.
· It is impossible to choose between peel seal and tear seal.
· Heat sealing devices cannot be made more efficient by
mechanical adjustment.
9.1.2 The Vicious Circle of Heat Seal Control
The common countermeasures to the above-mentioned problems are

higher temperatures and higher pressures. But even after applying these
countermeasures, a rational method of avoiding pinhole generation and
packaging failure, two of the biggest problems with heat sealing, has not
been realized. Using the conventional inspection method of JIS standard
Z 0238 does not lead to improvement, and in fact the solutions presented
in Figure 9.1 constitute a kind of vicious circle in heat seal control. In-
stead of correcting heat sealing defects, the “corrective” methods
perpetuate them.
Figure 9.1 shows the result of “Complex Analysis” [1] by “QAMM”
of the “vicious circle” of heat sealing problems and their so-called solu-
tions. As can be seen, the circularity lies in the fact than even though tra-
FIGURE 9.1 Heat sealing problems and “solutions”: a vicious circle.

Complexity of Heat Sealing Problems 165
ditional methods cause problems, once these problems appear, there is

no other choice than to resort to the traditional methods. In other words
the methods for addressing problems are the same as the causes of the
problems. These problems include pinholes and packaging failure,
which are due to the “solutions” of carrying out the heat seal operation at
high temperature and high pressure. In order to address pinhole and other
problems, it is necessary to scientifically analyze the relation between
heat sealing problem areas and their causes, and then to develop new
technology. The first set of results listed in Figure 9.1 is a part of the
cause of the problems and thus cannot form a solution. The second group
of results in Figure 9.1 exemplifies symptoms of problems, which obvi-
ously cannot form a solution.
9.1.3 Problems of Heat Sealing by “Complex Analysis”
What we have termed “complex analysis” is summarized in Figure

9.2, where previous analyses of the causal elements of the peel and tear of
the heat seal are presented (see Table 5.1), as discussed before, and ele-
ments and constituents related to different heat seal strengths (see Table
7.1). In this analysis, the following points are considered:
· Enumeration of problems ® Problems of heat seal management
until now.
· Enumeration of causes of problems ® causal elements of pinhole
and packaging failure.
· Analysis of problem origins/Classification of objective
phenomena.
Common elements essential to solving heat-sealing problems include
the following:
1. Avoidance of overheating ® Distinction between peel seal and tear
seal: angle method.
As an important incidental element,
2. Necessity of cushioning on the heat seal line.
¯
Utility of peel energy ® [Measurement of the peel energy]
¯
Utility of peel seal ® [MTMS]
To develop a method that can improve heat sealing using peel seal, the
166
FIGURE 9.2 Correlation of factors that cause heat sealing problems and decisions regarding solutions [Analytical results of complex causes].
following techniques are needed. One must be able to: (1) distinguish be-
tween peel seal and tear seal; (2) to measure peel energy; and (3) use the
MTMS kit.
9.2 UTILITY OF PEEL SEAL REGION
As shown in Figure 9.3, the thermal bonding of thermoplastic polymer

is classified as a peel seal (interfacial bonding) and tear seal (cohesive
bonding) depending on the heating temperature. At the heating condition
of the tear seal, the tensile strength of the heat-sealed films can be maxi-
mized, thus achievement of tear seal is conventionally sought. As dis-
cussed in this book, pinholes and packaging failure cannot be avoided
during the manufacturing process and in distribution even when a guar-
anteed tear seal with cohesion bonding is made.
This book has reexamined the peel seal, which was traditionally
avoided as an imperfect bonding. We have developed a new rationale for
focusing on the peel energy of peeling in the peel seal. How to use the
peel seal is discussed in the following sections.
FIGURE 9.3 Comparison of application range of heat sealing: tear seal vs. peel seal.
FIGURE 9.4 Model of distribution of two different polymers having different melting
temperatures.
9.2.1 Principle of the Peel Seal Region
As discussed above, thermal bonding of the thermoplastic polymers is

achieved when polymer surfaces are attached to each other. In the pro-
cess, the polymer molecules are initially entangled and then intermin-
gled (as shown in Figure 2.1) at high temperatures. As a consequence,
bonding is realized by the bonding force between molecules (Van der
Waals force). The degree of entanglement and intermingling of the mole-
cules is a function of the heating temperature. The temperature range for
providing peel seal is narrow for pure thermoplastic polymers, and thus
the slope of increase in the tensile strength with increasing temperature is
sharp. When polymerization is not uniform, bonding by heat sealing can
be less uniform, and the temperature range to attain peel seal is extended.
Considering how peel seal is applied in heat seal technology, a wider
temperature range is industrially more convenient.
The following strategies have been implemented to expand the tem-
perature range for obtaining peel seal:
1. Polymer-bonding temperatures are varied by creating co-polymers
within the polymer molecules.
2. Similar thermoplastic polymers, each requiring a different tem-
perature for bonding, are mixed and the mixture is processed to
make packaging films. When such strategies are applied, spots
providing the bonding function may be generated due to the dif-
ferent temperatures for bonding. This microscopic model is
shown in Figure 9.4.
Each spot’s bonding strength depends on the heating temperature.
Therefore, the heat seal strength measured by the tensile testing is the to-
tal of bonding strength of all the spots. The reason for the change in the
macroscopic peel seal strength is explained in Figure 9.5. This figure il-
lustrates two different heat sealants possessing different melting temper-
atures, denoted as (1) and (2). These were mixed in the experiment at
mixing ratios of 1:1 [Figure 9.5(a)] and 1:3 [Figure 9.5(b)]. Each bond-
ing molecule has a specific strength depending on the polymer type. The
bonding force of the bonding molecules on the small adhering surface
acts in parallel. Therefore, (bonding force of each bonding molecule) ´
(number of bonding molecules) is the measured tensile strength per unit
length. The maximized total bonding force is almost equal to the strength
of the polymer film itself. When each temperature range of the peel seal
zone for (1) and (2) is DT1 and DT2, the total temperature range of the peel
seal is DT. Therefore, the temperature range and the slope can be adjusted
according to the mixing ratio of two different heat sealant polymers hav-
ing different melting temperature. Data from samples of mixed or
co-polymer films are shown in Figure 4.13 and Figure 8.23.
Although the results of tensile testing on DT seem to be peel seal, (1)
becomes tear seal when the temperature of the melting surface is higher
than T. While the ratio of (1) is larger, the number of spots in the tear seal
region is higher. Consequently, the small torn pieces caused by the tear
seal are problematic for the packaging of medical products. The explana-
tion for the state of the delaminated surface with both peel seal and tear
seal is found in Section [8.5.2].
FIGURE 9.5 Changes in tensile testing diagram depending on the mixing ratio of two
different polymers having different melting temperatures.
9.2.2 Features of the Peel Seal
A way of utilizing peel seal is to take advantage of the peel energy of

the interfacial bonding as shown in Section [8.1]. This is a way of pre-
venting the generation of polyball, which causes pinholes and packaging
failure. As the characteristics of the peel seal of the heat sealing have
been discussed in this book, the processes that can solve the conventional
problems in heat sealing may be summarized as follows:
1. Generation of polyball can be controlled.
2. Flow in the melted adhesion layer (heat sealant) can be avoided.
3. Heating temperature can be reduced.
4. Peel energy can be utilized.
5. Failure stress on the heat seal line can be absorbed.
6. Existence of crinkles can increase packaging flexibility.
7. Concentration of the failure stress due to the rigidity of substrate
polymer film can be reduced.
8. Shrinking of the substrate polymer film can be avoided.
9. Press pressure can be selected more flexibly.
10. Delamination can be prevented.
11. Heat seal fin can be effectively used.
12. It is possible to reduce the thickness of the adhesive layer (heat
sealant) (® 3 mm thin).
13. Easy peel can be applied to the packaging.
14. Generation of small pieces of packaging material can be pre-
vented, when the package is opened.
15. Foaming on the heat sealed surface can be avoided.
16. Peel seal can be controlled by adjusting the temperature of melt-
ing surface.
The technologies are discussed in Section [9.7].
9.3 ACCURATE ADJUSTMENT TECHNIQUE OF SURFACE

TEMPERATURE FOR HEATING BLOCK
To reflect the experimental temperature data of heat sealing as related

to the manufacturing device, the accuracy of the surface temperature of
the heating block is crucial. As shown in Figure 4.2, elements that can
change the surface temperature of the heating block include heat trans-
Accurate Adjustment Technique of Surface Temperature for Heating Block 171
mission to the equipment’s structure as well as heat radiation from the

surface of both the heating block and its structure into the surrounding at-
mosphere. The surface temperature of the heating block is itself influ-
enced by ambient temperature change and thus cannot be kept
completely constant. Such changes occur slowly, on a time scale of often
minutes to hours.
Temperature changes of this kind can range from approximately a few
degrees to 10°C, and hence can cause trouble for heat sealing tempera-
ture control. In addition, variable caloric output values, temperature dis-
tribution of the heaters, and contact (or lack thereof) with the heating
block can actually affect the temperature change. Heating problems of
this type are typically addressed by increasing the heating block temper-
ature based on trial and error, so that the weakest bonding location can be
bonded stronger. However, when the heaters are changed, the same prob-
lems are repeated due to the change of the lowest temperature point. As a
result, the temperature distribution of the heating block can vary by more
than 20°C, which creates further problems for the control of heat sealing.
Figure 9.6 represents a situation that needs to be avoided. In this exam-
ple, only one sensor and one adjustment meter were connected in series
or parallel, and these are used to adjust two or more heating sources.
In this section, we introduce a more accurate technique for adjusting
the surface temperature of the heating block, one that more assuredly re-
flects design parameters [2]. The technique, which employs a sensor em-
bedded near the surface of the heating block, is presented in Figure 9.7.
In this method, the surface temperature of the heating block is detected
by the sensor, and the temperature is corrected based on the sensed tem-
perature. The surface temperature is corrected every few minutes, [the
FIGURE 9.6 Faulty temperature sensor adjustment setup.

FIGURE 9.7 Method to precisely adjust surface temperature of heat jaw [Ref: JP Patent
2006-146723].
172
Autoclave Processing 173
interval can be decided by the characteristic of the entire system (time

constant)].
In order to reduce the surface temperature distribution, a tube has been
inserted between the heat source and the surface of the heating block.
Only one side of a heating block pair is shown in Figure 9.7. However,
the same operation is carried out on both sides of the pair.
Figure 9.7(a) depicts a method for correcting a set value for adjusting
the temperature. The signals from the surface and the adjustment temper-
ature sensor are monitored with the judgment circuit to make sure that
the temperature fluctuation range is within 0.1–0.2°C per several min-
utes. When each value of each sensor is steady, the following operation is
conducted in the correction circuit:
(Desired surface temperature) – (Measured surface temperature) = DTs
(9. 1)
The target temperature for adjustment: Tc, and adjustment coefficient
to avoid over-correction: k, thus:
(Value of adjusted set) = Tc + Dts (9. 2)
where, k is the fixed value between 0.7 and 0.8, depending on the charac-
teristics of the system.
This operation results in a set value for the temperature adjustment me-
ter. The surface temperature and the adjusted temperature are monitored
for a few minutes after the setting is changed, and then the same opera-
tion is repeated. Because of the repeated operation, the surface tempera-
ture can be adjusted by convergence to the set value. The temperature
adjustment result of the heating block at this time is the median informa-
tion during operation; the temperature of the heating block is not the di-
rect object to be managed. Figure 9.7(b) shows the adjustment results
that stem from applying this method.
With this adjustment system, it is easy to manage the temperature for
the peel seal as well as the temperature boundary between the peel seal
and tear seal.
9.4 SIMULATION OF ARBITRARY MELTING SURFACE

TEMPERATURE
9.4. Introduction
To set the best heating conditions for heat sealing, it is necessary to

have an optimized combination of heating temperature higher than melt-

ing temperature and the right pressure for attaining the desired
temperature.
The experimental technique to measure the temperature of the melting
surface and the materials in proximity to it were presented in Section
[4.2.5]. As the temperature changes, it is necessary to directly measure
the temperature of the melting surface, in order to arrive at a proper heat-
ing temperature. Although the measurement is easy at room temperature,
the device for the measurements needs to be set for a high- temperature
environment, where the temperature range might be 20–30°C higher.
When the room temperature is set as a base point temperature, limited
data on the temperature of melting surface are acquired. In this section, a
new method [3,4] is presented by which the temperature response of the
melting surface at any arbitrary initial temperature can be computer sim-
ulated. Applying the simulation results leads to a discussion of a diagno-
sis and design tool to determine the “optimized temperature range” for
heat sealing.
9.4.2 Conversion of Heat Transfer System for

Heat Sealing to an Electric Circuit
Since heat capacity and the thermal conductivity are material-depend-

ent and material properties are not influenced by the heating tempera-
ture, the temperature increase is a function of time. A method to simulate
the thermal behavior of the temperature of the melting surface at the mo-
ment of heat sealing using this property is explained. A heat source, heat
capacity, and thermal conductivity can be modeled as a quantity of liquid
placed in containers with different diameters (C1–C3) linked by pipes
with different diameters (R1–R3), respectively. Thus, the phenomenon
of thermal conduction can be modeled, as shown in Figure 9.8(a).
Since the cross-sectional area of the container and diameter of the
pipes can be regarded as the capacitance C and resistance R in an electric
circuit, respectively, this can be expressed as R/C, the “first delay circuit”
as shown in Figure 9.8(b). Since this circuit exhibits the feature that the
heat flow rate and the temperature at each point interfere with each other,
it is possible to approximate one circuit that consists only a single pair of
R/C, as shown in Figure 9.8(c), which focuses on the input and output of
the circuit while the middle is regarded as a black box. The so-called
transients phenomenon, which replaces thermal conductivity and heat
capacity by electric resistance and capacitance, respectively, is often
used for the dynamic analysis of thermal conduction.
FIGURE 9.8 Conversion of thermal conduction of heat sealing into an electric circuit.
175
The “transients phenomenon” refers to the relation between the ap-

plied voltage and current in a circuit. To simulate heat sealing, the tran-
sients phenomenon can be used by replacing applied voltage and current
with heating temperature and heat flow, respectively. The transients phe-
nomenon pertains to “linear” phenomena insofar as the resistance and
the capacitance of the circuit remain constant regardless of changes in
the applied voltage. However, in heat sealing the molecular structures of
the thermoplastic materials change as a result of the heating temperature.
There can be softening, melting, and gasification in thermoplastics mate-
rials. As a result, due to such discontinuous (nonlinear) phenomena, the
transients phenomenon cannot be applied directly. Moreover, expressing
the phenomena of thermal conduction as concrete numerical values of
thermal conductivity (electrical resistance) and heat capacity
(capacitance) is not simple.
In analyzing heat sealing, it is sufficient to know the response of the
temperature of the melting surface as related to the initial and target tem-
peratures. To directly measure the exact values of constants of heat ca-
pacity and thermal conductivity is not an objective.
In the transients phenomenon, while parameters (C and R) of the cir-
cuit are constant, the response pattern can be decided based solely on the
applied voltage. That is, the response value at any arbitrary point can be
calculated by multiplying the change ratio if there is a single response da-
tum of thermal characteristics, since the relation between the response
value at each time and the applied voltage is proportional.
Crystalline thermoplastic polymers are examples of non-linear sys-
tems that appear to have a clear thermal inflection point. As a method of
simulating such a case, the boundary is placed at the thermal inflection
point, and the simulations are separately conducted for: (1) the tempera-
ture range from the initial temperature to the thermal inflection point,
and (2) the range from the thermal inflection point higher. It can be deter-
mined that the results are accurately simulated by connecting the two
separate results at the thermal inflection point. In order to simulate the
temperature of the melting surface for heat sealing, it is necessary, using
the MTMS kit, to measure several response curves of the temperature of
the melting surface for different materials as the base data. The analysis
can be conducted with these data using a PC after entering the digital data
in Excel. The result of this simulation can be used to evaluate the optimal
condition for two-step heating, where it is often difficult to evaluate the
influences of having to change the initial temperature to preserve the
packaging films and also to obtain fundamental data at high tempera-
tures. In addition, the simulation can also be used to modify the feed rate
of the equipment and/or as a preliminary verification of HACCP
performance, since the response of the heat sealing of the packaging

material can be easily simulated at the design stage.
9.4.3 Causes of Response Changes in the

Heat Sealing System
Factors relating to the response of the heating system for heat sealing
can be listed as follows:
1. Packaging materials: types and thickness of packaging material,

lamination method.
2. Heat generation source: heating capacity, regions of heat genera-
tion, heating block materials, volume and shape of heating block,
and the ways the heating blocks are attached to the machinery.
3. Heating system: heat radiation from the surface; the heating block
stand-by positioning (mutual interference of radiant heat); dou-
ble-side heating temperature (same or different temperature in a
pair of heating blocks); single-side heating; attachment to the heat-
ing block (press pressure); installation of cover material on the
heating body; and repetition rate in heating.
In order to analyze changes in the thermal response, it can be easier to

numerically understand this phenomenon using the transients phenome-
non for the electrical circuit, i.e., where temperature is substituted for
voltage. The thermal conduction response when heat is applied to the ob-
ject can be expressed as transients phenomena of a first-order delay.
When the fundamental elements are considered in the electrical circuit in
Figure 9.8, it can be redrawn as Figure 9.9.
FIGURE 9.9 Simulation of temperature response of the melting surface in heat sealing
as an electrical circuit.
9.4.4 Using the Step-Response Characteristics of a

Thermal Conduction System
Figure 9.8(c) depicts the simplified circuit expressing a heat conduc-

tion system. Given the following definitions:
C = Heat capacity of the system of thermal conduction
R = Resistance of heat flow in the system of thermal conduction
as well as the temperature of the heating source as Ei, the heat flow as i,
the temperature of the melting surface as Vc, and the temperature de-
crease inside the material as Vs, the relation between Ei and Vc can be ex-
pressed as:
i = dq/dt = C(dVc/dt) (9.3)
VR + VC = Ei (9.4)
Because VR = i × R and after substituting Equation (9.4) with Equation

(9.3), the following equation can be derived:
CR(dVc/dt) + Vc = Ei (9.5)
dt/CR = -dVc/(Vc - Ei) (9.6)
After integrating Equation (9.6),
(t/CR) + F = -log (Vc - Ei) (9.7)
Vc = Ei + e-[(t/CR) + F] (9.8)
where,
F = integral constant
When the initial condition is t = 0, from:
Ei + e – F = 0 (9.9)
Vc = Ei (1 - e-(t/CR)) (9.10)
can be obtained.
When Ei is applied as the step shape, the step response is obtained in

the graph where the x- and y-axes are time and temperature change, re-
spectively. The heating operation for the heat sealing corresponds to the
step response since the heating blocks at constant temperature press the
polymer films in a series of discrete moments.
When Equation (9.10) is taken into account, it can be understood that
the temperature of the melting surface, Vc, shows exponential change in
terms of time, and the exponent in the parentheses is determined by the
constant of 1/CR. If CR is not changed by heating, the response of the
temperature of the melting surface can be shown in the exponential as
simply proportional to Ei. Figure 9.10 illustrates this explanation. Al-
though the y-axis can be a temperature value, it can be generalized better
FIGURE 9.10 Simulation method for any arbitrary melting temperature from an experi-
mental datum.
if the y-axis is replaced by an index to the reference temperature. In the

discussion about the first-order delay response to the step function, the
intersection of the perpendicular and the horizontal axis from the inter-
section of the straight line of the slope (the primary differentiation) at t =
0 and the applied voltage (temperature) in a horizontal axis is shown as
time constant (1/CR) [sec], indicating the scale of response. The time
constant is decided from the resistance and capacitance of the system.
Therefore, it is constant, even if the applied voltage is changed. As a re-
sult, once the temperature response data of the melting surface is ac-
quired (from the MTMS kit), data containing the term of CR can be
obtained. This can lead to simulation results that are focused exclusively
on the heating temperature. This case is shown in Figure 9.10 as results
(1) and (2).
9.4.5 Simulation Method for Materials Exhibiting Linear and

Small Thermal Denaturation
Thin films and TYVEK®, which contain much less heat sealant than
the surface film, as well as non-crystalline thermoplastic polymers, do
not exhibit significant heat denaturation. Because this is the case, it is
possible to treat their parameters as linear. A simulation for them can be
conducted according to the following procedure.
There is no restriction on the initial and final temperatures for these
simulations. Therefore, only the heating temperature range of interest
must be selected. There is no need to deal with the entire temperature
range.
Next, the simulation time range is selected in the measurement data,
and is introduced into the following operations:
1. The range of use of the acquired data is determined for the simula-
tion.
Gathered data = D
Minimum value = TL1
Maximum value = TH1
2. The temperature range to be simulated is then determined.
Minimum value = TLn
Maximum value = THn
3. Using the data of the acquired data and the simulation condition,
TH1 - TL1 = DTL, THn - TL n = DTn
are calculated, and then the proportional coefficient is obtained.
4. Since the acquired data is not from an initial point of “0°C,” the ini-
tial point is shifted according to the proportion constant when the
proportion constant is multiplied. This difference needs to be cor-
rected. The calculation, including this correction, can be made us-
ing the following equation:
The simulation data DS at each time point is:
DS = D × (DTn/DT1) + TLn - TL1 × (DTn/DT1) (9.11)
The second and the following terms are constant for each condition,
DS = D × k + C (9.12)
This operation means that the simulation data can be obtained by mul-
tiplying k by the digital data stored in the personal computer. Figure 9.11
FIGURE 9.11 Simulation method for “linear” materials with small thermal denatur-
ation.
illustrates this data processing procedure. The simulation result corre-

sponding to Equation (9.12) is shown as the alternate long and short
dashed line. (1)–(4) shown in Figure 9.11 are the number of procedure
explained as above.
9.4.6 Simulation Method for Materials Displaying a Nonlinear

Inflection Point of Thermal Denaturation
For heat sealants with a thickness of more than 10 mm, the inflection
point of thermal denaturation is clearly marked, and the response does
not become a first-order response either prior to or beyond the inflection
point of thermal denaturation. If the same simulation as the first-order re-
sponse is conducted for this case, the shift of the inflection point of ther-
mal degeneration, equivalent to the proportion coefficient, is caused as
shown with an vertically upward arrow in Figure 9.12(c); a correct
simulation cannot be obtained.
Therefore, it is necessary to consider a new method to separately simu-
late the lower and higher temperature sides from the inflection point of
thermal denaturation, which remains fixed regardless of the heating
conditions.
This method can be explained as follows:
1. The inflection point of thermal denaturation is ascertained from ex-
perimental data.
2. On both the lower and higher temperature sides from the detected
inflection point of thermal denaturation each is separately calcu-
lated using the same simulation method as applied for the case of
small thermal denaturation (see Section [2.4]).
3. The simulation results on the high temperature side are united at the
inflection point of the temperature according to the time axis of the
simulated result for the low temperature side.
This simulation method is illustrated in Figure 9.12.
9.4.7 Simulation Results for Materials Exhibiting Linear and

Minor Thermal Denaturation
A simulation result at 149°C from data acquired at 119°C using a film

whose composition is OPP18/PE10/VMPET9/PE10/CPP8, is shown in
Figure 9.13. The measured data shown in Figures 9.11 and 12(a) were
used to carry out the simulation, although it must be noted that the mini-
FIGURE 9.12 Simulation method for “non-linear” material with large thermal denatur-
ation.
183
FIGURE 9.13 Simulation result for packaging materials with minor thermal denatur-
ation.
mum and maximum temperatures and the temperature of thermal dena-

turation can be drawn with the straight lines.
We were able to confirm that the simulated and measured response
data were well matched—within 2°C of one another.
9.4.8 Simulation Results for Materials Exhibiting a Nonlinear

Inflection Point of Thermal Denaturation
A simulation result at 180°C from the data acquired at 160°C using a

retort pouch film whose composition is PET12/Al7/CPP70, is shown in
Figure 9.14.
A difference was observed in the simulation and the measurement re-
sponse data at higher temperatures. A possible reason is that the thermal
responses at low and high temperatures are different. This simulation
was conducted in a wide temperature range, and approximately 10°C
with centering the temperature of thermal denaturation (in other words,

± 5 deg from the temperature of thermal denaturation) is demanded as an
actual necessary range for the temperature response.
Although there is a minor discrepancy here between the simulation re-
sult and the actual result, this type of data can still be used as simulated
and will prove useful.
9.4.9 Applicability of Optimal Heating by Two-Step Heating
In cases where one-step heating leads to a prolonged heating time, thus

causing faulty production of thick retort pouch packaging materials and
stand-up pouches having quadruple layers, a two-step heating method,
which pre-heats once and then heats again, is applied. An example of
how this simulation is carried out is fully explained in Section [9.4.7].
FIGURE 9.14 Simulation result for packaging materials with clear heat inflection point.
9.5 HOT TUCK AND THE EFFECT OF COOLING PRESS
Heat sealants can be liquefied by overheating in the temperature range

that leads to tear seal of the heat seal. Peeling problems occur on the ad-
hering surface when external force is applied before the adhering surface
is completely solidified. The reason is that the temperature on the melt-
ing surface is not immediately cooled even when the heating process is
ended. This phenomenon is called a “hot tuck.” ASTM standard method
(F1921) includes an examination method for hot tuck and provides a way
to measure the time intervals for achieving heat sealing and peel strength
at each heating temperature.
9.5.1 Cooling Procedure After Heating of Sealed Location
Figure 9.15 shows when a temperature change occurs on a melting sur-

face, which immediately after the heating procedure either had been
cooled by being pressed with a flat metal plate at room temperature or
naturally cooled in the atmosphere. A commercial retort pouch film ma-
terial was used as the sample.
When natural cooling is carefully observed, the descent-stopping tem-
perature is observed at approximately 102–103°C. Such a pattern results
from generation of a heat reaction phenomenon in the thermoset polymer
materials (re-crystallization).
Assuming that the temperature to stabilize the melting surface is less
than 100°C, 6.5 sec are required after the end of pressing for natural
cooling to reach this temperature. During this time hot tuck can appear
in the material. In such a condition, if an external force that can debond
the heat sealed surface is applied, the joining surface easily becomes
imperfect.
If a metal plate at room temperature is pressed to the heat sealed films
right after the heating operation is completed, the melting surface can be
immediately cooled. Cooling speed at this time is the same as the heating
speed.
9.5.2 Improvement to Avoid Hot Tuck Phenomenon by

Cooling the Press
The hot tuck phenomenon places limits on the cooling periods and re-
stricts handling products immediately after the end of the heat sealing
operation. To address hot tuck, efforts have been made in the design of
the packaging material to increase the viscosity of the heat sealant in the
molten state.
FIGURE 9.15 Comparison of cooling rate with forced cooling and natural heat radia-
tion.
More secure methods of avoiding hot tuck are:

1. Installing a cooling process immediately after heating. The seal is
welded with pressure and promptly cools to room temperature.
2. Setting the temperature of the melting surface to the boundary tem-
perature of peel seal and tear seal to avoid liquefying the heat seal-
ant.
The cooling of the press with the cooled block immediately after heat
sealing also provides the supplemental benefit of smoothing the heat
sealed surface and avoiding imperfect bonding caused by distortion
stress from filled products (see Figure 5.3).
9.6 PRACTICE OF OPTIMIZATION OF HEATING

TEMPERATURE
9.6.1 Introduction
Heat sealing is achieved under the following four conditions (see Sec-
tion [3.2.2]):
1. The melting layer must reach a sufficiently high temperature.

2. The point in time the proper temperature is reached must be con-

firmable.
3. The time it takes to reach the temperature must be known and moni-
tored.
4. The heating temperature must be kept lower than a level that causes
thermal degradation in the polymer materials.
This chapter discusses how the reliability of these conditions can be

sustained and shows how this information can be adapted to manufactur-
ing. Several key parameters can be summarized as follows:
1. Determining the maximum temperature to avoid overheating.
2. Avoiding deficient heating, determining the minimum heating tem-
perature, depending on the requirements of easy peel.
3. Understanding the precise settings and heating temperature fluctu-
ations in actual heat sealing machinery.
4. Realizing that properties of heat sealed films depend on the materi-
als used.
5. Knowing how to manage the range of acceptable heating and to
guarantee the set heating condition.
9.6.2 Potential Problems due to Changes in Heating Time

and Temperature
Traditionally, the conditions of heating temperature and heating time

were entirely determined by the demands of the production process. Spe-
cific characteristics of the packaging materials were not considered. For
example, when the heating temperature is increased, the heating time for
each processing cycle can be shortened. However, the duration within the
proper heating temperature range might require high-speed press/cool
processing, such as 10°C/0.01 sec. In a case like this, it is necessary to
consider the thickness of the packaging films, the elimination of the Tef-
lon cover from the surface of the heating block, as well as the surface fin-
ish smoothness, all of which can decrease the thermal contact resistance
between the heating block and the packaging materials, thereby lowering
the heating temperature. Making the cycle time as long as possible
(along with a reduced operating speed) is also effective. Although gener-
ally the heating block is covered with a Teflon sheet to prevent overheat-
ing, the Teflon cover becomes unnecessary if the packaging machinery is
operated at the proper heating temperature and excess high temperatures
are prevented (see Figure 6.8). Moreover, operating at the right tempera-
ture can provide degradation-free and fully automated processing in a

clean atmosphere and with improved yield.
9.6.3 Procedure for Setting the Optimal Heating Condition
A procedure to confirm the four conditions of optimal heating is pre-

sented below, and the chapters discussing the theoretical reasons are in-
dicated as references to earlier parts of this book.
1. The temperature of the melting surface can be understood through

the “metrology of thermal characteristics” and the measurements of
heat seal strength based on the parameter of the temperature of the
melting surface [see Chapter 4].
2. The maximum temperature that also avoids thermal degradation
can be verified by the angle method [see Chapter 7].
3. The width of the heat seal fin of the packaging form can be con-
firmed.
4. Peel seal or tear seal is selected, depending on whether the width of
the heat seal fin is larger or smaller than 5 mm [see Chapter 8].
5. The temperature range for proper heating is determined based on
the information above.
6. Three data points pertaining to the temperature response of the
melting surface, whose data curves are correlated with the changing
temperature through the temperature range for proper heating, are
acquired using the MTMS kit [see Chapter 4]. Missing data that
cannot be obtained by experimental analysis can be derived from
simulation analysis [Section 9.4].
7. A heating temperature that does not lead to overheating (within the
temperature range of proper heating) can also be determined from a
simulation.
8. From the heating temperature curves that vary through the “temper-
ature range for proper heating,” the combination of a specific tem-
perature for proper heating and a heating time can be decided upon.
(A matrix of heating temperature and time would have to be cre-
ated.)
9.6.4 Risk Management of the Optimal Heating Method
1. When the temperature setting is changed beyond the temperature

range for proper heating, one must be able to analyze the conse-
quences of the altered temperature, in order to manage risk in the
process.
2. When the heating condition providing tear seal is selected, the press
pressure must be less than 0.2 MPa, and a gap adjustment must be
made to the machinery, in order to minimize the generation of
polyball [see Chapter 6].
3. To avoid hot tack (tearing caused by external force before the com-
plete solidification of the welding surface), cooling must be carried
out immediately after the heating process (see Section [9.5]).
4. When the setting of the heating condition is highly risky, it is good
to adopt a “two-step heating method” (see Section [9.6]).
9.6.5 Different Heating Methods and Investigation of the

Width of the Heat Sealed Fin
Heating methods are often selected based on packaging forms and

shapes. However, a rationalized design for the amount of the packaging
materials and the functions of heat sealing can be carried out, if the heat-
ing method itself is chosen based on the width of the heat sealed fin.
These functions can be summarized as follows:
1. The amount of the packaging materials should be kept to a mini-
mum.
2. Tolerance to impact loading can be sacrificed.
Heat sealing at the boundary region of the peel seal and the tear
seal is applied (see Section [8.1.10]). The hot wire process (welding
and cutting), which provides a continuous peel seal and tear seal, is
appropriate [see Figure 3.13].
Problems with the existence of the heat sealed fin cannot be re-
solved, when only the tear seal is applied.
3. Pinholes and overall packaging failure need to be minimized.
4. The packaging forms to generate crinkles.
5. Prevention of packaging failure caused by liquid fill inside the
package.
6. Drop impact force needs to be absorbed. Utility of spring function
of the fin.
7. The heat seal fin must be effectively utilized. Utility of peel energy
of peel seal.
8. Tearing when the package is opened must be avoided.

· The adoption of peel seal (see Section [8.1]).
· Utility of peel energy.
· The adoption of “Compo Seal” (See Section [9.7]).
9.6.6 Proper Heating of Retort Pouches
Due to potential exposure to high temperatures (–130°C) and a low tol-

erance to microorganisms, the retort pouch requires the tightest sealing
of all heat sealed packages. If the heat seal for the retort pouch can be ac-
complished successfully, the highest reliability can be guaranteed. A
method related to HACCP was discussed in Section [8.4]. Here, a reli-
able method applicable to the heat sealed retort pouch packaging is
explained in detail.
Figure 9.16 presents the measured temperature of the melting surface
for the retort pouch. The optimal heating condition of the one-step heat-
ing method can be verified from this figure. The best heating temperature
range for this retort pouch sample was analyzed and found to be
147–160°C. The acceptable maximum temperature is set at 165°C, and a
trial with the heating block set at 223°C is evaluated. Due to the excess
temperature of the heating block, the surface temperature 1-2 of the re-
tort packaging film reaches the acceptable maximum temperature, be-
fore the temperature of the melting surface 1-1 reaches the temperature
range for proper heat sealing. Therefore, the 223°C setting was found to
be not suitable. When the temperature of the heating block is placed at
203°C, the temperature 2-1 of the melting surface reaches the minimum
required temperature at a point when the surface temperature 2-2 reaches
the acceptable maximum temperature. Therefore, only one temperature
point is suitable for heat sealing, and this cannot practically be imple-
mented in the manufacturing process. Using a heating block temperature
of 183°C, the temperature of the melting surface 3-1 reaches the mini-
mum required temperature within 0.53 sec. The surface temperature is
still in the limited temperature range, and 3-2 reaches the acceptable
maximum temperature at 0.61 sec. Therefore, the proper heating time
with the temperature of the heating block set at 183°C is 0.08 sec, i.e., the
difference between 0.53 sec and 0.61 sec. With a heating block tempera-
ture of 163°C, the temperature of the melting surface reaches the mini-
mum required temperature within 0.85 sec. Overheating does not occur
because the surface temperature does not exceed the acceptable maxi-
mum temperature. Using a temperature simulation for the melting sur-
face (see Section [9.4]), a heating block temperature of 165°C could be
FIGURE 9.16 Verification of proper heating condition with single-step heating.
obtained as the simulated maximum temperature (within the temperature

range of proper heating) without overheating. (A figure for this is not
shown). When the heating block temperature is set at 163°C, the temper-
ature of the melting surface reaches the minimum required temperature
within 0.9 sec. That is, heating at 165°C is a condition for the operating
speed that meets HACCP management requirements. When the heating
time of 0.9 sec. is converted into a cycle time at production speed, it is
approximately three times longer at 2.7 sec (see Figure 9.17), which
translates into approximately 22 products/min at the actual operating
speed.
9.6.7 Protection Against Overheating and Rapid Processability

using a Two-Step Heating Method
In a two-step heating method, the major heating is conducted after pre-

heating. When this method is applied to thick retort pouch packaging,
productivity may be poor because of the longer interval between opera-
tions. Moreover the stand pouch can exhibit waves or curls in the quadru-
ple laminate layers. Traditionally there has not been a scientific basis for
temperature settings in two-step heating. Here, a rational two-step heat-
ing method, offering both reliability and high-speed processability, is
presented. Two-step heating is applied to the case of one-step heating, as
presented above in Section [9.6.6], and afterwards the functionality of
two-step heating is analyzed and verified. The packaging machinery for
two-step heating is equipped with dual heating stations. The method for
FIGURE 9.17 Correlation between the motion of heat jaw and heating time.
FIGURE 9.18 Verification of proper heating condition and faster operation speed for re-
tort pouch with double-step heating.
setting two different heating temperatures is explained in Figure 9.18.

The (inadequate) surface temperature of the heating block, which was
223°C for one-step heating, is used as the first stage of the two-step heat-
ing. The time of 0.28 sec [1-2], at which the surface temperature reaches
the acceptable maximum temperature within the proper heating temper-
ature range, is confirmed. At this point the heating of the first step ends,
even though the melting surface temperature, 134°C [1-1], has not
reached the minimum required temperature.
Simulated responses of the conditions of 134–165°C are carried out,
and these are connected with point [1-1] on Figure 9.18. The temperature
drop that occurs when switching from the first stage to the second stage
can be disregarded, because this is heat radiation from a very brief ex-
posure to air (see Figure 9.15). Since the heating times of the first and
the second steps are the same, because both involve the same process
on identical machinery, the time that pressure is applied is also the
same. Therefore, the total heating time of the 1st and 2nd steps is 0.56
sec (= 0.28 ´ 2). It can be verified that proper heating is achieved, since
the intersection [3] (Figure 9.18) of the time axis of 0.56 sec and the sim-
ulated response with the heating temperature at 134–165°C falls within
the range of proper heating.
As a result of this simulation, a cycle time of 71 processes/min can be
ascertained, which is three times more than the heating time. Similarly, if
203°C is chosen as the first-stage temperature, the time of 0.4 s it takes to
reach [2-1] at 147°C of the temperature of the melting surface is the inter-
val time, and the simulated response within the temperature range
(147–165°C) of proper heating for the second step heating can be com-
bined at [2-1] points. The intersection [4] of the doubled time line and the
simulated response is obtained. The cycle time at this time is approxi-
mately 1.20 sec, thus, the operation speed is 50 products/min.
The stability of heat sealing can be improved by lowering the tempera-
ture range for suitable heating, since there is some leeway in the time it
takes to arrive at the temperature of the melting surface, even when
203°C is applied.
The operating speeds for the heat sealing described above are summa-
rized in Table 9.1.
TABLE 9.1 Optimization Result of Heat Sealing Condition for Retort Pouch.
Double Step
Heating
2nd temp.:
Single Step Heating 165oC
Proper
Heating 1st temp.
Heating temperature (oC) 223 203 183 163 165 223 203
Heating time (sec) N/A 0.43 0.53–0.31 1.03 0.9 0.28 0.44
The permissible heating N/A 0 0.08 1.09 0.9 0.28 0.44
time (sec)
Cycle time (sec) N/A 1.29 1.71 3.27 2.7 0.84 1.20
Operation speed N/A 46 35 18 22 71 45
Heating time×3 = Cycle time. Adequate parameters
Operation speed = 60/cycle time (products/min).
9.6.8 Ensuring Consistency of Multiple Seals of

Easy Peel for Bread Packaging
The mechanism of the ease of peeling provided by the materials used

for easy peel packaging was discussed in Section [8.5]. In a test speci-
men, it was shown that the best peel seal zone exists between 80–84°C.
Numerous crinkles are generated on the heat sealed surface because of
the low rigidity of this film. As shown in Figure 9.19, three different plies
consisting of 2–6 film layers are generated for the heat sealing. For easy
peel, if the tear seal partially exists within the heat sealed width, it cannot
be well sealed when it is re-sealed again. The reason is that the bag is
damaged by tearing when it is opened. If the sealing is too weak, peel seal
can cause the package to open as a result of impact and stress during
distribution.
FIGURE 9.19 Temperature response of melting surface of 2—6 layers and evaluation
for optimized heating condition.
The temperature responses of the melting surface for three different

ply conditions were measured using the MTMS kit. These are shown in
Figure 9.19.
The response of the double-layered films is the fastest and reaches the
temperature range of proper heating after 0.19 sec, which is indicated as
point [3] in Figure 9.18. The heating source was set at 85°C, because a
tear seal resulted when the temperature was higher than the proper heat-
ing temperature. The six-ply layers reach the required minimum temper-
ature of the range of proper heating in 0.38 sec. At this point, the
temperature of the melting surface for the double layers has reached
84°C (2) of the acceptable maximum temperature. The temperature of
the melting surface for a quadruple-layer film is within the temperature
range for proper heating. That is, if a heating time of more than 0.34 sec
can be applied, any of three different layered conditions can result in peel
seal.
To verify the applicability of these results to industry, a belt sealing
method was used. Experimentally the back of a metallic tape was at-
tached to the heating block during heat sealing, and then measured using
the MTMS kit. Similar to heat sealing machinery in industries, the
heated films were sandwiched by the metallic tapes. In order to verify the
fundamental capacity of the thermal conductivity of the belt, the re-
sponse data of the heating block of 0.08 mm are also shown in Figure
9.19.
Next, it is confirmed whether the conditions of 84°C and 0.38 sec can
be practically used.
The packaging specification is set as the verification condition as
follows:
1. Heat seal length of the package: L (cm)

2. Pitch: P = k ´ L (cm)
3. Processing speed: N (products/min)
4. Heating time: tn (s)
From the above-mentioned conditions, the minimum length of

two-sided heating blocks, from which prescribed heating is applied to
the polymer materials for tn sec, can be calculated using the following
equation:
Assume the length of the heating zone is (H). It can then be expressed
as:
H ³ (P ´ N/60) ´ tn (cm) (9. 13)

For example, if the heat seal length of the products is L: 20 (cm) and the
interval, k = 1.5, then P = 30 (cm).
Operation speed 40 products/min
The time to reach the minimum required temperature for six-layered
films, 0.38 sec, is applied.
The length of the heating zone (H) is:
H ³ 30 ´ 40/60 ´ 0.38 (9.14)
and ³ 8 (cm) is obtained. This result is a good size to work with and does
not cause problems. Figure 9.20 displays this evaluation result.
FIGURE 9.20 Verification result of the practicability of the optimal peel sealing method.
Novel Heat Sealing Method Combining Peel Seal and Tear Seal 199
9.7 NOVEL HEAT SEALING METHOD COMBINING PEEL

SEAL AND TEAR SEAL: “COMPO SEAL”
9.7.1 Introduction
Traditionally, in high-temperature heat sealing the sealant layer is liq-

uefied, and the entire bonding surface is a tear seal. In peel seal, interfa-
cial debonding occurs at the initial stage of loading. However, the
temperature region providing peel seal is narrow and more difficult to
control compared with the temperature for tear seal. Up to this point
there has, in the heat seal field, been little discussion of combining peel
seal and tear seal. Moreover, there has been no instance of a planned way
to provide both peel seal and tear seal at the same time.
In traditional heat sealing that provides tear seal, the load is applied at
the heat sealed edge, and packaging failure from tearing occurs along the
edge, without any peeling. The tear stress is applied only to the heat
sealed edge line in the tear seal; the load is not distributed throughout the
entire bonded surface.
During high-temperature heating, the melted adhesive layer is forced
by pressure to the heat sealed edge line, and poly ball is formed. When
external force is applied to the sealed packages, crinkles that cause stress
concentration are generated due to non-uniform deformation. Where
more stress is concentrated, in the regions of polyball and crinkles,
pinholes can form.
Conventionally, as countermeasures, the adhesive layer is made
thicker or stronger materials are specified. In this case, the material cost
rises, or the heating temperature and the heating time need to be in-
creased. Either way, these solutions cannot be considered to be the opti-
mal means to avoid packaging failure or pinholes (see Figure 9.1).
Normally, in the temperature region of tear seal, the sealed surface is
cohesively bonded. Although the tensile strength measured by the JIS
standard method (Z 0238) can be high, a buffer function against excess
force at the bonded edge is not provided. As a result, any stress concen-
tration in a small region can result in packaging failure and pinholes. This
often leads operators to increase the thickness of the material and select
stronger materials. But, since it is not the performance of the packaging
materials themselves that causes packaging failure, the increased cost is
not justified.
On the other hand, with the peel seal, although the tensile strength is
lower than that with the tear seal, loading applied to the packaging mate-
rials results in peeling at the interface of the films. The reason is that en-
ergy, corresponding to the product of the strength times the peeled area,
is dissipated during peeling. The peel seal thus acts as an absorption

buffer against the loading. However, as noted above the temperature
range for achieving peel seal is quite narrow, only several degrees for
most heat seal materials. In addition, since it requires very sensitive tem-
perature adjustment methods the peel seal has been avoided.
As we have maintained in Section [9.2.2], where a method for produc-
ing peel seal is outlined, the achievement of peel seal can avoid polyball,
potentially damaging stresses, and pinholes, while at the same time it can
allow the use of lower-cost materials.
9.7.2 A Heat Sealing Method Combining Peeling and Tearing
The heating speed of the temperature of the melting surface is decided

on the basis of the measured heating units supplied from the heating
block. The heating speed is maximized when the heated film directly
contacts the heating body. Conversely, the speed is slower if the heat flow
is limited by a Teflon film or gap. This phenomenon is explained in Fig-
ure 9.21. Heat seal strength data correlated with the temperature of the
FIGURE 9.21 Delay of temperature response of melting surface by adjusting heat flow.
FIGURE 9.22 Change of heat seal strength: applicable temperature range for Compo
Seal.
melting surface can be obtained, as shown in Figure 9.22. If the heat seal-
ing process is carried out at the boundary temperature range that includes
both the peel seal and the tear seal in the heat seal strength curve, then the
peel seal and the tear seal can be mixed on the heat sealed surface. The
author investigated how to use both the tear seal and the peel seal to-
gether, in order to emplace the peel seal region on the heat sealed edge.
However, the way this was done was not practical, since it requires car-
rying out the heat sealing process twice. Alternately, in order to form
both tear seal and peel seal, the author investigated a heating block pro-
viding different heating temperatures by means of two heaters and a
heating block able to heat seal at a very low press pressure (less than 0.05
MPa). Although temperature adjustment was possible, the heating
blocks interfered with one another and pressing was irregular. The set-up
was not practical. Since heating temperature fluctuations can be reduced
if the heat flow rate of the materials that constitute the machinery itself is
utilized (see Section [6.8]), a method of installing a stand with a different
thermal conductivity and outside the heating block was designed. We
were able to create a temperature distribution on the surface of several to

ten mm for a single heating unit, as shown in Figure 9.21 [5]. This was
denoted as “Compo Seal” [6].
9.7.3 The Effects of “Compo Seal”
The effects of Compo Seal can be stated as follows:
1. Since heating at the boundary temperature of the peel seal and tear
seal can be ensured, optimum, bonding of the packaging materials
can be achieved within the heat seal fin.
2. Because excess loading applied to the heat sealed edge (which
causes tearing) can be absorbed by peeling, pinholes and packaging
failure can be prevented.
3. Insofar as the states of peel seal and tear seal can be made continu-
ous from the heat sealed edge due to the carefully graded tempera-
ture on the heat sealed surface, polyball can be controlled.
4. Since stresses can be distributed along the entire heat sealed sur-
face, packaging problems can be avoided, without resorting to
higher-cost materials.
5. Insofar as the heat sealing process can be adjusted using a rational
and proven procedure, reliability is increased.
9.7.4 Practical Procedures with the Heat Jaw System
The heat jaw can be applied to four-edge sealing pouch packages,

three-edge and two-edge sealing pouches, and mouth-sealing pouch
packages, as well as the lids of cup containers. The peel seal and tear seal
zones are arranged internally (next to the packaged products) and exter-
nally, respectively. More than 7 mm is required for the width of the heat
seal fin, where the tear seal width is 1–3 mm. The peel seal width can be
decided based on the use of the peel energy (see Section [8.1]).
This can be accomplished by installing a stand with a different thermal
conductivity on the outside of the heating block of typical heat sealing
devices. That is, a stand made of materials with a low thermal conductiv-
ity is installed in one section to create peel seal, and a stand with high
thermal conductivity is placed in a second section to form the tear seal.
For the section forming the tear seal, it is possible to use materials having
a thermal conductivity equal to that of the heating block, or embed the
stand under the surface of the heating block to adjust the heat flow rate.
Fluoro-polymers such as poly tetra fluoro ethylene (brand name: Tef-
lon), fluorine-treated glass fiber sheets and carbon fiber sheets, as well as
ceramic plates, etc. are desirable to use as a stand to adjust the heat flow
rate. Although the thickness of the stand will be different depending on
the heat sealed and stand materials, it can be between 0.1~2 mm. Al-
though stands for adjusting heat flow rate are usually installed on both
sides, single-side heating can also be used for this purpose. An example
is shown in Figure 9.24.
9.7.5 Strategies Using Impulse Heat Sealing
Figure 9.24 illustrates how impulse sealing is combined with sin-

gle-sided heating to achieve both types of seal. Two heater lines are set up
on a fixed trestle. The two lines must have the same thickness and be di-
rectly adjacent. A material with low thermal conductivity, Teflon for in-
stance, is positioned as shown in Figure 9.24. One heating wire (1) is
placed on the heat sealed film, whereas a second wire (2) is located under
the heat sealed film. Differences in the heat flow rate can be generated
without making changes in the surface. Also, insulation for both heating
lines is achieved. Although the heat flow rate can be adjusted by chang-
ing the sheet thickness, the two heating lines can be connected to two
separate power lines as shown in Figure 9.24 (bottom), and the heat flow
rate can be precisely adjusted by altering the power supply and the
energizing time of each line.
FIGURE 9.23 Method for executing “Compo Seal” using a heat jaw.
FIGURE 9.24 Method for executing “Compo Seal” using impulse heating.
9.7.6 Temperature Distribution Setting on the Heating Surface
The method of selecting the temperature distribution range can be ex-

plained using Figure 9.22. If the temperature on the heat sealed surface is
144°C at the end of the heating and the temperature at the boundary of the
heating stands for peel seal and tear seal is 156°C, it is possible to have a
peel seal region with a continuous heat seal strength from 10N/15 mm to
50N/15 mm. Since the temperature at the tear seal surface is 160°C, this
is the amount of heating needed to form the tear seal. The heat seal
strength of the completed heat sealed specimen can be observed in the di-
agram from (b) to (a). This is made possible by replacing the temperature
axis with the width of the heating block.
First of all, a stand to adjust the heat flow rate is designed. The surface
temperature of heating block (1) and (2) is set to be 3–5°C higher than the
above-mentioned temperature (a). Sensors to detect the melting surface
temperature are placed at a location about 1 mm from the outer edge of
the stand to adjust the heat flow rate and the midpoint of a stand within
the plane of the heat sealed films. By varying the thickness of the material
used as the stand in order to adjust the heat flow rate, the relation between
the pressure and the heating time can be obtained. Figure 9.21 shows the
integrated results of such a measurement. From this result, the time it
takes for the temperature of the melting surface to reach (a) is obtained,
and this value is used as the pressing time. Then, using this pressing time,
the thickness of the stand to adjust the heat flow rate is selected to provide
the temperature of the melting surface that leads to peel seal. Since the
temperature range causing the peel seal is 144–153°C, the thickness of
the stand to adjust the heat flow rate can be assumed to be approximately
0.3 mm, corresponding to a minimum temperature of 144°C.
9.7.7 Practical Examples
Below are Compo-Seal outcomes under the following conditions:
· Surface temperature of heating block: 165°C

· Pressing time: 0.38 sec
· Coating for adjusting the heat flow: TeflonÔ
· Film thickness for adjusting the heat flow (1): 0.3 mm
· Flap of the portion of peel seal (3): 9 mm
· Flap of the portion of tear seal (2): 5 mm
· Initial press pressure: 0.1 MPa
Figure 9.25 shows the result of tensile testing the “Compo Seal”. The
tensile testing result of the specimen heat sealed at 170°C based on a
thermal analysis (melting temperature) is also shown in the figure for ref-
erence. The Compo Seal proposed in this section showed the gradual ini-
tial increase of the load, and peel seal was clearly observed. When
loading reached 57N/15 mm, continuous peeling was observed, and the
specimen finally failed at a peeled distance of 0.85 cm, indicated as (d) in
Figure 9.25, which is in the tear seal region. The peel seal was excellent
until the peeled distance reached approximately 0.8 cm, which is at the
boundary region of the peel seal and the tear seal. On the other hand, the
heat sealed specimen with only tear seal showed sharper initial standing,
and then immediately reached yield point (c) at a peeled distance of 0.35
cm, at which point the specimen failed under a loading value of 51N/15
mm, which is less than that of the “Compo Seal.”
Tensile strength at each point refers to response to minor changes in
tension at each point. Therefore, the work at each measurement point is a
sum of [(Strength; N) ´ (distance between each point) / (loading speed) ´
15 mm]. If the same loading speed is used, it is possible to utilize the area
under the curve to compare the ability of various forms of packaging to
withstand failure. The ranges of integral calculations for conventional
and “Compo Seal” specimens were to points (c) and (d), respectively.
The obtained values were 9.9 and 41 for conventional and “Compo Seal”
specimens, respectively. These numerical values signify the capability of
absorbing energy from the load applied to the specimens. As a result, it
can be determined that the heat sealed fin provides effective prevention
against packaging failure, even if certain heat sealed portions of the
“Compo Seal” were partially peeled. An analysis of the peeling condi-
tion for “Compo Seal” (composite method) is shown in Figure 9.26. A
comparison between impulse sealing and hot wire (melting and cutting)
sealing is shown in Figure 3.14.
9.7.8 Industrial Applicability of “Compo Seal”

(Composite Method)
The structure made by the heat sealing of “Compo Seal” can prevent
tearing from the heat sealed edge. As a result, it is not necessary to in-
crease the thickness of the packaging materials. Since the method also
offers guaranteed reliability based on a rational approach, it has the pos-
sibility of replacing conventional heat sealing, especially with packaging
made of biodegradable polymers, where only peel seal is used seal or
with low-cost retort packaging.
FIGURE 9.25 Comparison between “Compo Seal” and conventionally heat sealed
specimen.
References 207
FIGURE 9.26 Peeling process of “Compo Seal”.
10.1 REFERENCES
1. Home page of Hishinuma Consulting Engineer Office, URL: http://www.e-hishi.

com/qamm.html.
2. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP patent, 2006-146723 (2006).
3. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP patent, 2003-201369 (2003).
4. Kazuo Hishinuma, Journal of the Society of Packaging Science & Technology, Ja-
pan, 15 (5) p. 271, (2006).
5. Kazuo Hishinuma, JP Patent, 2007-26377 (2007).
6. Kazuo Hishinuma, Application for trade mark in Japan, 2007-10191 (2007).
CHAPTER 10
10.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents troubleshooting analyses for the following cases

based on the theories discussed in previous chapters:
1. Analysis of heat sealing conditions for nonwoven fabrics and opti-

mal conditions for heat sealing them.
2. Investigating actual complaints about heat sealed packaged products.
a. Troubleshooting lid seals in paper cup packaging.
b. Evaluating improved performance of re-designed packaging
materials.
3. Analysis of the heat sealing properties of biodegradable polymers.
4. Causal analysis of heat sealed packaging under procedures regu-
lated by ASTM standard (F88-00).
5. Suggested collaboration on heat sealing among manufacturers of
packaging materials, manufacturers of packaging machinery, and
manufacturers of end products.
10.2 EXAMINATION OF APPROPRIATE HEAT SEALING

CONDITIONS FOR STERILIZED MEDICAL PACKAGING
MATERIALS (NONWOVEN FABRICS)
10.2.1 Introduction
Because products packaged in the USA have been contaminated with

209
210 CASE STUDIES OF ANALYSIS AND IMPROVEMENT OF HEAT SEALING FAILURE
harmful microorganisms, the FDA has recommended a “permanent

seal,” whose reliability is guaranteed. The heat sealing method using
heating blocks had to be formally examined from the standpoint of safety
and security. Tyvek®, a polymer sheet developed by the Du Pont Co. in
the United States, is made from 100% polyethylene fibers with a contin-
uous fiber length, which are heated under pressure [1]. Tyvek is widely
used as a worldwide standard of packaging material for medical applica-
tions. In order to withstand sterilization by gas and steam, Tyvek® sheets
are processed at the micron level to permit ventilation. As a result, the
airtight inspection methods based on pressurizing and decompression,
which are used to test heat sealing quality, cannot be applied. A further
serious limitation for medical applications of Tyvek is the fragments
generated when the package is opened, a necessary feature of the tear of
the heat sealed portions. The adhesive layer of Tyvek® is created by at-
omizing nanoscale particles of the polypropylene co-polymer on the sur-
face of fibroid polyethylene. The adhesive layer with the co-polymer
particles creates peel seal, and hence, guarantees easy opening, while
avoiding fragments when the package is opened. However, if by mistake
the heating temperature is too high, the packaging polymer material
melts and is forced to bond to the polyethylene matrix. At the same time,
the fibroid polyethylene shrinks and causes pinholes, as well as large
fragments of polyethylene when the package is opened. Being able to
verify the proper heat sealing condition for this type of packaging poly-
mer has long been desired. The following example is based on collabora-
tions with the School of Packaging at Michigan State University.
10.2.2 Verification
Issues connected with the heat sealing technique for medical packag-
ing can be listed as follows:
1. Guarantee of proper heat sealing in the packaging process.
2. Defense against malicious activity (tamper evidence).
3. Decreased or lost defense against microorganisms due to pinholes
generated on the heat-sealed surface by shrinkage due to overheat-
ing.
This section discusses results and data for (1) and (3) above.
10.2.3 Experimental Methods
Since the packaging material to be evaluated consists of two different

Examination of Appropriate Heat Sealing Conditions 211
materials, a transparent coating film and a substrate film of nonwoven

fabrics, the thermal characteristics and changes in heat seal strength
based on the temperature change of the melting surface are measured for
each component. In addition, the thermal characteristics and the heat seal
strength of similarly constituted packaging materials are also measured.
10.2.4 Results and Discussion
The experimental results are summarized as Figure 10.1(a), (b), and

(c).
Figure 10.1(a) shows the thermal characteristics and the heat seal
strength when the same substrate films (nonwoven fabrics) are
heat-sealed. It can be assumed that the fibroid PE does not take part di-
rectly in the thermal bonding in this sample, and nanoscale particles of
PP co-polymer on the surface of PE provide adhesion. Since this layer is
presumed to be less than 1 mm, and the thermal denaturation does not ap-
pear in the measurement of the thermal characteristics, the temperature
providing the heat sealing bond was preliminary and examined qualita-
tively. The proper heating temperature range and the possible heat seal
FIGURE 10.1 Experimental results.

FIGURE 10.1 (continued) Experimental results.
212
Examination of Appropriate Heat Sealing Conditions 213
strength were decided after measurements at about 90°C. The change in

thermal characteristics appearing at approximately 127°C stems from
the PE matrix substrate, not the adhesive layer.
The maximum heat seal strength of the matrix substrate is approxi-
mately 5.5N.
Figure 10.1(b) shows the thermal characteristics and heat seal strength
of the coating film. Notable thermal denaturation can be observed from
the data in this figure. The heat seal strength was measured based on de-
tailed information about the inflection point of the thermal characteris-
tics. The value of the heat seal strength of the coating film was over twice
that of the substrate matrix film.
Figure 10.1(c) represents a mixed response from both the matrix sub-
strate film as well as the coating film. Regarding thermal denaturation of
the melting surface, it can be concluded that the thermal characteristics
of the coating film are predominant. From three measurement results, the
thermal denaturation of the substrate matrix film and the coating film
was summarized and is shown in Table 10.1. From this it can be inferred
that the temperature range for proper heating is 98–108°C. Figure 10.2
also shows examples of the temperature response of the melting surface
FIGURE 10.2 Heating response and optimum time for single-side heating.
214
TABLE 10.1 Thermal Properties of a Composite Film.
Melting Melting Shrinking Melting of Substrate Substrate Film
Materials Started Completed Started Delamination Film Started Melted
Substrate film 85°C 100 127 132
Coating film 95°C 104 110 114
Composite 95°C 104
TABLE 10.2 Optimum Heat Sealing Conditions with Different Methods [Surface temperature (°C)/arrival time (sec)].
Surface Temperature of Heating Block (°C)
130 140 150
Heating Methods 110 120 (1)* (1.5) (2)
Double side heating 0.25– 0.19–0.32 0.17–0.22 0.15–0.18 Too fast
Single side heating Not enough Not enough 0.36– 0.21–0.36 0.17–0.23
Low Temp. Side;(35°C)
Impulse heating 0.33– 0.35–0.43 0.30–0.40
*The values within brackets ( ) are the duration in seconds (sec) of electrical conduction for impulse heating.
Case Studies of Lid Seal Failure in Paper Cup Packaging 215
when it is heated to the proper temperature range using three different

heating methods: single-side and, double-side heating, and impulse seal-
ing. The surface temperatures at 130°C, 140°C, and 150°C can be ob-
tained at 0.36 sec, 0.21–0.36 sec, and 0.17–0.23 sec with single-side
heating.
In the same way, a matrix of optimal heating temperatures and heating
times can be developed for the double-side and impulse sealing methods.
When layered or wrapped materials are not the same, it is necessary to
keep in mind that the heat sealing conditions will be different depending
on which films are attached to the heating block. Single side heating and
the impulse heating provide heating at the side of the coating film. The
results of suitable and non-suitable temperature ranges for this sample
are summarized as Table 10.2. The temperatures of 110°C for dou-
ble-side heating, 130°C for the single-side heating, and one second for
impulse sealing (depending on the machinery) are ideal conditions that
can be consistently used.
A suitable heat sealing condition for each testing specimen can quanti-
tatively be decided with following the procedure discussed above.
10.3 CASE STUDIES OF LID SEAL FAILURE IN

PAPER CUP PACKAGING
10.3.1 Introduction
Paper cups are used as general-purpose rigid containers for snacks,

dairy products, ice cream, and so on. The cups are made of cardboard
cut into a cylindrical shape. Portions of these are bonded into layers.
The top and the bottom of the cylinder are rolled, and a rib is formed.
The rib can be formed in a single rotation, while the piled (layered) por-
tions can consist of two or four pieces. Since difficulties have often oc-
curred at these piled portions, we investigated possible causes of the
problems.
10.3.2 Problem Presuppositions and Methods of Measurement
To verify that the cause of the problems lies specifically in the two- or
four-piece piled portions and is traceable to variations in the thermal
transmission based on the thickness of the piled materials, we compared
different temperature responses by measuring a number of separate posi-
tions on two- and four-layer materials using the MTMS kit. The mea-
surement method is shown in Figure 10.3.
FIGURE 10.3 Test method for confirming different thermal conductivities depending
on the number of layers.
10.3.3 Analysis Results
Figure 10.4 displays data typical of the measured responses. Curves

(1) and (2), representing the four-layer segment, do correlate to changes
in the heating temperature. However, the responses of segments with
FIGURE 10.4 Difference of measured temperature responses of melting surface at 2- or

4-layered positions.
Effect of Redesigned Packaging Materials on Performance Improvement 217
FIGURE 10.5 Troubleshooting analysis of strain in lid materials and different thick-
nesses of layered portions.
fewer than four layers, viz., curves (3) and (4) were found not to corre-
late, regardless of changes in the heating temperature. Although the
thickness difference between the four-layer and two-layer segments is
only approximately 0.25 mm, the temperature responses of the 2-layer
portions remained inconsistent, whether the temperature was 165 de-
grees or 35°C higher [see curves (3) and (4)]. We further investigated this
result by considering the influence of the press pressure on the responses,
as discussed in Section [6.3]. Incomplete contact was confirmed to be a
cause of distortion in the lid material. Figure 10.5 depicts the relation be-
tween the distortion of the lid and the responses. As a result of this analy-
sis and repeated experiments, the occurrence of problems in heat sealing
was understood to be caused by distortion of the lid material on the order
of 1/100 mm, which appears exactly in those portions having different
pile thicknesses.
Based on this analytical result, adjustments were made to the sealant
thickness, the size of the flap, the gap to maintain the rigidity of the rib, as
well as to the cooling (accompanied by no hot tack). These improved the
heat sealing process for paper cups.
10.4 EFFECT OF REDESIGNED PACKAGING MATERIALS

ON PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
10.4.1 Introduction
It has frequently been assumed that the quality of heat sealing is the
cause of problems in barrier properties. To address these problems the
polymers, the composition of the heat sealant, and the barrier layer were
modified. However, these alterations were based on trial and error, given
the absence of appropriate analytic methods. Below is an example of
electronics packaging requiring total air tightness. In this case it was as-
sumed that pinholes were generated during heat sealing due to tearing of
the aluminum layer. However, after the surface layer was redesigned and
the barrier layer was changed from aluminum to EvOH (EVAL), the ex-
pected improvement was not realized. This is an example of trouble-
shooting where the angle method, (see Section [7.2]) is applicable.
10.4.2 Experimental Method
The specimens were prepared to permit changes in the temperature of

the melting surface. Using the JIS standard method (Z 0238) and the an-
gle method, in which the heat sealing line is angled along the specimen
length to concentrate force on the heat sealed portion, we investigated
where peel seal and tear seal occur.
10.4.3 Results and Discussion
Figure 10.6 shows all experimental results as one figure. From the ex-
perimental results, the modified specimen (B) exhibits better tensile
strength, as measured by the JIS standard method than does specimen
FIGURE 10.6 Improved performance of the packaging material tested by “Angle

method”.
Precise Measurements for Heat Sealing Properties of Biodegradable Plastic 219
(A). Hence, the material properties appear to be improved as expected.

However, the experimental results of the angle method show that the tear
from the heat-sealed edge readily occurs in specimen (B), compared with
Specimen (A). Sample (B) was redesigned (in the change of the layer po-
sition of PET) with NYL as the surface layer, and EvOH (EVAL; produc-
tion name) instead of aluminum as the gas barrier layer. It could be
hypothesized that the factors preventing the expected improvement of
the L-LDPE laminate consisting of EvOH and the heat sealant are due to
a difference in the layers themselves. Moreover, it could also be posited
that the rationale underlying the redesign of the layer sequence was not
adequate.
10.5 PRECISE MEASUREMENTS FOR HEAT SEALING

PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE PLASTIC
10.5.1 Introduction
Biodegradable polymers are drawing attention as being friendly to the

environment and using non-petroleum-based materials. However, de-
fects can easily appear in biobased polymer structures, making it difficult
to substitute them for synthetic polymers. Because the heat seal strength
of the biodegradable polymers is lower than that of synthetic polymers
due to their crystalline properties, a workable method for the heat sealing
of biodegradables has not yet been established. This has limited their
packaging applications. The following section discusses PLA, a biode-
gradable thermoplastic polymer. It verifies and evaluates PLA’s heat
sealing characteristics using three heat-sealing methods.
10.5.2 Verification Method
The heat seal characteristics were evaluated as follows:
1. DSC was used for thermal characterization of the polymer materi-

als.
· Heating speed: 10°C/min
2. The method for measuring the heat flow rate described in Section
[4.3.2] was applied.
3. The heat seal strength of the specimens prepared under varying
temperatures of the melting surface was measured.
· Heating temperature accuracy (reproducibility): 0.5°C.
· The specimens were heated sandwiched between Teflon

sheets.
· The specimens were force-cooled to room temperature after
heating for the prescribed time.
· Initial press pressure: 0.2 MPa.
· The heat seal strength was measured based on JIS standard
method Z 0238.
10.5.3 Analysis Results
The experimental results from 3 different verification methods are

shown in Figure 10.7.
It is possible to conclude the following:
1. Notable thermal inflection points were seen at 60–90°C and
150–160°C in the measurements of the heat flow rate.
2. A clear transition was seen at 165–170°C in the measurement by
DSC. (This can be correlated to the melting temperature, Tm).
3. A clear increase in the heat seal strength was observed beyond
FIGURE 10.7 Heat seal properties of bio-degradable thermoplastic materials.

Precise Measurements for Heat Sealing Properties of Biodegradable Plastic 221
65°C, and approximately 80°C is a boundary temperature between

peel seal and tear seal.
4. At temperatures higher than 80°C, the heat sealing operation be-
comes highly problematic because of liquefaction
5. A practical heat seal strength of 5–6N/15 mm was obtained.
6. Generally, the melting temperature (Tm) of the polymer is a stan-
dard heating temperature for heat sealing. However, it was difficult
to apply this same standard to biodegradable polymers.
7. The temperature range for practicable and proper heating was in the
temperature range providing peel seal. (Sufficient heating to obtain
peel seal is indispensable.)
8. With additional experimental results from other specimens, it was
concluded that the heat sealing characteristics change, depending
on the content rate of D-PLA. When the D-PLA content is less than
2%, several specimens exhibit the heat seal strength of 20N/15 mm,
which is similar to average synthetic polymers. This runs counter to
previous findings that the heat seal strength of biodegradable poly-
mers is invariably low.
9. There is a clear difference between the tensile strength of the film it-
self and the heat seal strength of the heat-sealed films. This implies
that elements may exist that prevent intermolecular bonding by the
heat seal operation.
The temperature range for proper heating, heat seal strength, and the
tensile strength of the film itself were found to be:
Proper heating temperature: 68–83°C
Achieved heat seal strength: 4–5N/15 mm
Tensile strength of the film: 34 N/15 mm
The catalog of Treofan [2], the manufacturer of this polymer, states the
following:
Temperature range for heat sealing: 80–130°C
Tensile strength of the film: less than 2N/15 mm
As can be seen, the heating temperature range determined from the ex-
perimental results and the temperature stipulated in the catalog are quite
different. In particular, it was seen that the heating temperature range in
the catalog was the wrong temperature range for testing. This is consis-
tent with the catalog’s indicating a very low value for the heat seal
strength.
10.6 MTMS ANALYSIS OF FAILURE BY ASTM STANDARD

(F88-00)
In Figure 10.8, seven different “failure patterns” generated by tensile

testing of heat sealed films are illustrated in conjunction with ASTM
standard [F88-00]. It is recommended that the experimental values, as
well as these illustrated failure patterns, be reported together. The classi-
fication used in standard F88-00 reasonably expresses the different fail-
ure modes obtained from the tensile testing of heat sealed films.
However, the illustrated failure mode analyses have traditionally been a
problem. It has been difficult, for example, to specify the heating meth-
ods used to lead to the failures as depicted in the standard, and this has an
effect on the analysis. Because of problems with the heating methods, it
FIGURE 10.8 Seven different Failure modes shown in ASTM Designation: (F 88-00).
Collaboration among Packaging Material Manufacturers 223
has also been difficult to reproduce on a consistent basis the failure re-
sults as depicted. In a sense, it can be said that the causal analysis of these
failure modes is a solution to some of the past problems with heat sealing.
The main discussion of this type of analysis is based on Section [8.3],
and the results of the analysis and the examination of the seven (7) differ-
ent failure modes are shown in Table 10.3, which focuses on stresses that
appear during tensile testing. Our assessments are indicated using four
special symbols, explained below. In addition we cite measures to
mitigate the problems.
䊊䊊(double circle): Proper operation.
䊊: The heat sealant is elongated because of the cohesive bonding caus-
ing tear seal, which is due to overheating (FH > FS). The elongation can be
avoided if peel seal is created. Delamination and pinholes caused by the
elongation can be avoided.
䉫: Cohesive bonding is created. Noticeable damage occurs to the pack-
aging polymer material as a result of overheating (tear seal). It is neces-
sary to maintain the heat-sealing process within the “proper temperature
range for heat sealing.”.
䊉: This was caused by hot tack, which was created along with the tear
stress close to the melt temperature and prior to cooling. Jarring and
other impact need to be avoided during the cooling process, which
should be designed to occur right after heating.
In sum, each of the failure modes can be explained by applying theo-
ries developed in this book.
10.7 COLLABORATION AMONG PACKAGING MATERIAL

MANUFACTURERS, PACKAGE MACHINE
MANUFACTURERS, AND USERS
To achieve guaranteed heat-sealing the following points are essential:
1. A suitable packaging material.

2. A heat sealing device that can attain the fundamental and designed
performance levels of the packaging materials.
3. Proper settings of the operating speed, i.e., settings that match the
design specifications of the packaging materials.
4. Product quality and standards that do not deviate from the funda-
mental performances of both the packaging materials and devices.
224
TABLE 10.3 Analysis of Causes of ASTM Failure Modes.
Under Peel Seal Under Tear Seal Under Hot Tack
No. Failure Type Condition Condition Condition Remarks
1 Seal Interfacial 䊊䊊 127 FS > FH No problem
2 Material Cohesive 䉫 FH > FS Overheating
3 Material Delamination 䊊 FH > FS, Easy peel
FS > FL
䉫 FH > FS Overheating
4 Material Failure 䉫 FH > FS Overheating
5 Material Failure/Tear 䊊 FH > FS Highly rigid
material
6 Material Elongation 䊊 FH > FS Soft material
7 Seal + Material Peel 䊊䊉 FH > FS Stress at high
temperature
OO (double circle): Under controlled.
䉫, 䊉: Failure.
FH: Heat seal strength.
FS: Strength of sealant.
FL: Strength of laminate.
Collaboration among Packaging Material Manufacturers 225
Table 10.4 shows how each item is carried out in practice. Each item of
this table is a regulated HACCP item described in Section [8.4].
The author recommends better collaboration between the manufactur-
ers of (1) packaging materials and of (2) packaging machinery. A path-
way for incorporating consumer needs into the suggested exchange of
information, i.e., the collaboration, is displayed in Figure 10.9. In this
figure, key points of information are derived by using the MTMS kit.
TABLE 10.4 Factors for Achieving the Heat-Sealing Function in

Three Different Industrial Operations.
Classification Individual Element
1. Packing material 1. Melting temperature
2. Speed of thermal conduction
3. Thermal denaturation (overheating)
4. (As a result) appearance of heat-sealing strength
[1]
2. Packaging machinery 1. Operation speed (depending on the speed of
thermal conduction of materials)
2. Heating temperature (below the temperature of
thermal degradation of packaging materials)
3. Uniform pressing (for uniform heating)
4. (As a result) appearance of heat-sealing strength
[2]
3. Operation conditions 1. Production plan (based on the thermal properties
of packaging materials)
2. Operation speed (depending on the guarantee
speed of a packing machinery)
3. A setup of a management numerical value
®selected within the range of thermal proper-
ties of packaging materials as well as the ca-
pabilities of packaging machinery.
4. Pinch control of the filling thing to a seal sur-
face
Step 1: Positive achievement of a basic element
checks first
Step 2: The kind of cause of generating with a
faulty seal, Grasp of quantity
Step 3: Examination of a generation source ex-
termination measure
(Apply of “Liquid Dropping Control”, “Powder
Dancing Control”)
FIGURE 10.9 Flow chart of collaboration for heat sealing among industries.
10.8 REFERENCES
1. Web site of DuPont-Asahi Flash Spun Products Co., Ltd., http://www.tyvek.co.

jp/medical/.
2. Treofan (Germany), Catalog of BIOPHAN.
CHAPTER 11
11.1 PROPOSED NOVEL METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS

AND MANAGEMENT OF HEAT SEALING
Normal heat sealing inspection and analysis are not without problems.
For example, both the JIS [1] and ASTM [2] measurement methods ex-
amine the average tensile strength of a wide-sealed specimen. However,
for this reason, they are not well suited for inspecting and evaluating
problems caused by microscale stress concentrations.
· It has not been well-understood that such past problems represent

a phenomenon caused by overheating.
· For the guaranteed achievements of the heat sealing of the
thermoplastic packaging materials, it is necessary to understand
the temperature of the melting surface as an important parameter.
We have found it effective to use the temperature range in the
boundary temperature area between peel seal and tear seal to use
thermoplastics effectively as packaging materials.
· Current assessment methods do not employ a practical temperature
parameter, even though heat sealing is dependent on temperature.
· Throughout the world, heating time and press pressure are used as
indicators of heat seal strength in packaging materials. However,
it is difficult to reproduce the conditions whereby these indicators
can be used. Thus it is difficult to repeat exactly the results based
on them. As discussed in Section [3.2.2], rationalized heat sealing
entails an accurate understanding of four conditions for each
individual case:
227
1. Welding temperature of the melting surface.

2. The achievement of the melting temperature for welding.
3. Time it takes for the temperature of the melting surface to reach the
welding temperature.
4. Temperature that causes thermal degradation in the material to be
heated.
A new control method, which supplements the test methods of the JIS
and ASTM standards, is proposed below, based on findings discussed in
the previous chapters.
11.2 FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF NOVEL METHODS FOR

THE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF HEAT SEALING
I. Methods for Measuring the Heat Sealing Properties of

Packaging Materials]
1. Methods for Preparing Tensile Testing Specimens
1.1. Method of preparing heating specimens with 15 mm width
(1) The width of the heat sealed sample. A width within the
range of 20–25 mm can be selected.
(2) Sufficient opening for pressing the heat-sealed films:
(thickness of packaging film) ´ (1.0–1.5). (See Figure
11.1).
FIGURE 11.1 Experimental conditions required for evaluating heat-sealed specimens.

Future Directions of Novel Methods 229
FIGURE 11.2 Procedure to determine the proper pressing time.
(3) Initial press pressure: 0.15–0.2 MPa (It should be noted

that the pressure loading is changed when the specimen
width changes, even if the press pressure remains con-
stant.)
(4) The procedure for preparing heat sealed samples based
on the temperature of the melting surface is as follows:
(a) A microscale thermal sensor is applied, and the sur-
face temperature in the vicinity of the heating block
of the heating device is measured. A general-pur-
pose surface thermometer is not appropriate.
(b) The MTMS sensor is inserted into the test speci-
men, and the response of the temperature of the
melting surface is measured.
(c) The time it takes to reach approximately 70% of the
surface temperature is determined from the response
data. This time is multiplied by 5–7. (See Figure
11.2.)
(d) The time thus calculated is the heating time that
may be applied to the specimen in question. (The
heating time can be the same, regardless of the heat-
ing temperature.)
(e) A cooling block set at room temperature should be
applied at 0.03–0.05 MPa, just after the end of the
heating process.
1.2. Dimension of tensile testing specimens with 15 mm width
(1) A specimen prepared as in [1.1] is cut in the shape of a
trapezoid with a width of 15 mm at the heat sealed por-
tion. The heat sealed specimen needs to be cut from the

heat-sealed edge.
· Short side (heat sealed edge): 15±0.1 mm
· Long side: 25±2 mm
(2) Length from the heat sealed edge to loading position of
the specimen is within 30 mm1. See Figure 11.3.
1.3. Method of preparing tensile testing specimens for the an-
gle method
(1) A range of 20–25 mm can be selected for the width of
the heat sealed sample.
(2) Opening for pressing of the heat-sealed films: (thick-
ness of packaging film) ´ (1.0–1.5).
(3) Initial press pressure: 0.15–0.2 MPa.
(4) Heating temperature: the specimen is heated based on
the temperature of the melting surface. The procedure is
the same as that used in [1.1] above.
(5) The sample is heated at a 40–45° angle in relation to the
heating block. See Figure 11.4.
FIGURE 11.3 Tensile specimen with trapezoidal shape.
1Two different samples (a pliable sample of [PE: 30 mm] and a thicker, tougher film sample for retort
pouches (90 mm) were tested, using both the trapezoid-shaped specimens and conventional tensile
testing methods. Figure 11.1 shows the results. The tensile testing diagrams of the matrix films
themselves are also shown in Figure 11.4 for reference. Since the tensile force is absorbed by the
peeled surface and it is less than the elongation force, there is no difference in both diagrams for the
peel seal. In the case of tear seal, the bonding condition is cohesive bonding, and thus starting point
in a tensile diagram of a heat-sealed specimen is the same as that of the matrix film itself. The new
method causes concentration of the stress on the heat sealed edge due to the trapezoid shape, which
reduces the influence of the elongation of the matrix. Therefore, an obvious difference in the experi-
mental results can be seen. Depending on the measurement conditions, there are differences of
3–4.5N (30%) for PE and 38–50N (24%) for the retort pouch film. As a result, it was demonstrated
that the conventional control of heat sealing strength is clearly problematic.
FIGURE 11.4 Changes in tensile testing diagrams with trapezoid-shaped specimens.
231
FIGURE 11.5 Preparing heat-sealed specimens for the angle method.
2. Tensile Testing
2.1. Tensile speed: 50–100 mm/min.
2.2. Digitally measure the tensile force.
2.2.1. Observe the initial portion of the tensile testing dia-
gram:
(1) Linearity of the diagram of the heat sealed film;
look for precise changes in the diagram to iden-
tify polyball.
(2) Confirm the elongation properties of the speci-
men: (dT/dL)* This can be used to judge the
degree of rigidity. See Figure 11.6.
FIGURE 11.6 Observation points in the tensile testing diagram.

Future Directions of Novel Methods 233
FIGURE 11.7 Sampling locations for tensile testing.
2.2.2. Observe the tensile testing diagram: measurement of

maximum/minimum values (see Section [8.5]) and
Figure 11.7).
(1) Qualitatively evaluate peel seal.
(2) Qualitatively evaluate the functions of co-poly-
mers.
3. Using the Acquired Data
3.1. Determining the region of peel seal
The data from the angle method, discussed in Section [1.3]
of this chapter, for each temperature is integrated in the same
graph which is based on the temperature of the melting sur-
face, to extract the temperature of the thermal inflection
point. This temperature is assumed to be a boundary temper-
ature between the peel seal and the tear seal.
3.2. Determining an acceptable maximum heating temperature
The temperature of the melting surface corresponding to a
20% decreased tensile strength is assumed to be the maxi-
mum heating temperature (see Figure 7.4).
4. Procedure for Deciding the Right Heating and Pressing Times
4.1. Method for measuring the relation between the surface
temperature of the heating block and the temperature of the
melting surface
(1) Response curves (more than five) of the surface temper-

ature of the packaging film and the temperature of the
melting surface using as one parameter the temperature
of the heating block within the range of an assumed
temperature need to be summarized as a figure and a ta-
ble (see Figure 4.5).
(2) A matrix of the heating temperature and the heating
time is created using the temperature range determined
from the methods above in Sections [3.1] and [3.2].
(3) The needed temperature response for a detailed analysis
can be supplemented by the simulation method, using
data within the vicinity of the temperature (see Section
[9.4]).
4.2. Deciding whether to use a Teflon cover
(1) A matrix of the heating temperature and the heating
time is created using the procedure found in Section
[4.1] making sure that the same Teflon cover is placed
on the heat-sealing device.
II. Methods to Evaluate the Heat Sealing in Tension

of Products
1. Sampling Positions
(1) Straight portions.
(2) Corner portions. See Figure 11.6.
(3) Double heat sealed portions.
(4) When it is difficult to obtain a specimen width of 15 mm,
an arbitrary specimen width can be used and the results
proportionally converted to the results that would be at-
tained with a 15 mm width. (The precise width cut should
be noted.)
(5) If it is difficult to obtain the specimens from perpendicu-
larly different positions, it is still helpful to obtain speci-
mens for the angle method, since this expedites the
important identification of the difference between the peel
seal and the tear seal.
2. Methods for Preparing Tensile Specimens of Ready-made
Packaged Products
2.1. Prepare specimen for the JIS standard method.
2.2. Prepare specimen for the angle method.
References 235
Both are thus conformed to:

I. measuring the properties of heat sealed packaging ma-
terials;
II. methods for making tensile testing specimens.
(1) When it is too hard to obtain a specimen width of 15
mm, an arbitrary specimen width can be used and
the results proportionally converted to the results
that would be obtained with a 15 mm width.
(2) If it is difficult to obtain the specimens from perpen-
dicularly different positions, it is still helpful to ob-
tain specimens for the angle method, which again
allows one to identify. the important difference be-
tween the peel seal and the tear seal.
11.3 REFERENCES
1. JIS standard method Z 0238; Section 7, (1998)

2. ASTM standard method: F88-00
APPENDIX 1
Heat Sealing Issues and Troubleshooting

Methods Addressed
What are “time” and “pressure” parameters in heat sealing?
How does one determine the proper operating speeds of heat sealing ma-
chinery?
What function do you expect for the “wave type” seal?
Can application of peel seal be planned and predicted?
How does one manage heat-sealing strength?
Why does one apply Teflon sheet?
Why and when does one use single-sided heating?
How does one determine heat-sealing width (fin) size?
If packaging failure occurs, what countermeasures can be taken?
How does one manage the heat sealing process for simultaneous sealing
of two and four layers?
237
238 APPENDIX 1—HEAT SEALING ISSUES AND TROUBLESHOOTING METHODS ADDRESSED
What effects can be expected by using silicone rubber as a cushion?
How do you distinguish the difference between peel seal and tear seal?
How do you utilize peel seal and tear seal properly? How do you control
the difference between them?
How is HACCP used during heat sealing for retort packaging?
How does one demonstrate quantitatively a reliable and guaranteed heat

sealing operation/process?
How can one reduce the overuse of packing materials during heat seal-
ing?
How does one arrive at the right heat-sealing conditions for the impulse
seal?
How can one find the excitation conditions for an induction seal?
Why do you need an inspection machine for heat-sealing?
How do you deal with foaming on the heat-sealed surface?
How do you decide the thickness of the heat sealant?
How is laminate strength defined and what is it used for?

APPENDIX 2
List of Patents/Pending Patents

Discussed in the Book
1. GRANTED PATENTS
1. “Method of deciding heat sealing conditions for polymers,” Au-

gust 29 2003, JP Patent 3465741
Method of correlating measurement data of temperature of
melting surface and surface temperature of heating block Method
for setting the optimized conditions of heating time and heat seal-
ing temperature from this information Key patent of metrology
based on temperature of melting surface.
2. “Measuring method of temperature of melting surface for poly-
mers,” June 21 2002, JP Patent 3318866
Method for investigating the thermal characteristics of different
materials by detecting the inflection point of temperature inclina-
tion from temperature response data on their surface and compar-
ing it with the change in heat seal strength.
3. “Method of deciding heat sealed width”, June 2 2006, JP Patent
3811145
Method of preventing packaging failure and pinholes using a ratio-
nalized method to determine width of heat sealed fin and peel energy,
based on the comparison of peel energy [=(load) ´ (peel distance)] in
a tensile testing diagram until the tear of tensile specimens.
239
240 APPENDIX 2—LIST OF PATENTS/PENDING PATENTS DISCUSSED IN THE BOOK
4. “Method of identifying peel seal and tear seal”, Nov 10 2006, JP

Patent 876990
Method of conducting tensile testing using the specimens that
are prepared based on the parameter of the temperature of the
melting surface and whose heat sealed line is 45 degree inclined to
the loading direction, and of inspecting the difference of peel seal
and tear seal depending on the presence of the tear from the edge.
5. Method of setting heat-sealing condition, Mar.6 2001, US Patent,
US 6,197,136 B1
US patent equivalent to the combination of JP patents (1) and
(2)
6. Method of designing a heat seal width, October 11 2005, US Pat-
ent US 6,952,956 B2
US patent equivalent to the combination of JP patents (3) and
(4)
7. “Experimental device of heat sealing”, Nov 18 1998, Utility
model, JP 3056172
Automated <<“MTMS” Kit>>
8. “MTMS”, January 30 2002, Trademark, JP 4622606
Trademark of “MTMS”
2. PENDING PATENTS
9. “Method of heat sealing," March 2006, JP Patent 2006-70547,

pending
Method for preventing foaming by providing pressure related to
the temperature of the melting surface during the heat sealing pro-
cess for films (e.g., nylons) containing excess volatiles (moisture
etc.).
10. “Method of setting heat-sealing conditions for polymers,” June
2001, JP 2001-225173
The temperature of the melting surface is constrained to the
evaporation temperature as moisture contained in wet paper is dis-
charged to the atmosphere during the heat sealing process, thus af-
fecting the temperature of the melting temperature. The method is
designed to determine the proper heat sealing conditions for pack-
aging materials containing moisture.
Pending Patents 241
11. “Method of simulating heat sealing condition,” June 2003, JP

2003-201369
The temperature response of the melting surface with any arbi-
trary initial and ending temperatures can be simulated from one
datum of temperature of the melting surface by means of a per-
sonal computer. This laboratory method simulates changing con-
ditions of heat sealing as the surrounding (environmental)
temperature is varied and helps determine what is the optimal
two-step heating method.
12. “Method for adjusting surface temperature of heating block,” JP
2006-146723, pending
Method of automatic operation to correct temperature differ-
ence between the actual temperature influenced by heat radiation
from the surface and by heat conduction to structural components
and surface temperature, and of adjusting temperature to a target
value to an accuracy of 2–3°C.
13. “Heat sealed structure combining peel seal and tear seal,” JP
2007-26377, pending
Films are heated to create a continuous bonding state from peel
seal on the inner side to the tear seal. These are mixed by placing a
platen to adjust heat flow on the partial surface of the heating
block. Using this method, a portion of the heat sealed fin definitely
exhibits the maximized heat seal strength, which is often at the in-
terface region between peel seal and tear seal. When stress is ap-
plied to the packaging material, peeling occurs initially, and
energy from the loading stress is dissipated. This permits the peel-
ing function to be maximized. Since both peel seal and tear seal
continuously exist on the heat sealed surface, polyballs, which can
cause packaging failure, are not generated at the heat sealed edge.
Therefore this combined peel and tear seal drastically reduces the
chances of packaging failure. When the width of the average heat
sealed fin is used, a 4–5´ improved strength can be obtained.
Effective use of heat sealed fin and cost reduction with narrower
heat sealed fin can be possible.
This method is denoted as “Compo Seal" (trademark applica-
tion registered).
14. “Compo Seal” Trade Mark, JP 2007-10191
Glossary
Angle method The “angle method” is a test developed by the author to

distinguish between peel seal and tear seal. It uses an inclined or “an-
gled” heat sealed edge to apply an initial peel stress on a single point of
a heat sealed section.
ASTM [F88-00] “Standard Test Method for Seal Strength of Flexible
Barrier Materials,” from ASTM (American Society of Testing and
Materials)
Biodegradable polymers In contrast to petroleum-based polymers, bio-
degradable polymers, often synthesized from renewable raw materials,
can be more readily decomposed by microorganisms. In packaging,
they contribute, when disposed, to a gradual reduction in solid waste.
Delamination Laminate films consist of adhered films. The peeling
apart of adhered films is called delamination. The strength of the peel
is called delamination strength.
Differential scanning calorimetry A thermoanalytical technique for
readily measuring the changes of heat capacity and enthalpy of transi-
tion of materials.
Easy peel Heat sealed films are either peel seal or tear seal depending
on the heating temperature. Heat sealed films with tear seal are cohe-
sively bonded, thus it is not easy to open the packages of such films. In
order to make it easy to open the heat sealed packages, there are two
different approaches. The thermal degradation of the heat sealant due
to overheating enables one to easily open the package, since the inter-
facial debonding is only on the heat sealed portion of the laminates, or
the peel seal region of the packaging materials is used by adjusting
heat sealing temperature.
243
244 Glossary
Fin The heat-sealed portion at the edge of a pouch. It is formed as result

of the width set during the pressure phase of the heat-sealing process
(See Photo 8.1).
Functional properties of packaging materials The properties of pack-
aging materials designed to achieve a specific purpose, such as form-
ing a gas barrier and light barrier or adding mechanical strength and
printability. Functional properties are typically specified in packaging
materials made from polymer films. To attain the functional proper-
ties, packaging materials can be laminated with polymer films, paper,
and metallic sheets, all of which have different characteristics, as indi-
cated below in the example of a retort pouch barrier.
Components and Functions
PET: 12 mm / ON: 15 mm / AL: 7 mm / CPP: 70 mm
ß ß ß ß
(Example of retort pouch)
Surface material Flexibility Gas barrier Heat sealant
Printed material Stressed material UV barrier Stressed against tear
Stressed material
HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point system. Manufactur-

ing and quality control procedures to assure safety of foods. It is an ap-
proval system in Japan for the manufacturing methods of five different
foods, known as the “Comprehensive Health Management Manufac-
turing Process” in “Food Sanitation Law.” (See Section [8.4]).
Heat seal A technique to thermally bond surfaces of thermoplastic
polymer films by heating/cooling operations.
Heat sealant The thermoplastic layer that welds the surface by heat
sealing. It is laminated on the substrate film in general. For sin-
gle-layer polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) films, the film it-
self becomes a heat sealant (See Figures 1.2 and 2.2).
Heat seal strength Maximum stress value measured by tensile testing
based on JIS Z 0238 (ASTM F88-00).
JIS Z-0238 Test method for heat sealed soft and semi-rigid packages
based on JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard).
Lamination Lamination refers to adhering different layers of polymer
films, papers, and metallic sheets with different properties and pack-
aging functions, e.g., forming a gas barrier.
Measuring Method for Temperature of Melting Surface, abbreviated as
MTMS Analytic technique, developed by the author, for precise,
real-time monitoring of heat sealing by directly measuring and re-
cording the temperature of the melting surface during the heat sealing
Glossary 245
process. It is a “measurement method” in a narrow sense, and an “ana-

lytical method” based on the temperature of the melting surface in a
broad sense.
Package failure Heat sealed packages and containers can be broken, ei-
ther totally or partially, by external forces or internal stresses caused
by impact. This book mainly discusses failure along the heat sealed
edge.
Peel energy Potential energy of the entire bonded surface in a tensile
testing diagram showing peeling. For this we have proposed the for-
mula: (Tensile load in unit width) ´ (displacement [N×m]).
Peel seal, tear seal When heating/cooling operations are conducted
while surfaces of thermoplastic polymers are adhered to each other,
the bonding conditions of the adhering surfaces change depending on
the heating temperature (See Figures 1.3 and 1.4 for references).
In this book, using heating temperature as a parameter, the bonding
condition of films heat-sealed in the heating temperature range where
the heat seal strength increases with increasing the heating tempera-
ture, is defined as peel seal, whereas that of films heat-sealed above
the heating temperature where the heat seal strength reaches a plateau
value of strength, is designated as tear seal.
Previously these types of heat seal were defined based on bonding
conditions as determined by tensile testing.
The relation to extant nomenclature can be summarized as follows:
Peel Seal: Interfacial adhesion, welding, sticking, pseudo-adhesion.
Tear Seal: Cohesive adhesion, bonding, adhesion after melting, ten-
sile specimen failure.
Pin hole Microscale failure initiated from the top of crinkles, gener-
ated on the packaging film after the heat sealing process, and from
polyballs generated on the heat sealed edge.
Polyball The heat sealant is liquefied during the heat sealing process,
and the liquid sealant is pushed to the heat sealed edge. Polyball forms
when it is not pushed in a uniform way and small balls are generated.
(See Photo 6.2 and Figure 5.1.)
Polymers Table 2.1 shows a classification of polymers based on the
thermal behavior. This book mainly focuses on thermoplastic poly-
mers.
Press pressure Pressure applied when heat sealing is carried out. (Press
pressure [MPa]) = (Force applied to the heating block [N])/(Heated
area [m2])
246 Glossary
Retort A method of sterilizing food and medicine during sealing at

high temperature using a pressure oven and applied to polymer film.
The retort pouch is a package in the approval system of HACCP. (See
Section [8.4]).
Tear energy Potential energy of the entire bonded surface in a tensile
testing diagram up to the point the specimen fails. It can be expressed
as: (Tensile load in unit width) ´ (displacement [N×m]).
Tensile strength Maximum stress measured by tensile testing.
Tensile testing A testing method that measures heat seal bonding
strength by applying a load to the heat sealed line.
Tensile testing diagram Response (record) of the tensile testing, where
the x- and y-axes are tensile load and displacement, measured by the
tensile testing based on JIS Z-0238 (ASTM F88-00) or similar testing
methods.
Index
adhesion (see also bonding, welding), coating film, 215

48ff, 115, 116 co-extruded film (see also laminate), 20
force, 116 Compo-seal (see also peel seal, tear
aluminum, laminates with, 98, 117, seal), 199ff, 204
218–219 co-polymers, 123, 127–129, 168
ASTM standards, 42, 43, 44 corners, 46
F1921, 186 cover materials (see also Teflon), 54
F 88–80, 209 CPP, 68
analysis of, 222 crinkles, 74, 76ff, 107, 121, 132, 166,
170, 196
biodegradable polymers (see also PLA), crystalline polymers, 68
206 cup sealing, 202, 209, 215ff
heat sealing width, 219 cycle times (see also speed of operation),
bonding, 4ff 188, 195
chain, 4 improving, 195–196
in peel seal, 18
in tear seal, 18 denaturation (see thermal denaturation)
of copolymers, 169 delamination, 132, 170
of lids to cup, 94 in peel seal, 8, 129, 130
strength factors in, 94 strength of, 129
bottles, 35, 36 dielectric loss, 39
sealing, 37–38 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC),
bread packaging, 196 63, 69, 219–220
bubbles, 84, 86, 105 DOW Chemical Co., 3
Du Pont, 10
calibration, 72
cartons, 34 easy peel, 9–10, 148–149
chemical bonding, 17 electric field heating, 28
cloudiness, 157 electrical field loss heating, 39, 40ff
247
248 Index
electrical resistance, 39 Hoh, G.L., 10

electromagnetic heating, 51 hot air blast heating, 34, 35 (fig.)
electronic component packaging, 19, 217 hot tack, 190, 223
elongation, 134, 223, 232 hot wire heating, 40, 42, 190
energy
of peel seal, 116, 170 impact, 47
of tear seal, 116 impulse sealing, 32, 203
of peel and tear seal, 206 induction current heating, 36, 37 (fig.)
ethylene, 124, 156 insulation (see also Teflon), 39
evaluation methods (see also tensile
testing), 44 Japanese standards (see JIS)
EvOH, 218–219 JIS standards, 42
excitation time, 38 JIS Z 0238, 43, 218
failure, 45 knurling tool finishing, 98–99

energy and, 116 and pinholes, 99 (fig.)
heat seal, causes of, 71–72
in tensile testing, 222 L-LDPE, 3
of packaging, 81, 103, 112, 122 laminate strength, 129
fin, 113, 114 (fig.), 121, 131, 170, 190 laminated films, 20, 131
thickness of, 23 bubbles in, 86–87
width of, 190 heat seal strength of, 131
foaming, 75, 105, 157ff lid sealing, 94, 209
countermeasures, 157 failure of, 215
effect on seal strength, 160 liquid fill, 190
food packaging, 115 load displacement diagram, 118, 152
HACCP, 4, 50, 134–142, 146, 225 machinery, packaging, 225

in retort packaging, 135–139, 182 magnetic flux density, 38
heat flow (see also thermal conduction), materials processing, 166
98 medical packaging films, 19, 115, 210
control of, 202–203 heat sealing of, 210ff
in heat seal system, 177 melting points of polymers, 16
in heating block, 98 measurement of melt surface, 52
in melt, 177 measuring method for temperature of
heat jaw, 21ff, 22 (fig.), 29, 31ff the melting surface (MTMS), 51ff,
and heating times, 193 52 (fig.)
heat sealing metallic foil, 97
machinery, 31ff multi-layered films, heating, 82
methods of, 28ff
preventing failure in, 209 nonwoven fabric, 211
heating block, 22, 89 nylon, 16
length of, 198 melting of, 59
temperatures of, 92ff, 173
heating stand, 94, 201 overheating, 10, 63, 79, 112, 223
design of, 202 preventing of, 112
heating system, 177 with retort packaging, 144, 147, 192
Index 249
paper, 86 radiated heat, 53–54

wet, 85 reinforcement, 130
PE, 68 resistance wire, 40
peel seal, 8, 9, 41, 121, 151, 167 retort pouch, 2, 11, 108, 134, 136, 191
and tear seal (see Compo Seal) and HACCP, 134
bonding in, 18 barrier layers in, 20
energy of, 116–117, 167 heating of, 191
utilizing, 167ff materials in, 143
heating and, 97 sterilization, 140
strength of, 115, 119
testing of, 118–119, 121 sample size (see also specimens), 58,
PET, 59 107, 228
surface melting of, 65 sampling technique
piezeoelectric elements, 35 for testing, 45, 57 (fig.), 107, 228,
pinholes, 2, 44, 47, 99, 105, 110, 115, 233
121, 199 sawtooth pattern, 155
PLA, 17, 219 sensors for heating, 57–58, 171
polyamide, 16 set-up temperature, 27
polyethylene terephthalate, 16–17, 67, shrinking, 170
211 single-sided hearing, 29–30
polypropylene, 16–17 troubleshooting, 94
copolymer films from, 123, specimens for testing, 107, 228
210–211 speed of operation, 194
polylactic acid (see PLA) sterilization, 140
polyball, 9, 26, 40, 47, 73, 105, 114, 170, strength of heat seal (see also peel seal,
199, 236 tear seal, tensile), 130ff
causes of, 163 stress on pouch, 47
foaming and, 161 surface temperature adjustment, 172
packaging failure and, 103, 114
polymers tabs for opening, 77
bonding of (see also bonding), 18 tamper evidence, 36
crystalline, 15–16 tampering, 50
noncrystalline, 15–16 tear seal, 8, 9, 41
portion pack, 2, 3, 48 bonding in, 18
pouch (see also retort pouch), 47, 122 hot wire heating and, 41
crinkles in, 121 overheating, 9
failure of, 122 strength of, 115
sealing of, 202 Teflon cover, 33, 24, 54, 73, 90–91ff, 188
stresses on, 47 effects on heating, 33, 34, 87ff, 91
tabs and, 77 functions of, 88ff
pressure impulse sealing temperature,
and heating temperature, 82 33–34
excess, 82, 106, 112 melting and, 59, 61, 65, 73
prevention of, 112 tensile loading, 188–119
with retort pouches, 140 tensile strength, 8, 46, 97, 103, 126
changing, 153
QAMM analysis, 136, 164 failure patterns and, 222
250 Index
tensile strength (continued) two-step heating, 185

of peel seal, 8, 46, 97, 103, 110, optimizing of, 193
126 Tyvek, 180, 210
of copolymers, 169
of tear seal, 8 ultrasonic heating, 28, 34ff, 51
testing of, 25, 42, 45, 69, 107,
114ff, 119 vacuum bonding, 5
deficiencies of, 103 vacuum pouches, 47
JIS and, 45 Van der Waals force, 17, 168
thermal conductivity of films, 30 vapors (see bubbles)
converted to electrical signal, 175, verification, 49
178 volatiles, 75, 81, 157
thermal control, 49 in seal, 75, 157
thermal degradation, 13, 23 on surface, 83ff, 85 (fig.)
in hit wire heating, 41
thermal degeneration, 67, 182 water in sealant (see also volatiles), 83ff
thermal denaturation, 65–66, 74, 151, welding, 25
180–182 width of heat seal, 121
thermocouple, 54 wrinkles, 83
transients phenomenon, 174–176
Treofan, 221 zipper system, 149
About the Author
DR. KAZUO HISHINUMA is currently chief executive of Hishinuma

Consulting in Kawasaki, Japan, an organization focused on heat sealing
technology and quality control. Prior to this position he worked for
Ajinmoto Company, Ltd. as a packaging engineer. Dr. Hishinuma earned
his doctorate at the University of Tokyo, and is the author of numerous
refereed articles and book chapters on the subject of heat sealing, as well
as on filling technology, instrumentation and packaging. A holder of nu-
merous patents in the USA and Japan, in 2008 Dr. Hishinuma was
awarded a major prize from the Japanese Society of Packaging Science
& Technology for his contributions to the advancement of heat sealing
technology.
251

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HEAT SEALING

TECHNOLOGY and ENGINEERING

KAZUO HISHINUMA, Ph.D.

Translated by: Hiroaki Miyagawa, Ph.D.

This English edition is published by arrangement with Saiwai Shobo, Tokyo

Heat Sealing Technology and Engineering for Packaging

DEStech Publications, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 by DEStech Publications, Inc.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

Printed in the United States of America

Main entry under title:

A DEStech Publications book

1. History and Function of Heat Sealing Technology. . . . . . . . . . 1

2. The Chemistry of Heat Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3. The Fundamentals of Heating for Heat Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Features and Selected Applications of Heating Methods 27

4. Fundamentals of Heat Sealing Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5. Factors in Heat Sealing Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

6. Making the Conventional Heat Sealing Method

7. Experimental Technique for Inspecting Peel Seal

Experimental Technique for Inspecting Peel Seal and Tear Seal:

8. Methods for Confirmation and Improvement of

9. Functional Improvements to the Heat Sealing

10. Case Studies of Analysis and Improvement of

11. Heat Seal Test Method that Complements the

Appendix 1—Heat Sealing Issues and Troubleshooting Methods Addressed 237

Appendix 2—List of Patents/Pending Patents Discussed in the Book 239

The requirements for improving the effectiveness of heat sealing seem

DR. HIROKUNI ONO

Heat sealing allows packagers to seal thermoplastics together to create

KAZUO HISHINUMA, Ph.D.

Almost as soon as the Japanese book appeared, requests were made to

Many specialists, teachers, and friends have contributed intellectually

Friends in various fields persuaded me to continue the research pre-

1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT SEALING TECHNOLOGY

Packaging is important for the safe preservation and transportation of

plastic packaging, mainly due to the high costs of advanced packag-

1.1.1 Heat Seal Technology

In general, heat seal technology is applied to packaging using thermo-

knowledge, and to explain a novel method to optimize heat sealing that

1.2 HISTORY OF IMPROVEMENT FOR HEAT SEALING OF

Thermoplastic polymer materials have the properties of melting at

1.3 MAINTENANCE FUNCTION OF PACKAGED PRODUCT

Three factors are important as quality-control issues for pharmaceuti-

TABLE 1.1 Health-related Functions of Heat Sealed Packaging.

counter-measures. As can be seen in Table 1.1, heat seal technology ad-

1.4 FEATURES OF HEAT SEALING

1.4.1 Basis of Adhesion

FIGURE 1.1 Adhesion in microscale.

made to flow into microscale holes on the adherends. The adhesive is

“Static electric bonding” is achieved as a result of the positive and neg-

1.4.2 Process of Heat Sealing

The fundamental idea of heat seal technology is to attach both sides of

1.4.3 Definition of Heating Temperature, Peel Seal,

packaging applications is softened and then melted in a narrow

FIGURE 1.2 Basic operation of heat sealing in heat jaw system.

FIGURE 1.3 Change of tensile strength of heat sealed films.

FIGURE 1.4 Different deformation of rigid and heat-sealed film specimens.

FIGURE 1.5 Failure modes of peel and tear sealing.

It is necessary to accurately control temperature at the melting surface,

1.4.4 Requirement for the Easy Peel

1.5 PROBLEMS OF OVERHEATING FOR SEALING

A heat sealant is solid at room temperature. As the temperature in-

gion. These phenomena, however, occur only after the high-temperature